
Qass 1 L 

Book- li^ 



D 



?f^ 



HAYDN'S 
DICTIONARY OF DATES 

COMPREHENDING 

REMARKABLE OCCURRENCES, ANCIENT AND MODERN, 

FOUNDATION, LAWS, AND GOVERNMENTS OF COUNTRIES — THEIR PROGRESS IN ARTS, 
SCIENCE, AND LITERATURE — THEIR ACHIEVEMENTS IN ARMS — AND 
THEIR CIVIL, MILITARY, RELIGIOUS, AND PHILANTHROPIC 
INSTITUTIONS, PARTICULARLY OF 

THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 



DICTIONARY %F ' DA^ 




■BBAB/ 



RELATING TO ALL AGES X^As NATIQNS J^j 






UNIVERSAL REFERENCE 



TWELFTH EDITION, 
CORRECTED TO FET1RUARY, 1866. 



By benjamin yiNCENT, 

'SISTAVT SECRETAKV AND KEF.FER OF THE MBRARY OF THE ROVAT, INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 




NEW YORK: 

D. APPLETON k CO., BROADWAY 

1866. 









BUREAU OfhMt^^, 5|0N0M1CS, 

OCT 1^ WO 



0/ ' 






PREFACE 



THE TWELFTH EDITION. 



In 1855, when the printing of the Seventh Edition of this Dic- 
tionary had begun, and Mr. Haydn's failing health prevented the 
continuance of his labours, I acceded to the request of the publisher 
to correct the press and supply the continuations of the articles. In 
doing so I soon perceived that the execution of the work was far from 
being equal to the merit of its conception ; and after much considera- 
tion, I was eventually induced to undertake its gradual revision and 
completion, in order to render the book more worthy of its established 
reputation. During the last ten years the chronological tables have 
been examined and continued ; a great number of articles have been re- 
written, and new ones inserted, and much geographical, biographical, 
literary, and scientific information supplied, together with a Table of 
the Populations and Governments of the various countries of the world ; 
and the Index has been greatly augmented by the insertion of dates 
relating to eminent persons of past and present times. With the 
present edition is given a table of Contemporary European Sovereigns 
since the Norman Conquest. To aiford room for these additions, the 
size of the page and the bulk of the volume have been enlarged, 
and very many articles have been condensed. My aim has been 
throughout to make this book not a mere Dictionary of Dates, but a 
dated Encyclopsedia, a digested summary of every department of human 
history brought down to the very eve of publication. The latest Addi- 
tions and Corrections will be found at the end of the volume. 

Benjamin Vincent. 

Feukuakv, 18(iO. 



4 




PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 

The design of the Author has been to attempt the compression of the 
greatest body of general information that has ever appeared in a single volume, 
and to produce a Book of Reference whose extensive usefulness may render its 
possession material to every individual — in the same manner that a London 
Directory is indispensable, on business affairs, to a London merchant. 

He grounds his hope of the Public taking an interest in this work altogether 
upon its own intrinsic utility. Its articles are drawn principally from historians 
of the first rank, and the most authentic annalists ; and the Dictionary op 
Dates will, in almost every instance, save its possessor the trouble of turning 
over voluminous authors to refresh his memory, or to ascertain the date, order, 
and features of any particular occurrence. 

The volume contains upwards of Fifteen Thousand Articles, alphabeti- 
cally arranged ; and, from the selection of its materials, it must be important 
to every man in the British Empire, whether learned or unlearned, or whether 
connected with the professions or engaged in trade. 

It would be difficult to name all the authors from whose works the Compiler 
of this volume has copiously extracted ; but he may mention among the classics, 
Herodotus, Livy, Pliny, and Plutarch. He has chosen in general chronology, 
Petavius, Usher, Blair, Prideaux, and the Abbe Leuglet Dufresnoy. For the 
events embraced in foreign history, he has relied upon Henault, Voltaire, La 
Combe, Rollin, Melchior Adam, the Nouveau Dictionnaire, and chief authors of 
their respective countries. On subjects of general literature, his authorities 
are Cave's Historia Literaria, Moreri, Bayle, Priestley, and others of equal 
repute. And English occurrences are drawn from Camden, Stow, Hall, Baker, 
Holinshed, Chamberlayne, Rapin, Hume, Gibbon, Goldsmith, &c. Besides 
these, the Compiler has freely used the various abridgments that have brought 
facts and dates more prominently forward; and he is largely indebted to 



I 

i 

viii PREFACE. 

Chambers, Aspin, Beatsou, Andersou, Beckmann, the Ci/clopcedias, Annual 
Register, Stahites at Large, and mxmerous other compilations. In almost every 
instance the authority is quoted for the extract made and date assigned, 
though inadvertence may have prevented, in some few cases, a due 
acknowledgment. 

The leading events of every country, whether ancient or modern kingdoms, 
are to be found in the annals of each respectively, as in the cases, for instance, 
of Greece, Rome, the Eastern Empire, England, France, and Germany. 
But, independently of this plan of reference, when any historical occurrence 
claims, from its importance, more specific mention, it is made in a separate 
article, according to alphabetical arrangement. Thus, in the annals of 
England, the dates are given of the foundation of our universities, the 
institution of honoi'ary orders, and signature of Magna Charta ; we find, in 
those annals, the periods of our civil wars, and remarkable eras in om- history, 
set down as they have occurred ; but if more ample information be necessary 
to the Reader, and if he desire to know more than the mere date of any fact or 
incident, the particulars are supplied under a distinct head. In the same way, 
the pages of Battles supply the date of each, in the order of time ; yet in all 
instances where the battle has any relation to our own country, or is 
memorable or momentous, the chief features of it are stated in another part 
of the volume. 

The Compiler persuades himself that the Dictionary op Dates wiU be 
received as a useful companion to all Biographical w-orks, relating, as it does, 
to things as those do to persons, and affording information not included in the 
range or design of such publications. 

Joseph Haydn. 
London, May, 1841. [Died./a/i. n, isac] 



POPULATION AND GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD. 

(According to the Ahnanach de Oothafor 1866.) 



COUNTRIES. 



Anhalt, Population in Dec. 
Argentine Confederation . . 
Austrian Empire . . . Oct. 

Baden Deo. 

Bavaria Dec. 

Belgium Dec. 

Bolivia 

Brazil 

Bremen (free city) . . . Dec. 
Brimswick-Wolfenbiittel . Dec. 

Chili (estimated) 

Clunese Empire (estimated) . 
Costa Rica (estimated) . . . 
Deimiark and colonieK . . . 
Equator (estimated) .... 

Et'ypt 

Fiance and colonies (estimatd.) 
Frankfort (free city) . . Dec. 
Great Britain & colonies (estm.) 
Greece and Ionian Islands (est.) 

Guatemala 

Hamburg (free city) .... 

Hanover Dec. 

H vyti and St. Domingo (est.) . 

Hesse-Cassel Dec. 

H 3Sse-Darm3tadt . . . Dec. 
Hesse-Hombiu'g .... Deo. 
Holland and colonies .... 

Holstein 

Hondiu^as 

Italy (estimated) 

Japan (estimated) 

Liechtenstein 

Lippe Dec. 

Liibeck (free city) 

Mecklenburg-Schweriu . Dec. 
Meoklenburg-Strelitz .... 

Mexico (estimated) 

Monaco 

Montenegro (estimated) . . . 

Morocco al: 

Niissau Deo. 

New Granada 

Nicaragua 

Oldenburg Dec. 

Panama 

Pf pal States (estimated) . . . 

Paraguay 

Persia (estimated) 

Peru 

Portugal and colonies . . Dee. 

Prussia Dec. 

Reuss-Greiz Dec. 

Reuss-Schleiz Dec. 

Rouraania (Dan. Pi-ucip.)estim. 
Ru.ssia, Poland, &c. (estim.) . 
Sandwich Islands (Hawaii, &c.) 

San Marino 

San Salvador 

.Saxony .... Dec. 
Saxe-Altenburg .... Dec. 
Sa.xe-Col)urg-Goth.\ . . Dec. 
Saxe-Meiningen ... Dec. 
.Saxe-Weimar-Eisenacii . Dec. 
Schaumburg-Lippe . . Dec. 
Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt, Dec. 
S(!hwartzburg-Sondershausen ,, 

Servia 

Sleswig 

Spain and colonies 

Sweden and Norway (estimtd.) 

Smtzerland Dec. 

Turkish Empire (estimated) . 

Uniguay 

Venezuela 

Waldeck Dec. 

WdrtemVjerg Dec. 

United States of America . . 



POPUXA- 
TION. 



193,046 

1,171,800 

35.018.988 

l,43+,754 

4,807,440 

4,893,021 

1,987,352 

7,677,800 

104,091 

293,383 

1,559,000 

415,000,000 

1.35.000 

1,825,220 

1.040,371 

5,125,000 

43,534,245 

91,180 

223,820,099 

1„325,341 

850,000 

229,941 

1,923,492 

572,000 

745,063 

853,315 

27.374 

21,805,607 

554,510 

350,000 

22 104,789 

35 to 40 mil. 

7,150 

111.336 

50,614 

552.612 

99,060 

8,218.080 

1,687 

125-000 

8,000,000 

468,311 

2,794,473 

400,000 

301,812 

2,784,473 

700,000 

1,337,431 

10,000,000 

2,500,000 

8,037,194 

19,304,843 

43,924 

86,472 

4,003,000 

80,255,430 

69,800 

8,000 

600,000 

2,343,994 

141,839 

164,527 

178,065 

280,201 

31,382 

73,752 

66,189 

1,220,000 

406,486 

21,031,258 

5,700.000 

2,510,494 

39,000,000 

240,905 

1,565,500 

59,143 

1,748,328 

31,445,080 



Leopold, duTce 

Bartolomeo Mitre, president 
Francis-Joseph, emperor 
Frederick, grand-duke . . 

Louis II., king^ 

Leopold II., king .... 
Gen. M..t/i&\gaxe]o, president 
Pedro II., emperor . . . 
C. Mehr, burgomaster . . 

William, duke 

Jose J. Perez, president . . 
Ki-tsiaug, emperor . . . 
J. Xiraenes, president . . 
Christian IX., king . . . 
G. Carrson, president . . 
Ismail Pacha, viceroy . . . 
Napoleon III., emperor . . . 
Two Burgomasters. 

Victoria, queen 

George I., king 

Vincent Cerna, president . . 

Senate 

George V., king 

N. Fabre Geffrard, president 
Frederic-William I., elector . 
Louis III., grand-duke . . . 
Ferdinand, landgrave . . . 
William III., kin^ .... 
Held by Austria. 
J. M. Medina, president . . 
Victor-Emmanuel, king . . 
Mikado (spiritual) ; Tycoon 

John II., prince 

Leopold, prince 

Burgomasters and Senate. 
Frederic Francis, grand-duke . 
Frederic Wilham, grand-duke 
MaximiMan I., einperor. . . 

Charles, prince 

Nicholas I., prince .... 
SitU Mohamed, sultan . . . 

Adolphus, duke 

M. Murillo, 2>resident . . . 
T. Martinez, president . . . 

Peter, grand-duke 

Jil Colunje, governor .... 

PiiLS IX., pope 

F. S. Lopez 

Nassir-ed-Deen, shah . . . 
M. Canseco, president . . . 

Louis I., king 

Wilham I., king 

Henry XXII., prince . . . 
Henry LXIX., prince . . . 
Alex. John I. (Cousa) hospodar 
Alexander II., czar .... 

Kamfihameha V 

Capitani reggenti. 

F. Duenas, president .... 

John, kinfj 

Ernest, duke 

Ernest II., duke 

Bernard, duke 

Charles- Alexander,i;ra»fJ-di(fcc 

Adolphus, prince 

Gunther, prince . ... 

Gimther, prince 

Michael III. (Milosoh) . . . 
Held hy Prusnia. 

Isabella II., <ineen 

Charles XV., fcincf 

Annual president 

AV)duI-Aiiz, stdtan .... 
Gen. V. Flores, prov. presk': 
.1. E. Falcon, president . . . 

George V., prince 

Charles, king 

Andrew Johnson, president . 



Oct. 1. 1794. 



Aug. 18, 1830 
Sept. 9, 1826 
Aug. 25, 1845 
April 9, 1835 



Dec. 2, 1825 . 
April 25, 'iSOe 



ACOESSIOK. 



AprU 5, 1855 
April's, isiS 



April 20, 1S08 . 



May 24, 1819 
Dec. 24, 1845 



May 27, 1819 



Aug. 20, 1802 . 

Jmie 9, 1806 . 

April 26, 1783 . 

Feb. 19, 1817 . 



March 14, 1820 
[temporal). 

Oct. 5, 1840 . 

Sept. 1. 1821 . 

Feb. 28, 1823 . 

Oct. 17, 1819 . 

July 6, 1832. . 

Dec. 8, 1818 . . 

1840 . . . . 



July 24, 1817 



Julys, 1827. 
May 13, 1792 
' 1829. '. '. 



Oct. 31, 1838 . 
March 22, 1797 
March 28, 1846 
May 19, 1792 . 
March 10, 1820 
AprU 29, 1818 . 
Dec. 11, 1830 . 



1 Dec. 12, 1801 
' Sept. 16, 1826 
June 21, 1818 
Dec. 17, 1800 
June 24, 1818 
Aug. 1, 1817 
Nov. 6, 1793 
Sept. 24, 1801 
Sept. 4, 1825 

Oct. 10, 1830 
May 3, 1826 . 



Feb. 9, 1830 . 



Jan. 14, 1831. , 

March 6, 1823 . 

1809. . . . 



Aug. 9, 1817. 
Oct. 12, 1862. 
Dec. 2, 1848. 
April 24, 1852. 
March 10, 1864. 
Dec. 10. 1865. 
Dec. 1864. 
April 7, 1831. 
Deo. 31, 1863. 
AprO 25, 1831. 
Sept. 18, 1861. 
Aug. 22, 1861. 
AprU 3, 1863. 
Nov. 15, 1862. 

1865. 
Jan. 18, 1863. 
Deo. 2, 1853. 

Jime 20, 1837. 
June 5, 1863. 
May 3, 1865. 

Nov. 18, 1851. 
Jan. 23, 1859. 
Nov. 20, 1847. 
June 16, 1848. 
Sept. 8, 1848. 
March 17, 1849. 

Feb. 1864. 
March 17, 1861. 

Nov. 12, 1858. 
Jan. 1, 1851. 

March 7, 1842. 
Sept. 6, 1860. 
April 10, 1864. 
Jime 20, 1856. 
Aug. 14, 1860. 
Sept. 1859. 
Aug. 20, 1839. 
April 1, 1864. 
March 1, 1859. 
Feb. 27, 1853. 
March 10, 1865. 
June 16, 1846. 
Sept., 1862. 

1848. 
Nov., 1865. 
Nov. 11, 1861. 
Jan. 2, 1861. 
Nov. 8, 1859. 
Sept. 16, 1856. 
Jan. 1859. 
March 2, 1855. 
Nov., 1863. 

AprU, 1865. 
Aug. 9, 1854. 
Aug. 3, 1853. 
Jan. 29, 1844. 
Dec. 24, 1803. 
July 8, 1853. 
Nov. 21, 1860. 
AprU 28, 1807. 
Aug. 19, 1835. 
Sept. 26, 1860. 

Sept. 29, 1833. 
July 8, 1859. 
July 4, 1864. 
June 25, 1861. 
Feb., 1865. 
March 18, 1865. 
May 15, 1845. 
June 25, 1864. 
April 15, 1865. 



TABLE OF CONTEMPORARY 



Great Britain. 




PetiiTisula. 










France. 




Germany. 


Hungary. 
















England. 


Scotland. 




Castile. 


Arragon. 


Portugal. 








io56. Will. I. 


1057. Male. 3. 
1093. Donald 


1060. PhiHp. I. 


1066. Sancho II. 


1065. Sancho. 


1065. Sancho of 
Castile. 


1056. Hen. 4, 
empe)-or. 


1064. Solom. 




10S7. Wil. II. 


1094 Dune. 
1094. Donald 
again. 




1072. Alfonso VI. 


1094. Peter. 


1072. Alfonso VI. 
1093. Henry, 




1075. Geisa. 

1076. Lad. I. 
1098. Colo- 






1 098. Edgar. 






count. 




man. 




1 100. Hea I. 


iio7.Alex.I. 1108. Louis VI. 


1 109. Urracaand 1104. Alfonso I. 


1112. Alfonso, as 1106. Hen. 5. 


1114. Step.2. 










Alfonso VII. 




count. 










1 124. Dav. I. 




1 1 26. Alfon.Vn. 






1 1 2 5. Loth. 2. 


1 1 31. Bela 2. 




1 1 35. Steph. 




1T37. Louis VII. 




1 1 34. Ramiro. 








j 


1154. Hen. 2. 


11S3.Mal.IV. 




1 157. Sancho III. 
1158.Alfon.VIII. 


1 1 37. PetroneUa 
and Raymond. 


1139. Alfonso I., 
as king. 


ii38.Conr.3. 


ii4i.Qeisa3. 


' 


1 1 72. {Ireld. 


1165. Will. 










ii52.Fred.i. 


1 161. Step.3. 




annexed. ) 




n8o. Philip II. 




1163. Alfonso II. 






1 1 73. Bela 3. 


f 


1 1 89. Rich. I. 










1 1 85. Sancho I. 


1190. Hen. 6. 






1 199. John. 








1196. Peter II. 




iigS.Philip. 


1 196. Emeric 




1216. Hen.3. 


1214. Alex. 2. 




1214. Henry I. 


1213. James I. 1212. Alfonso II. 


1208. Otho 4. 


1204. Ladis- 








1223. Louis VIII. 








1215. Fred. 2. 


las II. 

1205. An- 








1226. Louis IX. 


1230. Ferdin.III. 




1223. Sancho II. 




drew II. 
1235. Bela 4. 






1249. Alex.3, 




1252. Alfonso X, 




1248. Alfon. III. 


1250. Con. 4. 
1254. WiU. 
1257. Rich. 






1272. Ed. I. 




1270. Philip III. 




1276. Peter III. 


1279. Dionysius 


1273. Ro- 


1270. Ste. 4. 
1272. Lad. 3. 




1282 {Wales Interregnum. 




1284. Sancho IV. ' 


or Denis. 


dolph. 






annexed.) 


1792. John 
BaUol. 


1285. Philip IV. 


1285. Alfons. III. 
1293. Ferdin. IV. 1291. James II. 




1292. Adolp. 
1298. Alb. I. 


1290. And. 3. 




1307. Ed. II. 1^06. Robert! 








1308. Hen. 7. 


1301. Charo- 






(Bruce) I. 1314. Louis X. 


1312. AlfonsoXI. 






1314. Lou. 5. 


bert. 






^ ' 


1316. John. 




1327. AlfonsoIV. 


1325. AlfonsoIV. 








1327.Ed.III. 

\ 


1329.Dav.II. 
1332.Ed.Bal. 
1342.Dav.II. 
again. 


PhU. V. 
1321. Chas. IV. 
1328. Phil. VI. 

1350. John. 


1350. Peter. 


1336. Peter IV. 


1357. Peter. 


1347. Chas. 4. 


1342. Louis. 




V7. Rich. 2. 


1371.R0b.II. 


1364. Chas. V. 


1369. Henry. 




1367. Ferdmand. 


1378. Wen- 






V 


(Stuart). 


1380. Chas. VL 


1379. John I. 


1387. John I. 


1383. John I. 


ceslas. 


1382. Mary. 
1387. Maryfe 




9. Hen. 4. 


1390. Bob. 3. 




1390. Henry II. 


139s. Martin. 




1400. Rupert 


Sigismund. 




3. Hen. 5. 


1406. Jas. I. 




1406. John II. 


1410. Jnterref/nm. 




1410. Sigismund. 




1422. Hen. 6. 


1437. Jas. II. 


1422. Chas. VII. 




141 2. Ferdinand 

of Sicily. 
1416. Alfonso V. 


1433. Edward. 










1454. Henry IV. 




1438. Alfonso V. 


1438. Albert. 












1458. John II. 




1440. Fred. 3. 


1440. Lad. 4. 




1461. d.IV. 

1483. Ed. V. 
Rich. 3. 


1460.Jas.III. 


1461. Louis XI. 


1474. Isabella. 


1479. Ferdin. II. 






1445. La.i. 5. 
1458. Mat- 
thias. 




Spain. 






1483. Chas.VIII. 


1479. Ferdinand and Isabella. 


1481. John II. 


1493. Max. I. 






1485. Hen. 7. 


1488. Jas, IV. 








1499 Switz. 








1498 Louis XII. 




1495. Emanuel. 


independ. 


1490. Lad. 6. 





EUROPEAN SOVEREIGNS. 



Scandinavia. 



Sweden. 



Norway. 



1066. Halstan. 



logo. Illgo. 



io6g. Olaf. 



1093. ir.agnus. 



Denmark. 



Poland. 



Eastern 
Empire. 



1047. Sweyn II. 
1076. Harold. 
1080. Canute IV. 
1086. Olaus IV. 
1095. Eric I. 



1058. Boles- 
las. 

1082. Ladis- 
las. 



1068. Eom. 4 
1071. Mich. 7 



Italy. 



Popes. 



1061. Alex. II. 
1073. Greg.VII. 



1078. Nioep.V^°86. Victor III 
io8i. Alexius ^°88. Urban II. 



1099. Pascal II. 



1112. Philip. 1103. Sigurd I., 

1118. IngoII. and others. 

1129. Bwerker. 

122. Sigurd I. 



1155. Eric I. 
1161. Char. VII. 
1167. Canute. 

^199. Swerk. II. 



1130. MafrnnsIV. 
and others. 

Civil war and 
anarchy. 



1186. Swerro. 



ti2io. Eric II. 
a2i6. John I. 

1222. Eric III. 

1250. Birgor, Jarl 
1266. Waldemar. 

1275. Magnus I. 



1202. Hako III. 

and others. 
1207. Hako IV. 



1263. MagnusVI. 



1105. Eric II. 



1137. Eric III. 

H47. Sweyn III. 

Canute V. 

1157. Waldemar. 



1 182. Canute VI. 



Naples and Sicily. 



1102. Boles.3 



1 1 38. Lad. 2. 
1145. Boles. 4 



1 1 73. Miecis- 

las III. 
1178. Ca- 

semir II. 

1194. Lesk.5. 



H18. John 
Comnenus. 



1 143. Manuel 
Comnenus. 



1180. Alex. 2. 
1183. Andro- 

nicus C. 
1 1 85. I.saac2. 
1195. Alex.3. 



1202. Walde. II. 



1241. Eric IV. 
1250. Abel. 
1252. Christoph. 
1259. Eric V. 



1280. Eric. 



1290. Birger II. 1299. Hako V. 



1200. Miec.3 
1202. Lad. 3. 
1227. Boles.5 



1279. Lesk.6, 



1289. Anarch, 
i2go.Preniis- 

las. 
] 1296. Ladis.4 



i204.Theodo. 

1222. John 

Ducas. 



H18, 
1 1 19, 
1124. 
II 30, 
"43- 
1144. 
1145- 
"53- 
II 54- 
II59- 
1181. 
1185. 
1187. 



Gelas. IL 
Calixt. II. 
Honor. II. 
Innoc. II. 
Celcst. II. 
Lucius II. 
Eugen. III. 
Anasta.IV. 
Adrian IV. 
Alex. III. 
Lucius III. 
Urban III. 
Greg. VIII. 
Clem III. 
Celest. in. 
Innoc. III. 



1131. Roger I. 



1154. William I. 
1166. William IL 



1 194. 



Tancrcd. 
William III. 



1197. Fred. ILofGermny. 



1255. Theo.2. 

1258. John 
Lascaris. 

1259. Mich. 8. 



1282. Andro- 
nicus II. 



1216. Honor. III. 
1227. Greg. IX. 
1241. Celest. IV. 
1243. Innoc. IV. '1250. Conrad. 
1254. Alex. IV. ,1254. Conradin. 
1261. Urban IV. 1258. Manfred. 
1265. Clem. IV. 11266. Charles of Anjou. 
1268-9. Vacant. 
1 271. Gregory X, 
1276. Innoc. V. 
Adrian V. 

1276. John XXI. 

1277. Nichol.III. 
1281. Martin IV. 

Honor. IV. 

Nich. IV. 
1292-3. Vacant. 
1294. Celest. V. 

Bonif.VIII. 



1319. Magn. II. 



1319. United to 
bweden. 



1350. Eric IV. 
1359. M.ignusII. 
1363. Albert. 

„ -, 1380. United to 

389. Margaret. Denmark. 



1412- Eiic. XIIL 

1440- Christopher III. 
448. Chas. VIIL 

1457- Christian I. 

1483- John of Denmark. 



1320. Christo- 
pher II. 

1334. Interregnm. 

1340. Wald. III. 

1375. Interregnm. 

1376. Olaus V. 

1387. Margaret. 



Sicily. 



S- Chas. 2. 1282. Peter 
of An-agon. 
12S5. James. 



1295. Fred. 2. 



1448. Christn. I. 



1300 Winces 
las. 



1333. Cas. 3. 



1370. Louis. 

I2. Mary. 
1384. Hedw. 
1396. Lad. 5. 



'1303. Bened. XI 

1305. Clement V. 
{Avignon). 

,1314-15. Vacant. 
1332. And.3.'i3i6. JohnXXIL 

1 1334- Bene. XII. 
1341. Johns. 1342. Clem. VI. 

1352. Innoc. VI. 

1362. Urban V. 
{Rome). 

1370. Greg. XI. 

1378. Urban VI. 

1389. Bonif. IX. 



'139 1. Man- 
uel VI. 



1309. Robt. 



1337 Peter 2. 
1343. Joan. 2. 1342. Louis. 
<fc Andrew 1355. Fred. 3. 
of Hung. 
1349. Louis. 1376. M.aria 
tfc Martin . 
1 381. Chas. 3. 
1385. Ladislas. 



1434. Lad. 6. 
144s. Casi. 4, 



1 48 1. John. 



1492. Albert 



1425. John 6. 

1 1 448. Con- 
stant. 13. 

Turkey. 

ji433. Ma- 
homet II. 
i48i.Bajaz.2. 



1404. Innoc. VII. 
1406. Greg. XII. 

1409. Alex. V. 

1410. John 23. 
1417. Martin V. 
1431. Eugen. IV. 
1447. Nicholas V. 
1455. Calix. III. 
1458. Pius II. 
1464. Paul II. 

1 47 1. Sixtus IV. 
1484. Inno. VIII. 
1492. Alex. VI. 



1414. Joan. 2. 



1402. Mart. I. 

1409. Mart. 2. 

'^I'.iiCcd 10 

Arragon) 

1410. Ferd. I. 
1416. Alfo.i. 

1435. Alfonso I. 
1458. Ferd. 1. 1458. John. 

1494. Alfo.2. '479- Ferd. 

1495. Ferd. 2. 
i496.Fred. 2. 



TABLE OF CONTEMPORARY 



Great Britain. 



Scotland. 



France. 



Peninsula, 



Castile. 



Arraoon. 



151J9. Hen. 8. 



1 513. Jas. V. 



15,7. Ed. VI. 1 1542. Mary. 
i5;;3. Mary. 



i5i;8. Eliz. 



1567. Jas. VI. 



1504. Joanna & L, ,. , »! 
Philip I. Ferdinand II. 



1515. Francis I. 



1512. Ferd.V.(Cast.)II. (Arragon). 
1547. Henry II. I1516. Charles I. (V. of Germ. 1519). 

1559. Francis II. j 

1560. Charles IX. I 



1574. Henry III. 



1556. PhihpII. 



1589. Henry IV. 



Holland. 



Portugal. 



1521. John in. 



1537. Sebastian. 



Germany. 



1519. Chas.s 
(I. of Sp.) 



Hungary. 



1516. Lou. 2. 

1526. Jn. Za 
polski and ^ 
Ferdin. 2. 



1579. William of 11578. Henry. 
Orange, siadt-l 
holder. 



1598. Philip III. 11587. Maurice 



1580. Annexed io 
I Spain. 



(Kings of Hungary.) ' 
1558. Ferdiuand. 

1564. MaximiUan II. \ 
1576. Rudolph II. 



16 )3. Jas. I. (VI. of Scot.) 
16 15. Charles I. 



I6^9. Commonwealth. 

1660. Charles II. 

i6'!5. James 11. 

16^9. William and Mary. 

16 js. William HI. 

1732. Anne. 
17 14. George I. 
1777. George II. 



17 Jo. George III. 



1610. LouisXIII. 



1 1621. Philip IV. 



1643. Louis XiV. 



1665. Charles II 



1625. Fred. Hen. 



1647. William II. 
1650-72. No 

stadtholder. 

1672. Will. Hen. 
(Will. III. of 
England.) 



Kingdom resiored 



1612. Mathias. 
1619. Ferdinand II. 

1637. Ferdinand III. 



1640. John of 

Braganza. 
1656. Alfonso YI. ' 1658. Leopold I. 
1667. Peter, 

regent. 
1683. Peter II. 



'm 



i8.:2. (Georcre Prince of 

Wales, regent.)* 



18 io. George IV. 



18 jo. William IV. 
1837. Victoria. 



1715. Louis XV. 



1774. Louis XVI. 



1793. Lou. XVII. 
Republic. 



1702-47. JMo 1706. John V. 

stadtholder.] 



1705. Joseph 
17H. Chas 6. 



1700. Philip V. 

(abdicated). 
1724. Louis. 
PhiUp V. 
again. 

1742. Chas. 7, 

1746. Ferd. VI. I1747. Will. Hen. 1750. Joseph. 1745. Francis 
1759. Chas. III. 1757. Wm. IV. I 

1765. Jos. 2. 

r777. Maria ai:d 

Peter III. 
1786. Maria, 1 

alone. 
i7g$. Annexed lo^ ,i79o.Leop.2. 



1788. Chas. IV. 
(abdicated.) 



1802. Consulate. 
1 804. Napoleon I. 
i8i4.Lou.XVIII. 



1S24. Charles X. 



1808. Ferd. VII. 

(dethroned) 

Jos. Bonap. 

1814. Ferd. VII. 

(restored). 



1 830. Lou. Philip. 1833. Lsabellall 
1848. Mepablic. 

1852. Napul. III. 



Prussia, 



1701. Fred. I. 

1713. Fred.- 

William i. 

1740. Fred.2. 



1786. Fred.- 
WiUiam 2. 

1797. Fred.- 



France. t7gi. John,r<!</(!/if i792.Fran.2.! William 3 



i3o5. LouiSji-iiigr. 



Netherlands. 

1814. Will. Fred, 
king* 



1840. William II, 
1849. Will. III. 



Austria. 

1816. John VI. 

1826. Peter IV. 

Maria 1 1 . i ■ 8o5. Fran . i , 
182S. Miguel. I 



1833. Maria II. 



1853. Peter V. 



1 86 1. Lui.-3 1. 



i83S.rerd.2. 



B.Francis 
Joseph, 



1840. Fred.- 
WiUiam 4. 



1S60. Will. I. i 



Belgium, — 1831. Leopold I. 
,, 1865. Leopold II. 



EUROrEAN SOVEREIGNS, continued. 







Scandinavia. 




Poland. 


Eastern 


Ital 








I 




Empire. 








r 


Sweden. 


1 Norway. 


Denmark. 




* 


Popes. 


■N^ ■ 


Y. 


/■, 


, 






1501. Alex. 




1503. Pius III. 


^^50 ■ 


in. 


■■.\ 




1513. Christn.II. 


1506. Sig. I. 


1512. Selim. 


Julius II. 






' \ 1520. Christirtu 11. 








1513. Leo X. 






"1 










1522. Adrian VI. 






'1523. Gustavus 




1523. Fredrick I. 




1520. Soly- 


1523. Clem. VII. 






- 1 Vasa. 


Russia.* 


and Norway. 




man II. 


1534. Paul III. 


















1550. Julius III. 
















1533. Ivan IV. 


'1534. Christ. III. 


1548. big.II. 


1566. Sel. 2. 


1555. Marcel. II. 

Paul IV. 
1559. Pius IV. 








1560. Eric XIV. 




1559. Fred. II. 






1566. Pius V. 
1572. Greg.XIII. 








1568. John III. 


1584. Feodor I. 


1588.Christn.IV. 


i573.Henry. 
1575. Steph. 
1587. Sig. 3. 


1574. Amu- 
rath III. 


1585. Sixtus V. 

1590. Urban VII. 
Greg. XIV. 

1591. Innoc. IX. 








1592. Sigismuud 


159S. Boris. 




1595. Mah. 3. 


1592. Clem. VIII. 






1604. Chas. IX. 


i6o5. Basil. 


T ' ' 




1603. Ach. I . 


1603. Leo XI. 1 




161 1. Gustavus 


161 3. Michael 


1 




1617. Mus. I. 


Paul V. 




Adolphus. 


(Komauoff). 


! 


1632. Lad. 7. 


1618. Osm.2. 
1622. Musta- 


1621. Greg. XV. 
i623.UrbanVIII. 




1633. Christina. 






1648. John C. 


pha, again. 


1644. InnocentX. 






1645. Alexis. 


1648. Fred. III. 


1669. Mich. 


1623. Am. 4. 


1665. Alex. VH. 




1654. Chas. X. 






1674. John 


1640. Ibrah. 


1667. Clem. IX. 




' 1660. Chas, XI. 


1676. Feodor. 


1670. Christn. V. 


Sobieski. 


1648. Mah. 4. 


1670. Clem. X. 






1682. Ivan V. & 






1687. Sol. 3. 


1676. Innoc. XI. 






1 


Peter I. 




1697. Fredk. 


1691. Ach. 2. 


1689. Alex. VIII 








1697. Chas. XII. 


i68g. Peter I. 


1699. Fred. IV. 


August. I. 


1695. Mus. 2. 


i6gi. Innoc. XII. 












1704. Stan. I- 


1703. Ach. 3. 


1700. Clem. XI. 


"' 




1719. Ulrica and 


1725. Gather. I. 




1709. Fredk. 






ifap] . 






Frederick I. 


1727. Peter II. 




Augustus, 




1721. Inno.XIII. 


Si( 


lia. 






1730. Anne. 


1730. Christn. VI. 


restored. 


1730. Mah. 5. 


1724. Bene.XIII. 












1733. Fredk. 














1740. Ivan VI. 




August. 2. 




1730. Clem.XIL 


1713. ti.- 






r74i. Fred. I. 


1741. Elizabeth. 


1746. Fred. V. 






1740. Bene. XIV. 


Na2 '.:;.. 


jtor- 




1 751. Adolphus 








1754. Osm.3. 




Vic ■*■ 


eus. 




Frederick. 






1764. Stan. 2. 


1757. Mus.3. 




Am 


irlss 






1762. Peter III. 


1766. Christ. VI I. 






1758.Clem.XIII. 


voy 


; in. I. 






Gather. II. 






1769. Clem. XIV. 


1720.^ 






1771.Gustav.III. 




i784.PrinceFred. 

regent. 




1774. Ach. 4. 
1789.86101.3. 


1775. Pius VI. 


toGe 

173S. ' 

Na2 


■ . ■. ! ;tor- 
' s. 2. 










1795. Parti- 




1759- 


irles 




1792. Gustuv.IV. 


1796. Paul I. 




tion. 


1800. Pius VII. 


Sici 


in.2. 


1809. Cbas.XIII.] 


1801. Alexand. I. 


1808. Fred. VI. 


Greece. 


1807. Mus. 4. 






;tor- 


1 


iZn- Norway an-\ 
nf.xcd. 


1828. Nicholas. 


1 814. Norway 
iakenaicay. 


1808. Mah.6. 


1823. Leo XII. 


Na] 


m.i. 




.' lexed 




1818. Chas. XIV. ^ 








' 


1829. Pius VIII. 


1806. . 


■-■ '-i, -dom 














Bon 


. ■ i'Cll/. 














1831. Greg. XVI. 


1808. . 


V.ijtor- 










1832. Otho I. 






Mui 


an.i. 








1839. ChrLs.VIII. 




1839. Abdul 
Medjid. 




NapL 
Sic 


,' 'sarles 
'. ., irles 




1844. Oscar. 




1848. Fred. VII. 




[ 


1846. Pius IX. 








1855. iUex. II. 




! 






V .:tor- 




1859. Chas. XV. 

1 




1 

1 

i 




1 


1 
1 


1815.] 
1825. ] 
1830. : 
1859. : 
[860.V1 ■ 

toll 


..m.2. 



I J1861. Abdul 

1S63. Chrisn. IX. 1 1863. Geo. I. Aziz. 



i86i. 



lel. 



See Article Russi.\ for preceding Rulers. 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



AAR ABC 

AARGAU (Switzerland,) formerly included in Berne, was formed into an independent 
canton in 1803, and finally settled as such in 1815. It was much disturbed by religious dis- 
sensions in 1841 — 44. 

ABACUS, the capital of the Corinthian order of architecture, ascribed to Callimachus, 
about 540 B.C. — This name is also given to a frame traversed by stitf wires, on which beads 
or counters are strung, used by the Greeks, Romans, and Chinese. M. Lalanne published 
an ABACUS at Paris in 1845. — The multiplication table has been called the Pythagorean 
abacus. 

ABATTOIRS, slaughter-houses for cattle. In 18 10 Napoleon decreed that five should be 
erected near Paris ; they were opened in 1818. An abattoir was erected at Edinburgh in 
1851 ; and abattoirs form part of the new London metropolitan cattle-market, opened on 
June 13, 1855. 

ABBASSIDES, descendants of Mahomet's uncle, Abbas-Ben-Abdul-Motalleb. Abul 
Abbas defeated Merwan II., the last caliph of the Ommiades, in 750, and became the ruler 
of the faithful. The Abbasside colour was black. Thirty-seven caliphs of this race reigned 
from 750 to 1258. 

ABBAYE, a military prison near St. Germain des Pres, Paris, where 164 prisoners were 
murdered by infuriated republicans led by Maillard, Sept. 2 and 3, 1792. 

ABBEYS, monasteries for men or women. See Monachism and Conrents. The first abbey 
founded in England was at Bangor in 560 ; in France, at Poitiers, about 360 ; in Ireland in 
the fifth century ; in Scotlaiid in the sixth century, no monasteries and priories were sup- 
jiressed in England, 2 Henry V. 1414. Salmon. These institutions (containing tlien about 
47,721 persons) were totally suppressed throughout the realm by Henry VIII., 1539.* 
Abbeys were suppressed in France in 1790 ; and in the kingdom of Italy in 1861. 

ABBOT (from Ah, father), the head of an abbey. In England, mitred abbots were lords of 
parliament ; there were twenty-seven abbots and two priors thus distinguished in 1329 ; but 
the number was reduced to twenty-five in 1396. Coke. The abbots of Reading, Glastonbury, 
and St. John's, Colchester, were hanged and quartered for denying the king's supremacy, and 
not surrendering their abbeys, 1539. See Glastonbury. 

ABC CLUB. A name adopted by a number of republican enthusiasts in Paris, their 
object being to relieve the ubaisses or depressed. They broke out into an insurrection on 
June 5, 1832, which was sujijiressed with bloodshed, after Paris had been put into a state of 
siege on June 6. These events are described by Victor Hugo tu Lcs MiaCrablcs, published 
in 1862. 

* Viz., 374 large mon.asterics (revenue 104,919?. 13s. 3A), 186 less mon.asteries Crevenue 33,479'. 13s. jfd.), 
and 48 housee of the knights hospit;illers (revemie 2385?. i2«. 8d.) : total, houses, 608 ; revenue, 
140,784?. 19?. 6jci. 



7<l_ 



ABD 



ABE 



ABDICATIONS of sovereigns, voluntary and compulsory, are numerous in history. The 
following are the most remarkable : — 



Sylla, Roman dictator B.C. 
Diocletian, Roman emperor 

A.D. 

Stephen II., of Hungary 
Albert, the Bear of Bran- 
denburg 

Lesoov V. of Poland 
Uladislavis III. of Poland . . 
John Balliol, of Scotland 
Otho (of Bavaria), of Hun- 
gary* . . ... 
Eric IX., of Denmark, &c. . 

Pope Felix V 

Charles V., as emperor . . ^„_ 
,, as king of Spain . 1556 
Christina, of Sweden . . 1654 
John Casimir, of Poland . . 1669 
James II., of England . . 1688 
Frederick Augustus II., of 
Poland 1704 



79 

305 
1131 

1 142 
1200 
1206 
1306 

1309 

1439 
1449 

1555 



Philip v., of Spain (re- 
sumed) 1724 

Victor Amadeus, of Sardinia 1730 
Charles, of Naples . . . 17S9 
Stanislaus, of Poland . . 1795 
Charles Emmanuel II., of 

Sardinia . . June 4, 1802 
Francis II., of Germany, 
who became emperor of 
Austria . . Aug. 11, 1804 
Charles IV., of Spain, in 
favour of his .son, March 19 ; 
in favour of Bonaparte. 
See Spain . . May i, 1808 
Gustavus IV., of Sweden . . 1809 
Joseph Bonaparte, of Naples 

(for Spain) . June i, i8o8 
Louis, of Holland . July i, 1810 
Jerome, of Westphalia, 

Oct. 20, 1813 



Napoleon, of France, April s, 1814 
Victor Emmanuel, of Sar- 
dinia . . March 13, 1821 
Pedro IV., of Portugal, 

May 2, 1826 
Charles X., of France, 

Avig. 2, 1830 
Pedro I., of Brazil . April 7, 1831 
Dom Miguel, of Portugal 

(hv leaving it) . May 26, 1834 
William I.,of Holland, Oct. 8, 1840 
Louis-Philippe, of Fr.ance, 

Feb. 24, 1848 
Louis Charles, of Bavaria, 

March 21, 1848 
Ferdinand of Austria, Dec. 2, 1848 
Charles Albert, of Sardinia, 

March 26, 1849 
Leopold II., grand-duke of 
Tuscany . . • July, 1859 



ABECEDARIANS, followers of Stork, an Anabaptist in the sixteenth century, deriving 
their name from their rejection of all worldly knowledge, even of the alphabet. 

ABELARD and Heloise, celebrated for their passionate love, which commenced at 
Paris, 1 118, when Heloise (a canon's daughter) was under seventeen years ot age Abelard 
built the convent of the Paraclete and made her abbess in 1121. Here he taught what was 
condemned as heresy, 11 22 and 1140. After suffering an ignomuuous mjnry he became 
a monk of the abbey of St. Denis, and died of grief in 1142, at St. Marcel. Heloise begge_d 
his body, buried it in the Paraclete, and was interred beside him m 1 163. The ashes ot both 
were carried to the Museum of French Monuments iniSoo ; and tlie museum having been 
subsequently broken up, they were finally removed to the burying-groundof Pere La Chaise, 
in 1817. Their works and letters were published in one volume m 1616. Pope s imitations 
of the latter are well known. ^ i t' • 

ABENCERRAGES, a powerful Moorish tribe of Granada, opposed to that of the Zegris. 
From 1480 to 1492 their quarrels deluged Granada with blood and ha.stened the fall ot the 
kingdom. They were exterminated by Boabdil (Abu Abdallah), the last kiiig,^ who was 
dethroned by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1492 ; his dominions were annexed to Castile. 
ABENSBERG. See EcJcmiihl. . 

ABERDEEN (N. Scotland), said to have been founded in the third century after Christ. 
Gregory the Great conferred peculiar privileges on Aberdeen, in 893. Old Aberdeen was 
made a royal burgh in 1154; it was burnt by the English in 1336 ; and soon after New 
Aberdeen was built. The imiversity was founded by bishop William Elphmstone, who ha,d a 
bull from the pope Alexander VI. in I494- King's college was erected m iSoof-. Marisclial 
colleo-e was founded by George Keith, earl marischal of Scotland, in 1593 ;_rebuilt in 163; In 
i8;8°the universities and colleges were united. -Malcolm III. having gained a great victory 
over the Danes in the year loio, resolved to found a new bishopric, 111 token ot his gratitude 
for his success, and pitched upon Mortlach in Banffshire, where St. Beanus was first bi.s^hop, 
loi =; The see, removed to Aberdeen early in the twelfth century, was discontinued at the 
revolution, 1689, and is now a post-revolution bishopric, instituted m 1721. bee ms/iops. 

ABERDEEN ADMINISTRATION, called the Coalition Ministry, as including Whigs, 
Radicals, and followers of Sir R. Peel. Formed in consequence of the resignation of the first 
Derby administration; sworn in Dec. 28, 1852; resigned Jan. 30, 1855; succeeded by the 
Palmerstoji administi'ation, v^hich see 



Earl of Aberdeen, *./irs« lord of the treasury. 

Lord Cranworth, lord chancellor. 

Earl Granville, pretident of the council. 

Duke of Argyll, lord privy seal. 

Lord John Russell,\ foreign. 

Viscount Palmerston, home secretary. 

Duke of Newcastle, t colonial and ^oar secreiarp. 

William Ewart Gladstone, chancellor of exchequer 



Sir James Graham, /rs( lord of the admiralty. 
Sir Charles Wood, pretiident of the India board. 
Edward Cardwell, preddent of board of trade. 
Hon. Sidney Herbert, secretary-at-war. 
Sir William Molesworth, chief commissioner of works. 
Marquess of Lansdowne (without office) 
Viscount Canning, Lord Stanley of Alderley, right 
hon. Edward Strutt, (fee. 



Born in 17S4 ; engaged in foreign diplomacy, 1813 ; became foreign secretary, Jan. 1828 ; joined 

*^^ ftr^flf.- luslelf t^USe^de^d'a^s t^ secretary by the earl f Clarendon but ooirtinued a 
memberof the cabinet, without office; he afterwards became pre.sident of the council, in the room ot 
pari Granville, appointed to the duchy of Lancaster. . „„/■„.„.„ „„a 

t On June Ti, 1S54, the offices were sepai-ated ; the duke of Newcastle vemamed secretary of var, and 
sir George Grey was made colonial secretary. 



ABH 3 ABS 

ABHORRERS, a political court-party in England, in the reign of Charles II. the 
opjKinents of tlie Addressers (afterwards WMgs), so called from their address to the king 
jiraying for the immediate assembly of the parliament which was delayed on account of its 
being adverse to the court. The first mentioned (afterwards Tories) expressed their abhorrence 
of those who endeavoured to encroach on the royal prerogative, 1680.* Hume. 

ABINGDON LAW. In 1645, lord Essex and Waller held Abingdon, in Berks, against 
Charles I. The town was unsuccessfully attacked by sir Stephen Hawkins in 1644, and by 
prince Rupert in 1645. On these occasions the defenders put every Irish prisoner to death 
without trial ; hence the term "Abingdon law." 

' ABJCrRATION of certain doctrines of the church of Rome was enjoined hy statute 25 
Charles 11. 1672. The oath of abjuration of the pope and the jiretender was first administered 
by statute 13 William III. 1701 ; the form was changed in after reigns. By 21 & 22 Vict, 
c. 48 (1S58) an alteration in this oath was authorised for Jews. 

ABO, a port of Russia, founded prior to 1157, was till 1809 capital of Swedish Finland. 
It has suffered much by fire, especially in 1775 and 1827 ; was seized by the Russians in 
Feb., 1808 ; ceded to them in 1809 ; and rebuilt by them after the fire in 1827. A university 
was erected by Gustavus Adolphus and Christina, 1640, ct seq., and removed to Helsingfors 
in 1827. The peace of Abo, between Russia and Sweden, was signed in 1743. 

ABORIGINES (from ab origine, without origin), a name given to the earliest known 
inhabitants of Italy (whence came the Latini) ; now applied to the original inhabitants of 
any country. — The Aborigines Protection Society was established in 1838. Reports on the 
condition of the aborigines in the British colonies were presented to parliament in 1834 
and 1837. 

ABOUKIR (Egypt), the ancient Canopus. The bay is famous for the defeat of the 
French fieet by Nelson, August 1, 1798. See Nile. A Turkish army of 15,000 was defeated 
here by 5000 French under Bonaparte, July 25, 1799. A British expedition to Egypt under 
general sir Ralph AViei-cromliy landed here, and Aboukir surrendered to them after an 
obstinate and sanguinary conflict with the French, March 8, 1801. See Alexandria. 

ABRAHAM, Era of, used by Eusebius ; so called from the patriarch Abraham, who died 
R.c. 1821. It began October i, 2016 B.C. To reduce this era to the Christian, subtract 
2015 years and three months. 

ABRAHAM, Heights of, near Quebec, Lower Canada. The French were defeated here 
by general Wolfe, who fell in the moment of victory, Sept. 13, 1759. See Quebec. 

ABRAHAMITES, a sect which adopted the errors of Paulus, and was suppressed by 
Cyriacus, the patriarch of Antioch. In the ninth century, there sprang up a community of 
monks under a like designation: it, too, was suppressed, or rather exterminated, for v/orshipping 
images. A mongrel sect of this name was banished from Bohemia by Joseph II. in 1783. 

ABSALOM'S REBELLION, ending in his death (1024-3 B.C.) is described in 2 Sam. 
XV. — xix. 

ABSENTEE TAX (four shillings in the pound) was first levied in Ireland in 1 715 on the 
incomes and pensions of absentees (persons who derive their income from one country and 
spend it in another) but ceased in 1753. A tax of 2S. in the pound was vainly proposed by 
Mr. Flood in 1773 and by Mr. Molyneux in 1783. 

ABSOLUTION, Ecclksiastical. Till the third century, the consent of the congregation 
was necessary to alasolution ; but soon after the power was reserved to the bishop ; and in 
the twelfth century the form " /absolve thee" had become general. 

ABSTINENCE. It is said that St. Anthony lived to the age of 105 on twelve ounces of 
bread and water daily, and James the hermit to the age of 104. St. Epiphanius lived 
thus to 115; Simeon the Stylite to 112; and Kentigern, commonly called St. Mungo, 
to 185 years of age. Spottiswoocl. Ann Moore, the fasting woman of Tutburj', Staffordshii'e, 
was said to have lived twenty months without food ; but her imposture was detected by Dr. 
A. Henderson, Nov. 1808. At Newry, in Ireland, a man named Cavanagh was reported to 
liave lived two years without meat or drink, Aug. 1840. His imposture was afterwards 
discovered in England, where he was imprisoned as a cheat, Nov. 1841. See Fasts. 

* The commons expelled several members for being Abhorrers, among them sir Francis Withena 
(whom they sent to the Tower), and prayed his majesty to remove others from places of trust. They also 
resolved, " that it is the undoubted right of the subject to petition for the calling of a parliament, and 
that to traduce such petitions as tumultuous and seditious, is to contribute to the design of altering the 
constitution." Oct. 1680. Stilmon. 

B 2 



ABS 



ACA 



ABSTINENTS, ascetics that wholly abstained from wine, flesh, and marriage, apijeared 
in France and Spain in the third century. 

ABYSSINIA, a large country in N. E. Africa. Its ancient history is very uncertain. 
The kingdom of Auxumit^ (from its chief town Auxume) flourished in the ist and 2nd 
centuries after Christ. The religion of the Abyssinians is a corrupt form of Christianity 
introduced about 329 by Frumeutins. About 960, Judith, a Jewish princess, murdered a 
great part of the royal family, and reigned forty years. The young king escaped : and the 
royal house was restored in 1268 in the person of his descendant Icon Amlac. In the middle 
ages it was said to be ruled by Prester John or Prete Janni. The Portuguese missions com- 
menced in the 15th century, but were expelled about 1632 in consequence of the tyranny of 
Mendez and the Jesuits. The encroachments of the Gallas and intestine disorders soon after 
broke up the empire into petty governments. Missions were sent from England in 1829 and 
1841. Much information respecting Abyssinia has been given by Bruce (1790), Salt 
(1805—9), Riippell (1838), and Parkyns (1853).* 

ABYSSINIAN ERA is reckoned from the creation, which the Abyssinians place in the 
5493rd year before our era, on the 29th Aug. old style : and their dates consequently exceed 
ours by 5492 years and 125 days. To reduce Abyssinian time to the Julian year, subtract 
5492 years and 125 days. 

ACADEMIES. Acadcmia was a shady grove without the walls of Athens (bequeathed to 
Academus for gymnastic exercises), where Plato iirst taught philosophy, and his followers 
took the title of Academics, 378 B.C. /StewZcy.— Rome had no academies. — Ptolemy Soter is 
said to have founded an academy at Alexandria, about 314 B.C. Abderahman I., caliph of 
S{>ain, founded academies about a.d. 773. Theodosius the Younger, Charlemagne, and 
Alfred are also named as founders of academies. Italy is celebrated for its academies ; and 
Jarckius mentions 550, of which 25 were in the city of Milan. The following are among the 
principal academies : — 

American Academy of Sciences, Boston, 1780. 

Ancona, of the Caglinod, 1642. 

Basil, 1460. 

Berlin, Royal, 1700; of Princes, 1703; Architecture, 

1799. 
Bologna, Ecclesiastical, 1687 ; Mathematics, 1690 ; 

Sciences and Arts, 1712. 
Brescia, of the Erranti, 1626. 
Brest and Toulon, Military, 1682. 
Brussels, Belies Lettres, 1773. 
Caen, Belles Lettres, 1705. 
Copenhagen, of Sciences, 1743. 
Cortona, Antiquities, 1726. 

Dublin, Arts, 1742; Painting, Sculpture, etc., 1823. 
Erfurt, Saxony, Sciences, 1754. 
Faenza, the PhUoponi, 1612. 
Florence, Belles Lettres, 1272 ; Delia Crusca (now 

united with the Florentine, and merged under 

that name), 15S2 ; Del Cimento, 1657 (by cardinal 

de' Medici) ; Antiquities, 1807. 
Geneva, Medical, 1715. 
Genoa, Painting, itc. , 1751 ; Sciences, 1783. 
Germany, Naturce Curiosi, novf Li.opoldi)ie, 1662. 
Gottiugcn, 1750 
Haerlem, the Sciences, 1760. 
Irish Academy, Royal, Dublin, 1782. 
Lisbon, History, 1720 ; Sciences, 1779. 
London. See Societies. Royal Academy of Fine 

Arts, 1768 ; of Music, 1734-43 ; and 1822. 
Lyons, Sciences, 1710 ; Physic and Mathematics 

added, 1758. 
Madrid, the Royal Spanish, 1713; History, 1730; 

Painting and the Arts, 1753. 
Manheim, Sciences, 1755 ; Sculpture, 1775. 
Mantua, the Vigilanti, Sciences, 1704. 
Marseilles, Belles Lettres, 1726. 
Massachusetts, Ai-ts and Sciences, 1780. 



Milan, Architecture, 1380; Sciences, 1719. 

Munich, Arts and Sciences, 1759. 

Naples, Rossana, 1 540 ; Mathematics, 1 560 ; Sciences, 
1695 ; Herciilaneum, 1755. 

New York, Literature and Philosophy, 1814. 

Nismes, Royal Academy, 1682. 

Padua, for I'oetry, 1613 ; Sciences, 1792. 

Palermo, Medical, 1645. 

Fa,vis, Sorbonne, 1253; Painting, 1391; Music, 1543 
and 1672 ; French (by Richelieu), 1635; Fine Arts, 
1648 ; Inscriptions et Belks Lettres (by Colbert), 
1663 ; Sciences (by Colbert), i666 ; Architectm-e, 
1671 ; Surgery, 1731 ; MiUtary, 1751 ; Natural 
Philosophy, 1796. 

Parma, the Innominati, 1550. 

Perousa, Jnsensati, 1561 ; Filigirti, 1574. . 

Philadelphia, Arts and Sciences, 1749. 

Portsmouth, Naval, 1722 ; enlarged, 1806. 

Rome, Umorisli, 1611 ; Fantascici, 1625 ; Infecondi, 
1653 ; Painting, 1665 ; Arcadi, 1690 ; English, 
1752 ; Lincei, about 1600 ; Nuovi Lincei, 1847. 

St. Petersburg, Sciences, 1725 ; Military, 1732 ; the 
School of Arts, 1764. 

Stockholm, of Science, 1741 ; Belles Lettres, 1753 ; 
Agricultm-e, 1781 ; Royal Swedish, 1786. 

Toulon, Military, 1682. 

Turin Sciences, about 1759; Fine Arts, 1778. 

Turkey, Militaiy School, 1775. 

Upsal, Royal Society, Sciences, 1720. 

Venice, MecUcal, <fec., 1701. 

Verona, Music, 1543 ; Sciences, 17S0. 

Vienna, Sculpture and the Arts, 1705 ; Surgery, 
1783 ; Oriental, 1810. 

Warsaw, Languages, and History, 1753. 

Washington, United States, America, 1863. 

Woolwich, Military, 1741. 



* Abyssinia has long been in a state of anarchy. In 1855 the emperor Ras Ali was dejjosed by his 
son-in-law Theodore, the present ruler, who invited the European sovereigns to join him in a crusade 
against his neighbours the Turks. Our consul (Plowden) at Massowah imprudently joined this sovereign, 
and lost his life while opposing an insun-ection ; and his successor (col. Cameron) and other persons are 
now imprisoned by Theodore, who is jealous of their favouring the Turks. The subject was discussed 
in parliament in July, 1865, and the consul was censm-ed by government for having disregarded his 
instructions. 



AOA 5 . ACH 

ACADIA. See Nova Scotia. 

ACANTHUS, the foliage forming the volutes of the Corinthian capital, ascribed to 
Calliniaclms, about 540 B.C. • 

ACAPULCO, a Spanish galleon, from Acapulco, laden with gold and precious wares 
(estimated at above l,CK)o,ooo^. sterling), taken by lord Anson, who had previously acquired 
Viooty in his voyage amounting to 600,000^. He arrived at Spithead in the Centurion, after 
having circumnavigated the globe, June 15, 1744. 

ACARNANIA, K Greece. The people became prominent in the Peloponnesian war, 
having invited the help of the Athenians against the Ambracians, 432 B.C. The Acarnanians 
were subdued by the Lacedseraonians in 390 ; they took part with Macedon against the Romans 
in 200, by whom they were subjugated in 197 ; finally, in 145. 

ACCENTS. The most ancient manuscripts are written without accents, and without any 
separation of words ; nor was it until after the ninth century that the copyists began to leave 
sjiaees between the words. Michaelis, after Wetstein, ascribes the insertion of accents to 
Euthalius, bishop of Sulca, in Egypt, a.d. 458. Accents were first used by the French in 
the reign of Louis XIII. (about 1610). 

ACCESSION, The, i.e. that of the house of Hanover to the throne of England, in the 
person of George I., elector of Hanover, the son of Sophia, the daughter of Elizabeth, the 
daughter of James I. He succeeded to the crown, Aug. i, 17 14, by virtue of the act of 
settlement passed in the reign of William III., June 12, 1701, which limited the succes.sion 
to his mother (as a protestant) in the event of queen Anne dying without issue. 

ACCESSORIES to Crimes. The law respecting them consolidated and amended in 1861. 

ACCIDENTS. See Coal, Fires, Railways, &c. For compensation for accidents, see 
Campbell's Act and Passengers. 

ACCLIMATISATION of Animals. This has been prosecuted with gi'eat vigour since the 
establishment of the Zoological society of London in 1829, and of the Society d'Acclimata- 
tion in Paris. Numbers of European animals have been naturalised in Australia ; the 
camel has been conveyed to Brazil (1859) ; alpacas are bred at Paris ; and ostriches in Italy 
(1859). On Oct. 6, i860, the Bois de Boulogne, near Paris, was opened as a zoological 
Garden, containing only acclimatised animals. An English acclimatisation society was 
founded June 10, i860, by hon. Grantley Berkeley, Mr. J. Crockford, Mr. F. Buckland, &c., 
and the prince of Wales became president in April, 1865. An acclimatising garden was 
established at Melbourne, Australia, in Feb. 1861, and efforts are being made to naturalise 
English birds, fishes, &c. 

ACCORDION, a small wind-instrument witli keys, introduced into England from Germany 
about 1828. 

ACCOUNTANT-GENERAL in Chancery. The ofKce was api)ointed in 1726, and 
abolished in 184 1 ; it was always held by a master in chancery. Hardy. 

ACCUSERS. By the occult writers, such as Agrippa, accusers are the eighth order of 
devils, whose chief is called Astei'oth, or Spj^ In the Revelation, ch. xii. 10, the devil is 
called " the accuser of the brethren." — False accusers were to be hanged, by 24 Henry VI. 
1446 ; and burnt in the face with an F, by 37 Henry VIII. 1545. Stow. 

ACELDAMA, a field, said to have been the one bought with the thirty pieces of silver given 
to Judas Iscariot for betraying Christ, is still shown to travellers. It is covered with an arched 
roof, and retains the name Aceldama, that is "the field of blood," to this day. Mattheio 
-x.'^vii. 8; Actsi. 19. — This name was given to an estate purchased by judge Jeffreys after 
the "blood}' assizes" in 1685. 

ACETYLENE, a luminous hydrocarbon gas resembling coal gas, discovered by Berthelot, 
and made known in 1862. 

ACHAIA (N. Peloponnesus), Greece ; the capital was .settled by Achaeus, the son of 
Xuthus, about 1330 B.C. ( ?) The kingdom was united with Sicyon or subject to the ^Etolians 
until about 284 b.c. The Achaji, descendants of Aclipeus, originally inhabited the neigh- 
bourhood of Argos ; but when the Heraclid;e drove them thence, they retired among the 
lonians, expelled the natives, and seized their thirteen cities, viz., Pellene, vEgira, ^gium, 
iiiira, Trita-a, Leontium, Rliypes, Cerynea, (Jlcnos, Helice, Patra?, Dyme, and Phara>, form- 
ing tlie AcHxEAN League, which was broken up soon after the death of Alexander of Macedon, 
323 B.C. 



ACH 



ACR 



Achaia invaded by Epaminondas . .B.C. 

The Achiean league revived by four cities 

about 280- 

Acatus made prsator 

The league joiued by Corinth, Megara, <Sic. 243- 

Siipported by Athens and Antigonus Doson . . 

War with the Spartans ; the Ach»ans defeated 
at Ladocea, by the Spartans under Cleo- 
menes III., 226; but totally defeat them at 
Sellasia ........ 

The Social war begun ; battle of Caphyae, in 
Arcadia ; Aratus defeated . ... 

The Peloponnesus ravaged by the .Sltolians 

Aratus poisoned at Jilgium 

Philopffimen, leader of the league, defeats the 
Spartan tyrant Machanidas . . . . 

Alliance of the league with the Romans . 

Philopoemen defeated by Nabis in a naval 
battle 

Sparta joined to the league .... 

War with Messene : PhiloiJcemen made jiri- 
soner and slain 



366 



The Achwans overrun Messeniawitb fire & sword 182 
The Romans enter Achaia, and carry off niuu- 
bers of the people, among whom is the cele- 
brated Polybius 165 

Metellus enters Greece . . . . . 147 

The Achajans defeated by Mummius at Leuco- 
petra ; the league dissolved by Mummius ; 
Corinth taken ; Greece subjected to Rome, 
and named the province of Achaia . . . 146 
Achaia made a Latin principality, a.d. 1205 ; 
founded by William of Champlitte, 1205 ; ob- 
tained by Geoffrey Villehardouin, 1210 ; by 
Geoflfrey II., 1218; by his brother William, 
1246 ; who conquers the Moors, 1248 ; makes 
war with the emperor Michael, 1259, and 
gains three fortresses, 1262 ; succeeded 
by Isabella, 1277 ; who marries Floreuz 
of Hainult, 1291 ; their daughter Maud, 
princess, 1311; thrice married ; forcibly mar- 
ried to John de Gravina, and dies in ijrison ; 
Achaia subject to the kings of Naples . . 1324 



Conquered by the Tui-ks 



about 1540 



ACHONRY, Sligo (N. Ireland) ; a bishopric founded by St. Finian, wlio erected the 
church of Achad, usually called Achonry, about 520, and conferred it on his disciple Nathy 
(Dathy, or David), the hrst bishop. The see, held with Killala since 1612, was' united with 
Tuam in 1834. 

ACHROMATIC TELESCOPES, in which colour is got rid of, were invented by John 
DoUoud, and described in Phil. Trans, of the Royal Society, London, 1753-8. 

ACIDS (now defined as salts of hydrogen) are generally soluble in M'ater, redden organic 
blues, decompose carbonates, and destroy the properties of alkalies, forming alkaline salts. 
The number was increased by the Arabs ; Geber (8th century) knew nitric acid and 
sulphuric acid. Theories of the constitution of acids were put forth by Becher (1669), 
Lemery (1675), and Stahl (1723). After the discovery of oxygen by Priestley, Aug. i, 1774, 
Lavoisier (1778) concluded that oxygen was a constituent of all acids ; but about 1810 Davy, 
Gay-Lussac, and others, proved the existence of acids free from oxygen. In 1816 Dulong 
proposed the binary or hydrogen theory of acids, and in 1837 Liebig applied the theories of 
Davy and Dulong to explain the constitution of several organic acids. Oxygen acids are 
now termed anhydrides. An innumerable number of acids have been discovered through the 
advance of organic chemistry. Watts. 

ACOLYTES, an inferior order of clergy in the Latin church, unknown to the Greek 
church for four hundred years after Christ. 

ACOUSTICS (from akoud), Greek, I hear), the science of sound, so named by Sauveur in 
the 17th century. The communication of sounds to the air by the vibrations of the 
atmos^jhere, strings, &c., was explained by Pythagoras about 500 B.C., and by Aristotle, 
330 B.C. 

Velocity of sound said to be 1473 feet in a second, 
by Gassendi ; 11 72 feet by Cassini, Romer and 
others ; 968 by Newton, about 1700. 

Chladni (who raised acoustics to an independent 
science) published his important discoveries on 
the figures produced in layers orsand by harmonic 
chords, <fcc. , in 1787, and since. 

Cagniard-Latour invented the drene {which lee) 1819. 

Biot, Savart, Wheatstone, Lissajous, Helmholtz, 
Tyndall, and others in the present century have 
greatly increased our knowledge of acoustics. 



The speaking trumpet is said to have been used by 
Alexander the Great, 335 b.c. 

Galileo's discoveries, about a.d. 1600. 

His theorem of the harmonic curve demonstrated 
by Dr. Brook Taylor, in 1714 ; further perfected 
by D'Alembert, Euler, Bemouilh, and La Grange, 
at various periods of the eighteenth century. 

Hooke calculated the vibration of sounds by the 
striking of the teeth of brass wheels, 1681. 

Sauveur determined the number of vibrations be- 
longing to a given note, about 1700. 



ACRE. This measure was formerly of uncertain quantity, and differed in various parts 
of the realm, until made standard by statute 31 Edward I. 1303, and fixed, at 40 jioles or 
perches in length, and 4 in breadth — or 160 square poles, containing 4840 square yards, 
or 43,560 square feet. In certain counties and places the measure is larger. Pardon. 

ACEE, Acca, anciently Ptolemais, iuj Syria, was taken by the Saracens in 638 ; by the 
crusaders under Baldwin I. in 1104 ; by Saladin in 1187 ; and again by Richard I. and other 
crusaders, July 12, 1191, after a siege of two years, with a loss of 6 archbishops, 12 bishops, 
40 earls, 500 barons, and 300,000 soldiers. It was then named St. Jean d'Acre. It was 
retaken by the Sai-acens in 1291, when 60,000 Christians perished. This capture was 
rendered memorable by the murder of the nuns, who had mangled their faces to repress the 



ACR 7 ACT 

lust of the infidels. — Acre, gallantly defended by Djezzar Kacha against Bonaparte in Jidy, 
1798, was relieved by Sir Sidney Smith, who resisted twelve attempts by the French, between 
]\liin'h 16 and May 20, 1799, when ]3onaparte retreated. — St Jean d'Acre, as a pachalic 
subject to the Porte, was seized Jul}' 2, 1832, by Ibrahim Pacha, who had revolted. On 
Nov. 3, 1840, it was stormed by the British fleet under sir Robert Stopfoi-d, and taken after 
a l)ombardnicnt of a few hours, the Egyptians losing upwards of 2000 in killed and wounded, 
and 3000 prisoners, while the British had but twelve killed and 42 wounded. See Syria and 
Turkcij. 

ACROPOLIS, the citadel of Athens, was built on a rock, andaccessible only on one side ; 
Minerva had a temple at the bottom. The roof of this vast pile, which had stood above 
2000 years, was destroyed by the Venetians who took Athens in 1687, 

ACS (Hungary). The Hungarians under Gorgey were defeated here by the Austriaus 
and Russians, on July 10, 1849. 

ACT OF Settlement, &c. See Accession, Succession, Siqyrcmaoj, and Uniformity Acts. ■ 

ACTA SANCTORUM (acts of the saints), a work commenced by the Jesuits in the 
seventeenth century. The first volume appeared in 1643 : the publication was interru))tcd 
in 1734, when the fifty-third volume was published, but was resumed in 1846, and is still in 
]irogress : having advanced in the order of the months as far as October. Prom one of the 
first editors, Bolland, the writei's have been named BoUandists. 

ACTINOJIETER, an instrument to measure the power of the solar rays, invented by sir 
J. F. Herschel, about 1825. See Sun. 

ACTIUM, a promontory of Acarnania, AV". Greece, near which was fought, on Sept. 2, 
31 B c, the battle between the fleets of Octavianus Cfesar on the one side, and of Marc Antony 
and Cleojiatra on the other, which decided the fate of Antony ; 300 of his galleys going over 
to Cicsar. This victory made Octavianus master of the world, and the Roman empire is 
commonly dated Jan. i, 30 B.C. (the Actian Era). The conqueror built Nicopolis (the city 
of victory), and instituted the Actiau games. Blair. 

ACTRESSES appear to have been unknown to the ancients ; men or eunuchs performing 
the female parts. Charles II. is said to have first encouraged the public appearance of 
women on the stage in England, in 1662 ; but the queen of James I. had previously per- 
formed in a theatre at court. Thcat. Biog. Mrs Colmau was the first actress on the stage ; 
she pel-formed the part oi lanthe inDavenant's "Siege of Rhodes," in 1656. Victor. 

ACTS OF Parliament, or Statutes. See Parliament. The following are among the 
most celebrated early statutes : — 



Statutes of Clarendon, to restrain the power of the 
clergy, enacted in 10 Hen. II. 1164. Provisions 
of Merton, 1235-6. Statute of Marlborough, 1267. 
Of Bigamy, 1275-6. Of Gloucester, the earliest 
statute of whicli any record exists, 6 Edw. I., 
1278. Of (Moi-tmain, 1279. Quo Warranto, Oct. 
1280. Statutes of Wales, 1284. Of Winchester, Oct. 
1284. Of Westminster, 1285. Statute forbidding 
the levying of taxes without the consent of par- 
liament, 1297. Magna Charta, 1297. Of Prae- 
munire, 1306. 

Between 1823 and 1829, 1126 acts were wholly re- 
pealed, and 443 repealed in part, chiefly arising 
out of the consolidation of the laws by Mr. (after- 
wards sir Robert) Peel ; of these acts, 1344 related 
to the kingdom at large, and 225 to Ireland solely; 
and in 1856 many obsolete statutes (enacted be- 
tsveen 1285 and 1777) were repealed. 

By the Statute Law Revision Act of 1861, 770 acts 
were wholly repealed, and a great many partially. 
By the similar Act of 1863, a great number of 
enactments were repealed, commencing with the 
Provisions of Merton, 20 Henry III. (1236), and 
ending with i James II. (16S5). 

The greatest number of acts passed in any one year 



since 1800, was 570, in 1846 (the railway year) ; 
402 were local and personal, 51 private, and 117 
public acts. In 1841, only 13 were passed (the 
lowest number), of which two were private. In 
three instances only, the annual number was 
under a hundred. The average number of the first 
ten years of the present century was 132 public 
acts. In the ten years ending 1850, the average 
number of acts, of public interest, was 112. 

The number of public general acts passed in 1851 
was 106 ; in 1852, 88 ; in 1853, 137 ; in 1854, 125 ; 
in 1855, 134; in 1856, 120; in 1857, 86; in 1858, 
109 ; in 1859, i°i ! ill i860, 154; in 1861, 134; in 
1862, 114; in 1S63, 125 ; in 1864, 121. 

In 1850. 13 Vict. c. 13, was passed to curtail Repeii- 
iiims in statutes. 

Statutes first printed in the reign of Richard III., 
1483. 

Statutes of the Realm, from Magna Charta to 
George I. , printed from the original records and 
MSS. in 12 vols, folio, under the direction of com- 
missioners appointed in 1801, 1811 — 28. 

The statutes passed during each session are now 
printed annually in 4to. and 8vo. Abstracts are 
given in the Cabinet Lawyer. 



ACTS, in dramatic poetry, first employed by the Romans. Five acts are mentioned by 
Horace (Art of Poetry) as the rule (about B.C. 8). 

ACTUARY, AcTUARiiTS, the Roman accountant. The Institute of Actuaries founded in 
1848, publishes its proceedings in the "Assurance JMagazine. " 



ADA 8 ADM 

ADAM AND EVE, Era of, set down by most Christian ■WTiters as being 4004 b. c. There 
have been as many as one hundred and forty opinions on the distance of time between the 
creation of the world and the birth of the Eedeemer : some make it 3616 years, and some as 
great as 64S4 years. See Creation. 

ADAMITES, a sect said to have existed about 130, and to have assembled quite naked 
in their places of worship, asserting that if Adam had not sinned there would have been no 
marriages. Their chief was named Prodicus ; they deified the elements, rejected prayer, and 
said it was not necessary to confess Christ. Easebius. A similar sect arose at Antwerp in the 
twelfth century, under Taudemus, or Tanchelin, whose followers, 3000 soldiers and others, 
committed many crimes under spiritual names. The sect became extinct soon after the 
death of its chief; but another of the same kind, named Turlupius, appeared shortly after in 
Savoy and Dauphiny. A Fleming named Picard, revived this sect in Bohemia, about 1415 ; 
it was suppressed by Ziska. 

ADDINGTON ADMINISTRATIOK Mr. Pitt, having engaged to procure Roman 
Catholic emancipation to secure the union with Ireland, and being unable to do so as a 
minister, resigned Feb. 3, 1801. A new ministry was formed by Mr. Addington, March 
1 801 ; after various changes it terminated May 11, 1804. 



Ilenry Addington,* first lord of the treasury and 

chancdlor of the exchequer. 
Lord Eldon, lord chancellor. 
Duke of Portland, lord president. 
Earl of Westmoreland, lo7-d privy seat 
Lord Pelbam, home secretary. 



Lord Hawkesbury, foreign secretary. 
Lord Hobart, colonial secretary. 
Earl St. Vincent, admiralty. 
Earl of Chatham, ordnance. 
Charles Yorke, secretary-at-war. 
Viscount Lcwisham, Lord Auckland, &c. 



ADDISCOMBE COLLEGE, near Croydon, Surrey, established by the East India 
company, in 1809, for the education of candidates for the scientific branches of the Indian 
army, was closed in 1861. 

ADDLED PARLIAMENT. See Parliament, 1614. 

ADDRESSERS. See Ahlwrrers. 

ADELAIDE, the capital of South Australia, was founded in 1836. It contained 14,000 
inhabitants in 1850, and 18,259 in 1855. It was made a bishopric in 1847. 

ADELPHI (Greek for brothers), a series of streets on the south side of the Strand, London, 
erected about 1768 by the brothers, John, Robert, James, and William Adam, after whom 
the st)-eets are named. Adelphi Tlieatre, see under Theatres. 

ADEN, a free port on the S. W. corner of Arabia, where in 1837 a British ship was 
wrecked and plundered. The sultan promised compensation, and agreed to cede the place 
to the English. The sultan's son refusing to fulfil this agreement to cajjtain Hayues, a 
naval and military force, under captain H. Smith, of the Volage, was dispatched to Aden, 
which captured it, Jan. 19, 1839. It is now a coal depot for Indian steamers, &c. 

ADIGE, a river in N. Italy, near which the Austrians defeated the French on March 26, 
30, and April 5, 1799. 

ADMINISTRATIONS of England, and of Great Britain. t For a fuller account of 
each, since 1700, see separate articles headed with the name of the premier. 

• BomT757; became viscount Sidmouth in 1805; held various offices afterwards, and died in 1844. 
nis circular ^,0 the lords lieutenants, dated March 27, 1817, directing them to adopt severe measures against 
the authors of blasphemous and seditious pamphlets, was greatly censured, and not carried into effect. 

t Until the Restoration, there was not in fact anything that could be exclusively called a Cabinet. 
The sovereign latterly governed by a collection of privy councillors, sometimes of larger, sometimes of 
smaller numljer, the men and offices being frequently changed. The separation of the Cabinet from the 
Privy Council became greater during the reign of William III., and the control of the chief, now termed 
the "premier," was established in the reign of Anne. "The era of ministries may most properly be 
reckoned from the day of the meeting of the parliament after the general election of 1698." — Lord 
Macaulay. " In Waljjole's time there was an interior council, of Walpole, the chancellor, and secretaries 
of state, who. in the first instance, consulted together on the more confidential points." — Croker's 
Memoirs of Lord Hervey. Till 1850 the cabinet council usually consisted of the following twelve members : 
— First lord of the treasury ; lord chancellor ; lord president of the council ; chancellor of the exchequer ; 
lord privy seal ; home, foreign, and colonial secretaries ; first lord of the admiralty ; president of the 
bo.ai-d of trade; president of the board of control; chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. In 1850, the 
number was fifteen, and included the secretary-at-war, the postmaster-general, and the chief secretary for 
Ireland. In the Palmerston-Russell cabinet (which see), the president of the poor-law-board replaced the 
secretary for Ireland. The average duration of a ministry has been set down at four, five, and six years ; 
but instances have occurred of the duration of a ministry for much longer periods : sir Robert Walpole 
was minister from 1721 to 1742 (21 years); Mr. Pitt, 1783 to 1801 (18 years); and lord Liverpool, 1812 to 
1827 (15 years). Several ministries have not endured beyond a fovf\a(mt\\s,&si\ic Coalition Ministry in 
1783, and the " Talents" Ministry in 1806. The " Short-lived" Administration lasted Feb. 10 to 12, 1746. 



ADM 



ADM 



Administrations of England, and of Great Britain. 



Henry Vlir. — Abp. Warham ; Bps. Fishor and 
Fox; earl of SiuTey, &c. . . . a.d. 1509 

Cardinal Thomas VVolsey, &c 1514 

Earl of Surrey ; Tunstall, bishop of London, ifec. 1523 

Sir Thomas More; bishops Tunstall and Gardi- 
ner, and Cranmer (afterwards abp. of Canter- 
bury) 1529 

Abp. Oranmer; lord Cromwell, aft. earl of 
Essex ; Thos. Boleyn, earl of Wiltshire, <&c. . 1532 

Thoma.s, duke of Norfolk ; Henry, earl of 
Surrey ; Thomas, lord Audley ; bishop Gardi- 
ner ; sir Ralph Sadler, &c 1540 

LordVVriothesley; Thomas,duke of Norfolk; lord 
Ijisle; sirWUliam Petre; sirWilliam Paget, (fee. 1544 

Edward VI.— Lord Wriothesley, now earl of 
Southampton, lord chancellor (expelled) ; 
Edward, earl of Hertford, lord protector, 
created duke of Somerset ; John, lord Rus- 
sell ; Henry, earl of Arundel ; Thomas, lord 
Seymour ; sir William Paget ; sir William 
Petre, &c. .... . . 1547 

John Dudley, late lord Lisle and earl of War- 
wick, created duke of Northumberland ; 
John, earl of Bedford; bishop Goodrich, sir 
William Cecil, <fec 1551 

M.^RY. — Stephen Gardiner, bp. of Winchester ; 
Edmund Bonner, hp. of London ; William, 
marquess of Winchester ; sir Edwd. Hastings, 
(fee. ...... . 1554 

Elizabeth. — Sir Nicholas Bacon ; Edward, lord 
CUnton ; sir Robert Dudley, aftd<. earl of 
Leicester ; sir Wm. Cecil, aftds. lord Burleigh. 1558 

Lord Burleigh (minister during nearly all the 
reign) ; sir N. Bacon, &c 1572 

William, lord Burleigh ; sir Thomas Bromley ; 
Robert Devereux, earl of Essex (a favourite) ; 
earl of Leicester ; earl of Lincoln ; sir Walter 
Mildmay ; sir Francis Walsingham, &c. . 1579 

Lord Burleigh ; Robert, earl of Essex ; sir 
Christopher Hatton, (fee 1587 

Thomas Sackville, lord Buckhurst, afterwards 
earl of Dorset ; sir Thomas Egerton, after- 
v;a7-ds lord EUesmere and viscount Brackley ; 
sir Robert Cecil, &c. ..... 1599 

James L — Thomas, earl of Dorset; Thomas, 
lord EUesmere ; Charles, earl of Nottingham ; 
Thomas, earl of Suffolk ; Edward, earl of 
Worcester ; Robert Cecil, afterwards earl of 
Salisbury, &,c 1603 

Robert Cecil, earl of Salisbury ; Thomas, lord 
EUesmere ; Henry, earl of Northampton ; 
Charles, earl of Nottingham ; Thomas, earl of 
Suffolk, (fee. 1609 

Henry, earl of Northampton ; Thomas, lord 
EUesmere ; Edward, earl of Worcester ; sir 
Ralph Winwood ; Charles, earl of Notting- 
ham ; Robert, viscount Rochester, afterwards 
earl of Somerset, &c 161 2 

Thomas, lord EUesmere ; Thomas, earl of 
Suffolk ; Charles, earl of Nottingham ; sir 
George VUliers (a favourite), afterwards vis- 
count Villiers, and successively earl, mar- 
quess, and duke of Buckingham . . . 1615 

Sir Henry Montagu, afterwards viscount Man- 
deville and earl of Manchester . ... 1620 

Lionel, lord Cranfield, afterwards earl of Middle- 
sex ; Edward, carl oif Worcester ; John, earl 
of Bristol ; John WiUiams, de m of West- 
min.stcr ; George ViUiers, now marquess of 
Buckingham ; sir Edward Conway, iic. . 1621 

Charles I. — Richard, lord Weston, afterwards 
eai-1 of Portland ; sir Thomas Coventry, ajler- 
wards lord Coventry ; Henry, earl of Man- 
chester (succeeded by James, earl of Marl- 
borough, who, in turn, gave place to Edward, 
lord, afterwanls viscount, Conway); William 
Laud, bishop of London ; sir Albert Morton, 
&c. ......... 1628 

William Laud, vovj .archbi.shop of Cantcrburj' ; 
Francis, lord Cottington ; Jamc.'', marquess 



of Hamilton ; Edward, earl of Dorset ; sir 
John Coke ; sir Francis Windebank, (fee. . 1635 

William Juxon, bisliop of London ; sir John 
Finch, afterwards lord Finch ; Fr.mcis, lord 
Cottington ; Wentworth, earl of Strafford ; 
Algernon, earl of Northumbeiland ; James, 
marquess of Hamilton ; Laud, archbishop of 
Canterburj' ; sir Francis Windebank ; sir 

Henry Vane, (fee 1640 

[The king beheaded, Jan^ 30, 1649] 

Commonwealth. — Oliver Cromwell, protector, 
named a council, the number at no time to 
exceed twenty-one members, or be less than 
thirteen 1653 

Richard Cromwell, son of OUver, succeeded on 
the death of the latter. A council of officers 
ruled at WalUngford house . . . . 1658 

Charles II. — Sir Edward Hyde, afterwards earl 
of Clarendon : George Monk, created duke of 
Albemarle ; Edward Montagu, created earl of 
Sandwich ; lord Saye and Sele ; earl of Man- 
chester; lord Seymour; sir Robert Long, (fee, 1660 

George Monk, duke of Albemarle, made first 
commis.sioner of the treasury, (fee. . . . 1667 

"Cabal" Ministry: CUfford, Ashley, Bucking- 
ham, Arlington, Lauderdale. (See Cabal.) . 1670 

Thomas, lord Cliflbrd ; Anthony, earl of Sliaftes- 
bury ; Henry, earl of ArUngton ; Arthur, 
earl of Anglesey ; sir Thomas Osborne, cr(;ate(i 
viscount Latimer ; Henry Coventry ; sir 
George Carteret ; Edward Seymour, (fee. . 1672 

Thomas, viscount Latimer, afterwards earl of 
Danby, made lord high treasurer June 26, 1673 

Arthur, earl of Essex (succeeded by Lawrence 
Hyde, aft. earl of Rochester) ; Robert, earl of 
Sunderland, (fee 1679 

[The king nominated a new council on April 21, 
consisting of thirty members only, of whom 
the principal were the great officers of state 
and great officers of the household,] 

Sidney, lord Godolphin ; Lawrence, earl of 
Rochester : Daniel, earl ' of Nottingham ; 
Robert, earl of Sunderland ; sir Thomas 
Chicheley ; George, lord Dartmouth ; Henry, 
earl of Clarendon ; earls of Bath and Radnor, 
&c 1684 

James IL — Lawrence, earl of Rochester ; George, 
marquess of Halifax ; sir George Jeffreys, 
afterwards lord Jeffreys ; Henry, earl of Cla- 
rendon ; sir John Eruley ; viscount Preston, 
&c 1685 

The earl of Rochester was displaced, and John, 
lord Belasyse, made first commissioner of 
the treasury in his room, Jan. 4 ; the earl of 
Sunderland made president of the councU ; 
viscount Preston, secretary of state ; and 
various other changes took place in this and 
the following year 1687 

[The king left WhitehaU in the night of Dec. 17, 
and quitting the kingdom, landed at Amble- 
teuse, in France, on Dec. 23, 1688.] 

William III. and Mary. — Charles, viscouut 
Mordaunt ; Thomas Osborne, earl of Danby, 
created marquess of Cai-marthen, afterwards 
duke of Leeds ; George, marquess of Halifa.x ; 
Arthur Herbert, aftericards lord Torrington ; 
earls of Shrewsbury, Nottingham and Sun- 
derland ; earl of Dorset and Middlesex ; 
William, earl (afterwards duke) of Devon- 
shire ; lord Godolphin ; lord Montagu ; lord 
De la Mere, (fee. iggg 

Sidney, lord Godolphin ; Thomas, earl of 
Dauby; Richard Hampden ; Thomas, earl of 
Pembroke; Henry, viscount Sydney; Daniel, 
earl of Nottingham, (fee. .... 1690 

Sir John Somers became lord Somers in 1697, 
and lord chancellor ; Charles Montagu, after- 
ioards lord Halifax, was made first commis- 
sioner of the treasury, May i, i6g8, succeeded 
by Ford, earl of TaukerviUe, in 1699. 



ADM 



10 



ADM 



ADMINISTRATIONS of Great Britai 

Anne. — Sidney, lord (afterwards earl of) Godol- 
■phin; Thomas, earl of Pembroke, &c. May, 1702 

Robert Harley, earl of Oxford ; sir Simon Har- 
court, &c. ..... June i, 1711 

Charles, duke of Shretcshury, made lord trea- 
surer three days before the queen's death, 
<fcc July 30, 1714 

Georoe I. — Charles, earl of Halifax (succeeded 
on his death by the eai'l of Carlisle), &c. . 1714 

Robert Walpole, first lord of the treasury and 
chancellor of the exchequer, &c. . . . 171 5 

James (afterwards ea,i-l)Staiihope; William, lord 
Cowper, &c 1717 

Charles, eaii of Sunderland, &c 1718 

Robert Walpole, afterwards sir Robert Walpole, 
and earl of Orford, &c 1721 



George II. — Robert WaljxDle, continued . . 1727 

£Sir Robert remained prime minister twenty- 
one years ; numerous changes occui-riug in 
the time. See Walpole. \ 

Earl of If ii)/mi(^on / lord Hardwicke, (fee. . 1742 

Henry Pelham, in the room of earl of Wilming- 
ton, deceased Aug. 1743 

"Broad Boltoin" administration— Henry Pel- 
ham; lord Hardwicke, &c. . . Nov 1744 

"Short-lived" administration — eai'l of Bath; 
lords Winchilsea and GranvUle Feb. 10-12, 1746 

Henry Pelham, &c., again . Feb. 12, 1746 

Thos. H. Pelham, duke of Newcastle; earl of 
Holdemesse, &c April, 1754 

Hn'k.e oi Devonshire ; William Pitt, &c. Nov. 1756 

Duke of Nevxastle, and Mr. Pitt, afterivards 
earl of Chatham, ifec. - . . . June, 1757 

George III.— Duke of Newcastle, Mr. Pitt's 
ministry, continu-ed . . • . . . 1760 

lS,a,rl of Bute; lord Henley, &c. . . May, 1762 

George Grenville; earls of Halifax and Sand- 
wich, <fcc. April, 1763 

Marquess of Rockingham; earl of Winchilsea, 

(fee - . . July, 1765 

"Eivcl of Chatham ; duke of Grafton, &c. Aug. 1766 

'\)\\k.& of Grafton ; lord North, <fec. . Dec. 1767 

Frederick, lord A'or(/i/ earl Gower, ifec. Jan 1770 

[Lord North was minister during the whole of 
the American war.] 

Marquess of Rockviigham ; lord Camden; C. J. 
Fox; Edmund Burke, (Sic. . . March, 1782 

Earl of Shelburne (afterwards marquess of Lans- 
downe) ; William Pitt, (fee. . . . July, ,, 

"Coalition Ministry," duke of Portland; lord 
North ; C. J. Fo.^c ; Edmund Burke, &c. Ajiril, 1783 

William PitJ / Hem-y Dundas, (fee. . Dec. ,, 

[During Mr. Pitt's long administration, nume- 
rous changes in the ministry took place.] 

Henry Addington; duke of Portland; lord 
Eldon, (fee March, et seq. 1801 

William Pitt; lord Eldon; George Canniug, 
(fee May, ct seq. 1804 

[Mr. Pitt died Jan. 23, 1806 ] 

"All the Talents" administration — lord Gren- 
ville ; lord Henry Petty ; lord Erskine ; C. J. 
Fox ; sir Charles Grey (afterwards earl Grey). 

Feb. 1806 

[Mr. Fox's death, Feb. 13, i8o6, led to nume- 
rous changes.] 

Duke of PoH land ; lord Eldon, (fee* March, 1807 

Spencer Percevcd; earl of Liverpool; viscount 
Palmerston, (fee. . . . Nov. and Dec, 1809 

Regency. — Mr. Spencer Perceval (shot by 
BelUngham, May 11, 1812), (fee, continued 

Feb. 5, 181 1 

Earl of Liverpool; lord Eldon ; Mr. Vansittart ; 
lord Melville ; viscount Castlereagh, (fee. 

May, June, 1812 

George IV. — Earl of Liverpool, &c., continued 

Jan. 29, 1820 

[During lord Liverpool's long administration, 



N, continued. 

numerous changes in, and accessions to, 
office occurred.] 

George Canning : lord Lyn'lhurst ; viscount 
Goderich ; Mr. Huskisson ; lord Palmerston ; 
duke of Clarence, (fee. . . . April, 

[Mr. Cannmg died Aug. 8, 1827.] 

Viscount Goderich : viscount Palmer.ston ; mar- 
quess of Lansdowue ; Mr. Huskisson, (fc>c. 

Aug. 

Duke of Wellington; Robert Peel; Mr. Hus- 
kisson, &c Jan. 

[The ministry was reconstructed on the retire- 
ment of the earl of Dudley ; lord Palmerston ; 
Mr. Grant ; and Mr. Huskisson.] May and 

June, 

William IV.' — Duke of Wellington, (fee, con- 
tinued June 26, 

Earl Grey ; marquess of Lansdowne ; lord 
Brougham ; viscount Althorpe ; earl of Dur- 
ham ; viscounts Melbovirne, Palmerston, and 
Goderich ; sir James Graham ; lord John 
RusseU, (fee Nov. 

[Earl Grey resigns office, owing to a majority 
against him in the lords, on the Reform Bill, 
May 10; but resumes his post] . May i8, 

Viscount Melbourne ; (fee. . . . July, 

[Viscount Melbourne's administration dissolved, 
Nov. 1834. The duke of Wellington held the 
seals of office till the return of sir Robert 
Peel from Italy, Dec. 1834.] 

Sir Robert Peel ; lord Lyndhurst ; duke of 

Wellington ; earl of Aberdeen ; &c. Nov. 

and Dec. 

Viscount Melbourne, (fee. . . . April, 

Victoria. — Viscount Melbourne, (fee, covtinvtd 

June 20, 

[Among the subseqvient accessions were F. T. 
Baring ; carl of Clarendon ; T. B. Macaulay, 

(fee] 

[Viscount Melbourne resigns, and sir Robert 
Peel receives the queen's commands to form 
a new administration, May 8. This command 
is withdrawn, and on May 10, lord Melbounae 
and his frien(is return to x)ower] . 

Sir Robert Peel ; duke of Wellington ; lord 
Lyndhurst ; sir James Graham ; earl of Aber- 
deen ; lord Stanley, (fee . Aug. and Sept. 

[Among the accessions were, Sidney Herbert ; 
W. E. Gladstone, .fee.] 

Lord John Russell ; viscount Palmerston ; earl 
Grey, (fee July, 

[Among the accessions were : earl Granville ; 
Mr. Fox Maule ; earl of Carlisle ; sir Thomas 
Wilde, created lord Truro, (fee] 

[Feb. 24. Lord John Russell announced to the 
commons, and the marquess of Lansdowne 
to the lords, that the ministers had resigned, 
owing to their defeat on Mr. Locke King's 
motion respecting the franchise, the majo- 
rity against them being 48 (100 to 52) ; and 
on March 3, the same personages informed 
parliament, that it having been found im- 
liossible to construct a coalition ministry, 
the queen, by the advice of the duke of Wel- 
lington, had called upon her late ministers 
to resume office. Loid Stanley (since earl of 
Derby) had been charged by her majesty, in 
the interval, to form a new cabinet, but had 
not .succeeded] 

Lord John Russell and his colleagues continued. 

March, 

Earl of Derby (late Lord Stanley) ; lord St. Leo- 
nards ; Benjamin DisracU ; Spencer H. Wal- 
pole ; earl of Malmesbury ; sir John Paking- 
ton ; duke of Northumberland, (fee Feb. 27, 

Earl of Aberdeen : lord John Russell ; viscount 
Palmerston, (fee Dec. 28 



1827 



1830 



1832 
1834 



1S35 
1837 



1839 



1851 



* The duel between lord Castlereagh and Mr. Canning, Sept. 22) 1809, led to the breaking up of this 
administration. 



ADM 11 ADM 

ADMINISTRATIONS of Great Britain, coutimocd. 



[In this last ministry various changes of offices 
took place ; a fourth secretary of state was 
appointed, by a sejiaration of the v)ar from the 
colonial department. See Secretaries of State.] 

[ The retirement of Lord J. Russell, Jan. 24, 
1855, and a majority in the commons agiinst 
ministers of 157 (305 to 148) on Mr. Roebuck's 
motion respecting the conduct of the war, 
led to the resignation of lord Aberdeen and 
his colleagues, Jan 30 ; the cabinet was re- 
constructed under lord Palmerston.] 

Viscount Palmerston ; lord Cran worth ; &c. 

Feb 7, : 

[Viscount Palmerston, owing to the secession 
of Sir J. Graliam, Mr. Gladstone, and Mr. S. 
Herbert, had to reconstruct his ministry.] 

\is,co\xiii Palmerston ; lord John Russell; earl 
of Clarendon ; sir G. Grey ; sir G. C. Lewis ; 
sir W. Molesworth, <fcc. . . Feb. 24, 



On the second reading of the Foreign Con- 
spiracy bill, the government (defeated by a 
vote of censure bemg passed by a majority of 
19, on the motion of Mr. Milner Gibson) re- 
signed immediately .... Feb. ig, 1858 

Earl of Derby : B. Disraeli ; Spencer Walpole ; 
lord Stanley ; sir F. Thesiger (lord Chelms- 
ford), &c. . _ . . . . Feb. 26 „ 

[The Derby administration, in consequence of 
a vote of want of confidence in it being 
carried by a majority of 13, June 10, 1859, 
resigned the next day. Earl Granville at- 
tempted to form an administration in vain ; 
and lord Palmerston and lord John Russell 
came into office.] 

Palmekston-Russell administration — viscount 
Palmerston; lord John {siit.ci earl) Russell, &c. 

June 18, 1859 



ADMINISTRATIVE REFORM ASSOCIATION derived its origin from a general opinion 
that the disasters which occurred to the army in the Crimea in 1854-5 were attributable to 
the inefficient and irresjiouiiible management of the various departments of the state. The 
association was organised in London, May 5, 1855. A meeting was liekl in Drury-Iane 
theatre, on June 13, and Mr. Layard's motion on the subject in parliament was negatived 
June 18 following. Tlie association was reorganised in 1856, Mr. Roebuck, M.P., becoming 
chairman, but soon became unimportant. See Civil Service. 

ADMIRAL. This distinction does not appear to have been adopted in these realms until 
about the year 1300, but the title was in use some time previously in France. Sir Harris 
Nicolas. Alfred, Athelstan, Edgar, Harold, and other kings, had been previously the com- 
manders of their own fleets. The first French admiral is said to have been appointed 1284. 
The rank of admiral of the English seas was one of great distinction, and was first given to 
"William de Leybourne by Edward I. in 1297. S2}clman ; Rijmer. The first Lord High 
Admiral in England was created by Richard II. in 1385 : there had been previously liigh 
admirals of districts — the north, west, and south. This office has seldom been entrusted to 
single hands, the duties being generally executed by lords commissioners. A similar dignity 
existed in Scotland from the reign of Robert III. : in 1673, the king bestowed it upon his 
natural son Charles Lennox, afterwards duke of Richmond, then an infant, who resigned the 
office to the crown in 1703 : after the union it was discontinued. — The dignity of lord high 
admiral of Ireland (of brief existence) was conferred upon James Butler by Henry VIII., in 
JMa}-, 1534. The Admiral of the Fleet is the highest rank in the Royal Navy, corresponding 
to that of marshal in the army. We have now three admirals of the fleet, twenty-one 
admirals, and twenty-seven vice-admirals (1865). See Navy. 

ADMIRALTY, Court of, said to have been erected by Edward III., in 1357 ; a civil 
court for the trial of causes relating to maritime affairs. It was enacted in tiie reign of 
Henry VllL, that criminal causes should be tried by witnesses and a jury, some of the 
judges at Westminster (or, as now, at the Old Bailey) assisting. The judgeship of the 
admiralty was constituted in 15 14, and was tilled by two or more functionaries until the 
Revolution, when it was restricted to one, Beaison. The judge has usually been an 
eminent doctor of the civil law. In 1844 the criminal jurisdiction of this court was 
removed, and by 20 & 21 Vic. c. 77 (1857) the judge of the Probate court was to be also 
judge of the Admiralty court. Sir John Dodson, the last admiralty judge, died in 1858. 
The jurisdiction of this court was extended in 1861. 

ADMIRALTY OFFICE dates from 1512, when Henry VIII. appointed commissioners to 
inspect his .shijjs of war, &c. In 1662 the admiralty was first put into commission, the 
great officers of state being the commissioners. During the commonwealth the admiraltj'- 
affairs were managed by a committee of the parliament; and at the restoration in 1660, 
James, duke of York, became lord high admiral. See succeeding changes below. In 1688-9, 
the admiralty was put into commission, and the board appears to have assembled at admiral 
Herbert's lodgings, in Channel-row, Westminster, he being at that time first lord. In 
1830, 1832, and 1836 various changes were made in the civil dejDartments, several offices 
being abolished or consoliilated with others. In March, 1861, a royal commission recom- 
mentled the al)olition of the board of admiralty and the appointment of a minister of the 
navy department. 



ADM 



12 



ADU 



FIRST LORDS OF THE ADMIRALTY, ETC. 



1660. James, duke of York, lord high admiral, Juue 6. 

1673. Kino Charles II., June 14. 

„ Prince Rupert, July 9. 

1679. Sir Henry Capel, Feb. 14. 

1680. Daniel Finch, esq., Feb 19. 

1681. Daniel, lord Finch, Jan. 20. 

1683. Daniel, earl of Nottingham, April 17. 

1684. KiNr, Charles II. 

1685. King James II., May 17. 

Office in commission. 

1689. Arthur Herbert, esq., March 8. 

1690. Thomas earl of Pembroke and Montgomery, 

Jan. 20. 

1692. Charles, lord Comwallis, March 10. 

1693. Anthony viscount Falkland, April 15. 

1694. Edward Russell, esq. {aft. earl of Orford), May 2. 
1699. John, earl of Bridgewater, June 2. 

1701. Thomas, earl of Pembroke, April 4. 

1702. George, prince of Denmark, lord high ad- 

miral, May 20. 

1708. Thomas, earl of Pembroke, ditto, Nov. 29. 

Office in commission. 

1709. Edward, earl of Orford, Nov. 8. 

1710. Sir John Leake, Oct 4. 

1712. Thomas, earl of Strafford, Sept. 30. 

1 71 4. Edward, earl of Orford, Oct. 14. 

1717. James, earl of Berkeley, March 19. 

1727. George, viscount Torrington, Aug 2. 

1733. Sir Charles Wagner, knt. , June 25. 

1742. Daniel, earl of Winchilsea, March ig. 

1744. John, duke of Bedford, Dec. 27. 

1748. John, earl of Sandwich, Feb. 10. 

1751. George, lord Anson, June 22. 

1756. Richard, earl Temple, Nov. 19. 

1757. Daniel, earl of Winchilsea, April 6. 
,, George, lord Anson, July 2. 

1762. George M. Dunk, earl of Halifax, June 19. 



1763. George Grenville, esq., Jan. i. 

,, John, earl of Sandwich, April 23. 

,, John, earl of Egmont, Sept. 10. 

1766. Sir Charles Saunders, Sept. 10. 

,, Sir Edward Hawke, Dec. 10. 

1771. John, earl of Sandwich, Jan. 12. 

1782. Hon. Augustus Keppel, April i. 

,, Augustus, viscount Keppel, July 18. 

1783. Richard, viscount Howe, Jan. 28. 
1788. John, earl of Chatham, July 16. 
1794. George John, earl Spencer, Dec. 20. 
1801. John, earl St. Vincent, Feb. 19. 

1804. Henry, viscount Melville, May 15. 

1805. Charles, lord Barham, May 2. 

1806. Hon. Charles Grey, Feb. 10. 

,, Thomas Grenville, esq., Oct. 23. 

1807. Henry, lord Mulgrave, April 6. 
1809. Charles i'orke, esq.. May 10. 

1812. Robert, viscount Melville, March 25. 

1827. William Henry, duke of Clarence, lord 

high admiral, May 2, resigned Aug. 12, 1828. 

1828. Robert, viscount Melville, Sept. 19. 
1830. Sir James R. G. Graham, bart., Nov. 25. 

1834. George, lord Auckland, Jinie 11. 

,, Thomas Philip, earl de Grey, Dec. 23. 

1835. George, lord Auckland, April 25. 
,, Gilbert, earl of Minto, Sept. ig. 

1 841. Thomas, earl of Haddington, Sept. 8. 

1846. Edward, earl of Ellenborough, Jan. 13. 

,, George, earl of Auckland, July 24. 

1849. Sir Francis Thoriihill Baring, Jan. 18. 

1852. Algernon, duke of Northumberland, Feb. 28. 

1853. Sir James Robert George Graham, Jan 5. 
1855. Sir Charles Wood, bart.. Feb. 24. 

1858. Sir John Pakington, Feb. 26. 

1859. Edward, duke of Somerset, the present First 

Lord {1865). 



ADMIRALTY, Whitehall. " At the south end of Duke-street, Westminster, was seated 
a laro-e house, made use of for the admiralty office, until the business was removed to 
Greenwich, and thence to Wallingford-house, against Whitehall." It Avas rebuilt by Ripley 
about 1726 ; the screen was erected, to conceal the ugliness of the building, by the brothers 
Adam, in 1776. — Lord Nelson lay in state in one of the apartments on Jan. 8, 1806 ; and on 
the next day was buried at St. Paul's. 

"ADMONITION to the Parliament," condemning all religious ceremonies but those 
commanded in the New Testament, was published by certain Puritans in 157 1. It was 
answered by abp. Whitgift. Its presumed authors, Field and Wilcox, were imjirisoned. 

ADRIAN'S WALL (to prevent the irruptions of the Scots and Picts into the northern 
counties of England, then under the Roman government) extended from the Tyne to Solway 
firth and was eighty miles long, twelve feet high, and eight in thickness, with watch-towers; 
built 121. It was named after its second founder, the emi)eror Adrian, and was repaired by 
Severus, 208. 

ADRIANOPLE, in Turkey, so named after its restorer the emperor Adrian (who died 
July 10, 138). Near here was fought the battle by which Coustantine gained the empire, 
July 3, 323 ; also, near here the emperor Valens was defeated and slain by the Goths, Aug^ 
9, 378. Adrianople was taken by the Turks under Amurath in 1361, and was the seat of 
their empire till the capture of Constantinople in 1453- Mahomet II. was born here in 1430. 
Priestley.- — Adrianople was taken by the Russians on Aug. 20, 1829 ; but was restored at 
the close of the war, Sept. 14, same year. See Turkey. 

ADRIATIC. The ceremony of the doge of Venice wedding the Adriatic sea (instituted 
about II 73), took place annually on Ascension-day. The doge drojiped a ring into the sea 
from his bucentam-, or state barge, being attended by his nobility and foreign ambassailors. 
The ceremony was first omitted in 1797. 

ADULTERATION of Food was the subject of legislation in England in 1267. Much 
attention was drawn to it in 1822, through Mr. Accum's book, popularly called "Death 
in the Pot." and in 1855 through Dr. Hassall's book, "Food and its Adulterations." I>y an 
act for preventing the adulteration of food, passed in i860, parochial chemical analysts may 
be appointed. 



ADU 13 ^L 

ADULTERY, by tlie hiw of Moses (1490 B.C.) was puiiislied with death, Ze^y. xx. 10.— 
Lycurgus (b84B.c.) punished the olieiuler as he did a parricide, and the Locrians and Spar- 
tans tore out the offenders eyes. The early Saxons burnt the adulteress, and erected a 
gibbet over her ashes, wliereon they hanged the adulterer. The ears and nose were cut off 
under Canute, 103 1. Ordained to be punished capitally under Cromwell, May u i6=;o • 
but there is no record of this law taking effect. In New England a law was ordained 
whereby adultery was made capital to both parties, even though the man were unmarried • 
and several suffered under it, 1662. Hardie. Till 1857 the legal redress against the male 
otiender was by civil action for a money compensation ; the female being liable to divorce 
liy 20 & 21 Vic. c. 85 {1857) the "action for criminal conversation" was abolished and the 
Court tor Divorce and Matrimonial Causes" was established, with power to grant divorces 
lor adultery and ill usage. See Divorce. 

ADVENT {adveniens, coming). The season includes four Sundays, previous to Christmas 
the hrst being the nearest Sunday to St. Andrew's day (Nov. 30), before or after. Homilies 
respecting Advent are mentioned prior to 378. Advent Sunday, 1865, Dec. 3 ; 1866 Dec 2 • 
1067, Dec. I. J ) • J 

ADVENTURE BAY, at the S.E. end of Van Diemen's Land, discovered in 1773 by capt 
Furneaux in his first voyage to the Pacific, and named fiom his ship Adventure. It was 
visited by captain Bligh in 1 788. 

ADVENTURERS, Merchant, a celebrated company of enterprising merchants, originally 
lormed for the discovery of territories, and the extension of commerce, by John, duke of 
Lrabant, in 1296 was transferred to England in the reign of Edward IIL Elizabeth formed 
It into an English corporation in 1564. Anderson. 

x-,1 ADVERTISEMENTS in Newspapers, as now published, were not general in England 
ti 1 the beginning of the eighteenth century. A penalty of soZ. was inflicted on persons 
advertising a reward with " No questions to be asked" for the return of things stolen and 
on the printer, 25 Geo. II. 1754. Statutes. The advertisement duty wa.s formerly charr^ed 
according to the number of lines ; it was afterwards fixed, in England, at 3s. 6d , and" in 
Ireland at 2s. 6d. each advertisement. The duty was further reduced, in England to is 6d 
and m Ireknd to is. each, in 1833, and was altogether abolished in the United Kingdom by 
16 & 17 Vic c. 63 (Aug 4, 1853).* Advertising Vans, a great nuisance, were prohibited 
by 16 & 17 Vic. c. 33 (1853), 

ADVOCATE, The King's. This office was instituted about the beginning of the sixteenth 
century ; and the advocate (always a doctor of the civil law) was empowered to iirosecute at 
his own instance certain crimes, 1597. The Lord Advocate in Scotland is the same 
as the attorney-general in England. — It was decided in the parliament of Paris, in 168? 
that the kings advocate of Erance might at the same time be a judge ; so in like manner it 
was allowed in Scotland, where sir John Nesbit and sir William Oliphant were lord advocates 
and lords of session at the same time. Beatsou.— The Advocates' library in Edinburgh was 
established by sir G. Mackenzie in 1682. 

iEDILES, magistrates of Rome, first created 492 B.C. There were three degrees of these 
Olhc^ers, with functions similar to those of our justices of the peace. The plebeian adiles 
pn^suled over the more minute affairs of the state, the maintenance of order, the reparation 
ot the streets, the supply of provisions, &c. Varro. 

AGATES ISLES W. of Sicily : near these, during the first Punic war, the Roman 
consul Lutatius Catulus gained a decisive victory over the Carthaginian fleet under Hanno 
March 10, 241 b. c. Peace ensued, the Romans obtaining Sicily and a tribute of 3200 talents! 

^GINA, a Greek island, a rival of Athens, was humbled by Themistocles, B.C. 48"; • and 
taken 455 Its inhabitants, exjielled 431, were restored by the Spartans, 404 : they renewed 
war with Athens 3S8, and made peace, 387. 

iEGOSPOTAMOS, the Goat- river, in the Chersonesus, where Lysander, the Lacedaemonian 
defeated the Athenian fleet, 405 B.C., and ended the Peloponnesian war. 

.^LIA CAPITOLINA, built on the ruins of Jerusalem by the emperor Adrian, 131, 

' On Ort ,6, i860 the wliole of the Ubretto of MacFarren's opera, Robin Hood, was inserted as an 
advertisement in the Times (4^ columns). 



^M 14 AFF 

iEMILIA, the name given to the provinces of Parma, Modena, and the Roniagna, nnited 
to Sardinia in i860 ; and now part of the kingdom of Italy. 

iENEID, the great Latin epic poem, relating the adventures of ^Eneas, Avritten ahont 24 
B.C. by Virgil, who died Sept. 22, 19 B.C., before he had finally corrected the poem. It was 
first printed in 1469, at Rome, 

J5NIGMA. Samson's riddle (about 1141 B.n. ; Judgc.i xiv. 12) is the earliest on record. 
The ancient oracles frequently gave responses admitting of perfectly contrary interpretations. 
Gale attributes a?nigniatical speeches to the Egyptians. In Nero's time, the Romans were 
often obliged to have recourse to this method of concealing truth under obscure language. 
The following epitaph on Fair Rosamond (mistress of our Henry II. about 1173) is a medi- 
fpval specimen : — " Hie jacet in tomba Rosa muudi, nou Rosa munda ; Non redolet, sed 
olet, qufe redolere solet." 

MOJAA, in Asia Minor, was colonised by a principal branch of the Hellenic race : begin- 
ning about 1 124 B.C. The ^Eolians built several large cities both on the mainland and tho 
neighbouring islands ; Mitylene, in Lesbos, was considered the capital. 

iEOLIAN HARP. Its invention is ascribed to Kircher, 1653, but it was known before. 

.iEOLOPILE, a hollow ball with an orifice in which a tube might b.e screwed, was used in 
the 17th century as a boiler for experimental steam-engines. 

J]!QUI, an ancient Italian race, were subdued by tho Romans, and their lands annexed 
after a conflict, 471-302 B.c,^ 

^RAS. See Eras. 

AERATED WATERS. Apparatus for combining gases with water have been patented by 
Thomson in 1807 ; Bakewell in 1832 and 1847 ; Tylor in 1840, and by several other 
persons. Aerated bread is made by processes patented by Dr. Dauglish, 1856-7. 

AERIANS, followers of Aerius, a presbyter, in the 4th century, who held that there was 
no distinction betwecTi a bishop and a presbyter ; that there was no Pasch to bo observed by 
Christians ; that the Lent and other fasts should not be observed ; and that prayers should 
not be offered for the dead. Epiphaniits. 

AERONAUTICS, and AEROSTATICS. See Fbjing, and Walloons. 

iESOP'S FABLES, said to have been written about 619, 571, or 565 B.C. They are, no 
doubt, a compilation from various sources. Phtedrus's Latin paraphrases in Iambics (about 
A.D. 8) are very elegant. 

AESTHETICS (from the Greek aistliesis, perception), the science of the beautiful (especially 
in art) ; a term invented by Baumgarten, a German philosopher, whose work "iEsthetica" 
was published in 1750. 

ETHIOPIA. ^eQ Ethiopia. .^TNA. ^aa Etna. 

iETOLIA, in Greece, a country named after jEtolus of Elis, who, having accidentally 
killed a son of Phoroneus, king of Argos, left the Peloponnesus, and settled liere. After 
the ruin of Athens and Sparta, the iEtolians became the rivals of tlie Aclia'ans, and alter- ■ 
nately allies and enemies of Rome. 



The J5tolians join Sparta against Athens B.C. 455 
Sxibdued by Antipater during the Lamian war . 322 
Aid in the expulsion of the Gauls . . . 279 
Invade the Peloponnesus, and ravage Messenia 
(Social War), and defeat the Achasans at 

Caphyae 220 

Philip v., of ilacedon, invades ^Etolia, and takes 

Thermum — Peace concluded .... 217 
Alliance with Rome 211 



War with Philip, 202 ; deserted by the Romans, 

the iEtolians make peace . . . b.c. 205 
They invite the kings of Macedon, Syria, and 
Sparta, to coalesce with them against the 

Romans 193-2 

Defeat of the allies near ThermopyLTe . . . 191 
Conquered by the Romans under Fulvius . . 189 
Leading patriots massacred by the Roman party 167 
Made a province of Rome . . . , . 146 



AFFINITY. Marriage within certain degrees of kindred was prohibited in almost every 
age and country, but has yet taken place to a considerable extent. See Levilkiis, chap, xviii. 
(1490 B.C.). In England, a table restricting marriage within cei'tain near degrees was set 
forth by authority, 1563. Prohibited marriages were adjudged to be incestuous and unlawful 
by the 99th canon, in 1603. All marriages within the forbidden degrees are declared to bo 
absolutely void by statute 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 54, 1835. See Marriage {of deceased Wifcs 
Sister). 



AFF 



15 



AGA 



AFFIRMATION. See Quakers. The affirmation was altered in 1702, 1721, 1837, and 
in April, 1859. — The indnlgence was granted to persons who were formerly Quakers, but 
who had seceded from tliat sect, 2 Vic. 1838 ; and extended to other dissenters by 9 Geo. IV. 
c. 32 (1828), and 18 & 19 Vic. c. 2 (1855). 



AFGHANISTAN, a large country in centr 
empires, was conquered by the Tartars about 

The Mahommedan dynasty, the Ghaznevides, said 

'to have ruled from 11S6 to 1206. 
They were conquered by Genghis Khan about 1221, 

and by Tamerlane, 1398. 
Baher conqviered Caubul in is^S- 
On his death Afghanistan divided between Persia 

.and Hindosfctn. 
The Afglians revolt in 1720 ; invade Persia ard take 

Ispahan ; repulsed by Nachr Shah in 1728, who 

.subdues the whole of the country, 1737. 
On his assassin.ation, one of his officers, Ahmed Shah, 

an Afghan, forms Afghanistan into an independent 

kingdom, and reigns prosperously, 1747-73. 



al Asia, formerly part of the Persian and Greek 
997- 

His son and successor, Tiniour, died in 1793 ; whose 
son, Zemaun, was dethroned and blinded after 
reigning ten years. Since then the history is a 
series of broils, crimes, and murders. 

Runjeet Sing, the Sikh chief of Lahore, conquers a 
large part of the country in 1818. 

Dost Mohammed becomes ruler, 1829. 

[For the Afghan war with England, see India, 1838.] 

Dost Mohammed takes Herat, May 26 ; dies, after 
designating his eldest son, Shir-Ali, his successor, 
May 29, 1863 ; a war of succession ensue.s. 

The English remain neutral, June, &o. 1863. 

Treachery and anarchy prevailing, June, 1865. 



AFRICA, called Libya by the Greeks, one of the three parts of tlie ancient world, and 
the greatest peninsula of the rmiverse ; said to have been tirst peopled by Ham. For its 
history see Egypt, Carthage, Cyrene, Abyssinia, Algiers, Morocco, iLc. 

unexplored. His book was published in Nov. 

1857. In Feb. 1858, he was appointed British 

consul for the Portuguese possessions in Africa, 

and left England shortly after. 
The publication of M. du Chaillu's travels in central 

Africa created much controversy and excitement 

in 1 861. 
Second expedition of Dr. Livingstone, March, 1858. 
Captains Speke and Grant annoimce the discovery 

of the source of the Nile in Lake Nyanza Victoria, 

Feb. 23, 1863. 
[Capt. Speke was accidentally shot by his own gun 

while alone near Bath, Sept. 15, 1864.] 
Some Dutch ladies unsuccessfully explore the White 

Nile, and undergo many privations, July, 1863 — 



Carthago subdued by the Romans 146 b.c. ; other 

provinces gaiued by Pompey, 82. 
N. Africa conquered by the Yand.als under 

Genseric, a.d. 429-35, reconquered by Belisarius, 

533-5- 

The Saracens subdue the north of Africa 637 — yog. 

Portuguese settlements begun 1450. 

Cape of Good Hope discovered by Diaz. 1487. 

English merchants visit Guinea in 1550 ; and Eliza- 
beth granted a patent to an African company in 
1588. 

Dutch colony at the Cape founded, 1650. 

Capt. Stubbs sailed up the Gambia, 1723. 

Bruce commenced his travels in 1768. 

Sierra Leone settled by the English 1787. ' 

Mungo Park, who made his first voyage to Africa, 
May 22, 1795; and his .second voyage, January 30, 
1804, but from which he never returned (see 
Park). 

Visited by Salt in 1805 and 1809; Burckhardt in 
i8i2 ; Hornemann in 1S16 ; Denham and Clapper- 
ton in 1S22 ; the brothers Lander in 1830. 

The great Niger expedition (for which parliament 
voted 6i,oooi.), consisting of the Alhe'rt, Wilber- 
force. and Snudan steam-ships, commenced the 
ascent of the Niger, Aug. 20, 1841 ; but when they 
reached Iddah, fever broke out among the crews, 
and they were successively obliged to return, the 
Albert liaving ascended the river to Egga, 320 miles 
from the sea, Sept. 28. The expedition was, in 
the end, rehnquished owing to disease, heat, and 
hardships, and all the vessels had cast anchor at 
Clarence Cove, Fernando Po, Oct. 17, 1841. 

James Richardson explored the great Sahara in 
1845-6, and in 1849 (by direction of the Foreign 
Office) he left England to explore central Africa, 
accompanied by Drs. Barth and Overweg. 
Richardson died, M.arch 4, 1851 ; and Overweg, 
Sept. 27, 1852. 

Dr. Viigel sent out with reinforcements to Dr. 
Barth, Fob. 20, 1853 ; in April, 1857, said to have 
been assassinated. 

Dr. B.arth returned to Engl.and, and received the 
Royal Geographical Society's medal. May 16, 1856. 
His travels were published in 5 vols, in 1S58. 

Dr. David Livingstone, a missionary traveller, re- 
turned to England in Dec. 1856, after an absence 
of 16 years, during which he traversed a large 
part of the heart of S. Africa, and w.Mked about 
11,000 miles, principally over country hitherto 



Qxfoi-d mission. Bishop Mackenzie sent out ; dies 
1863. 

Du Chaillu stjirts on a fresh expedition, 6 Aug. 1863. 

Dr. Livingstone returns July 23, 1864. 

Death of Dr. W. B. Baikie, at Sierra Leone, Nov. 30. 
1864. 

[He was sent as special envoy to the Negro tribes 
near the Niger by the Foreign Office about 1854. 
He opened commercial relations with Central 
Africa.] 

Mr. Samuel Baker discovered a Lake, supposed to be 
another source of the Nile, which he named Lake 
Nyanza Albert, March, 1864. 

Dr. Livingstone appointed British consul for Inner 
Africa, March 24, 1S65. 

African Association, for promoting the exploration 
of Central Africa, was foi-med in June, 178S, 
principally by Sir Joseph Banks ; and under its 
auspices many additions were made to African 
geography by Ledyard, Park, Burckhardr, 
Hornemann, <fec. It merged into the Royal Geo- 
g^raphical Society in 1831. 

African Company (merchants trading to Africa), 
arose out of an a.ssociation in Exeter, formed in 
1588. A charter w.as granted to a joint-stock 
company in 161 8; a third company was created in 
1631 ; a fourth corporation in 1662 ; another was 
formed by letters- patent in 1672; remodelled hi 
1695. In 1821 the company was abolished. 

African Institlttion, founded in London in 1S07, for 
the abolition of the slave trade, .and the civilisa- 
tion of Africa. Many schools have been established 
with success, particularly at Sierra Leone. 



AGAPiE {agape, Greek for love, charity\ "feasts of charity," referred to Jticle 12, and 
described by Tertullian, of which the first Christians of all ranks partook, in memory of the 



AGA 16 AGI 

last time when Christ ate with his disciples. In conse(iuence of disorders creeping in, these 
feasts were forbidden to be celebrated in churches by the councils of Laodicea (366), and 
Carthage (390). These feasts are still recognised by the Greek church, and are held in their 
original form weekly by the Sandemanians, and also in some measure by the Moravians 
and Wesleyans. 

AGAPEMONIANS, a sect which originated with Henry James Prince, an ex-clergyman of 
the church of England, who claimed the attributes of omnipotence, and thereby obtainetl 
great influence over his wealthy dupes in 1845. Tliey professed to live in a state of brotherly 
love, delivering themselves up to innocent amusements, not vexing themselves with the 
cares of ordinary mortals. Various disclosures did not at all conlirm these statements. 
They resided in a building called "Agap^mone" (Greek for "the abode of love"), near 
Bridgewater, in Somersetshire.* 

AGE. Chronologcrs have commonly divided the time hctween the creation and the birth 
of Christ into periods called ages. Hesiod (about 850 B.C.) described the Golden, Silver, 
Brazen, and Iron Ages. See Dark Ages. 

B.C. I B.C. 

First Age (from the Creation to the Fourth Aoe (to the founding of Solo- 
Deluge) 4004 — 2349 men's Temple) 1490 — 1014 

Second Age (to the coining of Abraham Fifth Age (to the capture of Jerusalem) 1014 — 588 

into Canaan) 2348—1922 ! Sixth Age (to the birth of Christ) . 588 — 4 

Third Age (to the Exodus from Egypt) 1921 — 1491 1 Seventh Age (to the present time) b.c. 4— a.d. 1865 

AGE, OF. Varied in different countries. In Greece and Rome twenty-five was full age 
for both sexes, but a greater age was requisite for the holding certain offices : e.g. thirty for 
tribunes ; forty-three for consuls. In England the minority of a male terminates at twenty- 
one, and of a female in some cases, as that of a queen, at eighteen. In 1547, the majority of 
Edward VI. was, by the will of his father, fixed at eighteen years ; previously to completing 
which age, Henry VIII. had himself assumed the reins of government, in 1509. — A male of 
twelve may take the oath of allegiance ; at fourteen he may consent to a marriage, or 
choose a guardian ; at seventeen he may be an executor, and at twenty-one he is of 
age ; but according to the statute of wills, 7 Will. IV. and i Vict. c. 26, 1837, no will 
made by any person under the age of twenty-one years shall be valid. A female at 
twelve may consent to a marriage ; at fourteen she may choose a guardian, and at twenty- 
one she is of age. 

AGINCOURT (K France), a village, where Henry V. of England, with about 9000 men, 
defeated about 60,000 French on St. Crispin's day, Oct. 25, 1415. Of the French, whose 
loaders acted with little judgment, there were according to some accounts 10,000 killed, 
including the dukes of Alengim, Brabant, and Bar, the archbishop of Sens, one marshal, 
tiiirteen earls, ninety-two barons, and 1500 knights ; and 14,000 prisoners, among whom 
were the dukes of Orleans and Bourbon, and 7000 barons, knights, and gentlemen. The 
English lost the duke of York, the earl of Suffolk, and al>out 20 otliers. St. E^my asserts 
with more probability that the English lost 1600 men. Henry V. soon after obtained the 
kingdom of France. 

AGITATORS (or Adjutators), officers appointed by the Engli.sh army in 1647, to take care 
of its interests : each troop or company had two. The protector Cromwell was eventually 
obliged to I'epress their seditious power. At a review he seized the ringleaders of a mutiny, 
shot one instantly, in the presence of his companions and the forces on the ground, and thus 
restored discipline. Hume. — Daniel 0' Council, called the agilator of Ireland, was born in 
1775. He began to agitate at the elections in 1826; was elected for Clare, July 5, 1828; 
the election being declared void, he was re-elected July 30, 1829. After the passing of the 
Catholic emancipation bill, lie agitated in vain for the repeal of the union, 1834 to 1843. 
He died May 15, 1847. — Richard Cobden and John Bright were the chief Anti-corn-law 
agitators, 1841-45. 

* On May 22, 1850, Thomas Robinson sought to recover the possession of his child from the care of its 
mother (from whom Thomas had separated) ; the application was refused by the vice-chancellor, on the 
ground that the father would instil the doctrines of this sect into the child in educating it, and the court 
held it a duty to " save it from the pollution of the parent's teaching." Several suicides have been com- 
mitted by the deluded females of this sect. — On Aug. 21, 1858, Miss Louisa J.ane Nottidge died, having 
transferred her property to Mr. II. J. Prince. Her brother, Mr. Nottidge, by .an action, recovered from 
Prince 5728^., as having been fraudulently obtained. Extraordinary disclosures were made during the 
trial, Jvily 25, i860. In the autumn of i860, the lli^v. Mr. Price, after several vain attempts, succeeded in 
rescuing his wife from the Agapeiuone. Thoy had both been early supporters of it. 



AGN 



17 



AGR 



Vpn'!:!!^'^^^^^^^/?- ^- l*"'^^- "'■'" ^°"^' ^^f- «f ^^-^nce gained a great victory over the 
Venetians some of whose troops were accused of cowardice and treachery May 14 i\og 
Ihe conflict is also termed the battle of the Rivolta. ^ ^' ^^' 

P,r.t^i^^^^f^ ^^™™ '*^'-''/''' ^'■''®^' Vorarice). r. a sect founded by Theophronius of 
Cappadociaabo,U37o: said to have doubted the omniscience of God. 2. the followers of 

?iiS3 hfs divlnit^:;"''" """' "°' ^^'" '"'' 1""^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ *° ^^^ ^"'iy "f Cbrirt: and 

AGONISTICI (from agrwi, Greek, a conflict), also termed circutores, a branch of the Donatists 
{M sec). They preached their heretical doctrines with great boldness in publirplace 
and hence incurred the severe persecution of the emperors in the 4th and sth centurier 

AGRA (N. W. India) founded by Akbar in 1566, was the capital of the great mo-ul See 
Mmcsoleunts. In 1658 Aurungzebe removed to Delhi.-The fortress of Agrf, termed'tl e key 
LaS Oct '^^' T 8n?' T "^'^ '^''^ Mahrattas, suiTendered to the British forces, under genS 
-In 'Tnr,; Wc^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^ '^T '' '^^ ^''""'^ of ordnance and 240,000^. were captured, 
refuse in 'fl P f/J f '^ ^ '^u' ^^^^-^^oned to the mutineers by the Europeans, who took 
refuge in the fort, from which they were rescued by major Montgomery aAd colonel 
1861! '^^' ''P'^'^ "*" *^' ^- ^- P^^i^'^ei of India! instead of A^'ai in 

-ill t'b??,^?^^^^ LAW Ufirmrm te) decreed an equal division among the Roman people of 
wl fir 1 'icquired by conquest, limiting the acres which each person should enjoy. It 
^as first proposed by the consul Spurius Cassius, 486 B.C., and occasioned his judicial nfurder 
TnH >> ^:;^'"^ V"* °^^"^'-' ^"/85. It was re-introduced by the tribune Lici. ius Stolo T76 

o?Ro,L t wT'r^' p""'' ^r"'"^'^' \^^ ""■'■ ^^'' 1^^ ^t 1-^t proved fatal to the Sedom 
of Rome under Julius Caesar, 6o_b.c. Livy ,- Vossius. In modern times the term has been 
misinterpreted to signify a division of the lands of the rich among the poor, frequently 
proposed by demagogues, such as Oracchus Babeuf, * editor of the Tribun duPeuple'in^gl 
AGRICOLA'S WALL. See Romayi Walls. 

GeytifivV^'^r^hfC ^^""^ '™' t Vrr' °f '^"'P' ^"* ^^^'^ ^^^ a ti^l^^ °f the ground," 

the Cretans Si Jltnf'F"' T"^""^ "f * ^'' ^"^ ^^ '°^"^g ^^^'^ ^^S^^ ^^'ith them ; and 
tlie Cretans, bicilians, and Egyptians made the same claim. 



Cato the Censor (died 149 b.c.) and Varro (died 28 
B c.) were eminent Roman writers on agriculture 
It was brought into England by the Romans about 

A.D. 27. 

Fitzherberfs "Book of Husbandry," printed in 

„ 1524- 

Tusser's "Five Hundred Points of Husbandry," 

Blythe's "Improver," 1649. 

Hartlib's " Legacy," 1650. 

Jethro Tull's " Hor.se-hoeing Husbandry " 1701 

About the end of the i8th century fallowing' was 
gi-adually superseded by turnips and other green 
crops. 6 ^ " 

Agricx-ltural Societies.— The earhest mentioned 
in the British Isles was the Society of Improvers 
of Agriculture in Scotland, instituted in 1725. 
TTie Dubhn Agricultural Society (1749) gave a 
stimulus to agriculture in Ireland; its origin is 
attributed to Mr. Prior of Rjithdowney, Queen's 
County, in 1 73 1. The B.ath and AVest of Eiigland 
Society established, 1777; and the Highland 
Society of Scotland, 1793. County Agricultural 
Societies are now numerous. 

London Board of Agriculture estabUshed by act of 
p.arliament, 1793. 

Francis, duke of Bedford, a great promoter of agri- 
culture, died, March 2, 1802. 

Royal Agricultural Society of England estabUshed 
m 1838, by noblemen and gentlemen, the chief 
landed proprietors in the kingdom, and incor- 
porated by royal charter, 1S40. It holds two 



meetings annually, one in London the other in 
the country ; the first country meeting .at O.xford, 
m 1839, It awards prizes, and publishes a 
valuable journal. The London meeting at Batter- 
sea in June, 1862, wa.s highly successful. 

"Chambers of Agriculture" were estabhshed in 
France in 1851. 

The Royal Agiieultural College at Cirencester 
organised, 1842 ; chartered, 1845. 

Agricultural Chemi.stry. — Sir Humphry Davy 
delivered lectures on this subject (afterwards 
published), at the instance of the Hoard of Agri- 
culture, in 1 812; but it excited little attention 
till the publication of Liebig's work in 1840, which 
made a powerful impression. Boussingault's 
" Economie Rurale." an equ.ally important work 
appeared in 1844. The immoderate expectations 
from this study having been .somewhat dis- 
appointed, a partial reaction took place. Liebig's 
" Letters on Agriculture " .appeared in 1859. 

Agricultural Hall, Islington, N. London, chiefly 
for the meetings of the Smithfield Club. The 
foundation stone was laid by the president, lord 
Bemers, Nov. 5, 1861. A remarkable exhibition 
of dogs was opened here on June 24, 1862 ; and of 
honses and of donkeys, in July, 1864, 1865. 
In Aug. 185s, a committee presented a report on 
the best mode of obtaining accurate Agricultural 
Statistics, which has not been acted on. There 
were, in 1831, 1,055,982 acfricultural labourers in 
Great Britain, and iu Ireland, 1,131,715. 



.cutld'^^ ^^ conspired against the directory with the view of obtaining a division of property, .and was 

C 



AGR 



18 



AIR 



AGRICULTURE, continued. 

The following Table, drawn up by Mr. William Couling, C.E. 
Report of the Emigration Committee : — 



in 1827,* is extracted from the Third 



Countries. 


Cultivated. 


Wastes 

capable of 

Improvement. 


Unprofitable. 


Total. 


England 

WalHS 

Scotland 

Ireland 

British Islands 


ACRrs. 

25,632,000 

3,117,000 

5,265,000 

12,125,280 

383,690 


3,454,000 

530,000 

5,950,000 

4,900,000 

166,000 


ACRES. 

3,256,400 
1,105,000 
8,523.930 
2,416,564 
569,469 


ACRES. 
32,342,400 

4,752,000 
19.738,930 ^ 
19.441.944 

1,119,159 


46,522,970 


15,000,000 


15,871,463 


77.394.433 



AGRIGENTUM (now Oirgenti), a celebrated city of Sicily, built about 582 B.C. It was 
governed by tyrants from 566 to 470 ; among these were Phalaris (see Brazen Bull) ; 
Alcamanes ; Theron who, with his stejj-father Gelon, defeated the Carthaginians at Himera ; 
and ThrasydiBUs, his son, expelled in 470 ; when a republic was established and Agrigentum 
became opulent and luxurious. It was taken by the Carthaginians in 405 B.C., and held, 
except during sliort intervals, till wrested from them \>y the Romans in 262 B.C. From 
A.D. 825 till 1086 it was held by the Saracens. 

AHMEDNUGGUR (W. India), once capital of a state founded by Ahmed Shah, about 1494, 
which after having fallen into the hands of the Moguls and the Mahrattas, was taken from the 
latter by Arthur Wellesley, Aug. 12, 1803, and finally annexed to the British dominions iu 181 7. 

AID. See Ayde. 
AILANTINE. See Silk. 

AIR, OR Atmcsphere. Anaximenes of Miletus (530 B. c. ) declared air to be a self-existent 
deity, and the first cause of everything created. Posidonius (about 79 B.C.) calculated the 
height of the atmosphere to be 800 stadia. The pressure of air, about 15 lbs. to the square 
inch, was discovered by Torricelli a.d. 1645, and was found by Pascal, in 1647, to vary with 
the height. Halley, Newton, and others, up to the present time have illustrated the agency 
and influences of this great power by various experiments, and nuniernus inventions have 
followed ; among others the Air-gun of Guter of Nuremberg about 1656 ; the Air-pump, 
invented by Otto von Guericke of Magdeburg about 1650 ; improved by the illustrious 
Boyle in 1657 ; and the Air-pipe, invented by Mr. Sutton, a brewer of London, about 1756. 
The density and elasticity of air were determined by Boyle ; and its relation to light and 
sound by Hooke, Newton, and Derham. The extension of our atmosphere above the sur- 
face of the earth, long considered as about 45 miles, was thouglit by admiral FitzRoy to be 
only about 9 or 10 miles (1862). — Its composition, about 77 parts of niti'ogen, 21 of oxygen, 
and 2 of other matters (such as carbonic acid, watery vapour, a trace of ammonia, &c.), was 
gradually ascertained by Priestley (who discovered oxygen gas in 1774), Scheele (1775), 
Lavoisier, and Cavendish ; and its laws of refraction were investigated by Dr. Bradley, 1737. 
Dr. Stenhouse's Air-filters (in which powdered charcoal is used) were first set up at the 
Mansion-house, London, in 1854. In 1858, Dr. R. Angus Smith made known a chemical 
method of ascertaining the amount of organic matter in the air. The researches of Dr. 
Schonbein, a German chemist of Basel, between 1840 and 1859, led to the discovery of two 
states of the oxygen in the air, which he calls ozone and antozone. See Oxygen, Nitrogen, 
Ozone, Atmospheric Railway, and Pneumatic Despatch. — The force of compressed air has been 
employed iu boring the Cenis tunnel, tvhich see. 

* At that period it was computed that the soil of the United Kingdom was annually cropped in the 
following proportions : — 



Wheat ........ 7,000,000 

Barley and rj'e 1,950,000 

Potatoes, oats, and beans . . . . 6,500,000 

Turnips, cabbages, and other vegetables . 1.150,000 

Clover, rye-grass, &c. . . . . 1,750,000 

Fallow ........ 2,800,000 



Brought forward . . 

Nursery-grounds 

Inclosed fniit, flower, kitchen, and other 
gardens ....... 

Pleasure-grounds . . . . . 

Land depastured by cattle . . . . 

Hedge-rows, copses, and woods 



ACRES. 

21,210,000 
20.000 

110,000 

100,000 

21,000,000 

2,000,000 



60,000 Ways, water, <fcc 2, 100,000 



Hop-grounds 

Forward . . . 21,210,000 I Cultivated land . . 46,540,000 

It was reckoned by the Agi-icultural Committee, that the cultivation of waste lands would yield above 

2o,ooo,oooJ. a year. It was calculated in 1854 that there were in England 32,160,000 acres in cultivation, of 

the annual value of 37,412,000!. Since that time much laud has been brought into cultivation. See Wheat. 



AIX 



19 



ALB 



AIX-LA-CHAPELLE (Aachen), a Roman city, now in Rhenish Prussia. Here Charle- 
magne was born 742, and died 814 ; having built the minster (796804), and conferred many- 
privileges on the city, in which tit'tytive emperors have since been crowned. The city was 
taken by the Frencli in 1792 ; retaken by the Austrians, 1793 ; by the French, 1794 ; reverted 
to Prussia, 1814. — The first Treaty of peace signed here was between France and Spain, 
•when France yielded Franche Comte, but retained her conquests in the Netherlands, May 2, 
1668. — Tiie second, or celebrated treaty, was between Great Britain, France, Holland, 
Germany, Spain, and Genoa. (By it the treaties of Westphalia in 1648, of Nimeguen in 
1678 and 1679, of Ryswick in 1697, of Utrecht in 1713, of Baden in 1714, of the Triple 
Alliance in 1717, of the Quadruple Alliance in 1718, and of Vienna in 1738, were renewed 
and confirmed.) Signed on the part of England by John, earl of Sandwich, and sir Thomas 
Robinson, Oct. 7, 1748. — A Congress of the sovereigns of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, 
assisted by ministers from England and France, was held at Aix-la-Chapelle, and a conven- 
tion signed, Oct. 9, 1818. The sum then due from France to the allies was settled at 
265,000,000 of francs. 

AJACCIO. See Corsica. 

AJNADIN (Syria). Here the Mahometans defeated the army of the emperor Heraclius, 
in July, 633. They took Damascus in 634. 

AKERMAN (Bessarabia). After being several times taken, it was ceded to Russia in 1812. 
Here the celebrated treaty between Russia and Turkey was concluded in 1826, which secured 
for the former the navigation of the Black Sea, recognised the Danubian principalities, &c. 

ALABAAIA, a Southern slave state, originally part of Georgia, N". America ; made an 
independent state in 1819 : commercial metropolis, Mobile. It seceded from the Union by 
an ordinance passed Jan. 11, 1861, and was reunited in 1865.* 

ALAND ISLES (Gulf of Bothnia), taken from Sweden by Russians, 1809. See Bomar- 

siind. 

ALANI, a Tartar race, invaded Parthia, 75. They joined the Huns in invading the 
Roman empire, were defeated by Theodosius, 379-382. They were subdued by the Visigoths, 
452 ; and were eventually incorporated with them. 

ALARCOS (Central Spain). Here the Spaniards under Alfonso IX., king of Castile, were 
totally defeated by the Moors, July 19, 1195. 

ALBA LONGA, an ancient city of Italy, said to have been founded by Ascanius, son of 
iEneas, 1152 B.C. Its history is of doubtful authenticity. 



Ascanius, son of ^neas, 1152 B.C. ; Sylvius Pos- 
thumus, 1143; .^neas Sylvius . . b.c. 1114 

Reign of Latinus, 1048 ; Alba, 1038 ; Atys, or 
Capetus, 1002 ; C'apys, 976 ; Capetus . . 916 

Reign of Tiberinus, 903 ; being defeated in 
battle, near the river Albala, be throws him- 
self into the stream, is drowned, and hence 
this river is now called the TiOer . . . 895 



Agrippa ; Romulus Silvius, 864 ; Aventinus, 
845 ; Procas, 808 ; Numitor . . . B.C. 

Amulius, t the brother of Numitor, seizes the 
throne, 794 ; killed by his grandson, 
Romulus, who restores Numitor . . . 

Romulus builds and fortifies Rome (see Rome) 

Alba conquered by TuUus Hostilius, and in- 
corporated with Rome 665 



795 



7S4 
7S3 



ALBANIA, a province in European Tinkey, formerly part of the ancient Epirus. The 
Allianiaiis became independent during the decline of the Greek empire. They were success- 
fully attacked by the Turks in 1388. About 1443, under George Castriot (Scanderbeg), they 
biitlled the elforts of Mahomed II. to subdue them till the siege of Scutari in 1478, when 
they piutially submitted. Albania became independent under Ali Pacha, of Janina, in 1812, 
who defeated the Turkish pachas, and governed ably, but cruelly and despotically, till Feb. 
1822, when he and his two sons were slain, after surrendering under a solemn promise of 
safety. A revolt in Albania was suppressed in 1843. 

* The " Alabama," a steam- vessel belonging to the Soxithem States of North America, was built at 
Birkenhead, and sailed under a false name from the Mersey, July 28, 1862. Under the command of 
captain Sommes it made much havock In the Federal trading vessels. The " Alabama " was attacked and 
sunk by the Federal iron-clad " Kearsage " near Cherbourg, on Sunday morning, June 19, 1864. Part of 
the crow were saved by Mr. John Lancaster in an English yacht. 

t Earl}' ti-aditious state, that when Ammlius dethroned his brother, he condemned Ilia, the daughter 
of Numitor, to a life of celibacy, by obliging her to take the vows and otfice of a vestal, thereby to assure 
his safety in the usurjjation. His object was, however, frustrated ; violence was otl'ered to Ilia, and she 
became the mother of twins, for which Amulius ordered her to be buried alive, and her offspring to be 
thrown into the Tiber, 770 b.c. But the little bark in which the infants were sent adrift stopped near 
mount Aventine, and was brought ashore by Faustulus, the king's chief shejihord, who reared the children 
as his own, and called them Romulus and Remus. His wife, Acca-Laurentia, was surnamed Lupa; whence 
arose the fable that Uomulus and his brother were suckled by a she- wolf . At sixteen years of age, Romulus 
avenged the wrongs of Ilia and Numitor, 754 B.C., and the next year founded Rome. Varro. 



ALB 20 ALR 

ALBAN'S, ST. (Hertfordshire), near the Roman Verulam, derived its present name from 
Alban, the British protomartyr, said to have been beheaded during the persecution by 
Diocletian, June 23, 286. A stately monastery to his memory was erected by Otfa, king 
of Mercia, about 793, who granted it many privileges. Its superior sat as premier abbot in 
parliament till the dissolution in 1539. It was taken from Cassivelaunus by Julius Csesar, 54 
B.C., and retaken with much slaughter by Boadicea or Bunduica, queen of the Iceni, a.d. 61. 
On May 22 or 23, 1455, was fought the first battle of St. Alhan's, when the Lancastrians were 
defeated, their leader, Edmund duke of Somerset slain, and king Henry VI. taken prisoner, 
by the duke of York and his partisans. In the second battle, on Shrove Tuesday, Feb. 17, 
1461, queen Margaret totally defeated the Yorkists under the earl of Warwick and rescued 
the king. There was much blood shed in tliese desperate conflicts. St. Alban's was incor- 
porated by Edward VI. in 1553, and disfranchised for bribery, June 17, 1852. St. Albans 
raid, see United States, 1804. 

ALBANY (or Albainn), the ancient name of the Scottish Highlands. The brother of 
Robert III. of Scotland was made duke of Albany in 1398. Frederick, sou of George III., 
was duke of York and Albany. He died Jan. 5, 1827. 

ALBERT MEMORIAL. The Prince Consort died on Dec. 14, 1861, deeply lamented by 
the whole civilised world. A meeting to organise a method of receiving contributions for a 
great national memorial was held at the Mansion-house, Jan. 14, 1862 ; and a large sum 
%vas quickly subscribed. 36,000?. had been received on March i, and 50,220?. on June 11, 

1862. The nature of the memorial was referred to the queen herself. In a letter to tlie 
lord mayor, dated Feb. 19, 1862, sir Charles Grey says, on behalf of her majesty, " It would 
be more in accordance with her own feelings, and she believes with those of the country in 
general, that the monument should be directly personal to its object. After giving the 
subject her maturest consideration, her majesty has come to the conclusion, that nothing 
would be more appropriate, provided it is on a scale of sufiicient gi-andeur, than an obelisk 
to be erected in Hyde-park on the site of the Great Exhibition of 185 1, or on some spot 
immediately contiguous to it. Nor would any proposal that could be made be more 
gratifying to the queen herself personally, for she can never forget that the prince himself 
had highly approved of the idea of a memorial of this character being raised on the same spot in 
remembrance of the Great Exhibition." In a second letter the queen expressed her intention of 
personally contributing towards erecting the memorial, that "it might be recorded in future 
ages as raised by the queen and people of a grateful country to the memory of its benefactor." 
Shortly after a committee was appointed to fulfil her majesty's desire. As a suitable block 
of granite could not be obtained, the proposal for an obelisk was given up. On April 22, 

1863, the queen approved of the design of Mr. Gilbert G. Scott for an Eleanor Cross, with a 
spire 150 feet high, accompanied by statues, &c. ; and on April 23, parliament voted 50,000?., 
in addition to tlie 60.000?. received by voluntary contributions. The sculptors employed 
are M'Dowell, Fole}', Theed, John Bell, and Annistcad : material, Sicilian marble. (Jan. 
1865.) Many memorials of the prince have been set up throughout the empire.* 

ALBIGENSES, a name given to various bodies of persons who ojiposed the doctrines and 
corruptions of the church of Rome, living at Albiga, in Languedoc, and at Toulouse in the 
I2th centmy. They were persecuted as Manichseans, 1163, and a crusade (proclaimed by 
pope Innocent III.) commenced against them in 1207. Simon de Montfort (to whom Toulouse 
was given) commanded, and at Bezi^res he and the pope's legate put friends and foes to the 
sword, saying, "God will find his own !" At Minerba he burnt 150 of the Albigenses 
alive ; and at La Vaur he hanged the governor, and beheaded the chief people, drowning the 
governor's wife, and murdering other women. He next defeated the count of Toulouse, but 
was himself killed in 1218. Louis VIII. and IX., kings of France, patronised the crusade ; 
count Raymond was subdued in 1229 ; and the heretics were given up to the Inquisition. 
See Waldenses. 

ALBION (probably derived from albus or alp, white). Britain is said to have been so 
called by Julius Caesar and others, on account of the chalky cliffs upon its coast. 

ALBUERA (or Albuhera), Estreniadura, Spain, where a battle was fought between the 
French, commanded by marshal Soult, and the British and Anglo-Spanish army, under 
marshal, afterwards lord Beresford, May 16, 181 1. The allies obtained the victory, one of 

* Inscription on the " Memorial Cairn" on a high mountain overlooking' Balmoral palace: — "To the 
beloved memory of Albert the great and good Prince Consort, erected by his broken-hearted widow, 
Victoria R., 21st Aug. 1862." Upon another dressed slab, a few inches below the above, is this quota- 
tion :—" He being made perfect in a short time, fulfilled a long time: for his soul pleased the Lord, 
therefore basted he to take him away from among the wicked."— IVisdoni 0/ Solomun, chap. iv. 13, 14. 



ALB 21 ALD 

the most brilliant achievements of the war. The French loss exceeded 8000 men previously 
to their retreat ; but the allies lost a large number. The chief brunt of the action fell on 
the British ; colonel Inglis, 22 officers, and more than 4CX) men, out of 570 who had 
mounted a hill, fell, — out of the 57th regiment alone ; the other regiments were scarcely- 
better off, not one-third being left standing ; " 1500 unwounded men, the remnant of 6000 
uncon(iuerable British soldiers, stood triumphant on this fatal hill." Napier. 

ALBUFERA (Spain, East Central), a lagoon, near which the French marshal Suchct 
(afterwards duke of Albufera) defeated the Spaniards under Blake, Jan. 4, 1812 : this led to 
his capture of Valencia on Jan. 9. 

ALCANTARA, an illustrious Spanish military order of knighthood, established in 11 56. 
The sovereign of Spain has been grand master since 1495. 

ALCAZAR-QUIVER, near Fez, N. W. Africa, where the Moors totally defeated the 
Portuguese, whose gallant king Sebastian was slain, Aug. 4, 1578. The Portuguese 
disbelieved his death and anxiously expected his return ; this led to the successive appear- 
ance of five impostors. 

ALCHEMY, the forerunner of the science of chemistry : its chief objects being the 
discovery of the philosopher's stone (which was to effect the transmutation of metals into 
gold), an alkahest or universal menstruum, and the elixir of life. Alchemy is said to be as 
old as the Flood ; yet few writers, from Homer till 400 years after Christ, mention any such 
thing. The alchemists assert that their founder was Hermes Trismcgistus (thrice greatest), 
an ancient Egyptian king. — Pliny says, the emperor Caligula was the first who prepared 
natural arsenic, in order to make gold of it, but left it off, because the charge exceeded the 
profit. Others say, the Egyptians knew the secret. Zosimus wrote on the subject about 
410. The Arabians are said to have invented this art, wherein they were vainly followed 
(in the 13th century) by Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus, Aquinus, and Raymond LuUius, 
by Basil Valentine (born 1394), and by Paracelsus (died 1541), and others.— In 1404 the 
craft of multijilying gold and silver was made felony by 5 Hen. IV. c. 4, which act was 
repealed in 1689. A licence for practising alchemy with all kinds of metals and minerals 
was granted to one Richard Carter, 1476. Byvicr's Fo:d. Dr. Price, of Guildford, in 1782 
published an account of his experiments in this way, and pretended to success : he brought 
his specimens of gold to the king, affirming that they were made by means of a red and 
white powder. Being a fellow of the Royal Society, he was required, upon pain of expulsion, 
to repeat his experiments before Messrs. Kirwan and Wolfe (some say Higgins) ; but after 
much equivocation and delay he took poison and died, Aug. 1783. 

ALCOHOL. Pure spirit of wine or hydrated alcohol was obtained by the distillation of 
fermented li(]Uors by Abucasis in the 12th century ; and the dehydration of this liquor 
was first partially effected by Raymond Lullius in the 13th century by carbonate of potas- 
sium. Alcohol has never been reduced to the solid state, but becomes viscid at very low 
temperatures. In 1820, Faraday and Hennell obtained traces of alcohol by passing olefiant 
gas (bi-carburetted hydrogen) through sulphuric acid ; and in 1862 this process was 
examined and confirmed by Berthelot. See Distillation, Spirits, Brandy, Gin, Rum. 

AL-CORAN. See Koran, Mahomeianis7n, &c. 

ALDERMAN. The Saxon eaJdorman was next to the king and frequently a A-iceroy : but 
after the settlement of the Danes the title was gradually displaced by that of carl. Aldermen 
are now next in dignity to the mayor. They were appointed in London (where there are 
twenty-six) in 1242 ; and in Dublin (where there are twenty-four) in 1323. Alderrnen 
chosen for life, instead of annually, 17 Richard II. 1394. Present mode of election 
established 11 Geo. I. 1725. Aldermen made justices of the peace 15 Geo. II. I74i' 

ALDERNEY (English Channel), with Jersey, &c., was incorporated with the kingdom by 
William the Conqueror, 1066. The "Race" is celebrated for two fatal occurrences; 
William of Normandy, son of Henry I. of England, and many young nobles ( 140 youths of 
the principal families of France and Britain), were overtaken by a storm, and all lost, Nov. 
25, 1 120. The British man-of-war Victory, of 100 gims and 1160 men, was wrecked here, 
Oct. 5, 1744 ; the admiral, sir John Balchan, and all his crew perished. Through this strait 
the French escaped after their defeat at La Hogue by admiral Rooke, May, 1692. 

ALDERSHOT CAMP, a moor near Farnham, about 35 miles from London. In April, 
1854, the War office, having obtain^tl a grant of 100,000/., purchased 4000 acres of land 
for a permanent camp for 20,000 men. Additional land was purchased in 1856. Barracks 



ALD 



22 



ALE 



have been since erected for 4CX)0 infantry, 1500 cavalry, and several batteries of artillery. 
Great improvements in military cookery were introduced here under the suj)erintendence of 
captain John Grant in 1857. See Cookery. — It was visited by the queen April 19, 1856 ; 
and on July 7 the queen reviewed the troops returned from the Crimea ; and again on the 
16th, in the presence of both houses of parliament. In 1859, about 15,000 men were 
stationed here. (Cost, up to Feb. i860, said to be 1,291,531/.) An industrial and fine art 
exhibition, furnished by officers and men and their wives, was opened here June 29, and 
closed July 14, 1864. 

ALDINE PRESS, that of Aldus Manutius, at Venice, where were printed many of the 
first editions of the Greek, Latin, and Italian classics, commencing in 1494 with Musseus. 

ALE, Beer (and Wine) are said to have been invented by Bacchus ; the first in Egypt, 
where the soil was considered unable to produce grapes. Ale was known as a beverage at 
least in 404 B.C. Herodotus ascribes the first discovery of the art of brewing barley- wine to 
Isis, the wife of Osiris.— A beverage of this kind is mentioned by Xenophon, 401 B.C. The 
Eomans and Germans very early learned from the Egyptians the process of preparing a 
liquor from corn by means of fermentation. Tacitus. Ale-houses are made mention of 
in the laws of Ina, king of Wessex (a.d. 688). Booths were set up in England 728, when 
laws were passed for their regulation. Ale-houses were subjected to regulation by 5 & 6 
Edw. VI. c. 25 (1551). By i James I. c. 9 (1603), one full quart of the best, and two 
quarts of small ale were to be sold for one jienny. Excise duty on ale and beer was imposed 
by the parliament in 1643, and continued by Charles II. (1660). See Beer, Porter, Wine. 

ALEMANNI, or All Men {i.e. men of all nations), hence AUemand, German. A body 
of Suevi, who took this name, were defeated by Caracalla, 214. After several repulses, they 
invaded the empire under Aurelian, who subdued them in three battles, 270. They were 
again vanquished by Julian, 356, 357. They were defeated and subjugated by Clovis at 
Tolbiac (or Zulpich), 496. The Suabians are their descendants. 

ALEN^ON (N. France) gave title to a count and duke. 



1268. Peter made count by his father king Louis IX. 
1293. Charles I., of Valois, made count by his bro- 

tiier king Philip the Fair. 
1325. Charles II., his son, killed at Crecy. 
1346. Charles III. (his son), became a priest. 
1361. Peter, his brother. 



1404. John (his son), made duke in 141 4, killed at 
Agincourt, 1415- 

1415. John II. Chisson), intrigued against the king. 

1476. Charles IV. fled after the battle of Pavia in 
1525, and died shortly after of chagrin. The 
duchy was absorbed by the crown. 



ALEPPO (anciently Beroea), a large town, K". Syria, so named by Seleucus Nicator about 
299 B.C. The pachalic of Aleppo is one of the five governments of Syria. It was taken by 
the Turks, a.d. 638, who restored its ancient name Haleb or Chaleb ; by Saladin, 1193 ; and 
sacked by Timour, 1400. Its depopulation by the plague has been frequent ; 60,000 persons 
were computed to have perished by it in 1797. It suff"ered by the plague in 1827, and the 
cholera in 1832. Aleppo suffered severely from the terrible earthquakes in 1822 and 1830 ; 
and has often been the scene of fanatical massacres. On Oct. 16, 1850, the Mahometans 
attacked the Christian inhabitants. They burnt everything in their way ; three churches 
were destroyed, five others were plundered, thousands of persons were slain, and the total 
loss of property amounted to about a million sterling ; no interference was attempted by the 
pacha or the Turkish soldiers. 

ALESSANDRIA, a city of Piedmont, built in 1168 under the name of Cffisareaby the 
Milanese and Cremonese, to defend the Tanaro against the emperor, and named Alessandria 
after pope Alexander III. It has been frequently besieged and taken. The French took 
Alessandria in 1798, but were driven out July 21, 1799. They recovered it after the battle 
of Marengo, in 1800. Alessandria was strongly fortified by Napoleon. Its works were 
destroyed at the peace in 1814, but a European subscription was commenced in 1856, to 
restore them. 

ALEXANDER, Era of, dated from the death of Alexander the Great, Nov. 12, 323 B.C. 
In the computation of this era, the period of the Creation was considered to be 5502 years 
before the birth of Christ, and, in consequence, the year i a.d. was equal to 5503. This 
computation continued to the year A.D. 284, which was called 5786. In the next year (A.D. 
285), which should have been 5787, ten years were discarded, and the date became 5777. 
This is still used in the Abyssinian era, vhich see. The date is reduced to the Christian era 
by subtracting 5502 until the year 5786, and after that time by subtracting 5492. 

"ALEXANDRA CASE." See Trials, 1862-64. 



ALE 



23 



ALG 



ALEXANDRA PAEK, Miuswell Hill, London, N., purchased by a company, and named 
after the Princess of Wales, was opened with a flower show, July 23, 1863. A portion of 
the Exhibition of 1862 is to be erected within it. The work, which rapidly proceeded in 
1864, is now suspended (1865). 

ALEXANDRIA (Egyiit), the walls whereof were six miles in circuit, was built by 
Alexander the Great, 332 B.C., who was buried here, 322. It became the residence of the 
Greek sovereigns of Egypt, the Ptolemies. 



Ptolemy Soter erects the Museum, the Sera- 

peum, the Pharo, and other edifices, and 

begins the hbrary about .... B.C. 298 
These works completed by his son P. Philadel- 

phus and his grandson P. Energetes . 283-222 

Alexandria taken by Julius Cajsar ; when a 

library is burnt .48 

Which Antony replaces by one brought from 

Pergamus 36 

The city restored by Adrian . . . a.d. 122 
Mas-acre of the youth by Caracalla, in revenge 

for an old insult 211 

Alexandria supporting the usurper Aohilleus is 

taken by Diocletian after a long siege . . 297 
Alexandi-ia disturbed by the feuds between the 

Athanasians and Arians ... . . 321 
George of Cappadocia was killed 362, and 

Atbanasius finally restored .... 363 
50,000 persons perish by an earthquake . . 365 

Paganism suppressed by Theodosius, when a 

second hbrary is burnt 390 



Alexandria captured by Chosroes II. of Persia, 
616 ; andby Amron, the general of the caUph 
Omar, who ordered the library to be burnt,* 
whereby the baths were supplied with fuel 
for six nnonths .... Dec. 22, 640 

Cairo founded by the Saracens ; which tends to 
the decay of Alexandria 969 

Alexandria surprised and plundered by the 
Crusaders ....... 1365 

The French invade Egypt and capture Alex- 
andria July, 1798 

A British army under gen. Ralph Abercroniby 
land, and defeat the French under Menou, 

March 21, 1801 

Abercromby dies of his wounds, March 28 ; 
Menou and 10,000 French surrender to 
Hutchinson, who transmit them to France, 

Sept. 1 80 1 

Alexandria taken by the British under Fraser, 
March 20 ; evacuated by them . Sept. 23, 1807 

Railway to Cairo formed 1851 



ALEXANDPJAN CODEX, a MS. of the Bible in Greek, said to have been written by a 
lady named Tliecla, in the 6th century, and to have belonged to the patriarch of Alexandria 
in 1098. It was presented to Charles I. of England in 1628 by Cyrillus Lascaris, patriarch 
of Constantinople, and was placed in the British Museum in 1753. It was printed in fac- 
simile, 1 786- 1 82 1. 

ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOLS of Philosophy. The first school arose soon aft^r the 
foundation of Alexandria, 332 B.C. It flourished under the patronage of the Ptolemies till 
about loOB.c. It included Euclid (300), Archimedes (287 — 212), Apollonius (250), Hippar- 
chus (150), and Hero (150). The second school arose about a.d. 140, and lasted till about 
400. Its most eminent members were Ptolemy, the author of the Ptolemaic system (150), 
Diophantus, the arithmetician (200), and Pappus, the geometer (350). 

ALEXANDRINES, verses of twelve syllables, first written by Alexander of Paris, about 
1164, and since called after him. The last line of the Spenserian stanza is an Alexandrine. 
In Pope's Essay on CriticisDi, this verse is thus happily exemplified : — 

" A needless Alexandrine ends the song, 
That, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along " 

The longest English poem wholly in Alexandrine verse is Drayton's Polyolbion, published 
in 16 12. Chapman's Homer's Iliad (1598) is in this measure. 

ALEORD (N. Scotland), Battle of. General Baillie, with a large body of Covenanters, 
was defeated by the marquess of Montrose, July 2, 1645. 

ALGEBRA : Diophantus, said to be the inventor, first wrote upon it, probably about 
200. It was much cultivated in the 9th century by the Arabs, who brought it into 
Spain. Among its votaries in Italy was Leonardo Bonaccio of Pisa, in 1220. In 1494 
Luca Paciolo published the first printed book on algebra in Europe. Serret. Some of the 
algebraic signs were introduced either by Christophe Rudolph (1522-6) or Michael Stifelius 
of Nuremberg, 1544, and others by Francis Vieta, in 1590, when algebra came into general 
use. Morcri. Descartes applied algebra to geometry about 1637. The binomial theoi'em 
of Newton, the basis of the doctrine of fluxions, and the new analysis, 1668. Dean 
Peacock's " Algebra " is a first-class work. 

ALGERIA. See Algiers. 

* The celebrated saying of Omar—" That if the books agreed with the book of God, they were useless; 
if they disagreed, they were pernicious"— is denied by Mahometans. It is also attributed to Theophilus, 
archbishop of Alexandi'ia (390), and to cardinal Ximenes (1500). 



ALG 



24 



ALI 



ALGESIRAS, or Old Gibraltar (S. Spain). By this city, the Moors entered Spain in 
710, and lield it till 1343. — Two engagements took place here between the English fleet 
under sir James Saumarez and the united French and Spanish fleets, July 6 and 12, 1801. 
In the first the enemy was victorious, the English losing the Pom.pey ; but their honour M^as 
redeemed in the latter conflict, the San Antonio, 74 guns, being captured. By an unfortu- 
nate error, two Spanish ships fired on each other and took fire ; of 2000 men ou board, 250 
were saved by the English. Alison. 

ALGIERS, now Algeria, N. W. Africa ; part of the Ancient Mauritania, which was 
conquered by the Romans, 46 b. c. ; by the Vandals, 439 a. d. ; recovered for the empire by 
Belisarius, 534 ; and subdued by the Arabs about 690. 

General Damremont attacked Constantina 



935 



1859 



{which fee) Oct. 13, 1837 

After various engagements Abd-el-Kader sur- 
renders Dec. 22, 1847* 

An insurrection of the Kabyles subdued by the 

French, after several sharp engagements . 1851! 
The government entrusted (for a short time) 

to prince Napoleon 1858 

The Arab tribes attack the French ; defeated, 

Oct. 31 and Nov. 6, 

Algiers visited by the emperor Napoleon III., 

Sept. ibexD 
Marshal Pelissier, duke of Malakhoff, appointed 

governor-general of Algeria . . Nov. i860 
The emperor promises a constitution securing 
the rights of the Arabs, saying: "I am as 
much emperor of the Arabs as of the French. " 

Feb. 1863 
Insurrection of the Arabs — May; submission 

announced ..... June 15, 1864 
Death of Pelissier — dies May 22 ; marshal 
M'Mahon, duke of Magenta, succeeds him, 

Sept. 8, 1864 
Fresh revolt ; insurgents defeated by Jolivet, 

Oct. 2, 1864 
The emperor well received during his visit, 

May 3 — Jiuie 1865 
More rights and privileges promised to the 
natives July, 1865 



The town Algiers founded by the Arabs on the 

site of Icosium about 

Becoming the seat of the Barbary pirates, it 

is captured by Ferdinand of Spain, 1509; but 

is retaken bj- Horuc and Hayreddin Bar- 

barossa, and made the capital of a state ; 

governed by a dei/, nominally subject to the 

sultan of Turkey 1516 — 20 

The emperor Charles V. loses a fine fleet and 

army in an unsuccessful expedition against 

them ......... 1541 

Algiers terrified into pacific measures by 

Blake, 1655 ; by Du Quesne .... 1683 
In consequence of the continued piracy of the 

Algerines, the city was successfully bom- 
barded by^ the British fleet, under admiral 

lord Exmouth Aug. 27, 1816 

A new treaty followed, and Christian slavery 

was abolished. 
Algiers surrendered to a French armament 

under Bourmont and Duperr6, after severe 

conflicts ; the dey is deposed, and the bar- 
barian government wliolly overthrown July 

5, 1830. The French ministry announce their 

intention to retain Algiers permanently. 

May 20, 1834 
The Arab chief, Abd-el-Kader, preaches a holy 

war, becomes powerful, and attacks the 

French, at first succes.sfully . . . 1834-5 
Marshal Clausel defeats the Arabs in two 

battles, and enters Mascara . . Dec. 8, 1836 

ALHAMBRA, a Moorish palace and fortress near Granada, S. Spain, founded by Moham- 
med I. of Granada about 1253. It surrendered to the Christians Jan. 6, 1496. The remains 
have been described in a magnificent work by Owen Jones and Jules Goury, published 
1842-5. There is a fac-simile of a part of this palace in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham. 
The Panopticon {which sec) was opened as a circus, &c., imder this name, in March 1858. The 
Alhambra Palace Company, incorporated in July 1863, applied for dissolution in Jan. 1865. 

ALI, Sect of, founded by Ali (who married Mahomet's daughter Fatima), about 632. 
He became Mahomet's vizir, 613; and caliph, 655. Ali was called by the prophet, "the 
lion of God, always victorious ; " and the Persians follow the interpretation of the Koran 
according to Ali, while other Mahometans adhere to that of Abubeker and Omar. Ali was 
assassinated in 660.J — This sect is called Shiites and Fatimites. 

ALIENS, OR Foreigners, were banished in 1155, being thought too numerous. In 1343 
they were excluded from enjoying ecclesiastical benefices. By 2 Rich. II. st. i, 1378, they 
were much relieved. When they were to be tried criminally, the juries were to be half 
foreigners, if they so desired, 1430. They were restrained from exercising any trade or 
handicraft by retail, 1483, a prohibition which was relaxed in 1663. The celebrated 

* He, with his suite, embarked at Oran, and landed at Toulon on Dec. 28 following. He was removed 
to the castle of Amboise, near Tours, Nov. 2, 1848, and released from his confinement by Louis Napoleon, 
Oct. 16, 1852, after swearing on the Koran never to disturb Africa again ; he was to reside henceforsvard at 
Broussa, in Asia Minor ; but in consequence of the earthquake at that place Feb. 28, 1855, he removed to 
Constantinople. In July, 1S60, Abd-el-Kader held the citadel of Damascus, and there protected many of 
the Chiistians whom he had rescued from the massacres then in perpetration by the Turks. He received 
honours from the Enghsh, French, and Sardinian sovereigns. 

t 500 Arabs in a cave refuse to surrender : suffocated by smoke ; said to have been ordered by general 
Pelissier, June 18, 1845. 

J The first four successors of Mahomet — Abubeker, Omar, Othman, and Ali, his chief .agents in estab- 
U.shing his religion and extirpating unbelievers, and whom on that account he styled the " cutting swords 
of God," all died violent deaths ; and his family was wholly extirpated within thirty j ears after his own 
decease. 



ALI 



25 



ALL 



Alien fie7^ passed, Jan. 1793. Act to register aliens, 1795. — Tlie celebrated baron Geramb, 
a cons]ncnous and fashionable foreigner, known at court, was ordered out of England, 
April 6, 1812. — Bill to abolish their naturalisation by the holding of stock in the banks of 
Scotland, June, 1820. New registration act, 7 Geo. IV. 1826. This last act was repealed 
and another statute passed, 6 Wdl. IV. 1836. The rigour of the alien laws was much 
mitigated by 7 & 8 Vict. c. 66 (1844). — Alien Priories were suppressed in England 
in 1414.* 

ALIWAL, a village in N. W. Lidia, the site of a battle on Jan. 28, 1846, between the 
Sikh army under sirdar Riinjoor Singh Majeethea, 19,000 strong, supported by 68 pieces of 
ca:uion, and the British under sir H. Smith, 7000 men, with 32 guns. The contest was 
obstinate, but ended in the defeat of the Sikhs, who lost nearly 6000 killed or drowned in 
attempting to recross the Sutlej, 

ALKALIES (from kaliy the Arabic name for the plant from which an alkaline substance 
was first procured) are ammonia, potash, soda, and litliia. Black discovered the nature of 
the difference between caustic and mild alkalies in 1736. 

"Alkali works " are defined as works for the manu- 
facture of alkali, sulphates of soda, sulphate of 
potash, and in which muriatic gas is evolved. 

Mr. Wm. Gossage's process for condensing muriatic 
acid gas patented in 1836. 

In consequence of the serious injury to vegetation 
produced by the numerous rdkali works in Lanca- 
shire and Cheshire, the Alkali act "for the more 
effectual condensation [of 95 per cent.] of muriatic 
acid gas " (or hydrochloric acid) was passed, July 
28, 1863, to come into operation Jan. i, 1864. 



The fixed alkalies, potash and soda, decomposed by 

Humphry Davy at the Royal Institution, London, 

1808. Dr. Ure invented an alkalimeter, 1816. 
The manufacture of alkalies, very extensive in 

Lancashire and Cheshire, are based on the decom- 
position of common salt (chloride of sodium), by 

a process invented by a Frenchman named Le 

Blanc, about 1792. 
Mr. Losh obtained cry.stals of soda from brine about 

1814. Various modifications of these processes 

are now in use. 

ALKMAER. See Bergen. 

ALLAHABAD (N. W. Hindostan), the "holy city " of the Indian Mahometans, situated 
at the junction of the rivers Jumna and Ganges. The province of Allahabad was succes- 
sively subject to the kings of Delhi and Oude, but in 1803 was wholly incorporated with the 
British possessions. By treaty here, Bengal, &c., was ceded to the English in 1765. — 
During the sepoy mutiny several regiments of the East India company rose and massacred 
their ofKcers, June 4, 1857 ; colonel Neil marched promptly from Benares and suppressed 
the insurrection. In Nov. 1861, lord Canning made this city the capital of the N. W. 
provinces. 

ALLEGIANCE. See Oaths. 

ALLEGORY is as old as language, and abounds in the Scriptures and Homer : see 
Jacob's blessing upon his sons, Genesis xlix. (B.C. 1689), Psalm Ixxx., and all the prophets. 
Spenser's Faerie Queene (1590) and Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress (1678) are allegories 
throughout ; Addison's writings in the Spectator (1711) abound in allegories. 

ALLIA (Italy), a small river flowing into the Tiber, where Brennus and the Gauls 
defeated the Romans, July 16, 390 B.C. The Gauls sacked Rome and committed so much 
injury that the day was thereafter held to be unlucky (ncfas), and no public business was 
pei'initted to be done thereon. 

ALLIANCE, Treaties of, between the high European powers. The following are the 
principal. See Coalitions, Conventions, Treaties, United Kingdom, &c. 



ALLIANCE. 

Of Lcipsic . 
Of Vienna . . 
The Triple 
Of Warsaw . 
The Grand 
The Hague . . 
Tlic Quadruple 
Of Vienna . 



April 9, 
May 27, 
Jan. 28, 


1631 
1657 
1668 


March 31, 
May 12, 


1683 
1689 


Jan. 4, 

Aug. 2, 

March 16, 


1717 
1718 
1731 



ALLIANCE. 

Of Versailles . . 

Germanic 

Of Paris . . . 

Of St. Petersbiu-g 

Austrian 

Of Sweden . . 

Of Toplitz . 

Holy Alliance 



May I, 

July 23, 

May 16, 

April 8, 

March 14, 

March 24, 

Sept. 9, 

Sept. 26, 



1756 
1785 
1795 
1805 
1812 

1813 
181S 



ALLIANCE. 

Of England, France, <fc Turkey 
(at Constantinople) Mar. 12, 1854 

Of England and France rati- 
fied . . . April 3, ,, 

Of Sardinia with the Western 
Powers (at Turin) Jan. 26, 1855 

Of Sweden with the Western 
Powers . . Dec. ig, ,, 



ALLOTMENTS. See La7id, note. 

ALL SAINTS' DAY (Nov. i), or All-Hallows, a festival said to have been begun by pope 
Boniface IV. about 607, and celebrated in the Pantheon at Rome, and established b}' pope 
Gregoiy IV. (about 830) for the commemoration of all those saints and martyrs in whose 

• " Foreigners have reclaimed our marshes, drained our fens, fished our seas, and built our bridges 
and harbours." Smiles, i86i. 



ALL 26 ALM 

honour no particular day is assigned. The reformers of the English church, 1549, struck 
out of their calendar altogether a gi'eat number of anniversaries, leaving only those which at 
their time were connected with jiopular feeling or tradition. 

ALL SOULS' DAY (Nov. 2), a festival of the Roman Catholic church to commemorate 
the souls tiiat are in purgatory, instituted, it is said, at Cluny about 993 or 1000. 

"ALL THE TALENTS" ADMINISTRATION, ^ea GrenvilU Administrations. 

ALMA, a river in the Crimea, near which was fought a great battle on Sept. 20, 1854. See 
Russo-Turkish War and Crimea. The English, French, and Turkish army (about 57,000 
men) moved out of their first encampment in the Crimea on Sept. 19, and bivouacked for the 
night on the left bank of the Bulganac. The Russians (commanded by Prince Menschikoff ), 
mustering 40,000 infantry, had 180 field-pieces on the heights, and on the morning of Sept. 
20th were joined by 6000 cavalry from Theodosia (or Kafla). The English forces, under 
lord Raghin, consisted of 26,000 men ; the French of 24,000, under marshal St. Arnaud. 
At 12 o'clock the signal to advance was made ; the river Alma was crossed, while prince 
Napoleon took possession of the village under the fire of the Russian batteries. At 4, after 
a sanguinary fight, the allies were conipletely victorious. The enemy, titterly routed, threw 
away their arms and knapsacks in their flight, having lost about 5000 men, of whom 900 
were made prisoners, mostly wounded. The loss of the British was 26 officers and 327 men 
killed, and 73 officers and 1539 men wounded (chiefly from the 23rd, 7th, and 33rd regi- 
ments) ; that of the French, 3 officers and 233 men killed, and 54 oflUcers and 1033 men 
wounded. Total loss of allies, about 3300. 

ALMACK'S ASSEMBLY-ROOMS, King-street, St. James's, London, at first very 
exclusive, were erected by a Scotchman named Almack, and opened Feb. 12, 1765. 

ALMANACS (from the Arabic al manah, to countV* The Egyptians computed time by 
instruments. The Alexandrians had almanacs. Log calendars were anciently in use. In 
the British Museum and universities are curious specimens of early almanacs. Michael 
Nostradamus, the celebrated astrologer, wrote an almanac in the style of Merlin, 1556. 
Dufresnoij. Professor Augustus De Morgan's valuable "■Book of Almanacs, with an index 
of reference, by which the almanac may be found for every year," was published in March, 
185 1. Among the earlier and more remarkable almanacs were 

John Somer's Calendar, written in Oxford . 1380 

One in Lambeth palace, written in . . . 1460 

First printed one, published at Buda . . 1472 

First printed in England, by Richard Pynson . 1497 

Tybalt's Prognostications 1533 

Almanac Li^geois 1636 

Lilly's Ephemeris 1644 

Poor Robin's Almanac 1652 

British Merlin 1658 



Edinburgh Almanac 1683 

Connaissance des Temps (by Picard) . . . 1699 



Mooi-e's Almanac .... 1698 or 1713 

Ladj's Diary 1705 

Season on the Seasons . . . ... 173s 

Gentleman's Diary ...... 1741 

Nautical Almanac, begun by Dr. Neville Mas- 
kelyne (materially imjjroved in 1834) . . 1767 

British Imperial Kalendar 1S09 

Hone's Everj'-Day Book . .... 1826 

British Almanac and Companion . . . 1828 
Anniversary Calendar, published by W. Kidd T832 
Chambers' Book of Days .... 1862 — 3 



ALMANZA (S. E. Spain). Here, on April 25 (0. S. 14), 17 14, the English, Dutch, 
and Portuguese forces under the earl of Galway, were totally dei'eated by the French and 
Spanish commanded by James Fitzjames, duke of Berwick (illegitimate son of James 11.). 
Most of the English were killed or made prisoners, having been abandoned by the 
Portuguese at the first charge. 

ALMEIDA (Portugal), a frontier town, captured by Massena, Aug. 27, 1810. The French 
crossed into Spain, leaving a garrison at Almeida, blockaded by the English, April 6, 181 1. 
Almeida was retaken by Wellington (May 10), who eventually compelled Massena to retire 
from Portugal, his route being tracked by horrid desolation. 

ALMENARA, a village, N. E. Sjiain, where, on July 28, 1710, an English and German 
army defeated the Spanish army supporting Philip V., the grandson of Louis XIV. of France. 
Stanhope, the English genei'al, killed the Spanish general, Amezaga, in single conflict, an 
act almost unexampled in modern warfare. 

* Of Moore's (under the management of Henry Andrews, the able computer of the Haidical Ephemeris) 
at one time upwards of 430,000 copies were annually sold. He died in 1820. The stationers' company 
claimed the exclusive right of pviblishing almanacs in virtue of letters patent from James L, granting the 
privilege to them and the two imiversities ; but the monopoly was broken up by a decision of the Court of 
Common Pleas in 1775. A bill to renew the privilege was lost in 1779. The stamp duty on English 
almanacs, first imposed in 1710, was abolished in August, 1834; since when almanacs have become in- 
numerable, being issued by tradesmen with their goods. Of Foreign Almanacs, the principal are the 
" Almanach de France," first published in 1699, and the " Almanach de Gotha," 1764. 



ALM 



27 



ALP 



Dame Owen's almshouses, Islington, built in 
1613 (in gratitude for her escape from an 
arrow-shot) were rebuilt by the Brewers' 
company 1839 

Bancroft's almshouses, Mile End, were erected 1735 

The London almshouses, in commemoration of 
the passing of the Reform Bill, built at 
Brixton 1833 

Numerous almshouses since erected for 
printers, bookbinders, &c. 



ALMOHADES, Mahometan partisans, followers of El-Meh di in Africa, about 1120. 
They subdued Morocco, 1145 ; entered Spain and coolc buviUe, Cordova, and Granada, 
1146-56 ; ruled Spain till 1232, and Africa till 12/0. 

ALMONER, an office of uncertain ori^ u, anciently allotted to a dignified clergj-man, who 
had the privilege of giving the fir ,l disli from the royal table to the poor, or instead thereot 
an alms in money, iiy an auci ;iit canon all bishops were required to keep almoners. The 
grand almoner of Francj Uc yrand aiimonier) was the highest ecclesiastical dignity in that 
kingdom before thj revolution, 1789. Queen Victoria's almoner (nov/ the bishop of Oxford) 
or his sub-al.noner distributes the queen's gifts on Maundy Thursday (which see). 

ALMORAVIDES, Mahometan partisans in Africa, rose about 1050 ; entered Spain by 
invitation, 1086 ; were overcome by the Almohades in 1145. 

ALMSHOUSES for aged and infirai persons have been erected by very many public 
companies and benevolent individuals, particularly since the destruction of religious houses 
at the time of the Reformation in the i6th century. A list of them, with useful information, 
will be found in " Low's Charities of London," ed. 1862. 

Cornelius Van Dun founded the Red Lion alms- 
houses, Westmmster 1577 

Emmanuel College, Westminster, founded by 
Lady Dicre 1594 

Whittington's almshouses, founded in 1621, 
were rebuilt near Highgate-hill by the Mer- 
cers' company ....... 1826 

The Fishmongers' company founded alms- 
houses in 161 8, and rebuilt them on Wands- 
worth common 1850 

Haberdashers' almshouses, Hoxton, founded 
by Robert Aske 1692 

ALNEY. A combat is asserted to have taken place between Edmund Ironside and Canute 
the Great, on Alney, an island on the Severn, Gloucestershire, in sight of their armies ; 
when the latter was wounded, he proposed a division of the kingdom, the south part falling 
to Edmund. Edmund was murdered at Oxford shortly after the treaty, according to some 
by the treachery of Jidric Streon, and Canute obtained possession of the whole kingdom, 
1016. 

ALNWICK (Saxon Eahm-ic), on the river Alne in Northumberland, was given at the 
conquest to Ivo de Vesco. It has belonged to the Percies since 13 10. Malcolm, king of 
Scotland, besieged Alnwick in 1093, when he and his sons were killed. It was taken by 
David I. in 1136, and attempted in 11 74 by William the Lion, who was defeated and 
taken prisoner. It was burnt by king John in 1215, and by the Scots in 1448. Since 1854 
the castle has been repaired and enlarged with great taste and at unsparing expense. 

ALPACA (or Paco), a species of the S. American quadruped the Llama, the soft hairy 
wool of which is now largely employed in the fabrication of cloths. It was introduced into 
this country about 1836, by the earl of Derby. An alpaca factory, &c. (covering 11 acres), 
was erected at Saltaire, near Shij)ley, York.shire, by Mr. Titus Salt in 1852. 

ALPHABET. Athotes, son of Menes, is said to have been the author of hieroglyphics, 
and to have written thus the history of the Egyptians, 2122 B.C. Blair. But Josephus 
affirms that he had seen inscriptions by Seth, the son of Adam ; this is deemed ftibulous. 

they became the ground of the Roman letters, 
now used all over Europe. Palamedes of Argos 
invented the double cljaraoters, 6), X, •}>, H, about 
1224 B.C. ; andSimonides added, Z, V, H, !!, about 
489 B.C. Arundelian Marbles. — When the K was 
introduced is not precisely known. The Greek 
alphabet consisted of 16 letters till 399 (or 403) 
B.C., when the Ionic of 24 characters was intro- 
duced. The small letters, for the convenience of 
writing, are of later invention. The alphabets of 
the different nations contain the following number 
of letters : — 



The Egyptian alphabet is ascribed to Memnon, 
1822 B.C. 

The first letter of the Phoenician and Hebrew 
alphabet was a/e;)/i, called by the Greeks alpha, and 
abbreviated by the modenis to A. The Hebrew 
is supposed to be derived from the Phoenician. 

Cadmus the founder of Cadniea, 1493 B.C., is said 
to have brought the Phcenlcian letters (fifteen in 
number) into Greece, viz. : — A, B, V, A, I, K, A, 
HI, N, O, ri, P, 2, r, r. These letters were 
originally either Hebrew. Phoenician, or As.syrian 
characters, and changed gradually in form till 



English 


. 26 


German 


. 26 


Greek 


. 24 


Turkish . . . 28 


French . 


. . 25 


Slavonic 


. . 42 


Hebrew. 


. . 22 


Sansciit . . . 44 


Italian 


. 20 


Ru.ssian 


• 35 


Arabic 


. 28 


Chinese radical cha- 


Spanish 


• • 27 


Latin . 


. . 22 


Persian . 


• • 32 


racters . . .214 



ALPHONSINE TABLES, astronomical tables, composed by Spanish and Arab astro- 
nomers, and collected in 1253 under the direction of Alphonsus X. of Castile, surnamed the 



ALP 28 ALU 

Wise, who is said to have expended upwards of 400,000 crowns in completing the work ; he 
himself wrote the preface. The Spanish government ordered the work to be reprinted from 
the best MSS. ; three volumes have appeared, 1863-5. 

ALPS, a European range of mountains. Those between France and Italy were passed by 
Hannibal 218 B.C., by the Komans 154 B.C., and by Napoleon I. in a.d. 1800. Roads over 
Mont Cenis and the Simplon, connecting France and Italy, were constructed by order of 
Napoleon, between 1801-6. See Sim2)lon. A sub-alpine tunnel through Mont Cenis to 
connect Savoy and Piedmont has been in progress since 1857.* In 1859 the "Alpine Club," 
which consists of British travellers in the Alps, published their first work, "Peaks, Passes, 
and Glaciers." 

ALSACE (N. E. France), formerly part of the kingdom of Austrasia, now the departments 
of the Upper and Lower Phine. It was incorporated into the Germaii empire in the loth 
century. A portion was restored to France, 1648, and the whole, including Strasburg, in 
1697. The precinct of Whitefriars, London, called Alsatia, is described in Scott's "Fortunes 
of Nigel." Its privilege of sanctuary was abolished in 1696. 

ALTAR. One was built by Noah, 2348 B.C. (Gen. viii. 20) ; others by Abraham, 1921 
{Ge7i. xii. 8). Directions for making an altar are given Exod. xx. 24, 1491 B.C. Altars 
were raised to Jupiter, in Greece, by Cecrops, 1556 B.C. He introduced among the Greeks 
the worship of the deities of Egypt. Herodotus. The tenn "altar" was applied to the 
Lord's table for the first three centuries after Christ (Hcb. xiii. 10). Christian altars in 
churches were instituted by pope Sixtus I., A.D. 135 ; and were first consecrated by pope 
Sylvester. The first Christian altar in Britain was in 634. Stoic. The church of England 
terms the table on which the elements are placed an altar. Since the time of Elizabeth 
there has been much controversy on the subject, and the Puritans in the civil war destroyed 
many of the ancient stone altars, substituting wooden tables. In 1845 it was decided in 
the Arches Court that stone altars were not to be erected in English churches. 

ALTER EGO (another or second /), a term applied to Spanish viceroys when exercising 
regal power ; used at Naples when the crown prince was apj^ointed vicar-general during an 
insurrection in July, 1820. 

ALT-RANSTADT (Prussia), where the treaty of peace dictated by Charles XII. of Sweden, 
to Frederick Augustus of Poland, was signed, Sept. 24, 1706. Frederick, deposed in 1704, 
regained the throne of Poland after the defeat of Charles XII., in 1709. 

ALUM is said to have been first discovered at Rocha, in Syria, about 1300 ; it was found 
in Tuscany about 1470 ; was brought to perfection in England by sir T. Challoner, who 
established large alum works near Whitby in 1608 ; was discovered in Ireland in 1757 ; 
and in Anglesey in 1790. Alum is a salt used as a mordant in dyeing ; and also to harden 
tallow, to whiten bread, and in the paper manufacture. It may be made of pure clay 
exposed to vapours of sulphuric acid, and sulphate of potash added to the ley ; but is 
usually obtained by means of ore called alum slate. 

ALUMBAGH, a fort near Lucknow, Oude, India, seized and heroically defended by the 
British under sir James Outram during the mutiny in 1857. He defeated an attack of 
30,000 sepoys on Jan. 12, 1858, and of 20,000 on Feb. 21. He was relieved by sir Colin 
Campbell in March. 

ALUMINIUM, a metal, the base of the earth alumina (cZa?/), which was shown to be a 
distinct earth by Marggraff in 1754, having been previously confounded with lime. Oerstedt 
in 1826 obtained the chloride of aluminium ; and in 1827 the metal itself was first obtained 
by F. Wohler, but was for some time merely a scientific curiosity, the process being 
expensive. The mode of production was afterwards simplified by Bunsen and others, more 
especially by H. Ste. -Claire Deville, who in 1856 succeeded in procuring considerable quan- 
tities of this metal. It is very light (sp. g. 2-25), malleable, and sonorous ; when pure does 
not rust, and is not acted on by sulphur or any acid except hydrochloric. These qualities 
will render it very useful when improved processes render it cheaper. In March, 1856, it 
was 2,1- the ounce ; in June, 1857, i is. or 12s., and it is now much cheaper (1865). The eagles 
of the French colours have been made of it, and man}' other ornamental and useful articles. 
Deville's work, "De I'Aluminium," was published in 1859. An aluminium manufactory 
was established at Newcastle in i860, by Messrs. Bell. They obtain the metal from a 

* At first the boring was effected by ordinary machinery ; in i860 steam power was employed; but 
afterwards compressed air was used as a motive power with great success. It is confidently expected that 
the tunnel will be completed in 1870. In 1865 Messrs. Brassey proposed laying down a line of eteeply 
inclined railway for 47 miles, to be used till the tunnel is completed. 



AMA 29 AMB 

French mineral, bauxite. Their aluminium bronze, an alloy of copper and aluminium, 
invented by Dr. John Percy, F.R.S., came into use for watch-cases, &c., manufactured by 
Messrs. Reid of Newcastle, in 1862. 

AMADIS OF Gaul, a Spanish or Portuguese romance, stated to have been written about 
1342 by Vasco de Lobeiro. It was translated and enlarged by De Montalvo, about 1485. 

AMALEKITES (descendants of Amalek, grandson of Esau or Edom, the brother of Jacob) 
attacked the Israelites 1491 B.C., when perpetual war was denounced by God against them. 
They were subdued by Saul about 1079 ; by David, 1058 and 1056 ; and by the Simeonites 
about 715 B.C. 

AMALFI, a city on the gulf of Salerno, Naples, in the 8th centuiy became the seat of 
a republic, and flourished by its commerce till 1075, when it was taken by Roger Guiscard. 
Jt eventually was incorporated into the kingdom of Naples. The Pisans, in their sack of the 
town in 1135, are said to have found a copy of the Pandects of Justinian, and thus to have 
induced the revival of the study of Roman law in Western Europe. Flavio Gioia, a native 
of Aiualfi, is the reputed discoverer of the mariner's compass, about 1302. 

AMAZON, West India mail steam ship, left Southampton on her first voyage, Friday, 
Jan. 2. 1852, and on Sunday morning, Jan. 4, was destroyed by fire at sea, about no miles 
W.S.W. of Scilly (ascribed to the spontaneous ignition of combustible matter jjlaced near 
the engine-room). Out of 161 persons on board, 102 persons must have perished by fire or 
drowning. 21 persons were saved by the life-boat of the ship ; 25 more were carried 
into Brest harbour by a Dutch vessel passing by ; and 13 others were picked up in the bay 
of Biscay, also by a Dutch galliot, Eliot Warburton, a distinguished writer in general 
literature, was among tho.se lost. 

AMAZONIA (S. America) was discovered by Francisco Orellana, in 1540. Coming from 
Peru, he sailed down the river Amazon to the Atlantic, and observing companies of women 
in arms on its bank, he called the country Amazonia, and gave the name of Amazon to the 
river, which had previousl}' been called Maranon. 

AMAZONS. Three nations of Amazons have been mentioned — the Asiatic, Scythian, and 
African. They are said to have been the descendants of Scythians inhabiting Cappadocia, 
where their husbands, having made incursions, were all slain, being surprised in ambuscades 
by their enemies. Their widows resolved to form a female state, and having firmly established 
themselves, they decreed that matrimony was a shameful servitude. Quintus Curtius. They 
were said to have been conquered by Theseus, about 123 1 B.C. The Amazons were constantly 
employed in wars ; and that they might throw the javelin with more force, their rio-ht 
breasts were burned off, whence their name from the Greek, a, no, mazos, breast. Others 
derive the name from maza, the moon, whom they are supposed to have worshipped. About 
330 n. c. their queen, Thalestris, visited Alexander the Great, while he was pursuing his 
conquests in Asia ; three hundred females were in her train. Herodotus. 

AMBASSADORS. Accredited agents, and representatives from one court to another, are 
referred to early ages. In most countries they have great privileges ; and in England, they 
and their servants are secured against arrest. England usually has twenty-five ambassadors 
or envoys extraordinary, and about thirty-six chief consuls, resident at foreign courts, exclu- 
sive of inferior agents ; the ambassadors and other chief agents from abroad at the court of 
London in 1 865 were 47. 



The Rn.ssian ambassador's being imprisoned for 
debt by a lace-merchant, July 27, 1708, led to the 
passing the statute of 8 Anne, for the protection 
of ambassadors, 1709. 

Two men, convicted of arresting the servant of an 
ambassador, were sentenced to be conducted to 
the house of the ambassador, with a label on their 



breasts, to ask his pardon, and then one of them 
to be imprisoned three months, and the other 
fined, May 12, 1780. 
The first ambassador from the United States of 
America to England, John Adams, presented to 
the king, June 2, 1785 ; the first from Great 
Britain to America was Mr. Hammond, in 1791. 



AMBER, a carbonaceous mineral,* principally found in the northern parts of Europe, of 
great re]jute in the world from the earliest time ; esteemed as a medicine before the Christian 
era : Theophrastus wrote upon it ; 300 B.C. Upwards of 150 tons of amber have been found 
in one year on the sands of the shore near Pillau. Phillips. 

* Much diversity of opinion still prevails among naturalists and chemists, respecting the origin oi 
itnber, some referring it to the vegetable, others to the mineral, and some to the animal kingdom ; its 
.laturul history and chemical analysis affording something in favour of each opinion. It is considered by 
Berzelins to have been a resin dissolved in volatile oil. It often contains delicately-formed insects. Sir D. 
Brewster concludes it to be indurated vegetable juice. When rubbed it becomes electrical, and from its 
3reek name, ckctron, the term Electricity is derived. 



AMB 



30 



AME 



AMBOISE (C. France). A conspiracy of the Huguenots against Francis II., Catherine de 
Medicis, and the Guises, was suppressed at this place in Jan. 1560. On March 19, 1563, 
the Pacification of Amboise was published, whereby toleration was granted to the Huguenots. 
The civil war was however soon renewed. 

AMBOYNA, one of the Molucca isles, discovered about 1512 by the Portuguese, but not 
wholly occupied by them till 1580. It was takeu by the Dutch in 1605. The English 
factors at this settlement were cruelly tortured and put to death, Feb. 17, 1623-4, by the 
Dutch, on an accusation of a conspiracy to expel them from the isliind, where the two 
nation's resided and jointly shared in the pepper trade of Java. Cromwell compelled the 
Dutch to give a sum of money to the descendants of the sufferers. Amboyna was seized by 
tlie English, Feb. 16, 1796, but Avas restored by the treaty of Amiens, in 1802. It was 
again seized by the British, Feb. 17-19, 1810 ; and again restored at the peace of 1814. 

AMBROSIAN CHANT. See Chant. 

AMEN", an ancient Hebrew word meaning true, faithful, certain. At the end of a prayer, 
it implies so he it; at the termination of a creed, so it is. It is used in the Jewish and 
Christian assemblies, at the conclusion of prayer. See i Cor. xiv. 16 (a.d. 59). 

AMENDE Honorable, in France, in the 9th centurj'', was an infamous punishment 
inflicted on traitors and sacrilegious persons : the offender was delivered into the hands of 
the hangman : his shirt was stripped off, a rope put about his neck, and a tajier in his hand ; 
he was then led into court, and was obliged to beg pardon of God and the country. Death 
or banishment sometimes followed. 

AMERCEMENT, in Law, a fine assessed for an offence done, or pecuniary punishment at 
the mercy of the coiu't : thus differing from a fine directed and fixed by a statute. By 
Magna Charta a freeman cannot be amerced for a small fault, but in proportion to the offence 
he has committed, 9 Henry III. 1225. 

AMERICA, * the great Western Continent, is about 9000 miles long, with an area of about 
13,668,000 square miles. It is now believed to have been visited by the Norsemen or 
Vikings in the loth and nth centuries ; but the modern discovery is due to the sagacity 
and courage of the Genoese navigator, Christopher Columbus, + who, after having his scheme 
long contemptuously rejected, sailed on his first expedition from Palos in Andalusia on 
Friday, Aug. 3, 1492, with vessels supplied by the sovereigns of Spain. - 



Columbus lands on Guanahani, one of the Baha- 
mas ; takes possession of it in the name of 
Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile, and names 
it San Salvador . . . Friday. Oct. 12, 1492 

He discovers Cuba, Oct. 28 ; and Hispaniola 
(now Hayti), where be builds a fort, La Xavi- 
dad Dec. 6, ,, 

He retm-ns to Spain, March 15 ; sallsfrom C^idiz 
on his .wcoJirf expedition, Sept. 25; discovers 
the Caribbee isles,— Dominica. Nov. 3 ; Gua- 
daloupe, Nov. 4; Antig-ua, Nov. 10; founds 
Isabella in Hispaniola, the first Christian 
city in the New World . . . Dec, 1493 

He discovers Jamaica, May 3 ; and Evana:elista 
(now Isle of Pines), June 13 ; war with the 
natives of Hisisaniola 1494 



1496 



He visits the various isles ; and explores their 
coasts ........ 1495-6 

Returns to Spain to meet the charges of his 
enemies ...... June 11 

Cabot (sent out by Henry "VII. of England) dis- 
covers Labrador on the coast of North Ame- 
rica [he is erroneously said to have dis- 
covered Florida, and also Newfoundland, 
and to have named it Prima Vista] June 24, 1497 

Columbus sails on his third voyage. May 30 ; 
discovers Trinidad, July 31 ; lands on Terra 
Firma, without knowing it to be the new 
continent, naming it Isla Santa . Aug i, 1498 

Ojeda discovers Surinam, June; and the gulf 
of Venezuela ....... 1499 



* The name is derived from Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine merchant, who died in 1512. He accom- 
panied Ojeda in his voyage on the eastern coasts in 1498 ; and described the country iu letters sent to his 
friends in Italy. He is chargefi with presumptuously inserting " Tierra de Amerigo " in his maps. Irving 
discusses the q\ie.stion in the Appendix to the Life or Columbus, but comes to no conclusion. Humboldt 
asseits that the name was given to the continent in the popular works of WaldseetnuUer, a German geo- 
gi-aplier, without the knowledge of Vespucci. To America we are indebted, among other thmgs, for 
maize, the turkey, the potato, Peruvian liark, and tobacco. 

t Christ' 'foro Cohimbo was born about 1445 ; first went to sea about 1460 : settled at Lisbon in 1470, 
where he married Felipa, the daughter of Perestrello, an Italian navigator ; whereby he obtained much 
geographical knowledge. He is said to have laid the plans of his voyage of discovery before the republic 
of Genoa, iu 1485, and other powers, and finally before the court of Spain, where at length the queen 
Isabella became his patron. After imdergoing much ingratitude and cruel persecution from his own 
followers and the Spanish court, he died on May 20, 1506 ; and was buried with much pomp at Valladolid. 
Hts remains were transferred, in 1513, to Seville; in 1536 to San Domingo; and in Jan. 1796 to the 
Havanna, Cuba. The original inscription on his tomb is said to have been : " A Castilla y S. Leon Nuevo 
Mundo di6 Colon." "To Castile and Leon Colon gave a New World." Humboldt says beautifully, that the 
Buccess of Columbus was " a conquest of reflection ! " 



AME 



31 



AME 



AMERICA, continued. 

Vicente YaBez Pinzon discovers Brazil, Sovth 
America, Jan. 26 ; and the river Marauon (the 
Amazon); Cabral the Portuguese lands in 
Brazil (see i?ra.2J0 .... May 3, 1500 
Gaspar Corteveal discovers Labrador 
Columbus is imprisoned in chains at San Do- " 
mingo by Bobadilla, sent out to investigate 
into bis conduct, May; conveyed to Spain, 
where he is honourably received Dec. 17,' 
Columbus sails on his fourth voyage, May 9; " 
discovers various isles on the coast of Hon- 
.dur;xs, and explores the coast of the isthmus, 
July, &c. ; discovers and names Porto Bello, 

„ , . , Nov. 2, 1502 

Negro slaves miported into Hispaniola 1501-3 

Worned by the machinations of his enemies, he 
returns to Spain, Nov. 7; his friend, queen 
Isabella dies . . Nov. 20, 1504 

iie dies while treated with base ingratitude by 
the Spanish government . . May 20, 1506 

Soils and Pinzon discover Yucatan 

Ojeda founds San Sebastian, the first colony on " 
the mainland j.j^ 

Subjugation of Cuba by VeUzquez ' . ' . '. 1511 

The coast of Florida discovered by Ponce de 
Leon 1512 

Vasco de Balboa crosses the isthmus of Darien, 
and discovers the South Pacific Ocean . . 1513 

Griialva penetrates into Yucatan, and names it 
New Spain 

Passage of Magellan's Straits bv him 

Conquest of Mexico by Fernando Cortes 

Pizarro discovers the coast of Quito . 

He invades and conquers Peru 

Cartier, a Frenchman, enters the Gulf of St 
Lawrence, and sails up to Montreal . 1534-5 

Gnjalva's expedition, equipped by Cortes, dis- 
covers California jr,- 

Mendoza founds Buenos Ayres, and conquers 

the adjacent country 
Chili conquered by Valdivia . ' . 
Orellana sails down the Amaz-^n to the "sea ' 
Louisiana conquered by De Soto 
Rebellion in Peru— tranquillity established by 

Gasca ■' 

Davis's Straits discovered bv him ' ' ' I'^t^ 
Baleigh establishes the first English settlement 

— at Roanoke, Virginia 
Falkland isles discovered by Davis '. '. ' 1502 
De Monts, a Frenchman, settles in Acadia, now 

Nova Scotia jg 

Jamestown, in Virginia, the first English s'ettle- 



• 1518 

• 1520 
1519-21 

• 1526 
1532-5 



1541 



1548 



1607 



1614 



1622 
1627 



1632 



163 s 



1664 



ment on the mainland, founded by lord de la 

Warr 

Quebec founded by the French 
Hudson's bay discovered by hirti . " . " 
The Dutch build Manhattan, or New Amster- 
dam (now New York) on the Hudson 
Settlement in New England begun bv cant' 

Smith J s. ■ 

New Plymouth built by the "banished Enoiish 

nonconformists .... ° 

Nova Scotia settled by the Scotch under sir 

Wm. Alexander .... 
Delaware settled by the Swedes and Dutch ' 
Massachusetts, by sir H. Boswell 
Maryland, by lord Baltimore . . ' . ' 
Connecticut granted to lord Say and Broke iii 
1630; but no English settlement was made 

here till 

Rhode Island settled by Roger Williams and his 

brethren, driven from Massachusetts 
New Jersey settled by the Dutch, 1614, and 
Swedes, 1627 ; granted to the duke of York 
who sells it to lord Berkeley . . . ' 
New York captured by the English 
Carolina settled by the English . . ' ' ' igSq 
Pennsylvania settled by William Penn, the 

celebrated Quaker .... 1682 

Louisiana settled by the French 
The Mississippi explored . . ' . " ' js'g 
The Scotch settlement at Darien (i6g8-q) aban- 
doned . . '' 
New Orleans built . .'.'.'■■ nV^ 
Georgia settled by general Oglethorpe' . ' ' ~-~~ 
Kentucky, by colonel Boon ... 
Canada conquered by the English, '1750-60- 

ceded to Great Britain . . . 
American war— declaration of independence by 
the United States, 1776; recognised by Great 

Britain 

Louisiana ceded to Spain, 1762 ; transferred to 

France, 1800 ; sold to the United States 
Florida ceded to Great Britain, 1763 ; taken by 
Spam, 1781 ; to whom it is ceded, 1783 ; ceded 
to the United States . . . . 
Revolution in Mexico— declaration of indepen- 
dence 

Revolutions in Spanish America ; independence 
established by Chili, 1810; Paraguay, 181 1 ; 
Buenos Ayres, and other provinces, 1816' 

Peru ' 

[See United States. Mexico, and other states' 
throughout the volume.] ' 



1732 
1754 



1763 



1783 



AMERICA, British. See British America. 

..„t}^'^^}^\^^''^^\ ?"°l^i'i^°g tJie states of Guatemala, San Salvador, Honduras, Nica- 
ragua and Losta Rica which see, declared their independence Sept. 21, 1821 and separated 
from the Mexican confederation, July 21, 1823. The states made a treaty of \u on between 
themselves Maix^h 21, 1847. There has been among them since much anarchy aid b oS- 
shed, aggravated greatly by the irruption of American filibusters under Kenny and Walker 
1654^5- -In Jan 1863, a war began between Guatemala (afterwards joined by Nicaracrua) and 
JuL iflnd'sf sT"t' '"'^'"1''^ >r Honduras). The latter wert defeate^I at SaSa Rosa 
Cant a ' tl ^ f t % P ''f t'^^'^'l^ct. 26 ; the president of San Salvador, Barrios, fled ; and 
Caneid tlie dictator of Guateuiala became predominant over the confederacy -PoDulatioii 
1859, about 2,355,000. See Nicaragua, Darien, and Panama. ^ opulation, 

AMERICA, South. See Brazil, Argentine, Peru, Paraguay, Uruguay, &c. 

'I AMERICA," an American yacht, schooner-built, 171 tons burthen. On Auo- 22 i8?r 
at Cowes regatta, in a match round the Isle of Wight for a cup worth looT, open to 

''liiidir^' ''''^^ ^"^ '^''^^ ^^^ "'^''^' ^"^^ *° ^"^^ superior construction on the wave 

AMERICANISMS : a ii.seful dictionary of these expressions was compiled by John R 
Bartlett, and hrst published in 1848. i >^ "J ->uua i^. 



AME 32 AMS 

AMETHYST, the ninth stone upon the breastplate of the Jewish high priest ; and on it 
was engraved the name Issachar. It is of a rich violet colour One worth 200 rix-dollars, 
having" been rendered colourless, equalled a diamond in lustre, valued at 18,000 gold 
crowns. JDe Boot, Hist. Gemma,ru,m.—k.mQt\\ysts discovered at Kerry, in Ireland, in 1775. 

AMIENS, an ancient city in Picardy (N. France) : the cathedral was bnilt in 1220. It 
was taken by the Spanish and English Sept. 25, 1597. The preliminary articles of the 
memorable peace between Great Britain, Holland, France, and Spain, fifteen in number, 
were signed in London by lord Hawkesbury and M. Otto, on the part of England and 
France "Oct. i, 1801 ; and the definitive treaty was subscribed at Amiens, on March 27, 1802, 
by the marquess of Cornwallis for England, Joseph Bonaparte for France, Azara for Spain, 
and Schimmelpenninck for Holland.— War was declared again in 1803. 

AMMONIA, the volatile alkali, mainly produced by the decomposition of organic sub- 
stances. Its name is ascribed to its having been procured from heated camel's dung near 
the temple of Jupiter Ammon in Libya. The discovery of its being a compound of nitrogen 
and hydrogen is ascribed to Joseph Priestley in 1774. By the recent labours of chemists the 
oxide of the once hypothetical metal ammonium, and ammonium amalgam, have been 
formed ; and specimens of each were shown at the Royal Institution in 1856 by Dr. A. W. 
Hofmann, who has done very much for the chemical history of ammonia. 

AMMONITES, descended from Ben-Animi, the sou of Lot (1897 B.C.). They invaded 
the land of Canaan and made the Israelites tributaries, but they were defeated by Jephthah, 
1 143 B.C. They again invaded Canaan in the reign of Saul, with an intention to put out the 
right eye of all thole they subdued ; but Saul overthrew them, 1095 B.C. They were after- 
wards many times vanquished ; and Antiochus the Great took Eabbah their capital, and 
destroyed all the walls, 198 B.C. Joscphus. 

AMNESTY (a general pardon after political disturbances, &c.) was granted by Thrasy- 
bulus, the Athenian patriot, after expelling the thirty tyrants with the assistance of only 
thirty friends, 403 B.C. Acts of amnesty were passed after the civil war in 1651, and after 
the two rebellions in England in 1715 and 1745. — After his victorious campaign in Italj', 
Napoleon III. of France granted an amnesty to all political offenders, Aug. 17, 1859. An 
amnesty, with certain exemptions, was granted to the vanquished southern states of 
North America by president Johnson, May 29, 1865. 

AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL, asserted traditionally to have been established at Ther- 
mopylae by Amphictyon, for the management of all affairs i-elative to Greece. This cele- 
brated council, composed of twelve of the wisest and most virtuous men of various cities of 
Greece, began 1498 [11 13, Clinton] B.C. Other cities in time sent also chosen citizens to 
the council of the Amphictyons, and in the age of Antoninus Pius, they were increased 
to the n\iniber of thirty. Siiidas. Its immediate office was to attend to the temples and 
oracles of Delphi. Its interference caused the Sacred wars, 595—586, and 356—346. 

AMPHION, a British frigate, of 38 guns, blown up while riding at anchor in Plymouth 
Sound, and the whole of her crew then on board, consisting of more than two hundred and 
fifty persons, officers and men, perished Sept. 22, 1796. Butler. 

AMPHITHEATRES, said to have been first constructed by Curio, 76 B.C., and Julius 
Cpesar 46 b. c. In the Roman amphitheatres, which were vast round or oval buildings, the people 
assembled to see the combats of gladiators, of wild beasts, and other exhibitions. They were 
generally built of wood, but Statilius Taurus made one of stone, under Augustus Ca3sar. 
See Coliseum. The amphitheatre of Vespasian (capable of holding 87,000 persons) was built 
between A.D. 75 and 80; and is said to have been a regular fortress in 1312. The amphi- 
theatre at Verona was next in size, and then that of Nismes. 

AMPHITRITE, the Ship. See Wrecls, Aug. 30, 1833. 

AMPUTATION, in surgery, was greatly aided by the invention of the tourniquet by 
Morel, a French surgeon in 1674 ; and of the flap-method by Lowdham of Exeter in 1679. 

AMSTERDAM (Holland). The castle of Am stel was commenced in iioo; the build- 
ing of the city in 1203. Its commerce was greatly increased by the decay of that of Antwerp 
after 1609. The exchange was built in 1634; and the noble stadthouse in 1648; the latter 
cost three millions of guilders, then a large sum. It is built upon 13,659 piles. Amsterdam 
surrendered to the king of Prussia, when that prince invaded Holland, in favour of the 
stadtholder, in 1787. The French were admitted without resistance, Jan. 18, 1795. The 
Dutch government was restored in December, 1813. The crystal palace for an industrial 
exhibition M'as opened by prince Frederick of the Netherlands Aug. 16, 1864. 



_. 



AMU 33 ANA 

AMULETS, OK Charms, employed from the earliest times. Amulets were made of the 
wood of the true cross, about 328. They liave been sanctioned in modern times by 
medical men — witness the anodyne necklace, &c. 

AiSIYLENE, a colourless, very mobile liquid, first procured by JI. Balard of Paris in 1844 , 
by distilling fousel oil (potato-spirit) with chloride of zinc. The vapour was employed 
instead of chloroform first by Dr. Snow in 1856. It has since been tried in many hospitals 
here, and in France. The odour is more unpleasant than chloroform, and more vapour must 
be used. It is, however, thought less dangerous. 

ANABAPTISTS. The sect arose about 1521, and was known in England before 1549. 
John of Leyden, Muncer, Storck, and other German enthusiasts, about tlie time of the 
Reformation, taught that infant baptism was a contrivance of the devil, that there is no 
original sin, that men have a free will in spiritual things, and other doctrines still more wild 
and absurd. They committed many violences, and in 1534 seized Miinster, calling it Mount 
Zion, and declared one Mathias, a baker, to be the king of Zion. Their enthusiasm led 
them to the maddest practices, and they at length rose in arms under pretence of gospel 
liberty. Minister M'as taken June 24, 1535, and the chiefs of the Anabaptists were put to 
death. — On Jan. 6, 1661, about 80 anabaptists in London appeared in arms, headed by then- 
preacher, Thomas Venner, a wine-cooper. They fought desperately, and killed many of the 
soldiers brought against them. Their leader and sixteen others were executed, Jan. 19 and 
21. Annals of England. — For the modern Anabaptists see Baptists. 

ANACREONTIC VERSE, commonly of the jovial or bacchanalian strain, named after 
Anacreon of Teos, the Greek lyric poet, whose odes are much prized. He is said to have 
been choked by a grape-stone in his eighty-fifth }'ear, about 514 B.C. His odes have been 
frequently translated; Thomas Moore's celelsrated version was published in 1800. 

ANESTHETICS. See Chloroform, Ether, Amylcne, Kerosokne. Intense cold is also 
employed in deadening pain. 

ANADOLIA (Asia Minor), comprises the ancient Lycia, Caria, Lydia, Mysia, Bithynia, 
Paphlagonia and Phrygia, which see. 

ANAGRAMS, formed by the transposition of the letters of a name or sentence : as army 
from Mary, are said to have been made by ancient Jews, Greeks, &c. On the question put 
by Pilate to Our Saviour, "Quid est Veritas T' (what is truth?) we have the remarkable 
anagram, '^ Est vir qui adesf' (the man who is here). Another good one is '^Horatio Nelson," 
and " Honor est a Nilo " (" there is Honour from the Nile"). — The French are said to have 
introduced the art as now practised, about the year 1560, in the reign of Charles IX, 
Henault. 

ANAM. Bee. Annam. 

ANASTATIC PRINTING. See Printing, 1841. 

ANATHEMA, among the Jews, was the devoting some person or thing to destruction, 
as in the case of Jericho {Joshua- vi. 17). The word occurs i Cor. xvi. 22. Anathemas were 
used liy the primitive churches, 387. See Excommunication. 

ANATOMY (Greek, cutting up). The study of the human body was part of the philo- 
sophical investigations of Plato, Xenophon, and Aristotle ; and it became a branch of medical 
art under Hippocrates, about 420 B.C. Erasistratus and Herophilus may be regarded as 
the fathers of anatomy ; thej' were the fii'st to dissect the human form, as anatomical 
research had been previously confined to animals : it is mentioned that they practised upon 
the bodies of living criminals, about 300 and 293 B.C. Galen, who died A. n. 193, was a 
great anatomist. In England, the schools were supplied with subjects unlawfully exhumed 
from graves ; and until lately, the bodies of executed criminals were ordered for dissection.*' 
Pope Boniface VIII. forbade the dissection of dead bodies, 1297. The first anatomical 
plates, designed by Titian, were employed by Vesalius, about 1538. Leonardo da Vinci, 
Raphael, and ilichael Angelo, studied anatomy. The great discoveries of Harvey were 

' By 32 Henry VIII., c. 42 (1540), surgeons were granted four bodies of executed m.ilefactors for 
'' anatltomi/e.i," which privilege was extended in following reigns : but in consequence of the crimes com- 
ruitted by resurrection-men in order to supply the surgical schools (robbing churchj-ards and even com- 
mitting mvu-der, see BHrkirtg), a new statute was passed in 1832, which abated the ignominy of dissection 
by prohibiting that of executed murderers, and made provision for the wants of surgeons by permitting, 
under certain regulations, the dissection of pex-sons dying in^workhouses, ic. The act also appointed 
inspectors of anatomy, .fegulated the schools, and required 'persons practising anatomy to obtain a 
licence. It repealed the claiise of the act of 1S28, which directed the dissection of the body of an executed 
murderer. 



ANC 34 AND 

made in 1616. William and John Hunter Avere great anatomists ; they died in 1783 and 
1793' Quain's and Wilson's large anatomical plates were published in 1842. Comparative 
anatomy has heen treated systematically hy Cuvier, Owen, Midler, Huxley, and others. 
The anatomy of plants has been studied since 16S0. See Botany. 

ANCHORITES. See Monachism. 

ANCHORS are of ancient use, and the invention belongs to the Tuscans. Pllni/. The 
second tooth, or fluke, was added by Anacharsis, the Scythian (592 B.C.) Straho. Anchors 
were first forged in England A.D. 578. Those of a first-rate .ship of war (foiir) will weigh 99 
rwt. each, costing 450^. PhUlqis. The Admiralty anchor was introduced about 1841. 
Improved anchors were made by Pcring aud Rodgers about 1831 ; by Porter 1846 ; by 
Costell 1848; by Trotman 1853 ; and by several other persons. Trotman's is attached to 
the Queen's yacht the Fairi/. The anchors of the Great Eastern are of enormous size. An 
act for the proving and sale of chain cables and anchors, was passed in 1864. 

ANCIENT HISTORY commences in the Holy Scriptures, and in the history of 

Herodotus about 1687 B.C. It is considered as ending M'ith the destruction of the Roman 

empire iu Italy, a.d. 476. Modern history begins with Mahomet (A.n. 622), or Charle- 
magne (768). 

ANCIENTS. See Councils. 

ANCONA, an ancient Roman port on the Adriatic. The mole was built by Trajan, 
A.D. 107. After many changes of rulers Ancona was finally annexed to the papal states iu 
1532. In 1798 it was taken by the French ; but was retaken by the Austrians in 1799. 
It was occupied by the French in 1832 ; evacuated in 1838 ; after an insurrection it was 
bombarded and captured by the Austrians, June 18, 1849. The Marches (comprising this 
city) rebelled against the Papal government in Sept. i860. Lamoriciere, the papal general, 
fled to Ancona after his defeat at Castelfidardo, but was compelled to surrender himself, the 
city, and the garrison, on Sept. 29. The king of Sardinia entered soon after. 

ANCYRA, in ancient Galatia, now Angora or Engom-, Asia Minor. A council was held 
here in 314. Near this city, on July 28, 1402, Timoin* or Tamerlane defeated and took 
prisoner the sultan Bajazet, and is saicl to have conveyed him to Samarcand in a cage. 

ANDALUSIA (S. Spain), a province forming part of the ancient Lusitania and Baetica. 
The name is a corruption of Vandalitia, acquired in consequence of its having been held by 
the Vandals from 419 to 421, when it was acquired by the Visigoths. The latter were 
expelled by the Moors in 711, who established in it the kingdom of Cordova, which they 
retained till their final overthrow in 1492. 

ANDERNACH, Rhenish Prussia, once an imperial city. Near here, the emperor Charles 
the First, while attempting to deprive his nephews of their inheritance, was totally defeated 
by one of them, Louis of Saxony, Oct. 8, 876. 

ANDORRA, a small republic in the Pyrenees, bearing the title of "the valleys and 
sovereignties of Andorra," was made independent by Charlemagne about 778, certain rights 
being reserved to the bishop of Urgel. The feudal sovereignty, which long appertained to 
the counts of Foix, reverted to the French king, Henry IV., in 1589 ; but Avas given np iji 
1790. On March 27, 1806, an imperial decree restored the old relations between Andorra 
and France. The republic is now governed by a coiincil elected for life ; but the magistrates 
are appointed alternately by the French government and the Spanish bishop of Urgel . The 
population was about 18,000, in 1850. Guibert. 

ANDR:6'S Execution. See I'nitcd States, 1780. 

ANDREW, ST., .said to have been martyred by crucifixion, Nov. 30, 69, at Patrpe, in 
Aehaia. The festival was instituted about 359. Andrew is the titular saint of Scotland, 
owing to Hungus, the Pictisli prince, having dreamed that the saint was to be his friend in 
a pending battle with the Northumbrians. St. Andrew's cross ( x ) appeared in the air 
during the fight, and Hungus conquered. The collar of an order of knighthood, founded on 
this legend, is formed of thistles (not to be touched) and of rue (an antidote against poison) ; 
the motto is Nemo me imimnc laccssit {No one assails me with impunity). The institution of 
the order is attributed to Achaius about 809 ; its revival is due to king James V. in 1540, 
and to James 11. of England in 1687. See Thistle. The Russian order of St. Andrew was 
instituted in 1698 by Peter I. 

ANDREW'S, St. (E. Scotland). Here Robert Bruce held his first parliament in 1309 ; 
and here AVishart was burnt by archbishop Beaton, who himself was murdered here in 



i i 



AND 35 ANH 

1546. The university was founded in 141 1 by bishop "Wardlaw. The bishopric ovi<?inated 
with the establishment of Christianity in Scotland. Sir R. Sibbald's list of the bishops of 
St. Andrew's commences with Killach, 872. The see became archiepiscopal in 1470, and 
ceased soon after the Revolution, i6Sg. St. Andrew's is now a post-revolution bishopi'ic, 
re-instituted in 1844. See Bisliops. 

ANDRl'SSOY, Peace of (Jan. 20. 1667), between Russia and Poland, by which the 
] fitter lost the greater part of her conquests amoug the Cossacks. 

ANEJIOMETER (Greek, anemos, the wind), a measurer of the strength and velocity of 
the wind, was invented b}' Woltius, in 1709. The extreme velocity was found by Dr. Lind to 
be 93 miles per hour. Osier's and Whewell's anemometers were highly approved of in 1844. 

ANEROID. See Barometer. 

ANGEL, an ancient gold coin, weighing four pennyweights, was valued at 6.5. ?>d. in the 
reign of Henry VI., and at los. in the reign of Elizabeth, 1562. The angelof, a gold coin, 
value half an angel, was struck at Paris when held by the English, in 143 1. Wood, 

ANGELIC KNIGHTS of St. Georcje. This order is said to have been instituted 
in Greece, 456. The Avgdici were instituted l:>y the emperor Angelus Comnenus, 1 191. 
—The Aiujdiccc, an order of nuns, was founded at Milan by Louisa Torelli, 1534. 

ANGERS (W. Central France), formerly the Roman city Juliomagus, possessing an amphi- 
theatre ; afterwards Andegarum, the capital of the county of Anjou, vMch see. It was 
frequently besieged, and many councils were held in it between 453 and 1448, relating to 
e:^clesiasffcal discipline. 

ANGERSTEIN GALLERY. See National Gallery. 

ANGLESEY, called by the Romans Mona (N. Wales), the seat of the Druids, who were 
massacred in great numbers, when Suetonius Paulinus took the isle, 61. It was conquered 
by Agricola, in 78 ; occupied by the Normans, 1090; and with the rest of ^Vales was annexed 
by Edward I. in 1284. He biiilt the fortress of Beaumaris in 1295. The Menai suspension 
bridge was erected 1818-25, and the Britannia tubular bridge 1849-50. 

ANGLICAN CHURCH. See Clmren of England. 

ANGLING. Its origin is uncertain ; allusion is made to it by the Greeks and Romans, 
and in the Bible; Amos, iv. 2 (787 B.C.) 

Oppian wrote his " Halieutics," a Greek epic Albans, " empi-inted at We.stmestre by 'WynkjTi 

poem on Fishes and Fishing, probably about de Worde," in 1496, is " The Treatise of fi/sshyng 

A.D. 198. with an Angle. 

In the book on " Hawk-pjpeandffuntynr/e," by Juliana Izaao Walton's "CompUat Angler " was first published 

Berncrs or Banics, prioress of Sopwith, near St. I in 1653. 

ANGLO-SAXONS, or Angles, derive their name from a village near Sleswick, called 
Aiujlcn, whose population (called Angli by Tacitus,) joined the first Saxon freebooters. 
East Anglia was a kingdom of the heptarchy, founded by the Angles, one of whose chiefs, 
rifa, assumed the title of king, 571 ; the kingdom ceased in 792. See Britam. Cffidmon 
liaraphrased part of the Bible in Anglo-Saxon about 6S0 ; a translation of the gospels was 
made by abbot Egbert, of lona, 721'; of Boethius, Orosius, &c., by Alfred, 888. The Anglo- 
Saxon laws were printed h\ order of government, in 1840. 

ANGOLA (S. W. Africa), settled by the Portuguese soon after the discovery, by Diego 
Cam, about i486. Loanda, their capital, was built'1578. Their authority over the interior 
is very limited. 

ANGORA. See Ancyra. 

ANGOULEilE, capital of the old province of Angoumois, Central France, "W., was a 
bishopric in 260. After sharing the fortunes of the country, Angouleme became an inde- 
pendent county about 856. It was united to the French crown in 1308. It was held by 
tlie English, 1360 to 1372, in the reign of Edward III. The count of Angouleme became 
king of France as Francis I. in 15 15. 

ANGRIA'S Fort. See India, 1756. 

ANHALT, Hoi\SE of, in Germany, deduces its origin from Bcrenthobaldus, who made 
war upon the Thuringians in the sixth century. In 1606, the principality was di-vided 
among the four sons of Joachim Ernest, by the eldest, John George. Thus began the four 

D 2 



ANH 



36 



ANN 



l.vanclies—Anliiilt-Uessaii (descended from Jolui-George) ; Berubourg,* . extinct, 1863; 
Plotsgau or Coethen, extinct, 1847 ; and Zerhst, extinct, 1793. The princes of Anhalt 
became dukes in 1 809. 

Duke OFANHALT(Si(i-jcc<.s- 181,824)- ■'^^"•' l^i^ ^o"- 1'""'^^ Frederic, torn April 29, 

Leopold (born Oct. 1, 1794), became duke of Anhalt- 1831. 
Dessau, 1817, and of Anhalt-Bernbourg 1863. 

ANHOLT, Island or, Denmark, was taken possession of by England, May 18, 1809, in 
the French war, on account of Danish cruisers injuring British commerce. The Danes 
made an attempt to regain it witli a force which exceeded looo men, but were gaUantly 
repulsed by the British force not amounting to more than 150, March -27, 181 1. 

ANILINE, a basic oily body discovered in 1826 l)y Unverdorben among the products of 
distillation of indigo. Bechamp, in 1856, obtained it from benzole by the successive treat- 
ment of this substance with concentrated nitric acid and reducing agents. The scientific 
relations of aniline have been carefully examined by several chemists, more especially by 
Dr. A. W. Hofniann. It was long known to yield a series of coloured compounds, but it was 
only in 1856 that Mr. W. A. Perkin showed how a violet oxidation-product (mauve) could 
lie applied in dyeing. Aniline is now manufactured upon a large scale for the commercial 
production of " Mauve" and "Magenta" (rosaniline), and several other colouring matters. 

ANIMALCULiE. Leeuwcnhoek's researches in 1677 produced the most astonishing 
revelations. His Arcana Naturm was iniblished at Leyden in 1696. The great works of 
Ehrenberg of Berlin, on the Infusorial Animalculaj, &c., were issued 1838-57. Pritchard's 
Infusoria, ed. i860, is a valuable summary of our present knowledge of aniraalculfe. 

ANIMAL MAGNETISM was introduced by father Hehl, a Jesuit, a,t Vienna, about 
1774 ; and had its dupes in France and England in about 1 788-89. t See Mesvierimn. 

ANIMALS, Cruelty to. The late Mr. Martin, M.P., as a senator, zealously laboured 
to repress this odious offence ; and a society in London, wdiich was established in 1824, 
effects much good this way. See Crueltij to Animals Society. JMr. Martin's act passed 
3 Geo. IV. (1822). Similar acts were passed in 1827, 1835,^ 1837, 1849, and 1854. Dogs 
were forbidden to be used for draught by 2 & 3 Vict. c. 47 (1839). 

ANJOU, a province in France, was inherited by Henry II. of England from his father 
Geoffrey Plantagenet, count of Anjou, who married the empress Matilda in 1127. It was 
taken from his son John by Philip of France in 1205 ; was reconquered by Edward III., but 
relinquished by him in 1360 ; and was given by Charles V. to his brother Louis with the 
title of duke. It afterwards became an appanage of the French crown. The university 
was formed in 1349. 

DUKES OF ANJOU. 



1360. Louis I. invested by the pope with the 
dominions of Joanna of Naples, 1381 ; his 
invading army destroyed by the plague, 1383 ; 
he dies, 1384. 

1384. Louis II., hi.s son, receives the same grant, 
but is also unsuccessful. 
Louis III., adopted by Joanna as heir; dies 
1434. 



of Naples, 1435 ; his daughter, Margai-et, 
married Henry VI. of England, 1445 ; he was 
expelled from Anjou by Louis XL, 1474, and 
his estates confiscated. 
Francis, duke of Alen^on, brother to Henry III. 
of France, became duke of Anjou; at one 
time he favoured the protestants, and vainly 
offered marriage to Elizabeth of England, 
1434. Regnieror Ren& (a prisoner) declared king 1581-82; died 1584. 

ANJOU, OR Beaugb, Battle of, between the English and French ; the latter com- 
manded by the dauphin of France, March 22, 142 1. The English were defeated : the duke 
of Clarence was slain by sir Allan Swinton, a Scotch knight, and 1500 men perished on the 
field ; the earls of Somerset, Dorset, and Huntingdon were taken prisoners. Beaugd was 
the first battle that turned the tide of success against the English. 

ANNAM, OR Anam, an empire of Asia, to the east of India, comprising Tonquin, Cochin 
China, part of Cambodia, and various islands in the Chinese Sea ; said to have been 
conquered by the Chinese 234 B.C., and held by them till a.d. 263. In 1406 they recon- 

* Alexander, the last duke of Anhalt-Bernbourg, (bom March 2, 1805 ; duke, March 24, 1834;) died 
without issue, Aug. 22, 1863, when his duchy reverted to the duke of Anhalt-Dessau. 

t It was a pretended mode of curing all manner of diseases by means of sympathetic affection between 
the sick person and the operator. The effect on the patient was supposed to depend on certain motions of 
the fingers and features of the operator, he placing himself immediately before the patient, whose eyes 
wore to be fixed on his. After playing in this manner on the imagination and enfeebled mind of the sick, 
and performing a number of distortions and grimaces, the cure was said to be completed. Hehl, for a 
short time associated with Mesmer, but they soon quarrelled. — Mr. Perkins (who died in 1799) invented 
' ' Metallic Tractors for collecting, condensing, and applying animal magnetism ; " but Drs. Falconer and 
Haygarth put an end to his pretensions liy perforniing many wonders with a pair of wooden tractors. 
Branch. 



AXN 37 ANO 

quered it, but abandoned it in 1428. After much anarchy, bishop Adran, a French 
missionary, obtained the IVicndsliij) of Louis XYI. for his pupil Gia-long, the son of the 
nominally reir;ning monarch, and with the aid of a few of his countrymen established Gia- 
long on the throne, who reigned till his death in 1821, when his son became king. In 1859 
war broke out with the French, who defeated the army of Annam, 10,000 stron'^, about 
April 22, when 500 were killed. On Juno 3, 1862, peace" was made ; three provinces were 
ceded to the French, and toleration of the Christians granted. An insurrection in these 
]n-ovinc5s against the French, begun about Dec. 17, 186:^ was suppressed in Feb. 1863. 
Anibassadors sent from Annani with tlie view of regaining the ceded provinces arrived at 
Paris in Sept. 1863, had no success. A new treaty with France was concluded July 26, 
1864, which established a French protectorate, toleration for Christian missionaries, &c. 

ANNATES. See First Fmils. 

ANNO DOMINI, A.D., the year of Our Lord, of Grace, of the Incarnation, of the Cir- 
cumcision, and of the Crucifixion (Trabeatiouis). The Christian era commenced Jan. i, in 
the middle of the 4th year of the 194th Olympiad, the 753rd year of the building of Rome, 
and in 4714 of the Julian period. It is now held that Christ was born Friday, April 5, 
4 B.C. This era was invented by a monk, Dionysius Exiguus, about 532. It was intro- 
duced into Italy in the 6th century, and ordered to be used by bishops by the council of 
Chelsea, in 816, but not generally employed for several centuries. Charles III. of Germany 
was the first who added "in the year of our Lord" to his reign, in 879. 

"ANNOYANCE JURIES," of Westminster, chosen from the householders in conformity 
with 27 Eliz. c. 17 (1585), were abolished in 1S61. 

ANNUAL REGISTER, a summary of the history of each year (beginning with 1758, and 
continued to the present time), was' commenced by R. & J. Dodsley. (Edmund Burke at 
first wrote the wiiole work, but afterwards became only an occasional contributor. Prior.) 
The somewhat similar but more elaborate work, the "Aunuaire des Deux Mondes," began in 
Paris in 1850. 

ANNUALS, tlie name given to richly bound volumes, containing poetry, tales, and essays, 
by eminent authors, illustrated by engravings, published annually. They were imitations 
of similar books in Germany, and first appeared in London in 1S23. Tlie duration of the 
chief of these publications is here given : 



Forget -me not (Ackerman's) . . . 1S23— 48 

Friendship's Offering' 1824—44 

Literary Souvenir (first as " the Graces ") 1824 — 34 



Amulet 1827—34 

Keepsake 1S28— 56 

Hood's Comic Annual i8to — :;« 



ANNLHTIES, or Pexsions, were first granted in 15 12, when 20I. were given to a lady 
of the court for sei'vices done ; and 61. 135. 4(Z. for the maintenance of a gentleman, 1536. 
13?. 6s. %d. deemed competent to support a gentleman in the study of the law, 1554. An 
act Avas passed empowering the government to borrow one million sterling upon an annuity 
of fourteen per cent., 4 — 6 Will. & Mary, 169 1-3. This mode of borrowing soon afterwards 
became general among civilised governments. An annuity of ll 2s. lid. per annum, s.cq\\- 
mulating at 10 per cent., compound interest, amounts in 100 years to 20,000?. The Govern- 
ment Annuities and Life Assurances Act was passed in 1864, for the benefit of the working 
classes ; since it enables the government to grant deferred annuities on condition that the 
sum required may be payable in small instalments. 

ANNUITY TAX : a tax levied to provide stipends for ministers in Edinburgh and 
Montrose, and which caused much disaffection, was abolished in i860, and other provisions 
made for the purpose. These, however, have proved equally unpalatable. 

ANNUNCIATION of the Virgin Mary, the 25th of March, Lady-day {ivMch see). 
A festival commemorating the tidings brought to Mary by the angel Gabriel {Liike i. 26) : its 
origin is referred variously by ecclesiastical writers to the fourth and seventh century. The 
religious order of the Annunciation was instituted in 1232, and the militarij order, in Savoy, 
by Amadeus, count of Savoy in memory of Amadeus I., who had bravely defended Rhodes 
against the Turks, 1355. 

ANOINTING, an ancient ceremony observed at the inauguration of kings, bishops, and 
other eminent personages. Aaron was anointed as high priest, B.C. 1491; and Saul, as kin^'-, 
B.C. 1095. Alfred the Great is said to have been the first English king anointed, A.D. 871 ; 
and Edgar of Scotland, 1098. — The religious rite is derived from the epistle o? James, ch. v. 
14, about A.D. 60. Some authors assert that in 550, dying persons, and persons in extreme 
danger of death, were anointed with consecrated oil, and that this was the origin of Extreme 
Unction (one of the sacraments of the Roman Catholic church). 



x\.NO 38 ANT 

ANONYMOUS LETTERS. The sciiding of anoiiymoiis letters denoiinciug persons, or 
clemaudiiig money, or using threats to obtain money, was made felony by the Black Act, 9 
Geo. I. (1722). See Threatening Letters. 

ANTALCIDAS, Peace of. In 387 b.c. Antalcidas the Laccdpemonian made peace uith 
Artaxerxes of Persia, strongly in favour of Sparta, and generally in favour of Greece, but 
giving up the cities of Ionia to the king. 

ANTARCTIC POLE, the oiiposite to the north or ardic pole. See Southern Continent. 

ANTEDILUVIANS. According to the tables of Mr. Whistou, the number of people in 
the ancient world, as it existed previous to the Flood, reached to the enormous amount of 
549,755 millions in the year of the world 1482.* 

ANTHEMS, OR Hymns (see Hymns). Hilary, bishop of Poictiers, and St. Ambrose were 
the first who composed them, about the middle of the fourth century. Lcnglet. They were 
introduced into the church service in 386. Baker. Ignatius is said to have introduced 
them into the Greek, and St. Ambrose into tlie Western Church. They were introduced 
into the Reformed churches in queen Elizabeth's reign, about 1565. 

ANTHROPOPHAGI (eaters of human flesh) have existed in all ages of the world. 
Homer says that the Cyclops and Lcstrygones were such ; and the Essedonian Scythians 
were so, according to Herodotus. Diogenes asserted that we might as well eat the flesh of 
men as that of other animals ; and the practice still exists in Africa and the South Sea 
Islands. The annals of Milan assert that a Milanese woman, named Elizabeth, had an 
invincible inclination to human flesh ; she enticed children to her house, and killed and 
salted them ; and on a discovery being made, she was broken on the wheel and burnt, in 
15 19. Cannibals were detected in Perthshire about 1339. 

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY {anthropos, Gteck, man) for promoting the science of 
man and mankind, held its first meeting on Feb. 24, 1863. Dr. James Hunt, i)resident, in 
the chair. The " Antliropological Review" first came out in May, 1863. 

ANTICHRIST (opponent of Christ), the name given by St. John (i Ep. ii. 18) to him 
whom St. Paul calls the Man of Sin (2 Thess. ii. 3), avIio, as some assert, at the latter end 
of the world, is to appear very remarkably in opposition to Christianity. f 

ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE, an association formed for the purpose of procurhig the 
repeal of the laws charging duty on the importation of foreign corn. See Corn-Laics. It 
sprang from various metropolitan and provincial associations (1834-8), headed by Messrs. C. 
ViUiers, R. Cobden, J. Bright, &c. See Protectionists. 

The Anti-Coni-Law Leagiie formed at Man- | Bazaar at Covent- Garden opened . . Mays, 1845 

Chester Sept. 18, 1838 

Meetings held in various places March <fc April, 1841 
Excited meeting at Manchester . May 18, ,, 

A bazaar held at Manchester, at whicli the 

League realised io,oooL . . . Feb. 2, 1842 
About 600 deputies connected witli provincial 

associations assemble in London, Feb. — Aug. „ 
The League at Manchester proposed to raise 

5o,ooo(., to depute lecturers throughout the 

country, and to print pamphlets Oct. 20, „ 
I'^irst meeting at Drury-lane Theatre, March 15, 1843 
Series of monthly meetings at Covent-Garden, 

commenced 8ept. 28 ; and great frec-trado 

meeting at .Manchester Xov. 14, 1S43, and 



Great Manchester meeting, at -which the 
League proposed to i-aise a quarter of a 
million sterling .... Dec. 23, ,, 

The Corn Importation Bill having i^assed, June 
26 ; the League is loriaaXXy dissobjed; and Mr. 
Cobden was rewarded by a national sub- 
scription, amounting to nearly 8o,ooo(. 

July 2, 1846 

Appointment of the Derby ministry, a revival 
of the Anti-Corn-Law League was jiroposed 
at a meeting held at Manchester, and a sub- 
scription for the iDurposo was opened, which 
pi-oduced within half an hour 27,520^. Mar. 2, 1S52 

[Subsequently, the reconstruction of the League 



Jan. 22, 1845 I was deemed to be unnecessary.] 



* Burnet has supposed that the first human pair misht have left, at the end of the first century, ton 
married couples ; anci from these, allowing them to multiply in the same decuple proi^ortion as the first 
pair did, would rise, in 1500 years, a greater number of persons than the earth was capable of holding. 
He therefore suggests a quadruple multiplication only ; and then exhitiits the following talile of increase 
during the first sixteen centuries that preceded the Flood (at least ten times the present number of 
mankind) : — 

I. . . . . 10 I V. . . . 2,^Cx> 

It. . . . . 40 V I. . . . 10,240 



iO 


V. 


40 


VI. 


60 


VII. 


HO 


YllI 



IX. . 
X. 
XI. . 


655,360 

. . 2,621,440 

. 10,485,760 


XIIT. 

xtv. . 

XV. . 


167,172,160 

671,088,640 

• 2,684,354,560 


XII. . 


• • 41.943.040 


XVI. 


• 10,737,418,240 



III. . . . 160 I Yll. . . . 4o,g6o 

nil 640 1 VIII. . . . 163,840 

t His reign, it is sujjposed, will coniin\ie three years and a half, during which time there will be a 
persecution. This is the opinion of the Roman Catholics ; but tlio Protestants, as they differ i'rom them, 
so they differ among themselves. Grotius and Dr. Hammond suppose the time to be past, and the cha- 
i-acters to be furnished in the persons of Caligula, Simon Magus, and the Gnostics. Some have behaved 
the pope to be the true Anticlirist, as at the council Iield at Gap, in 1603. JIany consider that the king- 
dom of Antichrist comprehends all who are opjjosed to Christ, openly or secretly. 



ANT 39 ANT 

ANTIETAM CREEK, near Sharpsburg, Maryland, TJ. S. Here was fought a terrible 
battle on Sept. 17, 1S62, between the Federals nnder general M'Clellan and the Confederates 
under Lee. The latter after his vietory at Bull Run or Manassas, Aug. 30, having invaded 
Maryland, was immediately followed by M'Clellan. On the i6th Lee was joined by Jaclcson, 
and at hve o'eloek next morning the conflict began. About 100,000 men were engaged, and 
the conflict raged with great fury from daylight to dark. The Federals were repeatedly 
repulsed ; Init eventually the Confederates retreated and I'epassed the Potomac on Sept. 18 
and 19. The loss of the Federals was estimated at 12,469 ; of the Confederates, 14,000. 

ANTIGUA, a West India Island, discovered by Columbus in Nov. 1493 ; settled by the 
I'nglish in 1632 ; made a bishopric, 1842. Population in 1861, 36,412. 

ANTILLES, an early name of the West Indies, wliicli sec. 

ANTIMONY, a white brittle metal. Compounds of this mineral were early known, and 
applied. It was iised as paint to blacken both men's and women's eyes, as appears from 
2 Kings ix. 30, and Jevcmiah iv. 30, and in eastern countries it is used to this day. When 
mixed with lead it forms printing type metal. Basil Valentine wrote on antimony about 
1 410. PHcstlcij. 

ANTINOMIANS (from the Greek anil, against, and noraos, law), a name given by Luther 
(in 1538) to John Agricola, who is said to have held "that it mattered not how wicked a 
man Avas if he had but faith." (Opposed to ^o»i. iii. 28, and v. i, 2). He retracted in 
1540. These doctrines were condemned by the British parliament, 1648. 

ANTIOCH, Syria, built by Seleucus, 300 B.C., after the battle of Ipsus, in such grandeur 
as to acquire the name " Queen of the East." Here the disciples wei'e first called Christians, 
A.D. 42 (AcLs xi. 26). Antioch was taken by the Persians, 540 ; by the Saracens about 638 ; 
recovered for the Eastern emperor, 966 ; lost again in 1086 ; retaken by the Crusaders in 
1098, and held by them till 1268, when it was captured by the Sultan of Egypt. It was 
taken from the Turks in the Syrian war, Aug. i, 1832, b}' Ibrahinr Pacha, but restored at the 
peace. — The Era of Antioch is much used by the early Christian writers of Antioch and 
Alexandria ; it placed the Creation 5492 years B.C. 

ANTIPODES. Plato is said to be the first who thought it possible that antipodes existed 
(about 368 B.C.). Boniface, archbishop of Mentz, legate of pope Zachary, is said to have 
denounced a bislioj) as a heretic for maintaining this doctrine, a.d. 741. The antipodes of 
England lie to the south-east of New Zealand, near Antipodes Island. Brookes. 

ANTI-POPES, rival popes elected at various times, especially by the French and Italian 
factious, from 1305 to 1439. In the article Popes, the Anti-popes are printed in ilalics. 

ANTIQUARIES. A college of antiquaries is said to have existed in Ireland 700 
years B.C. 

A society was founded by arclibisliop Parker, Cam- British Archreological Association founded Dec. 

den, Stow, and others in 1572. Sprhnan. 1 1843; the Archjeological Institute of Great 

Application was made in 1589 to Elizabeth for a I Britain was formed Isy a seceding part of the 

charter, hut her death ensued, and her successor, I Association, 1S45. Journals are published by 

.lames I., was far from favom-ing the design. both societies. 



The Societj' of Antiquaries revived, 1707 ; received 
its chai-tor of incorporation from George II., 1751 ; 
and apartments in Somerset-house granted to it 
in 1777. Its Memoirs, entitled Archajologia, first 
piiblisiied m 1770; present president, earl Stau- 
h'lie, elected, 1846. 



Society of Antiquaries of Edinburgh founded in 

1780. 
Since 1845 many county archEeological societies 

have been formed in the United Kingdom. 
The Society of Antiquaries of France (1814) began in 

1805 as the Celtic Academy. 



ANTI-TRINITARIANS. Theodotus of Byzantium is supposed to have been the fir.st 
wlio advocated tlio simple humanity of Jesus, at the close of tlie second century. This 
doctrine, advocated by Arius about 318, spreail widely after the Ileformatiou, when it was 
adopted by Ladius and Faustus Socinus. Bayle. SecArinns, Socinictns, Unitarians. 

ANTIUM, maritime city of Latium, now Porto cl'Anzio, near Rome, after a long struggle 
for independence, became a Roman colony, at the end of the great Latin wai', 340-338 B.C. 
It was mentioned by Horace, and was a favourite retreat of the emperors and wealthy 
Romans, who erected many villas in its vicinity. The treasures deposited in the temple of 
Fortune here were taken by Octavius Ciesar during his war witli Antonj-, 41 B.C. 

ANTWERP, the principal sea-port of Belgium, is mentioned in history in a.d. 517. It 



APA 40 APO 

was a small republic in the eleventh century. It was the first commercial city in Europe 
till the wars of the i6th and 17th centuries. 

Its fine exchange built in 1531 i after a dreadful conflict, being driven into 

Taken after a long siege by the prince of Parnia 15S5 the citadel, cannonaded the town with red- 
Truce of Antwerp (between Spain and United | hot balls and shells, doing immense mischief 

Provinces) 1609 , Oct. 27, 1S30 

Much injured by the imposition of a toll on the The citadel bombarded by the French, Dec. 4 ; 

Scheldt by the treaty of Mtinster . . . 1648 surrendered by gen. Chasse . . Dec. 23, 1832 
After Marlborough's victory at Ramillies, 1 The exchange burnt ; and valuable archives, 

Antwerp siu-renders without firing a shot &c. destroyed .... Aug. 2, 1858 

June 6, 1706 Proposal to strengthen the fortifications adopted 
The Barrier treaty concluded here Nov. 16, 1715 j Aug. 1859 

Taken by marshal Saxe 1746 | A Fine Art fete held . . . Aug. 17-20 1861 

Occupied by the French . . 1792-3, 1794-1814 ^ Great Napoleon wharf destroyed by fire, loss 25 

Civil war between the Belgians and the House lives and about 400,000?. . . Dec. 2 ,, 

' of Orange. See Belgium . . . 1830-31 j Great fete at the opening of the port by the 

The Belgia:i troops, having entered Antwerp, aboUtiou of the Scheldt dues . Aug. 3, 1863 

were opposed by the Dutch garrison, who, I 

APATITE, mineral phosphate of lime. About 1856 it began to l>e largely employed as 
manure. It is abundant in Norway, and in Sombrero, a small West India island. 

APOCALYPSE, OR Revelation, written by St. John in the isle of Patmos about 95. 
Irenceus. Some ascribe the authorship to Cerintlius, the heretic, and others to John, 
the presbyter, of Ephesus. In the first centuries many churches disowned it, and in the 
fourth century it was excluded from the sacred canon by the council of Laodicea, but was 
again received by other councils, and confirmed by that of Trent, held in 1545, et scq. 
Although the book has been rejected by Luther, Michaelis, and others, and its authority 
questioned in all ages, from the time of Justin Martju- (who wrote his fir.st Apology for 
the Christians in A.D. 139), yet its canonical authority is still almost universally ac- 
knowledged. 

APOCRYPHA. In the preface to the Apociypha it is said, " These books are neyther 
found in the Hebrue nor in the Chalde." Bible, 1539. The history of the Apocrypha 
ends 135 B.C. The books were not in the Jewish canon, were rejected at the council of 
Laodicea about A.D. 366, but were received as canonical by the Roman Catholic church, at 
the council of Trent on April 8, 1546. Parts of the Apocrypha are read as lessons by 
the Anglican church. 

1 Esdras, from about B.C. 623-445 I Wisdom of Solomon . . * ' 1 Bel and the Dragon . . « * 

2 E.sdras ,, . . * * Ecclesiasticus ( John) 300 or 180 Prayer of Manasses B.C. 676 
Tobit ,, . . 734-678 Baruch . . . * * i Maccabees, about . . 323-135 
Judith ,, . . 656 Song of the Three Children * * 2 Maccabees, from about . 187-161 
Esther ,, . . . 510 I History of Susannah . ♦ * | 

There are also Apocryphal writings in connection with the New Testament. 

APOLLINARISTS, followers of ApoUinaris, a reader in the church of Laodicea, who taught 
(366) that the divinity of Christ Avas instead of a soul to him ; that his flesh was pre- 
existent to his appearance upon earth, and that it was sent down from heaven, and conveyed 
through the Virgin, as through a channel ; that there were two sons, one born of God, the 
other of the Virgin, &c. These opinions were condemned by the council of Constanti- 
nople, 381. 

APOLLO, the god of the fine arts, medicine, music, poetry, and eloquence, had many 
temples and statues erected to him, particularly in Egypt, Greece, and Italy. His most 
splendid temple was at Delphi, built 1263 B.C. See Delphi. His temple at Daphne, built 
434 B.C., during a period in which pestilence raged, was burnt A. n. 362, and the Christians 
were accused of the crime. Lcnglet. The statue of Apollo Belvedere, discovered in the 
remains of Antium, in Italy, in 1503, was purchased by pope Julius II., who placed it in 
the Vatican. 

APOLLONICON, an elaborate musical instrument, constructed on the principle of the 
organ, was invented by Messrs. Flight and Robson, of St. Martin's lane, Westminster, and 
exhibited by them first in 18 17. Timhs. 

APOSTLES (Greek apostolos, one sent forth). Twelve were appointed by Christ, 31 ; 
VIZ. Simon Peter and Andrew (brothers), James and John (sons of Zebedee), Philip, Nathanael 
(or Bartholomew), Matthew (Levi), Thomas, James the Less (son of Alphreus), Simon the 
Canaanite and Jude or Thaddieus (brothers), and Judas Iscariot. Matthias was elected in 
the room of Judas Iscariot, 33 {Acts i.) ; and Paul and Barnabas were appointed by the Holv 
Spirit, A.D. 45 (vlcfe. \iii. 2), 



APO 41 APP 

•APOSTLES' CREED, a smnmaiy of tlie Cliristian faith, attributed to tlie apostles, is 
mentioned by Euffinus, 390, and is generally believed to have been gradually composed 
a great while after tlieir time. Irenceus, bishop of Lyons (a.d. 177), gives a similar creed. 
Its repetition in public worshi]> was ordained in the Greek church at Antioch, and m the 
Konian church in the nth century, whence it passed to the Church of England. 

APOSTOLICI, a sect which arose at the end of the 2nd century ; they renounced 
marriage, Avine, flesh, meats, &c. A second .sect was founded by Segarelli about 1261. 
They wandered about, clotlied in white, with long beards, dislievelled hair, and bare heads, 
accompanied by women wlionr they called their spiritual sisters, preaching against the 
growing corruption of the church of Rome, and predicting its downfall. They renounced 
baptism, the mass, ])urgatory, &c., and by their enemies are accused of gross licentiousness. 
Segarelli was burnt alive at Parma in 1300 during a crusade against his followers, who were 
all dispersed in 1307. 

APOTHECARY (literally a kee])er of a storehouse). On Oct. 10, 1345, Edward IIL 
settled six pence j;cr diem for life on Coursus de Gangeland, ^^ Apothecarius London," iox 
taking care of him during his severe illness in Scotland. Bymct's Fadera. Apothecaries 
were exempted from serving on juries or other civil offices in 1712. The London Apothecaries' 
Company was separated from the Grocers' and incorporated 16 17. Their hall was built in 
1670 ; and their practice regulated and their authority extended over all England, by 55 
Geo. IIL c. 19 (1815), amended by 6 Geo. IV. c. 133 (1825). The Botanical Garden at 
Chelsea was left by sir Hans Sloane to the com])any of Apothecaries, Jan. 1753, on condition 
of their introducing every year fifty new plants, until their number should amount to 2000. 
The Dublin guild was incorporated, 1745. See Pharmacy. 

APOTHEOSIS, a ceremony of the ancient nations of the world, by which they raised 
their kings and heroes to the rank of deities. The deifying a deceased emperor was begun at 
Rome by Augustus, in favour of Julius Cfesar, B.C. 13. Tillcmont. 

APPEAL, OR Assize of Battle. By the old law of England, a man charged with 
murder might fight with the appellant, thereby to make proof of his guilt or innocence. In 
1S17, a young maid, Mary Ashford, was believed to have been violated and murdered by 
Abraham Thornton, who, in an appeal, claimed his right by his wager of battle, which the 
court allowed; but the appellant (the brother of the maid) refused the challenge, and the 
accused escaped, April 16, 1818. This law was immediately afterwards struck from off the 
statute-book, by 59 Geo. III. (1819). 

APPEALS. In the time of Alfred (a.d. 869-901), appeals lay from courts of justice to the 
king in council ; but being soon overwhelmed with appeals from all parts of England, he 
framed the body of laws which long served as the basis of English jurisprudence. The house 
of lords is the highest court of appeal in civil causes. Courts of appeal at the Exchequer 
Chamber, in error from the judgments of the King's Bench, Common Pleas, and Exchequer, 
were regulated by statutes in 1830 and 1831. Appeals from English tribunals to the pope 
were first introduced about 1151 ; were long vainly opposed, and were finally abolished by 
Henry VIII. in 1534. See Privy Council. 

APPENZELL, a Swiss canton, threw off the feudal supremacy of the abbots of St. Gall 
early in the 15th century, and became the thirteenth member of the Swiss confederation 
ill 1513- 

APPIAN WAY, an ancient Roman road, made by Appius Claudius C;ecus, while 
censor, 312 b.c. 

APPLES. Several kinds are indigenous to England ; but those in general use have been 
brought at various times from the continent. Richard Harris, fruiterer to Henry VIIL, is 
said to have planted a great number of the orchards in Kent, and Lord Scudamore, ambas- 
sador to France in the reign of Charles I., planted many of those in Herefordshire, Ray 
reckons 78 varieties of apples in his day (1688). 

APPRAISERS. The valuation of goods for another was an early business in England : 
and so early as 1283, by the statute of merchants, "it was enacted that if they valued the 
goods of })arties too high, the ajipraisers should take them at such price as they have limited." 
In 1845 tlieii' annual licence was raised from los. to 40s. 

APPRENTICES. Those of Loudon were obliged to wear bbie cloaks in summer, and 
blue gowns in winter, in the reign of queen Elizabeth, 1558. Ten pounds was then a great 
ai)prenticc fee. From twenty to one hundred pounds were given in the reign of James I. 
8tow's Survey. The apprentice tax, enacted 43 Geo. IIL 1802. An act for the protection 



APP 42 AQU 

of apprentices, &c., was passed in 1851. Tlic term of seven years, not to expire till the 
apprentice was 24 years old, re(|nired by the statute of Elizabeth (1563), was abolished in 
1814. The apprentices of London have been at times very riotous ; they rose into insurrection 
against foreigners on Evil May-ddij, Avliich see. 

APPROPRIATION CLAUSE, or the Irish Tithe Bill of 1S35, brought forward by lord 
John Russell, whereby any surplus revenue that might accrue by the working of the act was 
to be appropriated for the education of all classes of the people. The clause was adopted by 
the commons but rejected by the IoitIs in 1835 and 1836, whereupon it was totally 
abandoned. 

APPROPRIATIONS (property taken from the church), began in the time of William I., 
the parochial clergy being then commonly Saxons, and. the bishops and higher clergy 
Normans. These impoverished the inferior clergy to enrich monasteries, which were 
generally ^wssessed by the conqueror's friends. Where the churches and tithes were so 
appropriated, the vicar had only such a com]ietency as the bishop or superior thought fit to 
allow. Pope Alexander IV. complained of this as the bane of religion, the destruction of 
the church, and a poison that had infected tlie whole nation. Pardon. 

APRICOT, Primus Armcniaca, first planted in England about 1540, l)y tlie''gardener of 
Henry "N'^III. It originally came from Asia Minor. 

APRIL, the fourth month of our year, the second of the ancient Romans. 

APTERYX (wingless), a bird, a native of Ne\^' Zealand, first brought to tliis country in 
1813, and deposited in the collection of the earl of Derliy. Eossil specimens of a giganti(^ 
species of this bird (named Uinornis) were discovered in New Zealand liyMr. Walter ilantell 
in 1843, and since. 

APULIA, a province in S. E. Italy, conquered by the Normans, Avhose leader Guiscard 
received the title of duke of Apulia from popo Nicholas II. in 1059. After many changes 
of masters, it was absorbed into the kingdom of Naples, in 1265. 

AQUARII, a sect said to have been founded by Tatian in the 2nd century, who forbore 
the use of wine even in the sacrament, and used nothing but water, during persecution when 
they met secretly in the night, for fear of discovery. For this they were censured by 
Cyprian (martyred 258). 

AQUARIUM oil AQUAVlVArJUjr, a vessel containing water (marine or fresh) in which 
animals and plants may co-exist, mutually supporting each other ; snails being introduceit 
as scavengers. In 1849, ^Ii"- N- B. Ward .succeeded in growing sea- weeds in artificial sea- 
water ; in 1850, Mr. R. AVarington demonstrated the conditions necessary for the growth of 
aiiimals and plants in jars of water ; and in 1853 the glass tanks in the Zoological Gardens, 
Regent's Park, were set up under the skilful direction of Mr. D. Mitchell. In 1854, Mr. 
Gosse published "The Aquarium." Mr. W. Alford Lloyd, late of Portland-road, London, 
by his enterprise in collecting s])ecimens did much to increase the value and interest of 
acpiaria. The great aquarium (50 yards long and 12 wide) at the Jardin d'Acclimatation at 
Paris, was constructed under his direction in i860. 

AQUATINT. See Engraving. 

AQUEDUCT, an artificial watercourse on an inclined ])lane. No remains of Greek 
aqueducts exist. Appius Claudius advised and constructed the first Roman aqueduct, as well 
as the A2}pian way, about 312 B.C. Aqueducts of every kind were among the wonders of 
Rome. Livy. There are now some remarkable aqueducts in Europe : that at Lisbon is of 
great extent and beauty ; that at Segovia has 129 arches ; and that at Versailles is three 
niiles long, and of immense height, with 242 arches in three stories. The stu])endous 
aqueduct on the Ellesmere canal, in England, is 1007 feet in length, and 126 feet high ;■ it 
was completed by T. Telford, and opened Dec. 26, 1805. The Lisbon a(pteduct was com- 
pleted in 1738, and the Crotou aqueduct, near New York, was constructed between 1837 and 
1842. The aqueduct to supply ]\Iarseilles with water was commenced in 1830. 

AQUILEIA (Istria), made a Roman colony about 180 B.C., and fortified a.d. 168. 
Constantine 11. Avas slain in a battle with Constans, fought at Aquileia towards the close of 
ilarch 340. Maxiinus defeated and slain by Theodosius, near Acptileia July 28, 38S. 
Theodosius defeated Eugenius and Arbogastes, the Gaul, near Aquileia, and remained sole 
emperor, Sept. 6, 394. Eugenius was put to death, and Arbogastes died by his own hand, 
mortified by his overthrow. St. 7\mbrose held a synod here in 381. In 452 Aquileia was 
almost totally destroyed by Attila the Hun, and near it in 489 Theodovic and the Ostrogoths 
totally defeated Odoacer, the king of Italy. 



AQir 43 ■ AEG 

AQUITAINE, a province (S.W. France). Sulxliied by the Visigoths, 418, aud taken 
from them by Cluvis in 507. Ilenr}' II. of England inherited it from his mother, 1 152. It was 
erected into a principality for Edward the Black Prince in 1362 ; Init was annexed to France 
in 1370. The title of duke of Aijuitaine was taken by the crown of England on the 
con(|uest of this duchy by Henry V. in 14 18. The province was lost in the reign of Henry VI. 

AI\.M5IA (W. Asia). The terms Pcfnra (stony), Fdi,'- (happy), and Dcscrta are said to 
have been apjdied to its divisions by Ftolcmy, about A. n. 140. The Arabs claim descent 
from Ishmael, the eldest son of Abraham, born 1910 B.C., Gen. xvi. The country was unsuc- 
cessfully invaded by Gallus, the Roman governor of Egypt, 24 B.C. In a.d. 622, the Arabians 
under tlie name of Saracens, followers of Mahomet (born at Mecca, 570), theii' general and 
prophet, commenced their course of conquest. See Mahometaiiimn. The Arabs greatly favoured 
literature and the sciences, especially mathematics, astrononiy, and chemistry. To them we 
owe our ordinary numerals and arithmetical notation. The Koran was written in Araliic 
(622-632). The Bible was printed in Arabic in 1671. 

ARABIAN NIGHTS' ENTERTAINMENTS (or looi Tales) were translated into French 
by Galland, and published in 1704 ; but their authenticity was not acknowledged till many 
years after. The best English translation from the Arabic is that of Mr. E, W. Lane, pub- 
lished in 1839, with valuable notes and beautiful illustrations. 

AEABICI, a sect which sprung up in Arabia, whose distinguishing tenet was, that the 
soul died Avith the body, and rose again with it, 207, 

AIIAGON, part of the Roman Tarraconensis, a kingdom, N. E. Spain. It was 
coni|ucred by the Carthaginians, who were expelled by the Romans about 200 b.v. It par- 
took of the fortiuies of the countrj', but l)ecame an independent monarchy in 1035. Sec 
under S2>a in. 

ARAil, the ancient name of Sylia, ivhich sec, 

ARANJUEZ (Central Spain), contains a fine royal palace, at which several important 
treaties were concluded. On JMarcli 17, 1808, an insurrection broke out here against Charles 
TV. and his favourite, Godoy, the prince of peace. The former was compelled to abdicate in 
favour of his son, Ferdinand VII. 

AKBELA. The third and decisive battle between Alexander the Great aud Darius 
Codomanus decided the fate of Persia, Oct. i, 331 B.C., on a plain in Assyria, between Arbela 
and Gaugamela. The army of Darius consisted of 1,000,000 foot and 40,000 horse; the 
Macedonian army amounted to only 40,000 foot and 7000 horse. Arrian. The gold and 
silver found in the cities of Susa, Persepiolis, and Bal)ylon, which fell to Alexander from this 
victory, amounted to thirty millions sterling ; and the jewels and other precious spoil, 
belonging to Darius, sufficed to load 20,000 mules and 5000 camels. Plutarch. 

ARBITRATION. Submission to arbitration was authorised and made e(]uivalent in 
force to the decision of a jury, by 9 & 10 Will. III. (1698). Submissions to arbitration may 
be made rules of any court of law or equity, and arbitrators may compel the attendance of 
witnesses, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 42 (1833). "See Ou-^ct Galley. The Common LaAv Procedure 
Act (1854) authorises the judges of superior courts to order compulsory arbitration ; and, by 
an act passed in 1859, railway companies may settle disputes with each other by arbitration. 

ARBUTUS. The Arbutus Andrachnc, oriental strawberry-tree, was brought to England 
fl'om the Levant about 1724. 

ARCADES, OR AValks aiichkd ovkii. The principal in London are the Burlington^ 
■■ircadc, opened in Jlarch, 1819 ; and the Lowther-arcade, Strand, ojiened at the period of the 
Strand improvements. See ><lrand. Exeter Change, London, Avas rebuilt and opened in 
1845. See E.jxter Clianrje. The Royal-arcade, Dublin, opened June, 1S20, Avas burnt to the 
ground, April 25, 1837. 

ARCADIA, in tlie centre of the Peloponnesus, Greece. The Arcadians regarded their 
nation as the most ancient of Greece, aud older than the moon (ProscISiii, Avhich Avord 
Ooderlein conj(!ctures to mean Pre-Hellenic). They Avere more simple in their manners and 
moderate in their desires than the other Greeks, from Avhoni they Avere separated by 
iiTountains. Pelasgus is said to have taught them to feed on acorns, as being more nutritious 
;iian herb.s, their foi-mer food; for Avhieh they honoured him as a god, 152 1 n.c, Arcadia 
iia<l twenty-five kings, Avhose liistory is altogether fabulous. 



ARC 



44 



AKC 



ARCADIA {continued). 

Magna Grsecia, in S. Italy, said to have Ijeen 
colonised by Arcadians under Qinoti'us, about 
1 710 B.C. ; and under Evander . . B.C. 

Pelasgus begins his reign . . ... 

Supposed institution of the Lupercalia, in 
honour of Jupiter by Lycaon ; reigned . 

Areas, from whom the kingdom received its 
name, and who taught his subjects agricul- 
ture and the art of spinning wool . . . 

Lycrean games instituted, in honour of Pan 

Agapenor appears at the head of the Arcadians 
at the siege of Troy (Homer) .... 

The Lacedasmonians invade Ai'cadia, and arc 



1240 
1521 



ISM 
1320 



beaten by the women of the country, in the 
absence of their husbands (?) . . B.C. 1102 

Aristocrates I. (of Orchomenus) is put to death 
for offering violence to the priestess of Diana 715 

Aristocrates II. stoned to death, and a republic 
established 63 1 

The supremacy of Sparta (acknowledged 560) 
is abolished by the Thebans ; Megalopolis 
founded by Epaminondas 371 

The Arcadians make alliance with Athens, and 
arc defeated by Archidamus .... 367 

Arcadia, having joined the Achajan league, on 
its suppression becomes part of the Roman 
empire 146 

ARCH. It appears in early Egyptian and Assyrian architecture. The oldest arcli in 
Europe is probably in the Cloaca Maxima, at Rome, constructed under the early kings, 
about 588 B.(!. The Chinese bridges, which are very ancient, are of great magnitude, and 
are built with stone arches .similar to those that have been considered a Roman invention.* 
The Triumphal arches of the Romans formed a leading feature in their architecture. The 
arch of Titus (a.d. 80), that of Trajan (114), and that of Constantine (312), were magnificent. 
The arches in our parks in London were erected about 182S. The Marble Arch, which 
formerly stood before Buckingham Palace (whence it was removed to Cumberland-gate, 
Hyde Park, in 185 1) was modelled from the arch of Coustantiue. See Jlijdc Park. 

ARCHANGEL (N. Russia"), a city, is thus named from a monastery fonnded here, and 
dedicated to St. Michael in 1584. The passage to Archangel was discovered by the English 
navigator Richard Chancellor in 1553, and it was the only seaport of Rus.sia till tlie formation 
of the docks at Cronstadt, and foundation of St. Petersburg in 1703. The dreadful fire here 
by which the cathedral and upwards of 3000 houses were destroyed, occurred in June, 1793. 

ARCHBISHOP (Greek archiepiscojMs), a title given in the 4th and 5th centuries to the 
biishops of chief cities, such as Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, and Constantinople, who pre- 
sided over the other metropolitans and bishops in the districts attached to those places. The 
word is first found in the Apology against the Arians by Athanasius, who died 373. The 
Eastern archbishops have since been styled patriarchs. + Riddle. 

ARCH-CHAMBERLAIN. The elector of Brandenburg was appointed the hereditary 
arch-chamberlain of the German Empire by the golden bull of Charles IV. in 1356, and in 
that quality he bore the sceptre before the emperor. 

ARCH-CHANCELLORS were appointed under the two first races of the kings of France 
(418 — 986), and when their territories were divided, the archbishops of Mentz, Cologne, and 
Treves became arch- chancellors of Germany, Italy, and Aries. 

ARCHDEACON. The name was early given to the first or eldest deacon, who attended 
on the bishop without any power ; but since the council of Nice, his function is become a 
dignity, and set above that of jiriest, though anciently it was quite otherwise. The ap- 
pointment in these countries is referred to 107^. There are seventy-one archdeacons in 
England (1865), and thirty- three in Ireland. The archdeacon's court is the lowest in eccle- 
siastical polity : an appeal lies from it to the consistorial court, by 24 Henry VIII. (1532). 

* The new bridge of Chester, whose span is 200 feet, was commenced in 1829. The central arch of 
London Bridge is 152 feet ; and the three cast iron arches of Southwark bridge, which rest on massive atone 
piers and abutments are, the two side ones 210 feet each, and the centre 240 feet : thus the centre arch 
exceeds the admired bridge of Sunderland by four feet in the span, aiid the long-famed Rialto at Venice, 
by 167 feet. See Bruh/es. 

t In these realms the dignity is nearly coeval with the establishment of Christianit}'. Before the 
Saxons came into England there were three sees : London, York, and Caerleon-upon-Usk ; but soon after 
the arrival of St. Austin he settled the metropolitan see at Canterbury, 602. See Canterbury. York 
continued archiepiscopal ; but London and Caerleon lost the dignity. Caerleon was found, previously, to 
be too near the dominions of the Saxons ; and in the time of King Arthur the archbishopric was transferred 
to St. David's, of which St. Sampson was the 26th and last Welsh archbishop. See St. David's. The 
bishoprics in Scotland were under the jurisdiction of the archbishop of York xuitil the erection of the 
archiepiscopal sees of St. Andrew's and Glasgow, in 1470 and 1491 ; these last were discontinued at the 
Revolution. Sec Glasgozo and St. Andrew's. The bishop of Moray, &c., is now (1865) styled PciHrni-.^ The 
rank of archbishop was of early institution in Ireland. See Ferns. Four archbishoprics were constituted 
in Ireland, 11 51, namely, Armagh, Cashel, Dublin, and Tuam ; luitil then the archbishop of Canterbury 
had jurisdiction over the Irish as well as English bishops, in like manner as the archbishop of York had 
jurisdiction over those of Scotland. Of these four archbishoprics two were reduced to bishopries, namely, 
Cashel, and Tuam, conformably with the statute 3 & 4 Will. IV. 1833, by which also the number of sees in 
Ireland was to bo reduced (as the incumbents often of them respectively died) from twenty -two to twelve, 
the present number. See ii/»'/io^>^, Ca.'ihd, I'ao.m ; PuUii'.ra, dx. 



ARC 



45 



ARC 



ARCiJERV. Plato ascribes the invention to Apollo, hy whom it was communicated to 
the Cretans. Ishmael "became an archer" {Gen. xxi. 20), 1892 B.n. The Philistine 
archers overcame Saul (l Sam. xxxi. 3), 1055 B.C. David commanded the use of the bow 
to be taught (2 Sam. i. 18). Aster of Amphipolis, having been slighted by Philip, king of 
ilacedon, at the siege of Mothone, 353 B.C., .'jhot an arrow, on Avluch was written " Aimed 
at Philip's right eye," which struck it and put it out ; Philip threw back the arrow with 
tlicse words : "If Philip take the town, Aster shall be hanged." The conqueror kept his 
word. 

Archery introduced into England previously to 440 

Il.u-old and his two brothers were killed by 
arrows shot from the cross-bows of the Nor- 
man soldiei's at the battle of Hastings in . 1066 

Richard I. revived archery in England in 1190, 
.and was himself killed by an arrow in . . 1199 

The victories of Crccy (1346), Poitiers (1356), 
and Agincourt (141 5), wore won chiefly by 
archers.* 

Four thousand archers surrounded the houses 



of pai-liament, ready to .shoot the king and 
the members, 21 Richard H. {Stoie.) 

The citizens of London formed into com- 
panies of archers in the reign of Edward 
III. ; and into a corporate body by the style 
of "The Fraternity of St. George," 20 Henry 
VIII . 

Roger Ascham's " Toxopldlus, the School of 
Shooting" published in . . . 

Sec Artilkfjj Company, Toxophiliies, dx: 



1538 



ARCHES, CoUET OF, the mo.st ancient consistory court, chiefly a court of appeal from 
inferior jurisdictions within the province of Canterbitry ; it derives its name from the church 
of St. Mary-le-Bow (Suncta Maria de Arcubus), Loudon, where it was held ; and wliose toji 
is raised on stone piUars built archwise. Coivell. Appeals from this court lie to the judicial 
committee of the privy council, by statute, 1832. 

ARCHITECTURE (from the Greek archi-tcktun, chief artificer), ornamental building. 
The five great orders of architecture are, — the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian {Greek) ; — the 
Tuscan and Composite {Roman). The Gothic began to prevail in the ninth century. See 
the Orders respectively and Gothic. 

The Parthenon finished . . , .B.C. 438 
The Pantheon, &c., built at Rome . a.d. 13 
The Colosseum (or Coliseum) .... 70 
Hadrian builds temples at Rome, «tc. . . . 117 
Diocletian's palace at Spalatro .... 284 

Basilicas at Rome 330-900 

St. Sophia, at Constantinople, begun . . 532 
Rock-cut temples in India — Caves uf Ellora . 500-800 
Canterbury cathedral, founded . . . . 602 
Mosque of Omar, at Jerusalem .... 637 

York Minster, begun about 741 

St. Peter's, Rome 1450-1626 

St. Paul's, London 1675-1710 



The Pyramids of Egypt, begim about . B.C. 

Solomon's Temple, begun 

Birs Nimroud, m Assyi-ia about 

The Doric order begins about . . . . 

Doric Temple at iEgina 

Temple of Jupiter and Cloaca Maxima, at Rome, 

founded 

Babylon built 

The Ionic order begins about . . . 500-420 
The Corinthian order begins .... 335 
Choragic Monument of Lysikrates . . . 335 
Architecture flourishes at Athens . . 480-320 
Erechtheum at Athens 450-420 



1500 
1004 
goo 
650 

550 

616 
600 



Yitruvius, about . 

"William of Wickham 
Michael Angelo Buo- 
narotti 



Born. Died. ' 

B.C. 27 

A.r>. 
■ 1324—1405' 

• 1474— 1564 



EMINENT ARCHITECTS. 

JBom. Died. 



A. Palladio 
Inigo Jones . 
Bernini . 
Chi-istopher Wren 
J. Vanbrugh 



1518—1580 
1572—1652 



1632 — 1723 
1670 — 1726 



James Gibbs . 
R. and J. Adams . 
A. W. Pugin . 

C. Barry 



Bom. Died. 
. 1674— 1754 
. 1728— 1794 
. 1811 — 1852 
• 1795 — 1S60 



An Architectural Club was formed in 1791. An Architectural Society existed in London in 1808. 
The Royal In.stitute of British Architects was founded in 1834 — Earl de Grey, president, 1835-61. 
The Architectural Society, established in 1831, was united to the Institute m 1842. The Architectural 
Association began about 1846. 

ARCHONS. When royalty was abolished at Athens, in memory of king Codrus, killed in 
battle, 1044 B.C. (or 1070), the executive government was vested in elective magistrates 
called archons, wliose office continued for life. Medon, eldest son of Codrus, was the first 
arohon. The oftice was limited to ten years, 752 B.C., and to one year 683 B.C. 

ARCOLA (Lombardy), the site of battles between the French under Bonaparte, and the 
' Austrians under field-marshal Alvinizi, fought Nov. 15 — 17, 1796. The result was the loss 
on the part of the Austrians of 18,000 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners, four flags, 
and eighteen guns. The loss of the French was estimated at 15,000. They became masters 
of Italy. In one of the contests Bonaparte was in most imminent danger, and was only 
rescued by the impetuosity of his troops. 

• The long-boio waa six feet long, and the arrow three feet ; the usual range from 300 to 500 yards. 
Roliin Hood is said to have .shot from 600 to 800 yards. A Persian hero, Arish, is stated to have shot over 
between 400 and 500 miles, as related by Ferdousi ! The cross-bow was fixed to a stock, and discharged 
with a trigger. 



. ARC 46 ARG 

ARCOT (East Indies). This city (fomided 1716) was taken by colonel Clive, Aug. 31, 
1751 ; was retaken, but again surrcmlered to colonel C'ooto, Feb. 10, 1760. Besieged by 
Ilyder Ali, when the British under colonel Baillie suft'ered severe defeats, Sept. 10 and 
Ort. 31, 17S0. Arcot has been subject to Great Britain since 1801. See India. 

ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS. See North-Wf-if Paasagc and FranUhis RcpcdUion. 

ARDAGH, an ancient prelacy in Ireland, founded by St. Patrick, who made his nephew, 
llell, the first bishop, previously to 454. This prelacy was formerly held with Kilmoro ; but 
since 1742 it has been held in eommcndain \vith Tuam {vhich sec). It was united with 
li^ibnore in 1839, and with Elphiu in 1S41. 

ARDFERT and AGHADOE, bishopricks in Ireland long united ; the former was called 
the bishoprick of Kerry ; Ert presided in the Sth century. William Fuller appointed in 
1663, became bishop of Limerick in 1667, since when Ardfert and Aghadoe have been united 
to that prelacy. Near the cathedral an anchorite tower, 120 feet high, the loftiest and finest 
in the kingdom, suddenly fell, 1770. 

ARDOCH. See Grampians. 

AREIOPAGUS OE, AREOPAGUS, a venerable Greek tribunal, said to have heard causes 
in the dark, because the judges should be blind to all but focts, instituted at Athens about 
1507 B.C. Arund. Marbles. The name is derived from the Greek Aricos pagos, the hill of 
j\Iars, through the tradition that Mars was the first who was tried there for the murder of 
Ilalirrhotius, who had violated his daughter Alcippe. The powers of this court were enlarged 
by Solon, about 594 B.C., but diminished by the jealousy of Pericles, 461 B.C. Paul preached 
on Mars' hill, A.D. 52 (Acts xvii.). 

AREZZO, near the ancient Arretium, or Aretinnm, an Etrurian city, which made peace 
with Rome for 30 years, 308 B.C., was besieged by the Galli Senones, about 283 B.C., who 
defeated the Roman army Metellus sent to its relief— a disgrace avenged signally by Uolabella. 
Arezzo was an ancient bishopric : the cathedral was founded in 1277. It is renowned as 
the birthplace of Mrecenas, Petrarch, Vasari, and other eminent men. Michael Angelo was 
born in the vicinity. 

ARGAUM, in the Deccan, India, where sir A. Wellesley, on Nov. 29, 1803, thorouglily 
defeated the rajah of Berarand the Jlahratta chief Scindiah, who became in consef|uence quite 
subservient to the British. 

ARGENTARIA, Alsace (now Colmap., N. E. France), where the Roman emperor fh'atian 
totally defeated the Alemanni, and secured the peace of Gaul, 378. 

ARGENTINE (ou LA PLATA) CONFEDERATION, S. America, 14 provinces. This 
country was discovered by the Spaniards in 15 15 ; settled by them in 1553, and formed part 
of the great vice-royalty of Peru till 1778, when it became that of Rio de la Plata. It joined 
the insurrection in 181 1, and became independent in 1816. It was at war with Brazil from 
1826 to 1828, for the possession of Uruguay, which became independent as Monte-Video, 
and at war with France from 1838-40. Buenos Ayres seceded in 1853, and was reunited in 
1S59. An insurrection began in San Juan, in Nov. i860, and was suppressed in Jan. 1861. 
J. Urquiza, elected president, Nov. 20, 1853, was succeeded by Dr. S. Derrpii, Feb. 8, i860. 
Gen. B. Mitre, elected for six years, assumed the president's office, Oct. 12, 1862. In AprU, 
1865, Lopez, president of Paraguay, made an alliance with Buenos Ayres, declared war 
against Mitre, and invaded the Argentine territories. May. Mitre made an alliance with 
Brazil. Population in 1859, about 1,171,800. See Buenos Ayres for the disputes with 
that state. 

ARGINUS.E ISLES, betM-een Lesbos and Asia Minor ; near these Conon and the 
Athenian fleet defeated the Spartan admiral Callicratidas, 406 B.C. 

ARGONAUTIC EXPEDITION, 1263 B.C. (1225, Clinton), undertaken by Ja.son to 
avenge the death of his kinsman Phryxus, and recover his treasures seized b}^ his murderer, 
/Eetes, king of Colchis. The ship in which Phryxus had sailed to Colchis having been 
adorned with the figure of a ram, it induced the poets to pretend that the journey of Jason 
was for the recovery of the golden fleece. This is the first naval expedition on record. 
Many kings and heroes accompanied Jason, whose ship was called A rgo, from its builder. 
Dttfresnoy. 



ARG 



47 



AEI 



ARGOS, the most ancient city of Greece, said to have been founded either by Inacluis, 
1S56 «.('., or his son, Phoroucns, 1807, received its name from Argus, the fourth of the 
Juacludte, 1711 B.C. 

8parta becomes .superior to Argos 

Themistocle.s an exile at Argos . 

The Argives destroy Mycenaj and regain their 

superiority 

Peloponnesian war — Argo.s long neutral ; but 

joins Athe:is 

The aristooratical party makes peace with 

Sparta, and overthrows the democratical 

government 417 

A reaction — alliance with Athens resumed . 395 
Pyn'hus of Macedon .slain while besieging 

Argos ........ 272 

Argos long governed by tyrants supported by , 

Macedon ; it is freed and joins the Achfean 



1475 



1425 
1425 



495-490 
471 



468 



420 



league 229 

Subjugated by the Romans .... 146 
Argos taken from the Venetians . . a.d. 1686 
Taken by the Turks 1716, who held it until . 1826 
United to Greece under King Otho (see Greece) 

Jan. 25, 1833 



Reign of Triopas ; Polycaon seizes part of tlio 
kingdom, and calls it after his wife, Measmia 

B.C. 

Cielanor, last of the Inachid;e, deposed by 

Danavis, an Egyptian 

Feast of the FUnnbenux, instituted in honour of 

Hypermncstra, who s.aved her husband, Lyn- 

ccus, son of iEgj'ptus, on his nuptial niglit, 

while her fiirty-nino sisters sacrificed theirs, 

at the connnand of their father, Dauaus 

l.ynccus dethi-ones Dan.aus 

The kingdom divided by the brothers Acrisius 

and Proetus .... 1344(1313. CI.) 

Perseus, gi-andson of Acrisiu.', leaves Argos. 

.and founds Mycenaj (which see) . ... 1313 
The HeracHdte retake the Peloponnesus, and 

Temenus seizes Argos 1102 

Plieidon's prosperous rule .... 770-730 
The Argives fine Sicyon and iEgiua for helping 

Cleomenes of Sparta, with whom they are at 

war 514 

ARGYLE {^Y. Scotland), JjLSUoi'iUC of, founded about 1200, Evaldus being the fir.st 
bi.shop ; the diocese was previously part of the see of Dunkeld ; it ended with the abolition 
of episcopacy in Scotland, 1688. Argyle and the Isles is a post-revolution bishopric, 1847. 
See Bishoiwics. 

ARIAN, OR Aryak (in Sanskrit signifying noble, warlike), a term now frequently 
a]iplied to the hypothetical Indo-Germanic family of nations, 

ARIAN'S, the followers of Arius of Alexandria, who preached against the divinity of 
Christ, about 315, and died in 336. The controversy was taken up by Constautine, who 
]iresided at the council of Mcc, 325, when the Arians were condemned ; but their doctrine 
]irevailed for a time in the East. It was favoured by Constantius II. 341 ; and carried into 
Africa under the A'"andals in the 5tli century, and into Asia under tlie Goths. Servetus 
publi.shed his treatise against the Trinity, 1531, and was burnt, 1553. See Athanasian 
Creed. Leggatt, an Arian, was burnt at Smithtield in 16 14. 

ARISTOTELIAN PHILOSOPHY : the most comprehensive system ever devised by man. 
Aristotle was born at Stagyra (hence termed the Stagyrite), 384 B.C. ; was a pupil of Plato 
irom 364 to 347 ; became preceptor of Alexander, son of Philip of Macedon, in 342 ; and died 
in 322. He divided the circle of knowledge into Metaphy.sics and Logic, Physics, including 
part of the science of mind, and Ethics. His philosophy was too much exalted by the 
schoolmen during the middle ages, and too much depreciated after the Reformation. His 
works on natural science contain a vast collection of facts and an extraordinary mixture of 
sound jnd chimerical opinions. To him is attributed the assertion that nature abhors a 
vacuum, an opinion now maintained by some eminent modern philosophers, 

ARITHMETIC is .said to have been introduced fi-om 'Egri)t into Greece by Tliales, about 
600 B.C. The Chinese used the abacus at an early period. It is asserted that the ancient 
Hindus adopted a system having ten as a basis. 



Tlie oldest treatise upon arithmetic is by Euclid 

(7th, 8th, and 9th books of his Utementf:), 

about B.C. 

The sexagesimal arithmetic of Ptolemy was 
used A.D. 

Diophantus, of Alexandria, was the author of 
thirteen books of arithmetical questions (of 
which six are now extant) . . . about 

Notation by nine digits and zero, known at 
least as earlj' as the sixth centurj' in Hindo- 
stan — introduced from thence into Arabia, 
about 900 — into Europe, about 980 — into 
France, by Gerbert, 991 — into Spain, 1050 — 
into England 



156 



The date in Caxton's Mirrour of the World, 
Arabic characters, is 1480 

Arithmetic of decimals invented . . . 1482 

John Shirwood bishop of Durh.am's Ludus 
Arithmo Machince," xtvintediaX'RowiQ . . . 14S2 

First work printed in England on ai-ithmetic 
{de Arte Sapputandi) was by Tonstall, bishop 
of Durham 1522 

The theory of decimal fractions was perfected 
by Napier in his iJ/irtMo/o</iffi, in . . .1617 

Cocker's Arithmetic apjieared in . . . . 1677 

Nystrom's Tonal system with i5 as a basis pub- 
'lished 1863 



ARIZONA, a territory of the United States, originally part of New ]\Iexico, was organised 
Feb. 24, 1863 ; capital, Tucson. 



AKK 48 Ami 

\UK. Slount Ararat is venerated by the Armenians, from a belief of its being the phice 
on which Noah's ark rested, after the universal deluge, 2347 B.C. But Apamea, in Phrygia, 
claims to be the spot ; and medals have been struck there with a chest on the waters, and 
the letters NOE, and two doves : this place is 300 miles west of Ararat. The ark was 300 
cubits in length, fifty in breadth, and thirty high ; but most interpreters suppose this cubit 
to be about a foot and a-half, and not the geometrical one of six. 

AEKANSAS, originally part of Louisiana, purchased from France by the United States 
in 1803, was admitted into the Union, 1836, and seceded from it May 6, 1 861, Several 
liattles were fought in this state in 1862. Capital, Little Rock. 

AEKLOW (in Wicklow), where a battle was fought between the insurgent L-isli, amount- 
ino' to 31,000, and a small regular force of British, which signally defeated them, June 10, 
1798. The town was nearly destroyed by the insurgents in ilay previous.— Native gold was 
discovered in Arklow, in Sept. 1795. Phil. Trans, vol. 86. 

ARLES, an ancient town in France, in 879 the capital of the kingdom of Aries or Lower 
Buro-undy. Here are the remains of a Roman amphitheatre, capable of holding between 
20 000 and 30,000 persons. English bishops are said to have been'present at the council 
held here against the Donatists, 314. 

ARMADA, THE Invincible. The famous Spanish ai-mament, so called, consisted of 130 
ships of war, besides transports, &c., 2650 great guns, 20,000 soldiers, 11,000 sailors, and 
2000 volunteers, under the duke of Medina Sidonia, and 180 priests and monks. It sailed 
from the Tagus, May 28-30, 1588, and arrived in the channel, July 19, 1588, and was 
defeated the next day by Drake and Howard. Ten fire-ships having been sent into the 
enemies' fleet, they cut their cables, put to sea and endeavoured to return to their rendezvous 
between Calais and Gravelines : the English fell upon them, took many ships, and admiral 
Howard maintained a running fight fronr the 2 ist July to the 28th, obliging the shattered fleet 
to bear away for Scotland and Ireland, where a storm dispersed them, and the remainder of 
the armament returned by the North Sea to Spain. The Spaniards lost fifteen capital ships 
in the engagement, and 5000 men ; seventeen ships were lostor taken on the coast of Ireland, 
and upwards of 5000 men were drowned, killed, or taken prisoners. The English lost but 
one ship. About one-third of the armament returned to Spain. 

ARMAGH, in N. Ireland, of which it was the metropolis from the 5th to the 9th century, 
was the first ecclesiastical dignity in Ireland, founded by St. Patrick, its first bishop, about 
444, who is said to have built the first cathedral 450. Six saints of the Roman calendar 
have been bishops of this see. In the king's books, by an extent taken 15 James I., it is 
valued at 400I. sterling a year ; and until lately, was estimated at 15,000?. per annum. The 
see was re-constituted (see Pallium) in 1151. Bcatson. Armagh was ravaged by the Danes 
on Easter-day, 852, and by O'Neilin 1564. 

ARMAGNACS, a political party in France, followers of the duke of Orleans, derived their 
name from his father-in-law, the count of Armagnac. About 3500 of this party were 
massacred at Paris in May, 1418, by their opponents, the followers of the duke of Burgundy. 

ARMED NEUTRALITY, the confederacy of the northern powers against England, 
formed by the empress of Russia in 1780 ; ended in 1781. The confederacy was renewed, 
and a treaty ratified in order to cause their flags to be respected by the belligerent powers, 
Dec. 16, 1800. The principle that neutral flags protect neutral bottoms being contrary t<' 
the maritime system of England, the British cabinet remonstrated, war ensued, and Nelson 
and Parker destroyed the fleet of Denmark before Copenhagen, April 2, 1801. This event 
and the murder of the emperor Paul of Russia led to the dissolution of the Armed 
Neutrality. 

ARMENIA, Asia Minor. Here Noah is said to have resided when he left the ark, 2347 
!!.(;. Armenia, after forming part of the Assyrian, Median, and Persian empires, became 
subject to the Greek kings of Syria, after the defeat of Antiochus the Great, 190 B.C.; the 
Romans established the kingdoms of Armenia Major and Minor, but their influence over 
them was frequently interrupted by the aggressions of the Parthians. The modern Christian 
kingdom of Armenia arose about 1080 in the rebellion of Philaretus Brachancius against the 
Greek emperor. It lasted amid many struggles till the 14th century. In all their political 
troubles the Armenians have maintained the profession of Christianity. Their church is 
i>;overned by patriarchs, not subject to Rome. Since 171 5 an Armenian convent has existed 
at Venice, where books on all subjects are printed in the Armenian language. 



ARM 



49 



ARM 



ARMENIA, continued. 

City of Artaxarta built .... B.C. iS5 
Aiitiochus E^jiphaiiis invades Armenia . . 165 
Tigrauos thj Gre.it reigns in Armenia Major . 95-60 
Becomes king of Syria, and assumes tlie title 

of " iving ol Kings ' 83 

Defeated by Lucullus, 69; he lays his crown at 

the feet of Pompey 66 

His son, Artavasdes, reigns, 54 ; he assists 
Pompey against Julius Ciesar, 48 ; and the 
Partuiaus against Marc Antony ... 36 
Antony subdues, ;ind sends him loaded with 

silver chains to Egypt 34 

AvUixias, his son, macle king by the Parthians 33 
Deposed by the Romans, who enthrone Ti- 

granes II 20 

Armenia subjected to Parthia . . a.d. 15 
Reconquered by Germanicus, grandson of Au- 
gustus 18 

After many changes Tiridates is made king by 

the Romans 58 

The P.irthian conquerors of Armenia are ex- 
pelled by Trajan 115 

Severus makes Yolagarses king of part of 
Armenia 199 



Christianity introduced, between . . 100-200 

Arinania added to the Persiau empire . . 312 

Tiridates obtains th3 throne through Dio- 
cletian, 286 ; is expelled by Narses, 294 ; 
restored by Galerius 298 

On his death, Armenia becomes subject to 
Persia, 342 ; is made neutral by Rome and 
Persia, 384 ; who divide it by treaty . . 443 

Armenia coaquered and reconquered by the 
Greek and Persian sovereigns . . 577-6S7 

And by the Greek emperors and the Maboiu- 
medans 693-1065 

Leon VI., last king of Armenia, taken prisonur 
by the Saracens, 1375 ; released ; he dies at 
Paris 1393 

Overrun by the Mongols, 1235 ; by Timour, 
1383 ; by the Turks, 1516; by the Persians, 
1534; by the Turks 1583 

Shah Abbas, of Persia, surrenders Armenia to 
the Turks, but transports 22,000 Armenian 
families into his own states . . . . 1589 

Overrun by the Russians 1828 

Surrender of Erzeroum .... July, 1829 
(See Synn and Russo- Turkish War.) 



ARMENIAiST ERA, commenced on the gtli of July, 552 ; the ecclesiastical year on 
the nth August. To reduce this last to our time, add 551 years, and 221 days ; and in 
leap years subtract one day from March i to August 10. Tiie Armenians used the old 
Julian style and months in their correspondence with Eui'opeans. 

ARMILLARY SPHERE, an instrument devised to give an idea of the motions of the 
heavenly bodies. It is commonly made of brass, and disposed in such a manner that the 
greater and lesser circles of the sphere are seen in their natural position and motion ; the 
whole being comprised in a frame. It is said to have been invented by Eratosthenes, about 
255 B.C. ; and was employed by Tycho Brahe and other astronomers. 

ARMINIANS (OE Remoxsteaxts) derive their formername from James Arminius (or 
Harmenseu), a Protestant divine, of Leydeu, Holland (died, 1609); the latter name from 
his followers having presented a Remonstrance to the States-General in 1610. They 
separated fiom the Calvinists, consulering Calvin's views of grace and predestination in 
opposition to free will too severe. A fierce controversy raged to 1625, when the Arminians, 
\viio h..d been exiled, returned to their homes. Their doctrines were condemned in 1619, 
at the synod of Dort (wliich see). The Calvinists were then sometimes styled Gomarists, 
from Gomar, the chief opponent to Arminius. James I. and Charles I. favoured the doc- 
trines of the Arminians, which still prevail largely in Holland and elsewhere. 

ARMORIAL BEARINGS became hereditary in families at the close of the 12th century. 
They took their rise from the knights painting their banners with different figures, and were 
employed by the crusaders, in order at first to distinguish noblemen in battle, lioo. 
The lines to denote colours in arms, by their direction or intersection, were invented by 
Columbiere in 1639. Armorial bearings were taxed in 1798, and again in 1808. The armo- 
rial bearings of the English sovereigns are given under the article England. 

ARMORICA, now Brittany, N. France, was conquered by Julius Csesar, 56 b.c. Many 
Gauls retired there and preserved the Celtic tongue, a.d. 584. See Brittany. 

ARMOUR. That of Goliath is described (about 1063 B.C.) i Sam. xvii. 5. The warlike 
Europeans at first despised any other defence than the shield. Skins and padded hides were 
first used ; and brass and iron armour, in plates or scales, followed. The first body armour 
of the Britons was skins of wild beasts, exchanged, after the Roman conquest, for the well- 
tanned leathern cuirass. Tacitus. This latter continued till the Anglo-Saxon era. 
Hengist is said to have had scale armour, a.d. 449. The Norman armour formed breeches 
and jacket, 1066. The hauberk had its hood of tlie same piece, iioo. John wore a surtout 
over a liauberk of rings set edgeways, 1 199. The lieavy cavalry were covered with a coat of 
mail, Henry III. 1216. Some horsemen had vizors, and sculi-caps, same reign. Armour 
became exceedingly splendid about 1350. The armour of plate commenced 1407. Black 
armour, used not only for battle, but for mourning, Henry V. 1413. The armour of Henry VII. 
consisted of a cuirass of steel, in tlie form of a pair of stays, about 1500. Armour ceased 
to reach below the knee.s, Charles I. 1625. In the reign of Charles II. officers wore no other 



AllM 



50 



APiM 



ni-moiir than a large gorget, \vhich is commemorated in tlie climinutive ornament known at 
tlie present daj'. Mcyrick. 

ARMS. The club was the first offensive weapon ; then followed the mace, battle-axe, 
pike, spear, javelin, sw^ord and dagger, bows and arrows. Pliny ascribes the invention of 
the sling to the Phoenicians. See articles on the various weapons throughout the volume. 

ARMS. See Armorial hearings and Heraldry. 

ARMS' BILL, for the repression of crime and insurrection in Ireland, was passed Oct. 15, 
183 1. It was a revival of the expired statutes of George III. The guns registered under 
this act throughout the kingdom at the close of the first year scarcely amounted to 3000, 
and the number was equally small of all other kinds of arms. The new Arms' bill passed 
Aug. 22, 1843. It has been since renewed, but has not been rigidly enforced. 

ARMY. Ninus and Semiramis had armies amounting to nearly two millions of fighting 
men, 2017 B.C. The first guards and regidar troops as a standing army were formed by 
Saiil, 1093 B.C. Eusehius. The army of Xerxes invading Greece is said to have been 
1,700,000 foot and So, 000 horse : 480 B.C. One of the first standing armies of which we 
have any account, is that of Philiji of Macedon. The army wdiich Darius opposed to 
Alexander the Great (332 B.C.) is set down as between 750,000 and a million. The first 
standing army which existed as such, in modern times, was maintained in France by 
Charles VII. in 1445. The chief European nations have had in their service the following 
armies: Spain, 150,000 men; Great Britain, 310,000; Prussia, 350,000 ; Turkey, 450,000 ; 
Austria, 500,000 ; Russia, 560,000 ; and France, 680,000. Estimated number in Europe in 
1863, 6,000,000 soldiers, 1,000,000 horses, 11,000 guns. 

ARMY, Bkitisii, mainly arose in the reign of Charles II. in 1661, in consequence of the 
extinction of feudal tenures. The first five regiments of British infantry were established 
between 1633 and 1680. James II. established several regiments of dragoon guards (1685-8). 
In 1685 the army consisted of 7000 foot and 1 700 cavalry. Standing armies were introduced 
by Charles I. in 1638 ; they were declared illegal in England, 31 Charles II. 1679 ; but one 
was then gradually forming, which was maintained by William III. 1689, when the Mutiny 
Act was passed. Sae Jiegiments. Grose's " History of the British Army " was published in 
1 801. The effective rank-and-file of the army actuall}-^ serving in the pay of Great Britain 
on the 24th Dec. 1800, amounted to 168,082 ; and the estimates of the whole army in that 
year were 17,973,000^. The militia, volunteer, and other auxiliary forces were of immense 
amount at some periods of the war ending in 1815. The strength of the volunteer corps 
was greatest between the 3'ears 1798 and 1804, in which latter year this species of force 
amounted to 410,000 men, of whom 70,000 wcie Irish; and the militia had increased to 
130,000 men, previously to the regular regiments being recruited from its ranks in 1809. 
The following are statements of the effective military strength of the United Kingdom at 
the periods mentioned, and of the sums voted for military expenditure : 



1780, Time of war: troops of 

the line 

1800, War 

1 810, War: army including 

foreign troops 
1815, Last year of the war 
1820, Time of peace; war in- 

cumbrance.9 . . . 
1830, Peace .... 
1840, Peace . . . . 
1850, Peace . . . . 
1852, Peace (except Kaffir war) 101,937 
1854, War with Russia 



Wen. 


Sum voted. 


110,000 
168,000 


£7,847,000 
17.973,000 


300,000 
300,000 


26,748,000 
39,150,000 


88,100 
89,300 

93-471 
99,118 
101,937 
"2.977 


18,253,000 
6,991,000 
6,890,267 
6,763,488 
7,018,164 
7,167,486 



Men. 
178,645' 



Sum voted. 
£13.721,153 



1855, War with Russia . 

1856, War with Russia (effec- 

tive men 154,806) . . 206,836 14,545,059 
(Sept. 5, 1856, reduced to 125,000 men, 

exclusive of the Indian army.) 
1859, Prospect of European 

war in April— June (in 

Great Britain) . . 

i860. War with China . 

1861, 212,773 

1862, 

1863, (With Indian army) . 



109,640 13,300,000 
(Only those at home) 

235.852 14,842,000 
14,168,621 



220,918 15,060,237 



AEMV, AXD NAVV, AND OTHER CHARGES OF THE WAR WITH RUSSIA. 

Original Estimate 1854-5 Actual Charge 1854-5 Estimate for 1855-6 

Army .... £6,287,486 . . . £7,167,486 .... £13,721,158 

Navy 7,487,948 . . . . 10,417,309 . . . . 10,716,338 

Ordnance .... 3,845,878 . . . 5,986,662 .... 7,808,042 
Transports (increase in Na^-y) 3,582,474 . . . . 5,181,465 



Total. . .£17,621,312 £27,153,931 

Volunteers in Great Britain in 1S62, stated to be 167,291. 



£37,427,003 



" Besides this national army, 14,950 foreign troops were voted for the service of the year 1855-6 ; and 
the English militia was called out, and increased to the number of 120,000 men, thus forming a totnl of 
313,595, exclusive of 20,000 Turkish auxiliaries taken into British pay. 



AMI 



51 



ARR 



ARMY, RiiiTisn, continwrl. 

uniTisii army; nox-(^ommissioned officers axd privates, in 1840. 





Life Guards. 


Horse Guards. 


Foot Guards. 


Cavalry. 


Infantry. 


English . 
Scotch . 
1 Irisli 


724 

. . 67 

iq 


367 
22 
10 


4.314 
472 
64 


6,174 

781 

2,569 


35.78s 
12,046 
36,531 


1 Total 


. . 810 


399 


4,850 


9.324 


84,362 



Tlie Army Service Acts: 12 & 13 Vict. c. 37 
(June 21, 1847), and 18 Vict. c. 4 . Feb. 27, 

The Mutiny Act i.'^ passed annually ; alterations 
were made in this Act and iii tlie Articles of 
War in 1S55. See Militia and Viihtnti>eys. 

Officers in the service of the East India Coni- 
jiany to have the same rank and precedence 
as those in the regular army . April 25, 

The office of Ma.stor-General of the Ordnance 
abolished, and the civil administration of the 
Anny and Ordnance vested in the hands of 
Ijord Panraure, the Minister of War May 25, 

Kxamination of staff officers previous to their 
aiipointment ordered . . . April g, 

The army largely recruited in 1857 and 1858, in 
consequence of the war in India. 

The K.ist India Company's army was transfen-ed 
to the Queen 

Much dissatisfaction arose in that army in con- 



1855 



iSs7 
1859 



sequence of no bounty being granted j-and 
tlireatenings of mutiny appeared, which 
subsided after an ai-rangement was made 
granting discharge to those who desired it. 
See India . . 1859 

Examination of candidates for the Jlilitary 
Academy, previou.sly confined to pupils from 
Sandli\irst, was thrown open, 1855 ; the prin- 
ciple of this measin-e was affirmed by the 
House of Commons by vote . April 26, 1S58 

By 22 (fe 23 Vict. c. 42, provision made for a re- 
serve force, not to exceed 20,000 men, who 
had been in her majesty's service . . . 1859 

Flogging virtually abolished in the army : First 
class. soldiers to be degraded to second class 
before being liable to it , . . Nov. g, ,, 

A report of a commission in 1858 cavises great 
sinitary improvements in the army, barracks, 
&c., under direction of Mr. Sidney Herbert 1859-60 



ARMY OF OcouPATiox. The allied power."?, Austria, Ru.ssia, and Prussia, by the treaty 
sjf^ned Nov. 20, 1815, established the boundaries of France, and stipulated for the occupa- 
tion of certain foi'tresses by foreign troops for three years, to the intense disgust of the 
natives. 

AROMATICS. Acron of Agiigentum is said to have been the first who caused great fires 
to be made, and aromaties to be thrown into them, to purify the air, by which means he put 
a stop to the plague at Athens, 473 B.C. Nokv. Diet. 

ARPINUM (S. Italy), celebrated as the birthplace of Cicero, Jan. 3, 106 B.f. ; many 
remains still boar his name. 

ARQUEBUS. See /'iVe^j-ms. 

ARQUES (N. France). Near here the League army, commanded by the due de Mayenne, 
was defeated by Henry IV. Sept. 21, 1589. 

ARRACAN, a province of N.E. India. Arracan, the capital, was taken by the Burmese, 
1783 ; and taken from them by general Morrison, April I, 1825. The subjugation of the 
whole province soon followed. 

ARRAIGNMENT consists in reading the indictment by the officer of the court, and 
calling upon the prisoner to say whether he is guilty or not guilty. Formerly, persons who 
refused to plead in cases of felony were pressed to death by weights placed upon the breast. 
A person .standing mute was declared convicted by an act passed 1772 ; but in 1827, the 
court was directed to enter a plea of " not guilty" in such cases. See Mute. 

ARRAS (N.E. of France), the ancient Atrebates, the seat of a bishop since 390. 
Here a treaty was concluded between the king of France and duke of Burgundy, when the 
latter abandoned his alliance with England, Sept. 22, 1435- Another treaty was concluded 
by Maximilian of Austria with Louis XI. of France, whereby the counties of Burgundy and 
Artois were given to the dauphin as a marriage portion ; this latter Avas entered into in 
14S2. Vrlhj. Arras was held by the Austrians from 1493 till 1640, when it was taken by 
Louis XIII. 

ARRAY. On Dec. 23, 1324, Edward II. directed the bi.shop of Durham to make 
"arraicr" his men-of-arms, horse and foot, and cause thorn to proceed to Portsmouth; 
thence to proceed to the Avar in Ga.scony. Ii!/7nrr''s Fodera. llallam says that this was the 
earliest commission of array that he could find, and that the latest was dated 1557. The 

E 2 



ARE 



ART 



attempt of Charles I. to revive comniissioiis of array in 1642, fonnded on a statute of Henry 
IV., was strenuously opposed as illegal. 

ARREST FOR Debt. The persons of peers, memhers of parliament, &c,, are protected 
from aiTest. See AmbasmcJors ; Ferrars^ Arrest. 



Statvite abt)lishing ai-rest for debt on mesne 
procuss, except in cases wlierein there is 
ground to show that tbe defendant designs 
to leave the country, 2 Vict. , Aug. . . 1838 

By 7 & 8 Vict. c. 96, the power of imprison- 
ment even upon final process, that is judg- 
ment debts, is abolished if the sum does not 
exceed 2oi. exclusive of costs, 1844 ; and by 
9 <fc 10 Viet. c. 95, the judge has no power to 
punish, except in case of fraud or contempt 
of court . . 1 846 

By I he Absconding' Debtors' Arrest Act, ab- 
sconding debtors owing 20/. and upwards are 
liable to an-est 185 1 



Clergymen perfoi-ming divine service privi- 
leged, so Edw. Ill 137 

Seamen privileged from debts under 20^ by 

30 Geo. IT ._ . 1756 

Barristers pirivileged from arrest whil going 

to, attending upon, and returning from court, 

on the business of their clients. 
By statute 29 Charles II. no arrest can be made, 

nor process served, upon a Sunday. This 

law was extended by 'William III. 
Vexatious arrests prevented by act. May, 1733. 

Prohibited for le ss than lol. on process, 1779 : 

and for less than 20?. . . . _ July, 1827 
Arrests for less than 20I. were prohibited on 

mesne process in Ireland, in Jime . . 1829 

ARRETINUM. See Arezzo. 

ARSENAL, a great military or naval repository. The largest in this country is at Wool- 
wich, which see. 

ARSENIC, a steel-gray coloured brittle metal, extremely poisonous, known in early 
times. Brandt, in 1733, made the first accurate experiments on its chemical nature. The 
heinous crimes committed by means of this mineral obliged the legislature to enact regula- 
tions for its sale, 14 Vict. cap. 13, June 5, 185 1. The sale of all colourless preparations of 
arsenic is regulated by this act. In 1858 Dr. A. S. Taylpr asserted that green paper- 
hangings prepared from arsenic were injurious to health ; which appears to be true, although 
doubted by some chemists. See Cacodyl. 

ARSENITE Schism. See Eastern Church, 1255. 

ARSON was punished with death by the Saxon.'s, and remained a capital crime on the 
consolidation of the laws in 1827, 1837, and 1861. If any house be fired, jjersons being 
therein, or if any vessel be fired, with a view to murder or plunder, it shall be death, statute 
I Vict., July, 1837. 

ARSOUF (Syria), Battle of, in which Richard I. of England, commanding the Christian 
forces, reduced to 30,000, defeated Saladin's army of 300,000 Saracens and other infidels, on 
Sept. 3 or 7, 1191. Ascalon surrendered. Richard marched to Jerusalem, 1192. 

ARTEMISIUM, a promontory in Euboea, near whicli indecisive conflicts took place 
between the Greek and Persian fleets for three days ; 480 B.C. The former retired on hearing 
of the battle of Thermopylse. 

ARTESIAN WELLS (from Artesia, now Artois, in France, where they frequently occur) 
are formed by boring through the upper soil to strata containing water, which has percolated 
from a higher level, and which rises to that level through the boring tube. The fountains 
in Trafalgar square and government offices near have been supplied since 1844 by two of 
these wells (393 feet deep). At Paris the Crenelle well (1798 feet deep), was completed in 
1841, after eight years of exertion, by M. Mulot at an expense of about i2,oooZ., and the 
well at Passy, which it is said will supply sufficient water for nearly 500,000 persons, was 
begun in 1855, and completed in i860 by M. Kind. Messrs. Amos and Easton completed 
an artesian well for the Horticultural Society's garden in 1862. It yielded 880,000 gallons 
of water, at the temperature of 81° Fahr., in twenty-four hours. The well at Kissingen was 
completed in 1850. Artesian wells are now becoming common. 

ARTIC!HOKES are said to have been introduced from the East into« Western Europe in 
the 15th century, and to have reached England about 1502. 

ARTICLES OF Religion. In June 8, 1536, after much disputing, the English clergy 
in convocation published "Articles decreed by the king's highness" Henry VIII., who 
publi.-ihed in 1539 the " Statute of Six Articles," viz. transubstantiation, communion in one 
kind, vows of chastity, private masses, celibacy of the clei'gy, and auricular confession. In 
1 55 1 forty-two were published without the consent of parliament. These forty -two were 
modified and reduced to Thiety-nine in Jan. 1563 ; and they received the royal authority 
and the authority of parliament in 1571. The Lambeth Articles, of a more Calvinistic 
character, attempted to be imposed by archbishop Whitgift, were withdrawn in consequence 



ART ^ 53 ARC" 

of tlie displeasure of queen Elizabeth, 1595. One hundred and four articles were drawn iip 
for Ireland hy archbishop Usher in 1614. On the union of the churches, the Irish adopted 
the En<{lish articles. See Perth Articles. 

ARTICLES OF War were decreed in the time of Richard I. and John. Those made by 
Richard 11. in 14S5 appear in Grose's " Military Antiquities." The Articles of War now iu 
force are based upon an act, passed by "William III. in 1689, to regulate the army about to 
engage in his continental warfare. 

ARTIFICERS and JIanufacturers. Their affairs were severely regulated by the 
statutes of 1349, 1351, 1360, 1562. They Avere prohibited from leaving England, and those 
abroad were outlawed, if they did not return within six months after the notice given them. 
A fine of 100?., and imprisonment for three months, were the penalties for seducing them 
from these realms, by 9 Geo. II. (1736) and other statutes, which were repealed in 1824. 

ARTILLERY, a term including properly all missiles : now applies to ca^tnon. The first 
])iece was a small one, contrived by Sclawartz, a German cordelier, soon after the invention 
of gunpowder, in 1330. Artillery was used, it is said, by the Moors of Algesiras, in Spain, 
in the siege of 1343 ; it was used, according to our historians, at the battle of Crec\', in 1346, 
when Edward III. had four pieces of cannon, which gained him the battle. We had artillery 
at the siege of Cidais, 1347. The Venetians first employed artillery against the Genoese at 
sea, 1377. Voltaire. Said to have been used by the English at Calais in 1383. Cast in 
England, together with mortars for bomb-shells, by Flemish artists, in Sussex, 1543. 
Rj/mers Foeelera. Made of brass 1635 ; improvements by Browne, 1728. — See Cannon, 
Bomhs, Carronades (under Carron), Mortars. Hoiuitzcrs, Petard, Rockets, Fire-arms. The 
Royal Artillery regiment was established iu the reign of Anne. 

ARTILLERY COMPANY of Londox, Hoxotirable, in.stituted in 1585, having ceased, 
was revived in 1610. It met for military exercise at the Artillery gi'ound, Finsbury, where 
the London Archers had met since 1498. (See Archery.) In the civil war, 1641-8, the 
company took the side of the parliament, and greatly contributed towards its success. The 
company numbered 1200 in 1803 and 800 in 1861. Since 1842 the officers have been 
appointed by the Queen. On the decease of the duke of Sussex in 1843, the Prince Consort 
became colonel and captain-general. He died Dec. 14, 1861, and the Prince of Wales was 
appointed his successor Aug. 24, 1863. 

ARTISTS' FUND was established iu 1810 to provide allowances for sick, and annuities 
for incapacitated members. 

ARTS. In the 8th century, the whole circle of sciences was composed of seven liberal 
arts — grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy. Harris. The 
Royal Society of England (wltich see) obtained its charter April 2, 1663. The Society of 
Arts, to promote the polite arts, commerce, manufactures, and mechanics, was instituted in 
1754 ; it originated in the patriotic zeal of Mr. Shiidey, and of its first president, lord Folke- 
stone. — Fixe Arts. The first public exhibition by the artists of the British metropolis took 
])lace iu 1760, at the rooms of the Society of Arts, and was repeated there for several years, 
till, in process of time, the Royal Academy was founded. See Royal Academy. The Society 
of British Artists was instituted May 21, 1823 ; and their first exhibition was opened April 
19, 1824. The Society for the Encouragement of the Fine Arts was founded in Dec. 1858. 
See British Institution ; National Gallery. 

ART-UNIONS began in France and Germany early in the present century. The first in 
Britain was established at Edinburgh ; that in London was founded in 1836, and chartered 
in 1846, when these unions were legalised. Every subscriber is entitled to print.?, and has 
the chance of drawing prizes. 

ARUNDEL CASTLE (Sussex), built by the Saxons about 800. The duke of Norfolk 
enjoys the earldom of Arundel, as a feudal honour, by inheritance and possession of the 
castle, without any other creation. Philip Howard, son of the attainted duke of Norfolk, 
was made earl of Arundel, by summons, as possessor of this castle, 1580. It was thoroughly 
repaired by a late duke at a A^ast expense. 

ARUNDELIAN JIARBLES, called also Oxford Marbles ; one containing the chronology 
of ancient history from 1582 to 355 B.C., and said to have been sculptured 264 B.C. They 
consist of 37 statues, 128 busts, and 250 inscriptions, and wei-e found in the isle of Paros, iu 
the reign of James I., about 16 lo. They were collected by Mr. W. Petty, purchased by 
lord Aruudfl, and given bv his grandson Henry Howard, afterwards duke of Norfolk, to the 
univci.sity of Oxford iu luu/ '; and ;mv therefore called also Oxford Marbles. The 



ARU 54 • ASH 

characters of the inscriptions are Greek. There are two translations : by Seldcn, 1628 : by 
PrUleaur, 1676. A variorum edition of the inscriptions, by Maittaire, appeared in 1732, 
and a fine one by Chandler in 1763. Sue KidAVs Tracts ; and Purson's Treatise, 1789. 

AKUSPICES. See Ilarusj) ices. 

AS, a Roman weight and coin : when considered as a weight, it was a pound ; when a 
coin, it had different weights, but always the same value. In the reign of Servius, the a^j 
weighed a pound of brass ; in the hrst Punic war, it weighed two ounces, 264 B.C. ; in the 
second Punic war, one ounce, 218 B.C. ; and afterwards half an ounce ; its value was about 
three farthings sterling. 

ASAPH, ST. (N. Wales), a bishopric founded by Iventigcrn, bishop of Glasgow. On 
returning into Scotland about 560, he left a holy nuui, St. Asajjh, his successor, from whom 
the see takes its name. It is valued in the kings books at 187/. lis. 6d. By an order in 
council, 1838, the sees of St. Asaph and Bangor were to have been united on the next 
vacancy in cither ; and the bishopric of Manchester was to have been then created. This 
order was annulled in 1846, and the two sees still exist. Present income, 4200^. See 
Manchester. 

RECENT BISHOPS OF ST. ASAl'H. 



1802. Samuel Horsley, died Oct. 4, 1806. 
1806. Willmm Cleaver, died May 15, 1815. 
1815. John Luxni'jore, died Jan. 21, 1830. 



1830. William Carey, died Sept. 13, 1846. 

1846. Thomas Vowler Short (present bishop, 1865). 



ASBESTOS, a native fossil stone, which may be s[)lit into threads and filaments, and 
which is endued Avith the jnoperty of lemaining nnconsumed in lire. Cloth was made of it 
by the Egyptians {Herodotus), and napkins in the time of Pliny, 74 ; and also paper. The 
spinning of asbestos known at A''enice, about 1500. Porta. 

ASCALON (Syria), a city of the Philistines, shared the fate of Phoenicia and Judea. The 
Egyptian arniy was defeated here by the Crusaders, under Godfrey of Bouillon, Aug. 12, 
1099. Ascalon was besieged by the latter in 1148, taken in 1153 ; and again iu I191. Its 
fortifications Avere destroyed for fear of the Crusaders by the Sultan in 1270. 

ASCENSION, an island in the Atlantic ocean, 800 miles N. W. of St. Helena, discovered 
by the Portuguese in 1501 ; and taken possession of by the English in 1815. 

ASCENSION DAY, also called Holy Thursday, when the church celebrates the ascension 
of our Saviour, the fortieth day after his resurrection from the dead, May 14, 33 ; first com- 
memorated, it is said, 68. Ascension day, 1866, May 10; 1867, May 30 ; 1868, May 21. 

ASCULUM, now Ascoli, a city of the Picentes, Central Italy, E. Near it, Pyrrhus of 
Epirus defeated the Romans, 279 B.C. In 268 b.c, the whole country of the Picentes Avas 
subdued by the cousid Sempronius. In 1190 a.d. Andrea, the general of the emperor 
Henry VI., Avho Avas endeavouring to Avrest the croAvn of Naples from Tancred, Avas defeated 
and slain. 

ASHANTEES, a Avarlike tribe of negroes of West Africa. In 1807 they conquered 
Faiitee, in Avhich the British settlement Cape Coast Castle is .situated. On the death of the 
king, Avho had been friendly to the English, hostilities began; and on Jan. 21, 1824, the 
A.shantees defeated about 1000 British under sir Charles M'Carthy at Accra, and brought 
aAvay his skull Avith others as tropliies. They Avere totally defeated, Aug. 27, 1826, by col. 
Purdon. The governor of Cape Coast Castle began a AA'ar Avith the Ashantees in spring of 
1863. The British troojis suffered much through disease ; and the Avar Avas suspended by 
the government in IMay, 1864. 

ASHBURTON TREATY, concluded at Washington, Aug. 9, 1842, by Alexander, lord 
Ashburton, and John Tyler, jjresident of the United States : it defined the boundaries of 
the respective countries betAveen Canada and the state of Maine, settled the extradition of 
criminals, &c. 

ASHDOD, or Azotus, the seat of the AVovship of the Ph(x-nician god l)agon, Avhich fell 
doAvn before the ark of the Lord : captured by the Philistines from the Israelites, about 
1 141 B.C. (i Sam. v.). 

ASHDOWN, or Assendune, noAV thought to be Aston, Berk.s, Avhere Ethelred and his 
brother Alfred defeated the Danes in 871. 

ASHMOLEAN LIBRARY (books, manu.'^cripts, coins, &c.), Avas presented to the 
tiuiversity of Oxford by Elins Ashniole, IIr' herald and autiiiuury, aliout 1682. It iiichided 



ASH 55 ASS 

the collections of the Tradescants, to whom he was executor. He died at Lambetli in 1692. 
The Ashmolcan Society, Oxford (scientific), was established in 1828. 

ASHTAlxOTH, a Phceiiician goddess, occasionally worshipped by the Israelites (see 
Judges ii. 13) about 1406 B.C., and even by Solomon, about 984 B.C. (i Kings xi. 5). 

ASH-WEDXESDAY, the first day of Lent, which in early times bej;an on the Sunday 
now called the first in Lent. Pope Felix III., in 487, first added the four days preceding 
the old Lent Sunday, to raise the number of fasting days to forty ; Gregory the Great (pope, 
590) introduced the sprinkling of ashes on the first of the four additional days, and hence 
tlic name of Dies Cincrum, or Ash-AVednesday. At the Reformation this practice was 
abolished, " as being a mere shadow, or vain show." 

ASIA, the largest division of the globe, so called by the Greeks, from the nymph Asia, 
tlie daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, the wife of Japhet. Asia was the first quarter of the 
world peopled : here the law of God was first promulgated ; here many of the greatest 
monarchies of the earth had their rise ; and hence most of the arts and sciences have been 
derived. Its earl}' history is derived from Herodotus, who relates the wars of Cnesus, Cyrus, 
and others. See China, India, Persia, and the other countries. 

ASIA MINOR (now Anatolia), comprised the Ionian colonies on the coast, the early 
seats of Greek civilisation, and the countries Mysia, Phrygia, Lycia, Bithynia, Caria, Lydia, 
Cappadocia, Galatia, &c., with the cities Tro}'^, P^phesus, Smyrna {all luhicli see). From the 
time of the rise of the Assyrian monarcliy, about 2000 B.C., to that of the Turks under 
Osman, Asia Minor was the battle-field of the compierors of the world. 



First settlement of the loiiiau Greeks, about B.C. 1043 
Asia Minor subiiued by the Medes . about 711 
Conquered by Cyrus .... about 546 
Contest between the Greeks and Persians begins 544 
Asia Minor conquered by Alexander . . 332 

Contended for by his successors ; separate 
kingdoms established .... 321-278 



Gradually acquired bj^the Romans b.c. 188 to a.d. 15 

Possessed by the Persians 6og 

Partially recovered by the emperor Basil .. . 874 

Invaded by Timour 1402 

Taken from the Greek emperor, and established 
as an empire by the Turks under Mahomet I. 1413 



ASIATIC SOCIETIES. The " Asiatic Society of Bengal," at Calcutta, was established 
by sir William Jones in 1784, "the bounds of its investigation to be the geographical limits 
of Asia." The "Royal Asiatic Society," whicli has several branches in India, was founded 
in 1823. It established the "Oriental Translation Fund" in 1828, whicli has published 83 
volumes of Eastern literature (1865). 

ASKESIAN SOCIETY (from the Greek asA-'ci'W, exercise), instituted in March, 1796, by 
a number of young men for discussing philosophical subjects. Its founders were the aftei- 
wards celebrated Wm. Allen, AVm. Piiillips, Alex. Tilloch^ Luke Howard, AV. H. Pepys, and 
others. In 1806 it merged into the Geological Society. 

ASPERXE AND EssLiXG, near the Danube and Alenna, where a series of desperate cou- 
llicts took place between the Austrian army under the archduke Charles, and the French 
under Napoleon, Massena, &c., on May 21-22, 1809, ending in the defeat of Napoleon ; the 
severest check that he had yet received. The loss of the former exceeded 20,000 men, and 
of the latter 30,000. The daring marshal Lannes was killed ; the bridge of the Danube was 
destroyed, and Napoleon's retreat endangered ; but the success of the Austrians had no 
beneficial effect on the subsequent prosecution of the war. 

ASPHALT, a solid bituminous substance, whicli in nature ])robably derived its origin 
from decayed vegetable matter. The artificial asjjhalt obtained from gas-works began to be 
used as pavement about 1838. Claridge's patent asphalt was laid down in Trafalgar-square, 
Jan. 1864. 

ASPROMONTE, Najjles. Here Garibaldi was defeated, wounded, and taken prisoner 
Aug. 29, 1S62, having injudiciously risen against the French occupation of Rome. 

ASSA5I (N. E. India) came under Britisli dominion in 1825, and was surrendered by 
the king of Ava in 1826. The tea-i>lant was discovered Here by Jlr. Bruce in 1823. A 
superintendent of the tea-forests was appointed in 1836, the cultivation of the plant having 
been recommended by lord AVilliam Bentinck, in 1834. Tlie Assam Tea Company was 
established in 1S39. The tea was much in use in England in 1841. Chinese labour has 
been introduced, and the growth of tea is enormously increasing. 

ASSASSINATION Pi-OT, said to have been formed by the earl of Aylesbury and 
others to ass.issiiuite William 111., near i;ii-liuu)ud, Surrey, and restore Jauies 11. Its 
object would h;ive Ijih'U attiiiurd, Vvh. 14, 1695-6, but for its timely discovery l)y 
Prcndergast. 



ASS 56 ASS 

ASSASSINS, OR AssAssixiAXS, a band of fanatical Mahometans, collected by Hassan- 
ben-Sabah, and settled in Persia about 1090. In Syria they possessed a large tract of land 
among the mountains of Lebanon. They murdered the marqnis of Montferrat in 1192; 
liBwis of Bavaria in 1213 ; and the khan of Tartary in 1254. They were conquered by the 
Tartars in 1257 ; and were extirpated in 1272. The chief or king of the corps assumed tlie 
title of "Ancient of the Mountain," and " Old Man of the, Mountain." * They trained up 
young people to assassinate such persons as their chief had devoted to destruction. HenauU. 
From this fraternity the word assassin has been derived. 

ASSAY OF Gold and Silver originated with the bishop of Salisbury, a royal treasurer in 
the reign of Henry I. Du Cancjc. But certainly some species of assay was practised as 
early as the Roman conquest. Assay was established in England 1354 ; regulated 13 Will. 
III. 1700, and 4 Anne, 1705. Assay masters apY)ointed at Sheffield and Bii-miugham, 1773. 
The alloy of gold is silver and copper, that of silver is copper. Standard gold is 2 carats of 
alloy to 22 of fine gold. Standard silver is 18 dwts. of copper to II ozs. 2 dwts. of fine silver. 
See Goldsmiths'' Company. 

ASSAYE (E. Indies), Battle of. The British army, under general Arthur Wellesley 
(afterwards duke of Wellington), entered the Mahratta states on the south ; took the fort of 
Ahmednuggnr, Aug. 12 ; and defeated Seindiah and the rajah of Berar at Assaye, Sept. 23, 
1803. This was Wellington's first great battle, in which he op]iosed a force full more than 
ten times greater tlian his own (only 4500 men). The enemy retired in great disorder, leaving 
behind the whole of their artillery, ammunition, and stores. 

ASSEMBLY of Divines held at Westminster, July i, 1643, convoked by order of 
pai'liament, to consider the liturgy, government, and doctrines of the church. Two members 
were elected for each county. They adopted the Scottish covenant, and drew up the direc- 
tory for public worship, a confession, and the catechisms now used by the church of Scotland. 
The last (1163rd) meeting was on Feb. 22, 1649. See Church of Scotland. 

. ASSENT. See Royal Assent. 

ASSESSED TAXES. The date of their introduction has been as variously stated as the 
taxes coming under this head have been defined — all things have been assessed, from lands 
and houses to dogs and hair-powder. By some the date is referred to the reign of Ethelbert, 
in 991 ; by others to that of Henry VIII. 1522 ; and by more, to the reign of William III. 
1689, when a land-tax was imposed. See Land Tax. Tlie asses.sed taxes yielded in 1815 
(the last year of the war), exclusively of the land-tax, 6,524,766?., their highest amount. 
These imposts have varied in their nature and amount, according to the exigencies of the 
state, and the contingencies of war and peace. They were considerably advanced in I797 
and 1801, et scq., but considerably reduced in 1816, and in subsequent years. The last act 
for the repeal of certain assessed taxes was passed 16 & 17 Vict. cap. 90, Aug. 20, 1853, 
which was explained and amended by 17 & 18 Vict. cap. i, Feb. 17, 1854. — Acts for the 
better securing and accounting for the Assessed and Income Taxes, Aug. 10, 1854. See 
Taxes and Income Tax. 

ASSIENTO, a contract between the king of Spain and other powers, for furnishing the 
Spanish dominions in America with negro slaves, began with the Flemings. By the treaty 
of Utrecht in 17 13, the British government engaged to furnish 4800 negroes annually to 
Spanish America for thirty years. The contract was vested in the South Sea Company ; but 
this infamous contract was given up in 1750. See Guinea. 

ASSIGNATS, a paper currency, ordered by the National Assembly of France to support 
public credit during the revolution, April, 1790. At one period, eight milliards, or nearly 
350 millions of pounds sterling, of this paper were in circulation in France and its depen- 
dencies. Alison. Assignats were superseded by mandats in 1796. 

ASSIZE OF Battle. See Appeal. 

ASSIZE OF Bread, &c. See Bread and Wood. 

ASSIZE COURTS (from assidco, I sit) are of very ancient institution in England, and in 
old law books are defined to be an assembly of knights and other substantial men, with 
the justice, to meet at a certain time and place : regulated by Magna Charta, 12 15. 
The present justices of assize and Nisi Prius are derived from the statute of Westminster, 
13 Edw. I. 1284. Coke; Blackstone. "The king doth \vill that no lord, or other of the 

* Ho sent his emissiries to assassinate Louis IX. of France, called St. Louis : but being afterwards 
affected by the fame of this king's virtues, and he being at the time in his minority, he gave the prince 
notice to take care of himself. lUiuudt. This statement is doubted. 



ASS 57 AST 

country, shall sit upon the lienrh witli the justices to take assize in their sessions in tho 
counties of England, upon great forfeiture to the kin?," 20 Rich. II. 1396. Statutes, 
Brough Act. Assizes are general or special ; general M-hen the judges go their ciixuits, 
and special when a commission is issued to take cognisance of one or more causes. See 
Bloody Assize. 

ASSOCIATIONS. See National Associations. 

ASSUMPTION, Feast of the, Aug. 15. It is observed by the church of Rome in 
honour of the Virgin Mary, who is said to have been taken up to heaven in her corporeal 
form, body and spirit, on this day, 45, in her 75th year. The festival was instituted in the 
7th century, and enjoined by the council of Mentz, 813. 

ASSURANCE. See Insurance. 

ASSYRIA, an Asiatic coimtry between Mesopotamia and Media, was the seat of the 
earliest recorded monarchy. Its history is mainly derived from Ctesias, an early Greek 
historian of doubtful autlienticity, Herodotus, and the Holy Scriptures. The discovery of 
the very interesting Ninevite antiquities, now in the British Museum, by Mr. Layard, and 
the deciphering of many ancient cuneiform inscriptions, by Grotefend, sir H. Rawlinson, 
and otlier scholars, have drawn much attention to the Assyrians. The chronologers, Blair, 
Usher, Hales, and Clinton, diti'er much in tlie dates they assign to events in Assyrian 
history, of which a large portion is now considered fabulous by modern writers. 

Nimrod 01' Belus reigns B.C. [2554 /7. 2235 C] 2245 1 Phul raised to the throne. Blair. about B.C. 777 

" Assbur builded Nineveh " ((?e/i. x. 11) about 2218] He invades Isi-,ael, but departs withoutdrawiug 
Ninns. son of Behis. reigns in Assyria, and [ a sword Blair: 2 Ki-iys xv. 19, 20 . . 770 

names his capital Nineveh . .[2182C] 2069 Tiglath-Pile.ser invades Syria, takes Damascus, 
Babylon taken by Ninus, who having subdued 1 and makes great conquests . . . . 740 

the Armenians, Persians. B.ictrians, and all I Shalm meser takes Samaria, transports the 

A-ia Minor, e.stiblishes what is properly the j pe^iple, whom ho replaces by a colony of 

Assyrian monarchy, of which Nineveh was | Cutheaus and others, and thus finishes" tho 

the sent of empire. B'cir . . [2233 C] 2059; kingdom of Israel. Blair 721 



Niiiy.is, an infant, succeeds Ninus . . . 2017 
Semiriniis, mother of Ninyas, usurps the 
government, enlarges and embellishe-< Baby- 
lon, and makes it the seat of her dominion 



He retires from before Tyre, after a siege of five 
ye irs. Blair 713 

Sennacherib invades Judea, and his general, 
Rabshakeh, besieges Jerusalem, when the 



[2130 C] 2007 I anarel of the Lord in one night destroys 

She invades Libya, Ethiopia, and India. Leagltt 1975 I 180,000 of his army, /w in/t xxxvii. . . 710 

She is put to death by her .son Ninyas . . 1965 1 [Comm^'ntators svippose that this me«senger of 

Ninyas put to death, and Arius reigns . . 1927 death was the fatal blast known in eastern 

Reign of Aralius 1897 | countries by the name of Sc(//atZ.] 

Belochus, the last k'ng of the race of Ninus . 1446 Esar-haddou invades Judea .... 680 
He makes his daughter Atossa, sm-named Se- Holofernes is slain by Judith (?) . . . . 677 



miramis II., his associate on the throne 
Atossa procures the death of her father, and 
marries Belatores (or Belap.ires) who reigns 1421 
****** 

The proi^het Jonah appears in Nineveh, and 
foretells its destruction. Blnir . . . 840 

Nineveh t ikeii by Arbaces. [Sardanapalus, the 
king, is mythically said to have enclo-ed 
himself, his court, and women, in his palace, 
and t" have perished in the fire kindled by 
himself.] 820 



Sarac (Sardanapalus II.)bt-sieged, kills his wife 
and children, and burns himself in his 
palace 621 

Nineveh razed to the ground, and Assyria be- 
comes a Median province 605 

Assyria subdued by Alexander the Great . 333 

It subsequentlj' formed part of the kingdoms 
of Syria, Pnrthia, and Persia. 

It was conquered by the Turks . . a.d. 1637 



ASTLEY'S AMPHITHEATRE. See under Theatres. 

ASTORGA (N. W. Spain), the ancient Asturica Augusta, Avas taken by the French in 
1 8 10, and treated with great severity. 

ASTRACAN (S. E. Russia), a province acquired from the Mogul's emjjire in 1554; visited 
and settled by Peter the Great in 1722. 

ASTROLOGY. Judicial astrology was invented b}^ the Chaldeans, and hence was trans- 
mitted to the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. It was much in vogue in Italy and France 
in the time of O'atherine de Medicis (married to Francis I. of France, 1533). Henault. The 
early history of astrology in England is very little known. It is said that Bede, 673 — 
735, was addicted to it; and Roger Bacon, 1214 — 1292. Lord Burleigh calculated the 
nativity of Elizabeth, and she, and all the European princes, were the humble servants of 
Dee, the astrologer and conjuror ; but the period of the Stuarts was the acme of astrology 
amongst us. It is stated that Lilly was consulted by Charles I. respecting his projected 
escape from Carisbrook castle in 1647. Ferguson. Astrological almanacs are still pub- 
lished in London. 



AST 



58 



ATH 



ASTRONOMY. Tlie earliest astronomical observations were made at Babylon about 
2234 B.C. The study of astronomy was much advanced in Chaldiiea under Nabonassar ; it 
was known to the Chinese about iioo li.c. ; some say many centuries before. See Edipscc, 
PlmictSf Comets. 



Lunar eclipses observed "at Babylon, and re- 
curded by Ptolemy . . . about B.C. 720 

Spherical form of the earth, and tlie true cause 
of Ivuiar eclipses, tauglit by Thale.s, died . 546 

Further discoveries by Pythagoras, who taught 
the doctrine of celestial motions, and believed 
in the plurality of habitable worlds, died about 470 

Meton introduces the lunar-solar cycle about . 432 

Treatises of Aristotle "concerning tlie heavens," 
and of Autolyciis "on the motion of the 
sphere " (the earliest extant works on astro- 
nomy) . . about 350 

vVratiis writes a poem on astronomy . . 281 

Archimedes observes solstices, &c. . . . 212 

Ilipparchus, greatest of Greek astronomers, 
determines moan motion of sun and moon ," 
discovers procession of equinoxes, (fee. . 160-125 

The precession of the equmoxes confirmed, 
and the phices and disUmces of the pi mots 
discovered by Ptolemy . . . a.d. 130-150 

Astronomy and geography cultivated by the 
Arabs about 760 : brought into Europe about 1200 

Alphonsiiie tables (lohicli see) composed about . 1253 

Clocks first used in astronomy . . about 1500 

True doctrine of the motions of the planetary 
bodies revived by Copernicus, founder of 
modem astronomy, author of the almagest, 
published 1543 

Astronomy advanced by Tycho lirahe, who j'ct 
adheres to the Ptolemaic sj-stem . about 1582 

True laws of the planetary motions announced 
by Kepler 1609 

Gidileo constructs a telescope, i6og ; and dis- 
covers Jupiter's satellites, &c. . . Jan. 8, 1610 

Various forms of telescopes and other instru- 
ments used in astronomy invented . . 160S-40 

Cartesian system published by Des Cartes . 1637 

The transit of Venus over the sun's disc first 
observed by Horrocks . . . Nov. 24, 1639 

Cassini draws his meridian line, after Daiite. 
See Bolognu. 1655 

The aberration of the light of the fixed stars 
discovered by Hon-ebow .... 1659 

Huyghens completes the discovery of Saturn's 
ring 1654 

Gregory invents a reflecting telescope . . 1663 



Discoveries of Picard 166'; 

Charts of the moon constructed by Scheiner, 
Langrenus, Hevelius, Riccioli, and others, 

about 1670 
Discoveries of Roiner on the velocity of light, 

and his observation of Jupiter's satellites . 1675 
Greenwich Observatory founded . . . ,, 
Motion of the sun round its own axis proved 

I)}' Hallcy 1676 

Kewtou's Principia published ; and the system, 

as now taught, demonstrated .... 1687 
Catalogue of the stars nude by Flamsteed . . 1688 
Cassini's chart of the full moon executed . 1^92 

Satellites of S iturn, itc. , discovered by Cassini 1701 
IIalle3' predicts the return of the comet (of 

1758) 1705 

Flamsteed's Hixtoria Ccelestis published . . 1725 
Aberration of the stars clearly explained by 

Dr. Dradley . 1737 

John Harrison produces chronometers for de- 
termining the longitude, 1735 et seq., and 

obtains the reward 1764 

Nautical almanac first published . . . 1767 
Celestial inequalities found by La Grange . . 1780 
Uranus and satellites discovered by Herscliel. 

See Georiiinm Svlux . . March 13, 1781 

McMnique CcleMe, by La Place, published . . 1796 
Royal Astronomical Society of Loudon founded, 

1820; ch.artered 1831 

Beer and Miidler's map of the moon published 1834 
Lord Rosso's telescope constructed . 1828-45 

The planet Neptune discovered . Sept. 23, 1846 
Bond photographs the moon (see Fhotograjilty, 

celestial) . 1S51 

Hansen's t;xble of the moon published at ex- 
pense of the British government . . . 1857 
Trustees of the late rev. Richard Sheop.shanks 
present io,oooi. stock to Trinity College, 
Cambridge, for the promotion of the .study 
of astronomy, meteorology, and magnetism, 

Dec. 2, 1858 
Large photograph of the moon by Warren De 

la Rue 1863 

[For the minor planets recently discovered, see 
Planets. ] 



ASTURIAS (N. W. Spain), an ancient principality, the cradle of the ])resent monarchy. 
Here Pelago collected the Gothic fugitives, about 713, and founded a new kingdom, and bj 
his victories permanently checked the progress of ]\Ioorish conquest. For a list of his 
successors, see the article S'pain. The heir-apparent of the monarchy has borne the title 
"prince of Asturias" since 1388, when it was a.ssumed by Henry, son of John I. king of Leon, 
on his marriage with a descendant of Peter of Castile. In 1808, the junta of Asturias began 
the organised resistance to the French usurpation. 

ASYLUMS, OR Privileged Places, at first were places of refuge for those who by 
accident or necessity had done things that rendered them obnoxious to the law. God coni' 
manded the Jews to build certain cities for this ]nirpose, 145 1 B.C., Numbers xxv. — The 
posterity of Hercules are said to have built one at Athens, to protect themselves against such 
as their father had irritated. Cadmus built one at Thebes, 1490 B.C., and Romulus one at 
Mount Palatine, 751 B.C. fice Sanctuaries. 

ATELIERS NATION AUX (National Workshops) were established by the French pro- 
visional government in Feb. 1848. They interfered greatly with private trade, and about 
100,000 workmen threw themselves upon the government for labour and payment. The 
breaking-np of the system led to the fearful conflicts in June following. The sj'stem Avas 
abolished in July. 

ATIIANASIAN CREED. Ath.uiasius, of .Mcxaudria, was electc-d bishop, 326. He 
firmly oppose<l tlie doctrines of .\iius (who dciiied Christ's divinity) ; was several times exiled; 



ATII 59 ATH 

iiml died ill 373. Tlic creed, which goes by his name is supposed by many authorities to 
have been written about 340 ; by others to be the compihition of Vij:;ilius Tapseusis, an 
African bishoj) in the 5th century. It was first coininentod on by Veiiatius Fortuuatus, 
bi.shop of Poictiers in 570. Dr. AVatcrhuid's History of this creed (1723) is exhaustive. .See 
A rtKits. 

ATHEISM (from the Greek a, without, 2'hcus, God, see Psalm xiv. i). Tliis doctrine 
lias liad its votaries and martyrs. S])inoza was the defender of a simiLar doctrine (1632 — 
1677). Lucilio A'anini publicly taught atheism in France, and was condemned to be burnt 
at Toulouse in 1619. ]\Iathias Knutzen, of Holstehi, openly iirofessed atheism, and had 
upwards (jf a thousand disci]iles in Germany about 1674 ; he travelled to make proselytes, 
and his followers were called Vonscicnciarics, because they held that there is no other deity 
than conscience. Many eminent men have profcs:?ed atheism. "Though a small draught of 
philosophy may lead a man into atheism, a dci'2> draught will certainly bring him back again 
to the belief of a God." Lord Bacun. 

ATHENE] A were great festivals celebrated at Athens in honour of Minerva. One was 
called Pauathenea^ the other Chalcea ; they are said to have been instituted by Erechtheus 
or Or[ihtus, 1397 or 1495 li.c. ; and Theseus afterwards renewed them, and caused them to 
be observed by all the Athenians, the first pvery fifth year, 1234 B.C. Plutarch. 

ATHEN/EUM, a place at Athens, sacred to Minerva, where the poets and jihilosophers 
recited their compositions. The most celebrated Atheuiea were at Athens, Piome, and 
Lyons: that of Rome, of great beauty, was erected by the emperor Adrian, 125.- — The 
Athkn'-dum Clud of London was formed in 1823, for the association of persons of scientific 
and literary attainments, artists, noblemen and gentlemen, patrons of learning, &c., by 
the earl of Aberdeen, mar(juess of Lansdowne, Dr. T. Young, JMoore, Davy, Scott, Mackin- 
tosh, Croker, C'hantrey, Faraday, Lawrence, and others ; the clubhouse was erected in 
1829-30 on the site of the late t'arlton-palace ; it is of Grecian architecture, and the frieze is 
an exact copy of the Panatlienaic procession which formed the frieze of the Parthenon. — The 
Liverpool Athena'um was opened Jan. i, 1799. — At Manchester, Bristol, and many other 
places, buildings under this name, and for a like purpose, have been founded. — The Alhc- 
nwuvi, a weekly literary journal, first ajipeared in 1828. 

ATHENS, the capital of ancient Attica, and of the modern kingdom of Greece. The first 
sovereign mentioned is Ogyges, who reigned in ]5a'otia, and was master of Attica, then called 
Ionia. In his reign (about 1764 B.C.) a deluge took place (by some supposed to be the 
imiversal deluge), that laid -waste the country, in which state it remained two hundred years, 
imtil the arrival of the Egyptian Cecrojis and a colony, by whom the land was re-peopled, 
and twelve cities founded, 1556 B.C. The city is said to have been first called Cecropia ; the 
name having been changed to Athens in honour of Minerva (Athene), her worship having 
been introduced by Erechtheus 13S3 b c. Athens was ruled by seventeen successive kings 
(487 years), hy thivtiien 2^«-rj)cfiial archons (316 years), seven draniiial archons (70 years), 
and lastly by ftH«M«/ archoiis (760 years). It attained great power, and perhajis no other 
city in the world can boast, in such a short space of time, of so great a number of citizens 
illustrious for wisdom, genius, and valour. The ancients, to distinguish Athens in a more 
pecuhar manner, called it Astii, the ci/y, by eminence, and one of the eyes of Greece. See 
Greece. 

AiTival of Coerops . b.u. [155S //. 1433(7.] 155G In aliuttlc withthc llcraclidte, Codrusis killed: 



The ArouiJagus establii-lieil 1507 

L)e>iculi()ii arrives in Attiea ..... 1502 
Ueigu of Amphieiyou . . . . [1499 7/.] 1497 
The PaTiathexitean Games . . [1481 //.] 1495 



ic had resulved to perish ; the oracle huvir.g 
declared that the victory should be with the 
side whose leader was killed, 1070. Royalty 
abolished ; — Athens governed by archons, 



Krichthoniiw reigns ....... 1487! Medon the first [1070 7A] 1044 

I Ereehtlieus teaches husbandry . . . . 1383 ' Alcmeon, last jjeivJe^Md/ archon, dies . . . 753 

Elcnsinian mysteries introduced by Eumolpus 1356 [ Cherops, first rfece/oiiai arehon . . . . 732 

Ereehtlieus killed in battle with the Ele\i- 1 Hippomenes deposed for his cruelty ; among 

.sinians 13471 other acts lie exposed his own daughter to be 

.Egeus invades Attica, and ascends the throne. 1283 devoured by horses, on account of an illicit 

He throws himself into the sea, and is drowned; j amour 713 

hence the name of the yEgean Sea. JiustbiuA 1235 j Erixias, seventh and last ikceiinial arcbon, 

Theseus, his son, succeeds, and reigns 50 years ,, 1 dies ■ . . 684 



He collects his subjects into one city, and j Creon first annual arohon 683 

names it Athen.s^ 1234 Draco, the twelfth annual archon, pubUshes his 



Keign of Mnestheus, 1205 ; Demoplioijn . . 1182 i laws, said "to have been written in blood" 621 

Court of Ephetes established 1 179 ' Solon supersedes them by his excellent code . 394 

The Prianepste instituted 1 178 1 Pisistratus, the " tvrant," seizes tlio suijreme 

iUglanthus conquers Xuthus in single combat | power, 5G0 : flight of Solon. 559. Pisistratus 

and is cho.sen king . . . . . . 112S establishes his government, 537; collects a 

■ liei^,'n of Codrus, his son, the la.^t king , . 1092 public libi;u'y, 531 ; dies 327 



ATH 



60 



ATM 



49° 
489 

483 
480 



ATHENS, continued. 

First tragedy acted at Athens, on a waggon, by 

Thespis B c. 535 

nipparohus assassinated by Harmodius and 
Aristogeiton ........ 514 

The law of ostracism established ; Hippias and 
the Pisistratidse banished . . . .510 

Lcmiios taken by Miltiades 504 

Invasion of the Persians, who are defeated at 

Jlarathnn 

Death of Miltiades 

Avistides, .surnamed the Jnat, banished 
\f-hpns taken by thf Persian Xerxes . . . 
Burnt to the ground by M.ardoniiis . 
Rebuilt and fortified ; Pirajus built . . . 

Themistocles banished 

(Umon, son of Miltiades, overrnns all Thrace . 

Pericles takes paH in public aftairs, 469; he and 

Cimon adorn Athens. 464 ; the latter banished 

throuarh his influence 

\tliens befrins to tyrannise over Grepce 
Literature, philosophy, and aH flourish . . 
I'he fir«t sacred Cor stxiial) war ; iol,ich sfe . 
Tolmidas conducts an expedition into Boeotia, 

and is defeated and killf'd neir Coron^a 
The thirty years' truce between the Athenians 

and Laceda3monians 

Herodotus said to have read his history in the 

council at Athens 

Pericles ob^aina the government . . . . 

Peincles subdues Samos 

Cimaedies prohibited at Athens . . . . 
Alliance between Athens and Corcyra, then at 
war with Corinth, 433 ; leads to the Pelopon- 
nesian war (lasted 27 years) ; it began . 
\ dreadful pestilence, which had ravaged 
Ethiopia, Libya, Egypt, and Persia, extends 
to Athens, and continues for five years . 
Death of Pericles of the plagiie . . . . 
Disastrous expedition against Sicily ; death of 
the commanders, Demosthenes and Nicias ; 
Ath'-nian fleet destroyed by Gylippus . 415-413 



Socrates (aged 70) jjut to death . . .B.C. 

The Corinthian war begins 

Cinon rebuilds the long walls, and fortifies 
the PirKus 

The Lacedaemonian fleet defeated at Naxus by 
Chabrias 

Philip, king of Macedon, opposes the Atheni- 
ans. See Macedon 

Second sacred (or social) wai' . 

First Philippic of Demosthenes 

Battle of Ch;wonea, which -ve ; the Athenians 
au'l Thebans defeated by Philip 



399 
395 



37^ 



479 ' Philip assas.^inated by Pausanias 



459 
448 



447 



445 



444 
440 



431 



430 
429 



357-355 
352 

338 
336 



Governmpnt of the " four hundred" 
Alcibiades defeats the Lacedajmonians at 

Cyzicu*" ; which npi . . . . . . 

Alcibiades, accijsed of aspiring to sovereign 

power, banished 

Athenian fleet destroyed by Lysander at 

jEgospotamos 

He besieges Athens by land and sea its walls 

are destroyed, and it capitulates, and the 

Peloponnesian war terminates 
Rule of the thirty tyrants, who are overthrown 

by Tbrasybulus 403 



4" 



410 
407 



405 



404 



33s 
323 



322 

318 

zg6 
277 

256 
229 



21S 
211 
196 
144 



Athens submits to Alexander, who spares the 
orators 

Death of Alexander .... . . 

The Athenians rising against Jlacedon, defeated 
at Cranon ; Demosthenes poisons himself 

Athens surrenders to Cassander, who governs 
well 

Demetrius Poliorcetes expels Demetrius Phale- 
reus, and restores the Athenian 'democi-acy, 
307 ; the latter takes the chair of philosophy 

A league between Athens, Sparta, and Egypt . 

Athens taken by AnHgonus Gonata-^, king of 
Macedon, 26S ; restoi-ed by Aratus 

The Athenians join the Ach.ean league. . . 

They join the iEtolians against Macedon, and 
send for assistance to Rome . . . . 

A Roman fleet arrives at Athens 

The Romans proclaim liberty at Athens . . 

Subjugation of Greece 

The Athenians implore assistance against the 
Romans from Mithridates, king of Pontus, 
whose general, Archelaus, makes himself 
master of Athens 88 

Athens besieged by Sylla, the Roman general, 
it is reduced to suTTonder by famine . . . 85 

Cicero studies at Athens, 79; and Horace . . 42 

The Athenians desert Pompey, to follow the 
interests of Cwsar 47 

Athens visited by the Apostle Paul . . a.d. 52 

Many temples, &c., erected by Hadrian . 122-135 

Athens taken by Alaric, and spared from 

slaughter 396 

By Mahomet II 1456 

By the Venetians 1466 

Restored to the Tiu-ks 1479 

hens suffered much during the insurrection, 

1821-7. Taken May 17 1827 

ecomes the capital of the kingdom of modem 
Greece 1833 

Population, 50,000 1857 

(See Article Greece.) 

ATHLONE, Koscommoii, Ireland, fdrmevly <a place of great strength and beauty, was 
burnt during the civil war in 1641. After the battle of the Boyne, colonel R. Grace held 
Athlone for James II. against a be.sieging arnij^, but fell when it was taken by assault by 
Ginckel, June 30, 1691. See Avghrim. 

ATLANTA. See United States, 1864. 

ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH. See Suhnarinc Telegrajjh. 

ATMOLYSIS, a method of separating the constituent gases of a compound gas (such as 
atmospheric air) by causing it to pass through a vessel of porous material (such as graphite) ; 
first made known in Aug., 1863, by the discoverer, professor T. Graham, F.R.S., Master of 
the Mint. 

ATMOSPHERE. See^u-. 

AT OSPHERIC RAILWAYS. The idea of producing motion by atmospheric pressure was 
onceived by Papin, the French engineer, about 1680. Experiments were made on a line of rail, 
laid down across Wormwood Scrubs, London, between Shepherd's Bush and the Great Western 
railroad, to test the efficacy of atmospheric tubes, the working of the air-pump, and speed of 
carriages upon this new principle on railroads in June, 1840, and then tried on a line between 
Croydon and London; 1845. An atmospheric railway was commenced between Dalkey and 
Killiney, in the vicinity of Dublin, in Sept. 1843 ; open(3d March 29, 1844 ; di.scontinuod 



ATO 61 ATT 

in 1S55. A similar railway was proposed to be laid down in the streets of London bj- Jlr. 
T. "W. Rammell in 1857. Mr. Eammell's Pneumatic Eailwaj- was put in action successfully 
at the Crystal Palace on Aug. 27, 1864, and following days. An act for a pneumatic railway 
between the Waterloo railway station and Whitehall was passed in July, 1865. 

ATOMIC THEORY, in chemistry, deals with the indivisible particles of all substances. 
The somewhat incoherent labours of his predecessors (such as Wenzel in 1777) were reduced 
by John Dalton to four laws of combining proportion, which have received the name of 
" Atomic Theory." His "Chemical Philosophy," containing the exposition of his views, 
appeared in 1808. Dr. C. Daubeny's work on the Atomic Theory was published in 1850. 
In his standard of Atomic weights Dalton takes hj'drogen as I. Berzelius, M'ho commenced his 
elaborate researches on the subject in 1848, adopts oxj'gen as 100. The former standard is 
used in this countrj', the latter on the continent. 

ATTAINDER, Acts or, whereby a person not only forfeited his land, but his blood was 
attainted, have been numerous. Two witnesses in cases of high treason are necessary where 
corruption of blood is incurred, unless the party accused shall confess, or stand mute, 7 & 8 
Will. III. 1694-5. Blackstonc. In 1814 and 1833 the .severity of attainders was mitigated. 
The attainder of lord Russell, who was beheaded in Lincoln's-inn-tields, July 21, 1683, was 
reversed under AVilliam, in 1689. The rolls and records of the acts of attainder passed in 
the reign of James II. were cancelled and publicly burnt, Oct. 2, 1695. Amongst the last 
acts reversed M'as the attaint of the children of lord Edward Fitzgerald (who was implicated 
in the rebellion in Ireland of 1798), July i, 1819. 

ATTICA. See At/mis. 

ATTILA, surnamedthe "Scourge 0/ God," and thus distinguished for his conquests and 
his crimes, having ravaged the eastern empire from 445 to 450, when he made peace 
with Theodosius. He invaded the western empire, 450, and was defeated by Aetius at 
Chalons, 451 ; he then retired into Pannonia, where he died through the bursting of a 
bloodvessel on the night of his nuptials with a beautiful virgin named Ildico, 453. 

ATTORNEY (from tovi; turn), a person f|ualified to act for others at law. The number 
in Edward III. 's reign was under 400 for the whole kingdom. In the 32nd of Henry VI. 
1454, a law reduced the practitioners in Norfolk, Norwich, and Suffolk, Irom eighty to four- 
teen, and restricted their increase. The number of attorneys now practising in England, or 
registered, or retired, is said to be about 13,000. The number in Ireland is stated at 2000. 
The qualitications of practice of attorneys and solicitors are now regulated by acts passed in 
1843 and 1 86 1. 

ATTORNEY-GENERAL, a law officer of the crown, appointed by letters patent. He 
has to exhibit informations and prosecute for the king in matters criminal ; and to tile bills 
in exchequer, for any claims concerning the crown in inheritance or profit. Others may 
bring bills against the king's attorney. The first attorney-general was William de Gisilham, 
7 Eli ward I. 1278. Beatson. 

ATTORNEY-GENERALS SINCE THE RESTORATION. 

Sir Jeffery Palmer 1660 ' Hun. Charles Yorke, again ; oflevtmrds lord 

Sir HeiiCMge Finch, a;7("/-wf!?Y?s lord Finch . . 1670 | Jlorden, and lord chancellor. Hec Chancellors lyCs 
Sir Francis North, knt., aflds. lord Guildford . 1673 William de Grey, aj'ta-wards lord Walsingham . 1766 
Sir William Jones 1674 | Edward Thuilow, esq., p/<e)'wcn-M« lord iSurlow 1771 



ir Crcsvel Leviuz, or Levinge, knt. . . . 1679 

Sir Robert Sawyer, knt 1681 

1 Sir Thomas Powis, knt 1687 

ilenry PoUexfen, esq. 1689 

?ir Ge.irge Treby, knt ,, 

ilr John Somers, knt., aftericards lord Somers. 1692 

I'jdward Ward, esq 1693 

5ir Thomas Trevor, knt., oftdK. lord Trevor . 1695 

•jd ward North ey, esq . 1701 

iir Simon Harcourt, knt 1707 

>ir Jamet Monfcigu, knt. 1708 

!ir Simon Harcourt, again ; ci/l. lord Harcoiu-t . 1710 

Ur Edwai-d Northey, knt. , again . . . ,, 

•fichnlas Lechmere, esq., oft. lord Lechmere . 1718 

iir Robert Raymond, afl. lord Raymond . . 1720 

r Philip Yorke, aft. earl of Hardwioke . . 1724 



Alex. Wedderburne, aft. lord Loughborough . 177S 

James Wallace, esq. 1780 

Lloyd Kenyou, esq 1782 

James Wallace, esq. 1783 

John Lee, esq , 

Lloyrt Kenyon, aaain ; afterwards lord Kenyon ,,j 
Sir Richard P. Ardeu, aft. lord Alvanley . . 1784 

Sir Archibald Macdonald 1768 

Sir John Scott, afiericards lord Eidon . . 1793 
Sir J. Mitford, afterward-^' lord Kedesdale . . i«oo 
Sir EdwaidLaw, ar't. Id. Ellenborough, Feb. 14, 1801 
Hon. Spencer Percival (murdered by Bdliiui- 

/ic.m, May II, 1812) . . . . April 15, 1802 

Sir Arthur Pigott Feb. 12, 1806 

Sir Vicary Gibbs, afterwards chief ju.--tice of 

the common pleas . . . April 7, 1807 



■ir John Willes, knt 1733 j Sir Thomas Plumer, o/^o-wan?* first vice-chan 

ir Du iley Ryder, knt '737 cellor of England .... June 26, 1812 

Ion. William Murray, «/f. earl of Mansfield . 1754 ] Sir William dan ow .... May 4, 1813 

ir Robert Henley, kiit.,a/'i!. earl of Northington 1756 I Sir Samuel Shepherd May 7> iSii7 

ir Charles I'ratt, knt., aftenoards lord Camden 1757 I Sir Robert Gifford, aft. lord Gilford July 24, 1819 

Ion. Charles Yoike 1762 i Sir John Singleton Copley, ajterioards lord 

ir Fletcher Norton, knt., oyT!. lord Grantley . 1763 1 Lyndhurst ..... Jan. 9, 1824 



ATT 62 AUG 

ATTOliNEY-GENERAL, continued. 
Sir Charles Wetherell . . . . Sept. 20, 1826 Sir Jnhu Jervis, afVeri<.TnY?i chief justice of the 



Sir James Scarlett .... April 27, 1827 

Sir Charles Wetherell, a'-jain . . . Feb. ig, 1828 

Sir.Ias. Scarlett, agn. ; nfl. Id. Abinger, June 29, 1829 

SirThos. Denmaii, o/V. lord Denmaii . Nov. 26, 1830 

Sir William Home .... Nov. 26, 1832 



common pleas ... . . July 13, 1846 
SirJohn Romilly, aft. mast, of the rolls, July n, 1850 
Sir Alex. James Edmund Cookburn .March 28, 1851 
Sir Frederick Thesigei', aj^ain ; aflencnrfU lord 

Chelmsford, and lord chancellor . March 2, 1852 



SirJohn Campbell March i, 1834 ; Sir Alexjinder Cockburn, again ; aft. ch. just. 

S'r Frederick Pollock . . . . Dec. 17, ,, | of common pi 3as and queen's bench, Doc. 28, 1852 



Sir Richard Bethell .... Nov. 15, 1856 

Sir Fitzroy Kelly Feb. 27, 1858 

Sir R. Bethell (sine; lord Wcstbury, and lord 

chancellor) Juno 18, 1859 

Sir William Atherton . . . . July, 1S61 

Sir Roundell Pcilmer (^3/'t.s'ai( officer) .. Oct. 2, 1S63 



^ir John Campbell, agrain ; afterwanU lord 

Campbell (and, 1859, Id. chancellor), Api-il 30, 1835 

Sir Thomas Wilde . • . . July 3, 1841 

Sir F. Pollock, again : o/<. chief baron Sept. 6, ,, 

Sir William W. Follett . . . April 17, 1844 

Sir Frederick Thesiger . . . . July 4, 1845 
Sir Thomas Wilde, again ; afterwardu lord 

Truro, and lord chancellor . . Julj' 6, 1846 

ATTRACTION is described by Co] lernicn'^, about 1520, as an appetence or appetite whicli 
tlie Creator impressed npon all parts of matter. It was described bj^ Kepler to be a corporeal 
a lloction tending to nnion, 1605. In 1687, sir I. Newton published liis "Principia," con- 
taining his important researches on this subject. There are the attractions of ^'rar/fJa^/o??, 
Magnetism, and Electricity, which see. 

AUBAINE, a right of the French kings, which existed from tlie beginning of the 
mnnarchj', whereby they claimed the property of every stranger who died in their country, 
without having been naturalised, was abolished by the national a.ssembly in 1790; re-e.sta- 
blished by Napoleon ; and finally annulled July 14, 1819. 

AUCKLAND, capital of New Zealand (north i.sland), was founded in 1840. The popu- 
lation of the district, in 1857, was estimated at 15,000 Europeans, and 35,000 natives. 

AUCTION, a kind of sale known to the Eomans, mentioned by Petronius Arbiter (about 
66). The first in Britain was about 1700, by Elisha Yale, a governor of Fort George in 
tlie East Indies, who thus sold the goods he had brought home. Auction and sales' tax 
began, 1779. Various acts of parliament have regulated auctions and imposed duties, in 
some cases as high as five per cent. By 8 Vict. c. 15 (1845), the duties were repealed, and 
a charge imposed " on the licence to be taken out by all auctioneers in the Uniteil Kingdom, 
of loZ." In 1858 there were 4358 licences granted, producing 43,580/. Certain sales are 
now exempt from being conducted by a licensed auctioneer, such as goods and chattels under 
a distress for rent, and sales under the provisions of the Small Debts' acts for Scotland and 
Ireland. 

AUDIANI, followers of Audeus of Mesopotamia, who had been expelled from the Syrian 
church on account of his severely reproving tlie vices of the clergy, about 338, formed a sect 
and became its bishop. He was banished to Scythia, where he is said to have made many 
converts. His followers celebrated Easter at the time of the Jewish passover, attributed the 
Imman figure to the Deity, and had other peculiar tenets. 

AUDIT-OFFICE, Somerset House. Commissioners for auditing the public accounts 
were appointed in 1785. Many statutes regTilating their duties have since been enacted. 

AUEPvSTADT (Prussia). Here and at Jena, on Oct. 14, 1806, the French signally de- 
feated the Prussians. See Jena. 

AUGHEIM, near Athlone, in Ireland, where, on July 12, 1691, a battle was fought 
between the* Irisli, headed by the French general St. Euth, and the English under general 
(Unckel. The former were defeated and lost 7000 men ; the latter lost only 600 killed and 
960 wounded. St. Piuth was slain. This engagement proved decisively fatal to the interests 
of James II. in Ireland. Ginckel was immediately after created earl of Athlone. The 
ball by which St. Ruth was killed is still suspended in the choir of St. Patrick's cathedral, 
Dublin. 

AUGMENTATION of Poor Livings' Office, M-as established in 1704. 5597 poor 
ilerical livings, not exceeding 50/. jxr annum, were found by the commissioners under 
the act of Anne capable of augmentation, by means of the bounty then established by 
parliament. 

AUGMENTATIONS COURT was established in 1535 by 27 Henry VIII. c. 27, in rela- 
tion to the working of cap. 28 of the same session, which gave to the king the jn-operty of all 
monasteries having 200/. a year. The court was abolished by Mary in 1553, and restored by 
Elizabeth in 1558. 



AUG 63 AUR 

AUGSBII'Rri (Ravarin), orirrinally a oolnny settled by Augustus, ahout 12 r..r. ; becamn 
n fiTO city, and flourisbed during the middle ages. Here many inijiortant diets of the 
empire liave been hehl. In a.d. 952, a council confirmed the order for the celiliacy of tlie 
priesthood; and on Sept. 25, 1555, the celelmated treaty of Nassau was signed, by which 
religious liberty Avas secured to Germany. League of Aiicjshurg. A treaty between Holland 
nnd other luiropcan powers, to cause the treaties of JIunster and Nimeguen to be respected, 
signed 16S6. See Minister and Nimegiten. Augsburg has suffered much Tiy war, having 
been frequently taken by siege, 788, 1703, 1704, and, last, by the French, Oct. 10, 1805, 
who restored it to Bavaria in March, 1806. 

AUGSBURG CONFESSION (Articles of Faith, drawn up by Luther, Melanchthon, and 
other reformers, and presented to the eni])eror Charles V. June 25, 1530), was directly 
opposed to the abuses of the church of Rome. It was signed by the elector of Saxony, and 
other princes of Germany, and was delivered to the em2)eror in tlie palace of the bishop of 
Augsburg. See Interim. 

AUGURY. Husbandry was in part regulated by the coming or going of birds, long 
before the time of Hesiod. Tliree augurs, at Rome, Avith vestals and several orders of the 
jiriesthood, were formally constituted by Numa, 710 B.C. The number had increased, and 
Avas fifteen at the time of Sylla, 81 n.r., and the college of augurs was abolished by Theo- 
dosius about a.d. 391. 

AUGUST, the eighth Roman month of the j'car (previously called Scxtilis, or the sixth 
from Jlarch), b}' a decree of tlie senate received its present name in honour of Augustus 
Ca'sar, in the year 8, or 27, or 30 B.C., becatise in this month he was created consul, had 
thrice triumphed in Rome, added Egypt to the Roman empire, and made an end of the 
civil wars. He added one day to the month, making it 31 days. 

AUGUSTINS, a religious mendicant 'order, which ascribes its origin to St. Augustin, 
bishop of Hippo, who died 430. These monks (termed Austin friars) first appeared about 
the nth century, and the order was ccmstituted by pope Alexander IV., in 1256. The nrie 
requires strict poverty, humility, and chastity. Martin Luther was an Augustin monk. 
The Augustins held the doctrine of free grace, and were rivals of the Dominicans. The order 
appeared, in England soon after the conquest. One of their churches, at Austin Friars, 
London, erected in 1354, and since the Reformation Aised by Dutch protestants, Avas partially 
destroyed by fire, Nov. 22, 1862. A religious house of the order, dedicated to S. Monica, 
jnother of Augustin, Avas founded in Hoxton-scpiare, London, 1864. 

AULIC COUNCIL, a sovereign court in Germany, established by the emperor Maximilian 
T., in 1506, being one of the tAvo courts, the first called the Imperial Chamber, formerly 
held at Spires, and afterAA-ards at Wetzlar, and the other the Aulic council at Vienna. These 
courts, having concurrent jurisdiction, Avere instituted for appeals in particular cases from 
the courts of the Germanic states. 

AURAY (N.W. France). Here, on Sept. 29, 1364, the English, under John Chandos, 
totally defeated the French and captured their heroic leader Du Guesclin. Charles of Blois, 
made duke of Brittany by the king of France, Avas slain, and a peace Avas made in 
April, 1365. 

AURICULAR CONFESSION. The confession of sin at the ear (Latin aim's) of the 
priest must have been an early practice, since it is said to have been forbidden in the 4th 
century by Nectarius, archbishop of Constantinople. It Avas enjoined by the council of 
Lateral!, in 1215, and by the council of Trent in 1551. It Avas one of the six articles of 
faith enacted by our Henry VIII. in 1539, but Avas abolished in England at the Reformation. 
Its revival here has been attempted by the church party called Piiseyites or Tractarians ; but 
Avithout much success.* 

AURIFLAMJIA, or Okiflamme, the national golden banner mentioned in French 
historv, belonging to the abbey of St. Denis, and suspended oA-er the tomb of that saint, 
1140. "'Louis Te Gros Avas the "first king Avho took this standard from the abbey to battle, 
1 124. I/enauIt. It appeared for the last time at Agincourt, 1415. TilJef. 

AURORA FRIGATE, sailed from Britain in 1 771, to the East Indies, and Avas never 
again heard of. 

' The rov Alfred Poole, one of tlie curates of St. Barnaba.'!, KniglitsbrMge, was Ruspcnded from his 
office for practisinu- auricular confession in June, 1858, by the bishop of London. On appeal, the suspen- 
sion was confirmed in January, 1859. Much excitement was created by a similar attempt by the rev. 
Temple AA'cst at Boyne Hill, in" September, 1858. 



AUR 64 AUS 

AUROR.E BOREALES ani> AUSTRALES (Nortlieni and Sonthcrn Polar Liglits\ tlioiif^h 
rarely stjeii iu central Europe, are irei^ueut in the arctic and antarctic regions. In March, 
1 716, an aurora borealis extended from the west of Ireland to the confines of Russia. The 
whole horizon in the lat. of 57° N. overspread with continuous haze of a dismal red diiring 
the whole night, by which many people were much terrihed, Nov. 1765. — Mr. Foster, the 
companion of captam Cook, saw tlie aurora in lat. 58° S. Its appearance in the southern 
hemisphere had been previously doubted.* 

AUSCULTATION. See Stethoscope. 

AUSTERLITZ (Moravia), where a battle was fought between the French and the allied 
Austrian and Russian armies, Dec. 2, 1805. Three emperors commanded : Alexander of 
Russia, Francis of Austria, and Napoleon of France. The killed and wounded exceeded 
30,000 on the side of the allies, who lost forty .standards, 150 pieces of cannon, and thousands 
of prisoners. The decisive victory of the French led to the treaty of Presburg, signed Dec. 
26, 1805. See Prcshurg. 

AUSTIN FRIARS, ^qq A^lgustins. 

AUSTRALASIA, the fifth great division of the world. This name, originally given it 
by De Brosses, includes Australia, Van Diemen's Land, New Guinea, New Britain, New 
Caledonia, &c., mostly discovered within two centuries. Accidental discoveries were made 
by the Spaniards as early as 1526 ; but the first accurate knowledge of these southern lands 
is due to the Dutch, who in 1605 explored a part of the coast of New Guinea. Torres, a 
Spaniai'd, passed through the straits which now bear his name, between that island and 
Australia, and gave the first correct report of the latter, 1606. The Dutch continued their 
discoveries. Between 1642 and 1644, Tasman completed a discovery of a great part of the 
Australian coast, together with the island of Van Diemen's Land (also called Tasmania). 
Wm. Dampier, an Englishman, between 1684 and 1690, explored a part of the V/. and N. 
W. coasts. Between 1763 and 1766, Wallis and Carteret followed in the track of Dampier, 
and added to his discoveries; and in 1770, Cook first made known the East coast of 
Australia. Furneaux, in 1773, Bligh in 1789, Edwards in 1791, Bligh (a second time) in 
1792, Portlock same year, Brampton and Alt in 1793, and Bass and Flinders explored the 
coasts and islands in 1798-9 and discovered Bass's Straits. Grant in 1800, and Flinders 
again (1801-5) completed the survey. M'CuUoch. 

AUSTRALIA (formerly New Holland), the largest island and smallest continent ; with 
an estimated area of about three million square miles, including five provinces — New South 
Wales, Victoria (formerly Port Phillip), South Australia, West Australia (or Swan River), 
and Queensland {which see). Population, with Tasmania and New Zealand, in 1863, about 
1,366,956. 
Australia said to have been known to the Per- Great distress in consequence of the loss of the 

tuguese before 1550 ship " Gviardian," captain Kiou . . . 1790 

Alleged discovery by Manoel Godinho de First church erected .... Aug. 1793 

Heredia, a Portuguese 1601 Government gazette first printed . . . 1795 

Torres passes through the straits named after j Bass's Straits discovered by Bass and Flinders 179S 

bim 1606 First brick church bviilt 1802 

The Dutch also discover Australia . March, ,, Colony of Van Diemen's Land (now Tasmania) 
The coast surveyed by Dutch navigators : j established 1803 

noith, by Zeachen, 1618 ; west, by Kdels, i Flinders surveys the coasts of Australia . 1801-5 

1619 ; south, by Nuyts, 1627 ; north, by j Insurrection ot Irish convicts quelled . . 1804 

Carpenter . . 1627 I Governor Bligh for his tyranny deposed by an 

■\Vm. Dampier explores the W. and N. W. coasts, [ insurrection 

1684-90 
Tasman coasts S. Australia .... 1642 
Terra Austraiis (Western Australia) named New 

Holland by order of the States Geneial . . 1665 
Wilham Dampier lands in Australia . . . i685 
Capt. Cook, sir Josejih Banks, and others, land 

at Botany Bay, and name the couniry " New 

South Wales'' April 28, 1770 

Governor Phillip founds the city of Sydney 

near Port Jackson, with 1030 peisous, 

Jan. 26, 1788 
[The seventy-first anniversary of this event was 

kept with much festivity, Jan. 26, 1859.] 



Supeiseded by governor Maoquarie . . . 1809 
Expeditions into the interior by Wentworth, 

Lawsoii, Bloxland. Oxley, &c. . 1813, 1817, 1823 

Population, 29,783 (three-fourths convicts) . . 1821 

JFe;< /iJi«(7'a(ia lormed into a province . . 1S29 

Legislative council established . . . . „ 
Sturt's expeditions into South Australi v 1828-1831 

South Av.stralia erected into a province . Aug. 1834 
Sir T. Mitchell's expeditions into E, Australia 1831-6 

First Rom. Cath. Bishop (Polding:) arrives, .-ept. 1835 

Port PhiUip (now Victoria) colonised . Nov. ,, 
Fiist Church of England bishop of Australia 

(Broughton) arrives .... June, 1836 



* The aurora is now attributed by many philosophers to the passage of electric light through the 
i-arefied air of the polar regions, in August and September, 1859, when brilliant aur..ra3 were very 
freq.uent, the electric telegraph wires were seriously affected, and conimuuications interrupted. AuroKe 
were seen at Rome and Basel, and also in Australia, 



AITS 



65 



AUS 



Remains of Burke and Wills recovered ; public 
funeral Jan. 21, 1863 

Strong and general resistance throughout Aus- 
tralia to the reception of British convicts in 
West Australia .... about June, 1S64 

Cessation of transportation to Au.stralia in 
three years announced amid much rejoicing, 

Jan. 26, 1865 

Morgan, a desperate bushi-anger and murderer, 
surrounded and shot .... April, ,, 

Boundary disputes between New South Wales 
and Victoria, in summer of 1S64 ; settled 
amicably April ig, ,, 



179s 
1800 



1S09 



1854 
1S60 



AUSTRALIA, continued. 

Colony oi South Australia foundod . Dee. 1836 
Eyre's expedition overland from Adelaide to 

King George's Sound 1836-7 

Melbourne founded Nov. 1837 

Suspension of transportation 1839 

Strzelecki explores the Australian Alps . . 1840 
Great exertions of Mrs. Chisholm ; establish- 
ment of " Home for Female Emigrants" 1841-6 
Census — 87,200 males ; 43,700 females . . . 1841 
Very numerous insolvencies . . . 1841-2 
Incorporation of city of Sydney . . . . 1842 
Leichhardt's expedition (never returned) . 1844-5 
Sturt proceeds from South Australia to the 

middle of the continent 1845 

Census (including Port Phillip) — 114,700 males ; 

74,800 females 1846 

Great agitation against transportation, which 

had been revived by earl Grey . . . 1849 
Port Phillip erected into a separate province as 
Victoria ........ 1850 

Gold discovered by Mr. Hargraves, (fee* . . 1851 
Census — males, 106,000; females, 81,000 (exclu- 
sive of Victoria, 80,000) ,, 

Mints established .... iMarch, 1853 

Transportation ceased ,, 

Gregory's explorations of interior . . . 1856 
Death of archdeacon Cowper (aged 80), after 

about fifty years' residence . . July, 1858 

Queensland made a province . . Dec. 4, 1859 

Stuai't's expeditions 1858-60 

Expedition into the interior under Mr. Lan- 

dells organised Aug. i860 

Robert O'Hara Burke, Wm. John Wills, and 

others, start from Melbourne '. . Aug. 20, ,, 
J. M'Douall Stuart's expeditions . . . 1860-1 
Burke, Wills, and two others, cross Australian 

continent to the gulf of Carpentaria ; all 

perish on their return, except John King, 

who arrives at Melbourne . . . Nov. 1861 
Stuart, M'Kinlay, and Landsborough cross 

Austraha from sea to sea .... 1861-2 

AUSTRASIA, (Esterreich (Eastern Kingdom), also called Metz, a French kingdom which 
lasted from the 6th to the 8th century. It began with the division of the territories of Clovis 
by his sons, 511, and ended by Carloman becoming a monk and surrendering his power to his 
brother Pepin, who thus became sole king of France, 747. 

AUSTRIA, a Hamburg company's steamship, sailed from Southampton for New York 
Sept. 4, 1858, with 538 persons on board. On Sept. 13, in lat. 45° N., long. 41° 30' W., it 
caught fire through the carelessness of some one in burning some tar to fumigate the steerage. 
Oniy 67 persons were saved — upwards of 60 by the Maurice, a French barque ; the rest by 
a Norwegian barque. A heartrending account was given iu the TiHics, Oct. ix, 1858, by 
Mr. Charles Brews, an English survivor. 

AUSTRIA, (Esierreicli (Eastern Kingdom), anciently Noricum and part of Pannonia, 
was annexed to the Roman emjiire about 33 ; was overrun by the Huns, Avars, &c., during 
the 5th and 6tli centuries, and taken from them by Charlemagne, 791-796. He divided the 
government of the country, establishing margraves of Eastern Bavaria and Austria. Louis 

* Gold Discovery.— Mr. Edward Hargraves went to California in search of gold, and was struck with 
the similarity between the rocks and strata of Calilbrnia and those of his own district of Conobolas, some 
thirty miles west of Bathurst. On his return home, he examined the soil, and after one or two months' 
digging, found a quantity of gold, Feb. 12, 1851. He applied to the colonial government for a reward, 
which he readily obtained, with an appointment as commissioner of crown lands. The excitement became 
intense throughout the colony of New South Wales, rapidly spread to that of Victoria and other places ; 
and in the first week of July, 1851, an aboriginal inhabitant, formerly attached to the Welhngton mission, 
and then in the service of Dr. Kerr, of Wallawa, discovered, while tending his sheep, a mass of gold among 
a heap of quartz. Three blocks of quartz (from two to three hundred weight), found in the Murroo Creek, 
fifty miles to the north of Bathurst, contained ii2lb. of p\ire gold, valued at 4000?. The " Victoria nugget," 
a m;ignificent mass of virgin gold, weighing 340 ounces, was brought to England from the Bendigo 
diggings ; and a piece of pw-o gold of 106 lb. weight was also found. From the gold fields of Mount 
Alexander and Balla;irat, in the district of Victoria, up to Oct. 1852, there were found 2,532,422 ounces, or 
T05 tons 10 cwt. of gold ; and the gold exported up to the same date represented 8,863,477?. sterling. In 
Nov. 1S56, the "James Baines" and "Lightning" brought gold from Melbourne valued at 1,200,000?. The 
" Welcome nugget" weighed 2019I ounces ; value, 8376?. 10.'. lorf. ; found at Baker's Hill, Ballaarat, June 11, 
1858. Between May 1S51, and May 1861, gold to the valuo of 96,000,000?. had been brought to England 
from New South Wales and Victoria. 



GOVERNOKS. 

Captain .Arthur Philhp 

Captain Hunter 

Captain Philip G. King 

Captain William Bligh 

Colonel Lachlan Macquarie (able and successful 
administration) ...... 

General sir Thomas Brisbane . . . . 

Sir Richard Bourke ...... 

Sir George Gipps 

Sir Charles Fitzroy, governor-general of all the 
A^jptraUan colonies, with a certain jurisdic- 
tion dver the lieutenant-governors of Van 
Diemen's Land, Victoria, and South and 
Western Australia 

Sir William T. Denison 

Sir John Young, governor of New South Wales 
only . 

Acts for the government of Australia, 10 George 
IV., cap. 22, May 14 (1829), 6 & 7 WilliamlV., 
cap. 68, Aug. 13 (1836), 13 & 14 Victoria, 
cap. 59, Aug. 5 (1850). Act for regulating the 
sale of waste lands in the Australian colonies, 
5 & 6 Victoria, cap. 36, June 22 (1842). 



AUS 



66 



AUS 



the German, son of Lonis le Debonnaire, abont 817, subjugated Kadbod, margrave ot 
Austria ; but in 883 the descendants of the latter raised a civil war in Bavaria against the 
emperor Charles the Fat, and eventually the margraves of Austria were declared immediate 
princes of the empire. In 1156 the margraviate was made a hereditary duchy by the 
emperor Frederic I. ; and in 1453 it was raised to an archduchy by the emperor Frederic III. 
Eodolph, count of Hapsburg, elected emperor of Germany in 1273, acquired Austria in 1278 ; 
and from 1493 to 1804 his descendants were emperors of Germany. On Aug. 11, 1804, the 
emperor Francis II. renounced the title of emperor of Germany, and became hereditarj'' 
emperor of Austria. The condition of Austria is now greatly improving under the enlightened 
rule of the present emperor. The political constitution of the empire is based upon — i. The 
pragmatic sanction of Charles VI., 1734, which declares the indivisibility of the empire and 
rules the order of succession. 2. The pragmatic sanction of Francis II., Aug. i, 1804, when 
he became emperor of Austria only. 3. The diploma of Francis- Joseph, Oct. 20, i860, 
whereby he imparted legislative power to the provincial states and the council of the empire 
(Reichsratb). 4. The law of P'eb. 26, 1 861, on the national representation. Population of 
the empire in Oct. 1857, 35,018,988. 



rederic II., the last male of the house of 
B;\mberg, killed in battle with the Hunga- 
rians June 15, 1246 

Disputed Buccessiou : the emperor Frederic II. 
sequestered the provinces, appointing Otto, 
count of Kberstein, governor in the name of ^ 
the emperor ; they are seized by Ladislaus, 
margrave of Moravia, in right of his wife, 
Frederic's niece, Gertrude : he died childless 1247 

Herman, margrave of Baden, marries Ger- 
trude, and holds the provinces till his death 1250 

Ottocar(orPremislas), of Bohemia, acquires the 
provinces ........ 1254 

Compelled to cede Styria to Hungary, he 
makes war and recovers it, in consequence 
of a great victory 1260 

He inherits Carinthia, 1263 ; refuses to become 
emperor of Germany, 1272, and to render 
homage to Bodolph of Hapsburg, elected 
emperor' 1273 

War against Ottocar as a rebel : he is compelled 
to cede -Austria, Carinthia, and Styria to 
Eodolph 1274 

The war renewed : Ottocar perishes in the 
battle of Marchfeld . . . Aug. 26, 1278 

Albert I. assassinated by his nephew and 
others, while attempting to enslave the 
Swiss May i, 1308 

Successful*evolt of the Swiss . . . 1307-9 

They totally defeat the Austrians under duke 
Leopold, at Moi'garten . . . Nov. 16, 1315 

The duke Leopold imposes a toll on the Swiss ; 
which tliey resist with violence : he makes 
war on them, and is defeated and slain at 
Sempacli July, 

Duke Albert V. obtains Bohemia and Hungary, 
and is elected emperor of Germany . . . 

The emi^eror Frederic III., as head of the 
house of Hapsburg, creates the archduchy 
of Austria with sovereign power . Jan. 6, 1453 

Austria divided between him and his relatives, 
J457 ; war ensues between them till . . . 1463 

Burgundy accrues to Austria by the marriage 
of Maximilian with the heiress of that pro- 
vince 1477 

Also Spain, by the marriage of Philip I. of Aus- 
tria, with the heiress of Arragon and Castile 1496 

Bohemia and Hungary united to Austria under 
Ferdinand I. 1526 

Austria liarassed by Turkish invasions . 1529-45 

Cliarles V., reigning over Germany, Austria, 
Bohemia, Hungary, Spain, the Netherlands, 
and their dependencies, abdicates (sec SjHiin) 1556 

Mantua ceded to the emperor . . Jan. 3, 1708 

By treaty of Utrecht he obtains pai-t of the 
duchy of Milan .... Api-il 11, 1713 

By treaty of Rastadt he acquires the Nether- 
lands 1714 

The Netherlands, Naples, Milan, fco. , added 
to Austrian dominions . . . Nov. 15, 171 5 



86 



1437 



Further additions' on the east (Temeswar, &c.) 

by the peace of Passarowitz .... 
Naples and Sicily given up to Spain . . . 
Denth of Charles VI., the last sovereign of the 

male line of the house of Hapsburg ; his 

daughter, Maria Theresa, becomes queen of 

Hungary . . 

She is attacked by Prussia, France, Bavaria, 

and Saxony ; but supported by Great Britain 
Francis, duke of Lorraine, who had married 

Maria Theresa in 1736, elected emperor . 
By the treaty of Campo Formio, the emperor 

gives up Lombardy (which ne) and obtains 

Venice Oct 15, 

Francis II., emperor of Germany, becomes 

Francis I. of Austria . . . Aug. 11, 
His declaration against France . . Aug. 5, 
War : Napoleon successful, enters Vienna, 

Nov. 14, 
Austrians and Russians defeated at Austerhtz, 

Dec. 2, 
By treaty of Presburg, Austria loses Venice 

and the Tyrol Jan. i, 

Vienna evacuated by the French . Jan. 12, 
The French again take Vienna . May 13, 
But restore it at the peace . . Oct. 24, 

Napoleon marries the archduchess Maria 

Louisa, the daughter of the emperor, April i. 
Congress at Vienna .... Oct. 2, 
Treaty of Vienna .... Feb. 25, 
[Italian provinces restored with additions — 

Lombardo-Venetian kingdom established, 

April 7.] 
Death of Francis I., and accession of Ferdinand, 

March 2, 
New treaty of commerce with England, July 3, 
Ferdinand I. is crowned at Milan . Sept. 6, 
Insurrection at Vienna : flight of Jletteniich, 

March 13, 
Insurrections in Italy. See Milan, Venice, and 

Sardinia March 18, 

Another insurrection at Vienna : the emperor 

flies to Inspruck .... May 15-17, 
Archduke John appointed vicar-general of the 

empire May 29, 

A constituent assembly meet atVienna, July 22, 
Insurrection at Vienna : miu-der of Count 

Latour Oct. 6, 

Revolution in Hungary and war. See Hungary. 
The emperor abdicates in favour of his nephew, 

Francis- Josei ill Dec. 2, 

Convention of Olmiitz . . . Nov. 29, 
The emperor revokes the constitution of 

March 4, 1849 .... Dec. 31, 
Trial by jury abolished in the empire Jan. 15, 
Death of prince Schwartzenborg, prime minis- 
ter ■ April 4, 

Attempted assassination of the emperor by 

Libenyi, Feb. 18 ; who was executed, Feb. 28, 
Con\mercial treaty with Prussia . Fob. 19, 



1710 
1735 



1740 
1741 

1745 

1797 



1806 
1809 



ibio 
1814 
1815 



1835 
1838 



1852 



1S53 



AUS 



67 



AUS 



AUSTRIA, continued. 

Aiistrians enter Danubian Principalities Aug. 

Alliance with England and Franco relative to 
eastern question Dec. 2 

Groat reduction of the army . . June 24, 

Detrradiug concordat with Rome . Aug. 18, 

Amnesty for political offenders of 1848-9, 

July 12, 

Austrians quit the Danubian Principahties, 

March, 

xVnstria remonstrates against the attacks of the 
free Sardinian press . . . Feb. 10, 

Firm reph' of count Cavour . . Feb. 20, 

Diplomatic relations between Austria and Sar- 
dinia broken off in consequence, March 23-30, 

Emperor and emjiress visit Hungary May, 

Death of marshal Radetzky (a^jcd 92) Jan. 5, 

Excitement throughout Europe, caused by the 
address of the emperor Napoleon III. to tlie 
Avistrian ambassador : — " I regret that our 
relations with your government are not as 
good as formerly, but 1 beg of you to tell the 
emperor that my personal sentiments for 
him have not changed," . . . Jan. i, 

The emperor of Austria replied in almost the 
same words on ... . Jan. 4, 

Prince Napoleon Bonaparte marries princess 
Clotilde of Sardinia . . . .Jan. 30, 

Austria prepares for war ; enlarges her armies 
in Italy ; and strongly fortifies the banks of 
the Ticino, the boundary of her Italian pro- 
vinces and Sardinia . . Feb. & March, 

Lord Cowley at Vienna on a " mission of peace," 

Feb. 27, 

Intervention of Russia — proposal for a con- 
gi-css ; disputes respecting the admission of 
Sardinia — Sardinia and France jsrepare for 
war . ... . . March & April, 

Austria demands the disarmament of Sardinia 
and the dismissal of the volunteers from other 
states within three days . . April 23, 

This demand rejected . . . April 26, 

The Austrians cross the Ticino . . April 26, 

The French troops enter Piedmont April 27, 

The French emperor declares war (to expel the 
Austrians from Italy) . . . May 3, 

Resignation of count I3uol, foreign minister ; 
appointment of count Rechberg, May 13-18, 

The Austrians defeated at Montebello, May 20 ; 
at Palestro, May 30-31 ; at Magenta, June 4 ; 
at Malegnano (Marignano) . . June 8, 

Prince Metternich dies, aged 86 (he had been 
actively engaged in the wars and negotia- 
tions of Najwleon I.) . . . June II, 

Austrians defeated at Solferino (near the 
Mincio) ; the emperors of Austria and France 
and king of Sardinia present . . June 24, 

Ai'mistice agreed upon, Jvily 6 ; the emperors 
meet, July 11 ; the preliminaries of peace 
signed at Villa Franca [Lombardy given up 
to Sardinia, and an Italian confederation 
proposed to be formed] . . . July 12, 

Manifesto justifying the peace issued to the 
army, July 12 ; to the people . July 15, 

Patent issued, granting greatly increased jwivi- 
Icges to the Protestants, — announced Sept. 

Conference between the envoys of Austria and 
France at Zurich . . Aug. 8 to Sept. 

Many national reforms proposed . . Sept. 

Treaty of Zurich, confirming the preliminaries 
of Villa Franca, signed . . . Nov. 11, 

Decrees removing Jewish disabilities, 

Jan 6, 10, Feb. 18, 

Patent issued for the summoning the great 
imperial council (Reichsrath), composed of 
representatives elected by the provincial 
diets March 5, 

Discovery of gi-eat corruption in the army 
financial arrangements, a deficiency of about 
1,700,000?. discovered ; general Eynattcn 
commits suicide ; 82 persons arrested, March, 



1S54 

1S5S 

1856 
1857 



Austria protests against the annexation of Tus- 
cany, &c. , by the king of Sardinia . April, 

Baron Brllck, suspected of complicity in the 
army frauds, dismissed April 20 ; commits 
suicide April 23, 

The Reichsrath assembles, May 31 ; addressea 
by the emperor Jvnie i, 

Liberty of the press further restrained . July, 

Unsettled state of Hungary (which see) July-Oct. 

Friendly meeting of the emi^eror and the regent 
of Prussia at Toplitz . . . July 26, 

Free debates in the Reichsrath ; strictures on 

the concordat, the finances, &c. ; proposals 

for separate constitutions for the provinces, 

Aug. & Sept. 

The Reichsrath adjourned. . . Sept. 29, 

Diploma conferring on the Reichsrath legis- 
lative powers, the control of the finances, &c., 
a manifesto issued to the populations of the 
empire (not well received) . . Oct. 20, 

Meeting of the emperor with the emperor of 
Russia and prince regent of Prussia at 
Warsaw : no important result . Oet. 20-26, 

The government professes non-intervention in 

Italy, but increases the army in Venetia, 

Oct. & Nov. 

The empress goes to Madeira for health Nov. 

Sale of Venetia, publicly spoken of, is re- 
pudiated in Dec. 

Ministerial crisis : M. SchmerUng becomes 
minister — more political concessions, Dec. 13, 

The proscribed Hungarian, count Teleki, al; 
Dresden, is given up to Austria, which causes 
general indignation, about Dec. 20 ; he is 
released on parole .... Dec. 31, 

Amnesty for political offences in Hungary, 
Croatia, &c., pubhshed . . . Jan. 7, : 

Reactionnry policy of the court leads to in- 
creased disaffection throughout the empire, 
Jan. & Feb. 

The statutes of the new constitution for the 
Austrian monarchy published . . Feb. 6, 

Civil and political rights granted to Protestants, 
throughout the empire, except in Hungary 
and Venice Ajiril 8, 

Meeting of Reichsrath — no deputies present 
from Hungaiy, Croatia, Transylvania, Venetia, 
or Istria April 29, 

Ministry of Marine created . . . Jan. : 

Inundation of the Danube, causing great 
distress Feb. 4, 

Increased taxation proposed . . March, 

At an imperial council, the emperor present, 
the principle of ministerial resx)onsibility is 
resolved on April 26, 

Deficiency of 1,400,000?. in financial statement 
— indignation of the Reichsrath . . June, 

Amnesty to condemned political offenders in 
Hungary proclaimed . . . Nov. 1*8, 

Reduction in the army assented to ; and a per- 
sonal liberty law (resembUng our habeas 
corpus act) passed .... Dec. 

Polish insuiTection .... Jan. : 

Meeting of the German sovereigns(except kings 
of Prussia, Holland, and Denmark) with the 
emperor of Austria, at Frankfort, by his 
invitation : the draft of a reform of the fede- 
rate constitution agreed to . Aug. 16-31, 

The Transylvanian deputies accept the con- 
stitution, and take their seats in the 
Reichsrath Oct. 20, 

Gallicia and Cracow declared to bo in a state of 
siege Feb. 29, 

(For events of the war with Denmark, sec 
Denmark.) 

The emperor and the king of Prussia meet at 

Carlsbad June 22, 

Proposed reduction of the army, about Oct. 9, 
Resignation of count Eechlierg, foreign minis- 

F 2 



AUS 



AVE 



AUSTRIA, continued. 

ter, succeeded by count Jlensdorff-Pouilly, 
about Oct. 27, 1864 

Emperor opens Reichsrath, Nov. 14; great 
freedom of debate ; the state of siege in 
Gallicia censured Dec. „ 

Austria supports tlie Confedei-ation in tlie dis- 
Ijute respecting the duchies . . Dec. , , 

Apparent reunion between Austria and Pnissia, 

Jan. 1865 

Great financial difficulty ; proposed reduction 
in the army by the chambers . . Jan. ,, 

Contest between the government and the 
chambers respecting reduction in army, &c. , 

April, ,, 

Reported failure of Mr. Hutt's mission to 
Vienna, to promote free trade . . June, ,, 

New ministry formed, including count Mens- 
dorff as nominal premier, and counts Bel- 
credi and Esterliazy as ministers : concilia- 
tory measures towards Hungary, and other 
provinces, proposed ; centralisation of the 
government to be given up, and free trade in 

prospect Jnly, ,, 

(See Germany, Hungary, Vienna, &c.) 

Margraves. 
Leopold I., 928; Albert I., 1018 ; Ernest, 1056; 
Leopold II., 1075 ; Leopold III., 1096 ; Albert II., 
1136; Leopold IV., 1136; Henry II., 11 42 (made a 
duke 1 1 56). 

Dukes. 
1 1 56. Henry II. 

1 1 77. Leopold V. lie made prisoner Richard I. of 
England when returning incognito from the 
crusade, and sold him to the emperor 
Henry VI. 
1 194. Frederic I., the catholic. 
iigS. Leopold VI., the glorious. Killed in battle. 



1230. Frederic II., the warlike. KiUcd in a battle 
with the Hungarians, June 15, 1246. 

Interregnu.m. 

1282. Albert I. and his brother Rodolph. Albert 
becomes emperor of Germany, 1298. 

1308. Frederic I. 

1330. Albert II. and Otto, his brother. 

1358. Rodolph. 

1365. Albert III. and Leopold II. or III. (killed at 
Semisach). 

1395. William, and other brothers, and their cousin 
Albert IV. 

1411. The same. The provinces divided into the 
duchies of Austria and Carinthia, and the 
county of Tyrol. 

141 1. Albert V., duke of Austria ; obtains Bohe- 
mia and Moravia ; elected king of Hun- 
gary and emperor, 1437 ; dies, 1439 ; suc- 
ceeded by his posthumous son. 

1439. Ladislaus, who dies childless, 1457. 

1457. The emperor Frederic III. and Albert VI. 

1493. MaximiUan I., son of Frederic III. (archduke), 
emperor. (See Germany.) 

Emperors of Austria. 

1804. Francis I. (late Francis II. of Germany), 
emperor of Austria only, Aug. 11, 1804 ; died 
March 2, 1835. 

1835. Ferdinand, his son, March 2 ; abdicated in 
favour of his nephew, his brother Francis- 
Charles having renounced his rights. 

1848. Fr.ancis- Joseph, Dec. 2, 1848, emperor of 
Austria, son of Francis-Charles [born Aug. 
18, 1830; married April 24, 1854, to Eliza- 
beth of Bavaria]. 

{Heir : their sou, the archduke Rodolph, born 
Aug. 21, 1858.] 



AUTHORS. For the law securing copyriglit, see CopyricjMs. 

AUTO UA FE (Act of faith), the term given to the punishment of a heretic, generally 
hurning alive, inflicted by the Inqiiisition (which see). Since 1203, more than 100,000 
victims have been sacrificed by the sentence of the inquisitions of Roman Catholic countries. 
One of the last executions of this kind was at Goa, where twenty sufferers perished in the 
flames, 1717. An auto da /etook place at Lisbon, in 1761, when Malagrida, a Jesuit, was 
strangled and burnt for heresy. 

AUTOMATON FIGURES (or Androides), made to imitate living actions, are of early 
invention. Archytas' flying dove was formed about 400 B.C. Friar Bacon is said to have 
made a brazen head which spoke, A.D. 1264. Albertus Magnus spent thirty years in making 
another. A coach and two horses, with a footman, a page, a jady inside, were made by 
Camus for Louis XIV. when a child ; the horses and figures moved naturally, variously, 
and perfectly, 1649. Vaucanson, in 1738, made an artificial duck, which performed every 
functioji of' a real one, even an imperfect digestion — eating, drinking, and quacking. He 
also made a flute-player. The writing automaton, exhibited in 1769, was a pentagraph 
worked by a confederate out of sight. The automaton chess-player, exhibited the same 
year, was also worked by a hidden person, and so was "the invisible girl," iSoo. Maelzel 
made a trumpeter about 1809. Early in this century, an automaton was exhibited in London 
which pronounced several sentences with tolerable distinctness. In July, 1864, the "anthro- 
poglossou," exhibited in St. James's-hall, Loudon, seemed to utter songs. 

AUTOTYPOGRAPHY, a process of producing a metal plate from drawings, made known 
by Mr. Wallis, in April, 1863 ; it resembled Nature- Printing (which see). 

AVA in 1822 became the capital of the Burmese empire, it is said, for the third time. A 
British embassy was received here in Sept. 1855. 

AVARS, barbarians who ravaged Pannonia, and annoyed the eastern era])ire in the 6th 
and 7th centuries, subdued by Charlemagne about 799, after an eight years' war. 

AVEBURY, OR Abury (Wiltshire). Here are the remains of the largest Celtic or 
Druidical work 'in this country. They have been surveyed by Aubrey, 1648 ; Dr. Stukely, 



AVE 69 AZO 

1720; and sir R. C. Hoare, in 1812, and others. Much information may be obtained from 
Stukcly's " Abury" (1743), and Hoare's "Ancient Wiltshire" (1812-21). Many theories 
have been put forth, but the object of these remains is still unknown. They are considered 
to have been set up during the " stone age," i.e., when the weapons and implements were 
mainly formed of that material. 

AVEIN, OR AvAiNE (Luxemburg, Belgium). Here the French and Dutch defeated the 
Spaniards, May 20, 1635. 

".4 VE MARIA I " the salutation of the angel Gabriel to the Virgin (Luke i. 28), was 
made a formula of devotion by pope John XXI. about 1326. In the beginning of the 15th 
century Vincentius Ferrarius used it before his discourses. Bincjham, 

AVIGNON, a city, S. E. France, ceded by Philip III. to thepopein 1273. The papal 
scat was removed by Clement V. to Avignon, in 1309. In 1348 Clement VI. purchased the 
city from Jane, countess of Provence and queen of Naples. In 1408, the French, wearied 
of the schism, expelled Benedict XIII., and Avignon ceased to be the seat of the papacy. 
Plere were held nine councils (1080 — 1457). It was seized and restored several times by the 
French kings ; the last time restored on the suppression of the Jesuits, 1773. It was claimed 
by the national assembly, 1791, and was confirmed to France by the congress of sovereigns 
in 1815. In Oct. 1791, horrible massacres took place here. 

AXE, WEDGE, WIMBLE, LEVER, and various tools in common use, are said to have 
been invented by Dajdalus, an artificer of Athens, to whom also is ascribed the invention of 
masts and sails for ships, 1240 B.C. Many tools are represented on the Egyptian 
monuments. 

AYACUCHO (Peru). Here the Peruvians finally achieved their independence by 
defeating the Spaniards, Dec. 9, 1824. 

AYDE, OR Aide, the tax paid by the vassal to the chief lord upon urgent occasions. In 
France and England an aide was due for knighting the king's eldest son. One was demanded 
by Philip the Fair, 13 13. The aide due upon the birth of a prince, ordained by the statute 
of Westminster (Edward I.) 1285, for the ease of the subject, was not to be levied until he 
was fifteen years of age. The aide for the marriage of the king's eldest daughter could not 
be demanded in this country until her seventh year. In feudal tenures there was an aide 
for ransoming the chief lord ; so when our Richard I. was kept a prisoner by the emperor of 
Gei'many, an aide of 20s., to redeem him, was enforced upon every knight's fee. 

AYLESBURY, Buckinghamshire, was reduced by the West Saxons in 571. St. O'Syth, 
beheaded by the pagans in Essex, was buried there, 600. William the Conqueror invested 
his favourites with some of its lands, under the tenure of providing "straw for his bed- 
chambers ; three eels for his use in winter ; and in summer, straw, rushes, and two green 
geese thrice every year." Incorporated by charter in 1554. 

AYLESFORD (Kent). Here, it is said, the Britons were victorious over the Saxon 
invaders, 455. 

AZINCOUR. See Agincourt. 

AZOFF, Sea of, the Palus Mseotis of the ancients, communicates by the strait of 
■ Tenikal^ (the Bosphorus Cimmerius) with the Black Sea, and is entirely surroiinded by 
Russian territory ; Taganrog and Kertch being the principal places. An expedition com- 
])osed of British, French, and Turkish troops, commanded by sir G. Brown, arrived at 
Kertch, May 24, 1S55, when the Russians retired, after blowing up the fortifications. On 
the 25th the allies marched upon Yenikale, which also oft'ered no resistance. On the same 
evening the allied fleet entered the sea of Azofi; and in a few days completed their occupa- 
tion of it, after capturing a large number of merchant vessels, &c. An immense amount of 
stores was destroyed by the Russians to prevent them falling into the hands of the allies. 

AZORES, on Western Isles (N. Atlantic), belonging to Portugal, the supposed site of 
the ancient Atlantis, are said to have been discovered in the 15th century by a Dutchman 
who was driven on their coasts by the weather. Cabral, sent by the Portuguese court, fell in 
Avith St. Mary's in 1432, and in 1457 they were all discovered. Martin Behem found one of 
tliem covered with beech trees, and lie called it therefore Faijal ; another abounding in sweet 
llowers, he called it Flares; and all, being full of hawks, were therefore named Azores. They 
were colonised about 1450. A violent concussion of the earth took place here for twelve 
days in 1 59 1. A devastating earthquake in 1757. Here are fountains of boiling water. A 
volcano at St. George's destroyed the town of Ursulina, May, 1808 ; and in iSu a volcano 



AZO 70 BAB 

appeared near St. Michael's, in the sea, wliere tlie water was eighty fathoms deep. An island 
called Sabrina gradually disappeared, Dec. 1812. 

AZOTE, the name given by French chemists to nitrogen {ivMcli see). 

AZTEC'S, the ruling tribe in Mexico at the time of the Spanish invasion (1519). In 
1853 some pretended Aztec children were exhibited in Loudon. They were considered to be 
mere dwarfs. 

B. 

BAAL (Lord), the male deity of the Phoenician nations, frequently made the object of 
worship by the Israelites ; and established as such by Ahab, 918 B.C. His worshij)pers 
were massacred by Jehu and his temple defiled, 884 b. c. 

BAALBEC, Heliopolis (both meaning "City of the Sun"), an ancient city of Syria, 
of which magnificent ruins remain, descriljed by Wood (in 1757), and others. Its origin 
(referreil to Solomon) is lost in antiquity. Here Septimus Severus built a temple to the sun, 
200. The city was sacked by the Moslems, 748, and by Timour Bey, 1400. 

BABEL, Tower OF, built by Noah's posterity, 2247 B.C. (Genesis, ch. xi.) The mag- 
nificent temple of Belus, asserted to have been originally this tower, is said to have had lofty 
spires, and man}'' statues of gold, one of them forty feet high. In the upper part of this 
temple was the tomb of the founder, Belus (the Nimrod of the sacred scriptures), who was 
deified after death. Blair. The Birs Nimroud, examined by Btich, Layard, and others, is 
considered by some persons to be the remains of the tower of Babel. 

BABINGTON'S CONSPIRACY, to assassinate queen Elizabeth, and make Mary of 
Scotland queen, was devised by John Savage, a soldier of Philip of Spain, and ap^n-oved by 
Wm. Giff'ord and John Ballard, catholic priests. Anthony Babington and other gentlemen 
were induced to join in the scheme. Tliey were betrayed by Pooley Aspy, and fourteen were 
executed, Sept. 20, 21, 15S6. Babington Avas deluded by a romantic hope that Mary, in 
gratitude, would accept him as a husband. 

BABGEUF'S CONSPIRACY. See Agrarian Laiu. 

_ BABYLON,* an Asiatic empire (see Assijria), founded by Belus, supposed to be the 
Nimrod of holy writ, the son of Chus, and grandson of Ham, 2245 B.C. Lenglet. Niuus 
of Assyria seized on Babylon, and established what was properly the Assyrian empire, by 
uniting the two sovereignties, 2059 B.C. 2233 CI. The second empire of Babylon com- 
menced about 725 B.C. 

Earliest astronomical observations, at Babylon, 

B.C. 2234 [2230, H. 2233, f?.] 

Nabonassar governs 747 

Nabopolasser, the Assyrian governor, revolts, 
and makes himself king of Babylon . . 725 

Nebuchadnezzar invades Syria, 606 ; Judea, 
605 ; defeats Pharaoh Necho, and annihilates 
the Egypti.an power in Asia . . . . 604 

He returns to Babylon with the spoils of Jeru- 
salem. Blair; Lemjlet ,, 

Daniel interprets the king's dream of the gol- 
den-headed imfige. Daniel ii 602 

Nebuchadnezzar goes a third time against Jeru- 
salem, takes it and destroys the temple. 
Blair : Usher 589 to 587 

The golden image set up, and Shadraoh, 
Meshach, and Abed-nego thrown into the 



funiaos for refusing to worship it. Daniel 

iii. B.C. 570 

Daniel interprets the kina's second dream, and 

Nebuchadnezzar is driven from among men. 

Daniel iv. ....... . 569 

The king recovers his reason and his throne, 

562; dies ........ 561 

Evil Merodach (Neriglassar), king . . . 559 
Labynetus (Nabonadius or Belshazzar?) king . 555 
Babylon taken by the Modes and Persians, 

under Cyrus, and Belshazzar slain . . . 538 
Daniel thrown into the lions' den. Daniel vi. . 537 
Babylon revolts, and is taken by Darius . .518 
Taken by Alexander, 331 ; he dies here . . 323 
Seleucus Nic^tur, who died B.C. 2S0, transfers 

the .'■eat of government to Scleucia, and 

Babylon is deserted. 



*_ The city of Babylon was at one time the most magnificent in the world. The Ha-iigini Gardens are 
described as having been of a square form, and in terraces one above another until they rose as 
high as the walls of the city, the ascent being from terrace to terrace by steps. The whole pile was 
sustained by vast arches raised on other arches ; and on the top were flat stone.s closely cemented 
together with pLister of I'itumen, and that covered with sheets of leid, upon which lay the mould of 
the garden, where there were large trees, .shrubs, and flowers, with various sorts of vegetables. There 
were five of these gardens, each containing abo\it tour Engli-ih acres, and disposed in the form of .an 
amphitheatre. Strabo; Diodoru.i. Pliny said that in his time it was but a desolate wilderness. Mr. Rich 
visited the ruins in 1811, and sir B. Kerr Porter in 1818. The laborious researches of Mr. Layard, sir H. 
Rawlinson, 51. Botta, and others, and the interesting relics excavated and brought to this country between 
the years 1849 and 1855, have caused very much attention to be given to the history of Babylon. Many of 
the inscriptions in the cuneiform or wedge-like character have been translated, principally by col. (now 
sir Henry) Kawlinson, and published in the Journ.al of the Royal Asiatic Society. In the spring of 1855, he 
returned to England, bringing with him many valuable relics, drawings, <fec., which are now in the British 
Museum. He gave discourses on the subject at the Royal Institution, London, in 1851, 1855, and 1865. 



BAG 71 BAG 

BACCHANALIA (games celebrated in honour of Bacchus) arose in Egypt, and were 
brought into Creecc by iMelarapos, and were there called Bionijsiayahont I4I5"b.c. Diochrus. 
In Rome the Jiacchan alia were suppressed, i86 B.C. The xiricsts-of Bacchus were called 
Bacclianals. 

BACHELOES. The Eoman censors frequently imposed fines on unmarried men ; and 
men of full age were obliged to marry. The Spartan women at certain games laid hold of old 
bachelors, dragged them round their altars, and inflicted on them various marks of infamy 
and disgrace. Vossius. A tax was laid upon bachelors in England, twenty-five yeai-s of 
age, 12/. 105. for a duke, and for a common person one shilling, 7 A\''iri. III., 1695. 
Bachelors were subjected to an extra tax on their male and female servants, in 1785. 

BACKGAMMOiST. Palamedcs of Greece is the reputed inventor of this game, about 
1224 B.C. It is stated by some to have been invented in Wales in the period preceding the 
conquest. Henry. 

BACTRIAISTA, a province in Asia, was subjugated by Cyrus and formed part of the 
Persian empire, when conquered by Alexander, 330 B.C. About 254 B.C., Theodotus or 
Diodotus, a Greek, threw off the yoke of the Seleucidse, and became king. Eucratides 
reigned prosperously about 181 B.C., and Menander about 126 B.C. The Greek kingdom 
appears to have been broken up by the irruption of the Scythians shortly after. 

BADA.TOZ (S. W. Spain). An important barrier fortress, sirrrendered to the French, 
imder Soult, March 11, 181 1 ; was invested by the British, under lord Wellington, on March 
16, 1812, and stormed and taken on April 6 following. The French retreated in haste. 

BADDESDOWN HILL, or Mount Badon, near Bath, where Bede says the Britons 
defeated the Saxons in 493 ; others say in 511 or 520. 

BADEN (S. W. Germany). The house of Baden is descended from Herman, regarded 
as the first margrave (1052), son of Berthold I., duke of Zahringen. From Christopher, who 
united the branches of Hochberg and Baden, and died in 1527, proceed the branches of Baden- 
Baden and Baden-Dourlach. By the treaty of Baden, between France and the emperor, when 
Landau was ceded to the former, Sept. 7, 17 14, Baden was elected into a grand duchy, as a 
member of the Rhenish confederation, Aug. 13, 1806. Its territorial acquisitions by its 
alliances with France were guaranteed by the congress at Vienna, in 1S15. In May, 1849 
the grand-duke was expelled by his subjects, but was restored in June. In Jul)', 1857, an 
amnesty was decreed for political offences. A concordat made witli the ])ope, June 28, 1859, 
having greatly displeased the representative assembly, was set aside by the grand-duke, 
April 8, i860. On June 16, i860, the emperor of the French met the regent of Prussia, the 
kings of Hanover, Bavaria, Wurtemberg, and Saxony, and the German jnlnces at Baden- 
Baden. The population of Baden, Dec. 1861, was 1,369,291. 

Louis William, mai-gi-ave of Baden-Baden, a gi-cat 1 grand-ddkes. 



general, born 1665 ; sallied out from Vienna and 
defeated the Turks, 1683 ; died 1707. 

Charles William, margi-ave of Baden-Dourlach, born 
1679, died 1746; succeeded by his son, 

Charles Frederic, margrave, afterwards grand-duke 



1806. Charles Frederic ; diesiSn; succeeded by his 

grandson, 
181 1. Charles Louis Frederic, who died without issue 

in 1818 ; succeeded by his uncle, 
iSiS. Louis William, died without issue in 1830 ; 

succeeded t>y his brother, 
1830. Leopold, died in 1852 ; succeeded by his second 
of Baden-Doiu-laoh, born 1728, who joiued to his | son (the first being imbecile), 

dominions Baden-Baden in 1 771, which were also j 1852. Frederic (born Sept. g, 1826), regent April 24, 
increased by the favour of Xapoleon. 1852; declared grand-duke, Sei3t. 5, 1S56. 

] [Heir: his son Frederic William, born July g, 1857.] 

BAFFIN'S-BAY (N. America), discovered by William Baffin, an Englishman, in 1616. 
The extent of this discovery was mucli doubted, until the expeditions of Ross and Parry 
proved that Baffin was substantially accurate in his statement. Parry entered Lancaster 
Sound, and discovered the islands known by his name, in 1818. See North- West Passage. 

BAGDAD, in Asiatic Turkey, built by Al Mansour, and made the seat of the Saracen 
empire, about 762. — Taken by the Tartars, and a ]ieriod put to the Saracen rule, 1258. 
Often taken by the Persians, and retaken by the Turks, witli great slaughter : the latter 
took it in 1638, and have held it since. 

BAGPIPE, an ancient Greek and Roman instrument. On a piece of ancient Grecian 
.sculpture, now in Rome, a bagpiper is represented dressed like a modern highlander. Nero 
is said to have played upon a bagpipe, 51. Our highland regiments retain tlieir pipers. 



BAH 72 BAL 

BAHAMA ISLES (N. America) were the first points of discovery by Columbus. San 
Salvador was seen by him on the night of the nth of October, 1492. New Providence was 
settled by the English in 1629. They were expelled by the Spaniards, 1641 ; returned, 1666 ; 
again expelled in 1703. The isles were formally ceded to the English in 1783. Population 
in 1861, 35,287. 

_ BAHAR (IST. India), a province (conquered by Baber in 1530), with Bengal and Orissa, a 
princely dominion, became subject to the English East India company in 1765 by the treaty 
of Allahabad for a quit-rent of about 300, ooo?. 

BAIL. By ancient common law, before and since the conqiiest, all felonies were bailable, 
till murder was excepted by statute ; and by the 3 Edward I. (1274) the power of bailing in 
treason, and in divers instances of felony, was taken away. Bail was further regulated in 
later reigns. Bail is now accepted in all cases, felony excepted ; and where a magistrate 
refuses bail, it may be gi-anted by a judge. 

BAILIFFS, OR Sheriffs. Said to be of Saxon origin. London had its sliire-reve prior 
to the conquest, and this officer was generally appointed for counties in England in 1079. 
Hen. Cornehill and Rich. Reynere were appointed bailiff's or sheriffs in London in 1189. 
Stow. Sheriffs were appointed in Dublin under the name of bailiffs, in 1308 ; and the name 
was changed to sheriff in 1548. There arc still some places where the chief magistrate is 
called bailiff, as the high bailiff of Westminster. Buin-liaiUff is a corruption of bound- 
bailiff, every bailiff being obliged to enter into bonds of security for his good behaviour. 
Blachsto7ie. 

BAIRAM, Mahometan festivals. In 1865 the Little Bairam, following the fast of 
Ramadan {which sec), fell on Feb. 28, March i and 2. The Great Bairam began on May 10. 

BAIZE, a species of coarse woollen manufacture, was brought into England by some 
Flemish or Dutch emigrants who settled at Colchester, in Essex, and had privileges granted 
them by parliament in 1660. The trade is under the control of a corporation called the 
governors of the Dutch baize-hall, who examine the cloth previous to sale. Andersmi. 

BAKER. See Bread. 

BAKERIAN LECTURES, Royal Society, originated in a bequest of 100?. by Henry 
Baker, F.R.S., the interest of which was to be given to one of the fellows, for a scientific 
discourse to be delivered annually. Peter Woulfe gave the first lecture in 1765. Latterly 
it has been the custom to nominate as the lecture a paper written by one of the fellows. 
Davy, Faraday, TyndaU, and other eminent men have given the lecture. 

BALAKLAVA, a smalltown in the Crimea, with a fine harbour, 10 miles S.E. from 
Sebastopol. After the battle of the Alma, the allies advanced upon this place, Sept. 26, 
1854. On Oct. 25 following, about 12,000 Russians, commanded by gen. Liprandi, 
attacked and took some redoubts in the vicinity, M'hich had been entrusted to about 250 
Turks. They next assaulted the English, by whom they were compelled to retire, mainly 
through the charge of the heavy cavalry, led by brigadier Scarlett, under the orders of lord 
Lucan. After this, from an unfortunate misconception of lord Raglan's order, lord Lucan 
ordered lord Cardigan with the light cavalry, to charge the Ritssian army, which had re- 
formed on its own ground with its artillery in front. This order was most gallantly obeyed. 
Great havoc was made on the enemy ; but of 607 British horsemen, only 198 returned. The 
British had altogether 9 officers killed, 21 wounded, and 620 men put hors dc combat. The 
Russians had 550 men killed, and 6 officers (among whom was one general), and 190 men 
wounded. — A sortie from the garrison of Sebastopol on the night of March 22, 1855, led to a 
desperate engagement here, in which the Russians were vigorously repulsed, with the loss of 
2000 men killed and wounded, the allies losing about 600. — The electric telegraph between 
London and Balaklava was completed in April, 1855, and communications were then received 
by the British government. — A railway between Balaklava and the trenches was completed 
in June, 1855. See Russo-Ticrkiih War. 

BALANCE OF Power, to assure the independency and integrity of states, and control 
the ambition of sovereigns ; the princijjle is said to have been first laid down by the Italian 
politicians of the 15th century, on the invasion of Charles VIII. of France. Robertson. 
It was first recognised by the treaty of Munster, Oct. 24, 1648. The arrangements for the 
balance of power in Europe made in 181 5, without the consent of the people of the countries 
concerned, have been greatly set aside since 1830. 



BAL 



73 



BAL 



t^el^'ot^an^ill^^^^^^^^ ^7 the Greeks Balearides, and by 

and Minorca, with the 8^111 of Sem^^T^^^^^ '^'"^'"^^ = they include Majorca 

123 ^.c. ; by the Vandals, about ^6 b c and Sec naJof O? conquered by the Romans, 
799. They have belonged to Spail since i232 Seei/Zrct ^^'''^""^^S^' ' ^^P^^^ ^^ ^•^- 
BALIZE. See Honduras. 

tl,e''te,'^^%t pit;' Sed'taSo".!,"""'"'"' 'f '"?"=" f'<*>«- Adriatic to 
Didu.scl,, during tCliSra iZd*™ ' ZVTlt'^ "V^" "■"■'?'•■"■' ""<"' 
consequence, and a treaty of peace wa"S*d:rA,S„?fe,'s%', .tlllE*" "•■^' *' 

haip was sent round, and tliose might sing who could" 7?.X AiA.h ^ '' , .,}^ 
Malmcsbimi. Canute comT3osed one r./r,,^. i^r- 1 i ^"'^'^ '*"'^S halhads. 

Edward IV ; but by a statute 7%yJZT\^ ^^'''^^'''^^ ^^f ^ protected by a charter of 
vagabonds, aid turdybecr'af f/,^, -P" ^^ T' l^^^^M^^nishable among rogues, 

ee;.th:.c^'i2rf%r'^'^^^^^^^^^^^ 

t.r 'Ato?°o?^Sa™mi"'U*il'K''""°';''=.°f ',''" construction of balloons was formed 

siabilit'Tf i'tsf,,s;enstrat''anrgi;;:„'ti.Tt' V'^jS-ft^.o' ■" -™tj and 3. the 

been duly considered, and judged to be futi!e. 



estimated at 2 or 3 per cent. 

Francis Lana, a Jesuit, proposed to navigate 

the air by means of a boat raised by four thin 

balls made of thin copper, from which tlie air 

had been exhausted 
Joseph Galien suggested the filling a bag witli 

the hne difluse air of the uppcrregions of the 

atmosphere . . ... 
Henry Cavendish discovered that hydrogen gas 

is IO-8 times lighter than common air 
And soon after Black of Edinburgh fiUed 'a ba^^ 

with hydrogen, which rose to the ceiling 0I 

the room .... 
Cavallo filled soap bubbios with hydrogen 
Joseph Montgolfler caused a silken bag to 

asceud with heated air (the f^rst fire-halloon) 

Joseph and Stephen Montgolfier a.scend a°nd 
descend safely by means of a fire-balloon at 
Annonay, for which tliey received many 
honours . . . 3,^^^' 

1-irst ascent in a balloon filled with hydrogen at 
Paris, by MM. Robert and Charles, Aug '27 

Joseph Montgolfier ascends ina balloc.n iutlHted 
wiih the smoke of burnt straw and wool, 

•p- J. ... 1 Sept. ig, 

i'lrst aerial voyage in a fire-balloon— Pi latre de 
Kozier and the marquis d'Arland.s Nov 21 

Second ascent of Charles in a hydrogen balloon 
to the height of 9770 feet . . Dec. i 

Ascents become numerous : Andreani, Feb.' 
25; Blanchard, March 2; Guyton-Morveau^ 



The application of sails and' rudders has 
Fatal accidents to the voyagers have been 



1670 

I7S5 
1766 

1767 



1783 



the chemist, AprU 25 and June 12; Flourant 
and Madame Tbible (the first female aero- 
naut), June 28 ; the duke of Chartres (Philin 

Ti °fi \^^ • Sept. 19, 17S4 

Ihe first ascent m England, made by Lunardi 
at Moorfields, London . . gept ic 

Blanchard and Jeflries ascend at Dover "and " 
cross the Channel, alighting near Calais, 

The fir.st ascent in Ireland, from Kanel^gh ^^ ^ 

gardens, Dublin .... Jan 19 

Rosier and Remain killed in their descent' near' " 

Boulogne ; the balloon took fire . June 15 
Parachutes constructed and used by Blanchard', " 
n ■ , -^ug. 

liarnerm s narrow escape when descending in 

^ one, in London gept 2 

Sadler, who made many previous expeditions 
in England, fell into the sea, near Holyhead, 
but was taken up .... Oct q 
Madame Blanchard a.scended frotn Tivoli at 
night : the balloon, being surrounded by fire- 
works, took fire, and she was precipitated to 
the ground and killed . . July 6, 1819 

Mr. Charles Green's first ascent . July 19 1821 
Lieut. Harris killed descending in a balloon, 

S.adler, jun., killed, falling from a balloon,1n ^^' 182^ 
The great Nassau balloon, which had for some 
time previously been exliibited to the inha- 
bitants of London in repeated ascents from 



1802 



1812 



m 1S65 



I Astra Cistra; Experiments and Adventures in the Atmosphere: by Hatton Tnraer," appeared 



BAL 



74 



BAL 



BALLOONS, conlinued. 

Vauxhall gardens, started from that place on 
an experimental voyage, having three indi- 
viduals in the car, and after having been 
eighteen hours in the air descended at Weil- 
burg, in the duchy of Nassau . Nov. 7, 1836 

]Mr. Cockiiig absconded from Vauxhall in order 
to try his parachute, in which he had great 
faith ; ia its descent from the balloon it 
collapsed, and he was thrown out and killed, 

July 24, 1837 

An Italian aeronaut ascended from Copenhagen, 
in Denmark ; his corpse was subsequently 
found on the sea-shore in a contiguous island, 
dashed to pieces .... Sept. 14, 1851 

Mr. Wi.se and three others ascended from St. 
Louis (after travelling 11 50 miles they de- 
soendfd in Jefferson county. New York, 
ne irly dead) .... June 23, 1859 

Nadar's great balloon (largest ever made) when 
fully inflated contained 215,363 cubic feet of 
gas ; the car, a cottage in wicker work, 
raised 35 soldiers at Paris ; Nadar hoped by 
means of screw to steer a balloon in the 
heavens. 

Nadar's first ascent, with 14 others, successful, 

Oct. 4, 1863 

Second ascent, nearly all voyagers injured ; 
saved by presence of mind of M. Jules 
Godard ; descend at Nieuburg, Hanover, 

Oct. 12, ,, 

Nadar and his balloon at the Crystal Palace, 
Sydenham Nov. „ 

Society for xiromoting aerial navigation formed 
at M. Nadar's at Paris ; president, M. BaiTal, 

Jan. 15, 1864 

Godard's gi-eat Montgolfier or fire-balloon as- 
cends . . . July 28 and Aug. 3, ,, 

Ascent of Nadar and others in his gi-eat balloon 
at Brussels Sept. 26, ,, 

Mr. Coxwell ascends from Belfast in a new 
balloon ; several persons are injured by the 
balloon becoming uncontrollable ; it escapes, 

July 3, 1865 

MILITARY APPLICATIONS. 

Guyton-Morveau ascended twice during the 
battle, and gave important information to 
Jourdain June 17, 1794 

Balloons were used during the battle of 
Solferino, June 24, 1859; and by the Federal 
army near Washington, in . . July, 1S6: 

EQUESTRIAN ASCENTS. 

Mr. Green affirms that he ascended from 
London, on a horse attacbed to a balloon, 
though few persons seem to be aware that 
the experijnent was made . . . May, 1S2S 



He did so from Vauxhall gardens with a very 
diminutive pony .... July, 1850 

Lieut. Gale, an Englishman, made an ascent 
with a hoi'se from the Hippodrome of Vin- 
cennes, near Bordeaux. On descending, and 
detaching the animal from the balloon, the 
people who held its ropes, from some miscon- 
ception, prematurely let them go, and the 
unfortunate aeronaut was rapidly borne iu 
the air before he was quite ready to resume 
his voyage. (He was discovered next morning 
dashed to pieces in a field a mile fi'om where 
the balloon was found.) . . Sept. 8, ,, 

The ascent of Madame Poitevin from Cremorne 
gardens, neir London, as "Europa on a 
bull" (a feat she had often performed in 
France), and several ascents on horses, 
brought the parties concerned before the 
police-courts on a charge of cruelty to animals, 
and put an end to experiments that outraged 
public feeling Aug. 1852 

M. Poitevin ascended on a horse, in the vicinity 
of Paris, abovit the time just mentioned ; was 
nearly drowned in the sea, near Malaga, 
while descending from his balloon in 1858, 
and died soon after. 

SCIENTIFIC ASCENT.S. 

Gay-Lussac and Biot at Paris, Aug. 23 ; Giy- 
Lussac (to the height of 22,977 feet) Sept. 15, 1804 

Bi.xio and Barral at Paris (to the height of 
19,000 feet. They passed through a cloud 
9000 feet thick) 1850 

Mr. Welsh ascends, Aug. 17, 26; Oct. 21 and 

Nov. 10, 1852 

Scientific balloon ascents having been recom- 
mended by the British Association and funds 
provided, Mr. James Glaisher commenced 
his sei'ies of ascents, provided with suitable 
apparatus, in Mr. Cox well's great balloon, at 
Wolverhampton : he reached the height of 
5 miles . . . " . . . July 17, 1862 

He ascended to the height of about 7 miles at 
Wolverhampton ; at $'i miles high he became 
insensible; Mr. Coxwell lost the use of his 
hands, hut was able to open the valve with his 
teeth; they thus descended in safety, Sept. 5, ,, 

He ascended at Newcastle durmg the meeting 
of the British Association . . Aug. 31, 1863 

His i6th ascent ; surveys London . Out. 9, ,, 

His 17th ascent at Woolwich ; descends at Mr. 
Brandon's, Suffolk (ist winter ascent this 
centurj^) Jan. 12, 1864 

He ascends from Woolwich (24th time) Dec. 30, ,, 

His 25th ascent Feb. 27, 1865 

(Mr. Glaisher has laid the result of his 
observations before the scientific world.) 



BALLOT (Frencli lallotk, a little ball). Secret voting was practised by tlie ancient 
Greeks and the modern Venetians, and is now employed iu France and iu the United States 
of North America. 



The ballot-box used in a political club at Miles's 
coffee-house, We.stminster .... 1659 

A tract entitled "The Benefit of the Ballot," 
said to have been written by Andrew Marvell, 
was published in the " State Tracts " . . 1693 

Proposed to be used in the election of members 
of Parliament in a pamphlet .... 1705 

A bill authorising vote by ballot passed the 
commons, but rejected by the lords . . . 1710 

The ballot has been an open question in whig 
governments since 1S35 



The Ballot Society is very energetic. The ballot 
was adopted in Victoria, Austraha, in . 

Secret voting existed in the chamber of deputies 
in France fron 1840 to 1845. It has been 
employed since the coup d'etat in . Dec. 

The house of commons rejected the ballot — 257 
being against, and 189 for it . June 30, 

For several years it has been annually proposed 
and rejected. 



1836 



BALL'S BLUFF, on the banks of the Potomac, on the Virginia side, North America. 
On October 21, 1S61, by direction of the Federal general C. P. Stone the heroic col. Baker 
crossed the river to reconnoitre. He attacked the Confederate camp at Leesburg, and was 



BAL 75 BAN 

tlioroughly defeated with great loss. The disaster was attributed to great mismanagement, 
and in Feb. 1862, general Stone was arrested on suspicion of treason. 

BALTjYNAHINCH (Ireland), where a sanguinary engagement took place between a large 
body of the insurgent Irish and the British troo]is, under gen. Nugent, June 13, 1798. A 
large part of the town was destroyed, and the royal army suffered very severely. 

BALMORAL CASTLE, Deeside, Aberdeenshire; visited by her majesty in 1848, 1849, 
1850. The estate was purchased for 32,000/. by prince Albert in 1852. In 1853 the new 
liuilding, in the Scotch baronial style, was commenced, from designs by Mr. W. Smith of 
Aberdeen. 

BALTIC EXPEDITIONS against Denmark. In the first expedition under lord 
Nelson and admiral Parker, Copenhagen was bombarded, and twenty-eight sail of the Danish 
fleet were taken or destroyed, April 2, 1801. ^fta Armed Neutrality. In the second expe- 
dition under admiral Gambier and lord Cathcart, eighteen sail of the line, fifteen frigates, and 
thirty-one brigs and gun-boats surrendered to the British, July 26, 1807. 

BALTIC 'EXPEDITION against Russia. The British fleet sailed from Spithead in 
presence of the queen, who led it out to sea in her yacht, the Fairy, March 11, 1854. It 
consisted of a crowd of steam-ships of the line, of which, five were each of 120 guns and 
upwards : tlie whole under the command of vice-adrairal sir Charles Napier, whose flag 
floated on board the Duke of Wellington, of 131 guns. The fleet arrived in Wingo Sound, 
March 15, and in the Baltic, March 20, following. The gulf of Finland was blockaded, 
April 12. 10,000 French troops embarked at Calais for the Baltic in English ships of war, 
in presence of the emperor, July 15. The capture of Bomarsund, one of the Aland islands, 
and surrender of the garrison, took place, Aug. 16. See Bomarsund. The English and 
French fleets, the latter having joined June 14, commenced their return homeward to 
winter, Oct. 15, 1S54. — The second expedition (of which the advanced or flying squadron 
sailed March'20) left the Downs, April 4, 1855. In July it consisted of 85 English ships 
(2098 guns), commanded l)y admiral R. S. Dundas, and 16 French ships (408 guns), under 
admiral Pernand. On July 21, three vessels silenced the Russian batteries at Hogland 
island. The fleet proceedcil towards Croustadt. Many infernal machines* were discovered. 
Sveaborg was attacked Aug. 9. See Sveaborg. Shortly after, the fleet returned to 
England. 

BALTIMORE, a maritime city in Maryland, United States, founded in 1729. On Sept. 
12, 1814, the British army under col. Ross advanced against this place. He was killed in a 
skirmish ; and the command was assumed by col. Brooke, who attacked and routed the 
American arm}'', which lost 600 killed and wounded and 300 prisoners. The projected attack 
on the town was however abandoned. Alison. See United States, 1861. 

BAMBERG (Bavaria), said to have been founded by Saxons, in 804, and endowed with a 
church by Charlemagne. It was made a bishopric in 1107, and the bishop was a prince of 
the empire till the treaty of Luneville, 1801, when Bamberg was secularized. It was 
incorporated with ]>avaria in 1803. The noble cathedral, rebuilt in ilio, has been recently 
repaired. Bamberg was taken and pillaged by the Russians in 1759. 

BAMBOROL^GH, or Bamburg, Northumberland, according to the " Saxon Chronicle," 
was built by king Ida about 547, and named Bebbanburgh. The castle and estate, the 
property of the Forstcrs, and forfeited to the crown, through their taking part in the 
rebellion in 1715, were purchased by Nathaniel lord Crewe, bishop of Durham, and 
bequeathed by him for various charitable purposes. The valuable libi'ary was founded by 
the trustees in 1778. The books are lent to persons residing within 20 miles of the castle. 

BAMPTON LECTURES (Theological), delivered at Oxford annually, began in 1780, with 
a lecture by James Bandinel, D.D. The lecturer is paid out of the proceeds of an estate 
bequeathed for the purpose by the rev. John Bampton, and the lectures are published. 
Among the more I'emarkable lectures were those by White (1784), Heber (1815), Whately 
(1822)"^ Milman (1827), Hampden (1832), and Mansel (1858). 

BANBURY, Oxfordshire, a Saxon town. The castle, erected by Alexander de Blois, 
bishop of Lincoln, 1125, has been frequently besieged. In 1646 it was taken bj'- the parlia- 
mentarians and demolished. At Danesmore, near Banbury, Edward IV. defeated the 
Lancastrians under the earl of Pembroke, July 26, 1469, and their leader and his brother 

* These woro conos of galvanised iron, 16 inohes in diameter, and 20 inches long. Each contained 
Q or 10 lb. of powder, with apparatus for firing by sulphuric acid. Little damage was done by them. 
They were said to be the invention of the philosopher Jacobi. 



BAN 



76 



BAN 



were soon after taken prisoners and executed. Banbury cakes were renowned in the time of 
Ben Jonson, and Banbury Cross was destroyed by the Puritans. 

BAND OF GENTLEMEN PENSIONERS. See Gentlemen-at-Arms. 

BANDA ISLES (ten), Eastern Archipelago, visited by the Portuguese in 1511, who settled 
on them, 1521, but were expelled by the Dutch about 1600. Rohun island was ceded to the 
English in 1616. The Bandas were taken by the latter in 1796 ; restored in 1801 ; retaken 
in 181 1 ; and restored in Aug. 1814. 

BANGALORE (S. India) was besieged by the British under lord Cornwallis, March 6, and 
taken by storm, March 21, 1791. Bangalore was restored to Tijipoo in 1792, when he 
destroyed the strong fort, deemed the bulwark of Mysore. 

BANGOR (Banchor Iskoed, or Monachorum), Flintshire, the site of an ancient monastery, 
very populous if it be true that 1200 monks were slain by Ethelfrid, king of the Angles, for 
praying for the Welsh in their conflict with him in 707. Tanner. 

BANGOR (N. Caernarvonshire). Its bishopric is of great antiquity, but its founder is 
unknown. The church is dedicated to St. Daniel, who was a bishop, 516. Owen Glendower 
greatly defaced the cathedral ; but a more cruel ravager than he, the bishop Bulkeley, 
alienated many of the lands, and even sold the bells of tlie church, 1553. The see is valued 
in the king's books at 13 iZ. i6s. ^d. An order in council directing that the sees of Bangor 
and St. Asaph be itnited on the next vacancy in either, was issued in 1838 ; but rescinded by 
the 10 & II Vict. c. 108 (1846). Present income, 4200/. 

RECENT BISHOPS OF BANGOR. 



1800. Wm. Cleaver, translated to St. Asajsh, 1806. 
i8o5. John Randolph, translated to London, 1809. 
1809. Henry William Majendie, died July 9, 1830. 



1830. Christopher Bethell, died April 19, 1859. 
1859. James Colquhoiin Campbell (the present 
bishop, 1865). 



BANGORIAN CONTROVERSY was occasioned by Dr. Benjamin Hoadly, bishop of 
Bangor, preaching a sermon before George I., March 31, 171 7, upon the text, " My kingdom 
is not of this world " (John xviii. 36), in which he demonstrated the spiritual nature of the 
kingdom of Christ. He thereby drew ujion himself tlie indignation of almost all the clergy, 
•who published hundreds of pamphlets. 

BANISHMENT, an ancient punishment. By 39 Eliz. c. 4 (1597) dangerous rogues 
were to be banished out of the realm, and to be liable to death if they returned. See 
Transj>ortation. 

BANK. The name is derived from banco, a bench, erected in the market-place for the 
exchange of money. The first was established in Italy 80S, by the Lombard Jews, of 
whom some settled in Lombard-street, London, where many bankers still reside. The Mint 
in the Tower of London was anciently the depository for merchants' cash, rmtil Charles I. 
laid his hands upon the money ami desti'oyed the credit of the Mint in 1640. The traders 
were thus driven to some other place of security for their gold, which, when kept at home, 
their apprentices frequently absconded with to the army. In 1645, therefore, they consented 
to lodge it with the goldsmiths in Lombard-.street, who were provided with strong chests 
for their own valuable wares ; this became the origin of banking in England. See Savings 
.Banks. 



Samuel Lamb, a London banker, recommended 
the Protector Cromwell to estabhsh a j.>ublic 
bank 1656 and 1658 

Francis Child, a goldsmith, estabUshed a bank 
about 1663 ; he died . . . Oct. 4, 1713 

Paul on the London bankers (said to be the fii'st) 1667 

Charles II. arbitrarily suspends all payments 
to bankers out of the exchequer of monies 
deposited there by them ; they lost ultimately 
3,321,313^. Jan 2, 

Hoare's bank began about .... 

Bank of England established (see next article) . 

Wood's bank at Gloucester, the oldest county 
bank, established 1716 

A list of bankers given in the " Royal Kalendar " 1765 

Forgeries of Henry Fauntleroy, banker ; exe- 
cuted ...... Nov. 30, 1824. 

Act passed permitting estabUshment of joint- 
stock banks, «^AK/t6fe 

Rogers's bank robbed of neai'ly 50,000?. (bank 
notes afterwards returned) . . Nov. 24, 1844 



1672 
1680 
1694 



1826 



Rowland Stephenson, M.P., banker and trea- 
surer of St. Bartholomew's hospital, absconds ; 
defaulter to the amount of 2oo,oooZ. ; 70,000!. 
in exchequer bills ; (caused a great depression 

among bankers) JJec. 27, 1828 

EstabUshment of joint-stock banks (see p. 78) . 1834 
Failure of Strahan, Paul, and Bates (secm-ities 
unlawfully used) ; private banking much 
injured June 11, 1S55 

Banks in 1855. Notes allowed to he issued. 

Bank of England . . . . i 14,000,000 

English private banks . . . . 196 4,999,444 
Englishjoint-stock banks (i(7uc/t see) 67 3,418,277 

264 22,417,721 

, . . iS 3,087,209 

■ • 8 6,354,494 



Banks in Scotland 
Banks in Ireland 



290 31,859,424 



BAN" 



77 



BAN- 



BANK, continued. 



Bank of 
Venice formoel . . -1157 

Geneva 1345 

Barcelona .... 1401 

Genoa 1407 

AmsterJaiii .... 1607 
Hamburg,' 1619 



Bank nf 
Rottei'daui .... 1635 

Stockholm 1688 

England 1694 

Scotland ..... 1695 
Copenhagen .... 1736 
Berlin 1765 



Bank of 
Cai.sse d'Escompte, France . 1776 

Ireland 1783 

St. Petersburg . . . 1786 
In the East Indies . . . 1787 
In North America . . . 1791 
France* 180^ 



BANK OF ENGL.4.XD was projected by . William Pater.son, a Scotch merchant (see 
Darien), to meet the difficulty experienced by William III. in raising the supplies for the 
war against France. By the influence of Patersou and Michael Godfrey, 40 merchants sub- 
scribed 500,000/. towards the sum of 1,200,000?. to be lent to the government at 8 per cent., 
in consideration of the subscribers being incorporated as a bank. The scheme was violently 
opposed in parliament, but the bill obtained the royal assent April 25, 1694, and the charter 
was granted July 27 foUowing, appointing sir John Houblon the first governor, and Michael 
Godfrey the first deputy governor. The bank commenced active operations on Jan. i, 1695, 
at Grocers' hall. Poultry, t issuing notes for 20?. and upwards, and di-scounting bills for a^h 
to 6 per cent. The charter was renewed in 1697, 1708, 17 13, 1716, 172 1, 1742, 1746, 1749^ 
1764, 17S1, 1800, 180S, 1816, 1833, 1844. Laivson, 



Bun on the bank ; its notes at 20 per cent, dis- 
count; capital increased to 2,201,1712. los., 

Nov. 1696 

The bank monopoly esfciblished by the XJrohibi- 
tion of any company exceeding six persons 
acting as bankers (Scotland not included in 
the act) 1708 

Capital raised to 5,559,995'- los. . . . 1710 

Bank post bills issued (ist record) . Dec. 14, 1738 

Run for gold through rebellion in the North ; 
bank bills paid in silver ; the city support 
the bank Sept. 1745 

Richard Vaughan hanged for forging bank-notes, 

^ May I, 175S 

jol. notes issued 1759 

Gordon riots ; since, the bank has been pro- 
tected by the military 17S0 

5?. notes issued ....... 1793 

Cash payments suspended, in conformity with 
an order in council . . . Feb. 26, 1797 

il. and 21. notes issued . . . March, „ 

Bank restriction act passed (continued by other 
acts) May 3, ,, 

Voluntary contribution of 2oo,oooi to the go- 
vernment 1798 

Loss by Aslctt's frauds (see Exchequer) 342,697^ 1803 

Resign.ation of Abraham Newland, 50 years 
cashier Sept. 18, 1807 

The bank issues silver tokens for 3s. and is. 6d., 

July 9, I Si I 

Peel's act for the gradual resumption of cash 
payments Jnly, 1819 

Cash payments for notes to be in bullion at the 
mint price, May i, 1821 ; in the current coin 
of the realm May i, 1823 

Great commercial panic — many iL notes (acci- 
dentally found in a box) issued with most 
beneficial effects Dec. 1S25 

The act for the establishment of joint-stock 
banks breaks up the monopoly . . . 1826 

By the advice of the goverimient, branch banks 
opened at Gloucester, July 19 ; Manchester, 
Sept. 21 ; Swansea, Oct. 23 . . . . ,, 

And at Birmingham, Jan. i ; Liverpool, July 



2 ; Bristol, July 12 ; Leeds, Aug. 23 ; E.xioter, 

Dec. 17 . 1827 

The bank loses 360,000^. by Fauntleroy 's forgeries 1 830 
Statements of the bank affaii-s published 

quarterly 1833 

Peel's bank charter act : renews charter till 
Aug. I, 1855, and longer, if the debt due from 
the public to the bank (11,015,100;.), with in- 
terest, (fee, be not paid after due notice ; 
established the issue department; requires 
weekly returns to be published ; limited the 
issue of notes to 14,000,000^., &c. . July 19, 
Commercial panic : lord John Russell autho- 
i-ises relaxation of restriction of issuing 
notes (not acted on); bank discount 8 per 

cent Oct. 25, 

Bank clerks establish a library and fidelity 
guarantee fund .... March, 
Gold bullion in the bank (consequent on dis- 
covery of gold in Australia), 21,845,390?. 

July 10, 
Branch bank, Burlington-gardens, London, W., 

opened Oct. i. 

Committee on the bank acts apjiointed July, 

Bank discount 9 per cent. ; lord Palmcrston 

authorises addition to issue of notes [to the 

amount of 2,000,000?. were issued] Nov. 12, ,, 

Committee on the bank acts appointed in Dec. 

I, 1857 ; rei3ort recommending continuance 

of present state of things . . July i, 1858 

Bank discount, 3 per cent. Feb. 1858 ; 6 per 

cent, (demand for gold in France), Nov. 15, 

i860 ; 7 per cent. Jan. 7 ; 8 percent, (demand 

for money in France, India, and United States, 

&c.), Feb. 14 ; 3 per cent. Nov. 7, 1861 ; zi per 

cent. Jan. ; 3 per cent. April ; 25 per cent. 

July ; 2 per cent. July 24; 3 per cent. Oct. — 

Dec 1S62 

Much alarm through the announcement of the 
bank solicitor that a quantity of bank paper 
had been stolen fi-om the makers (forged 
notes soon appeared) . . Aug. i6, ,, 

The culprits, soon detected, were tried and con- 
victed (see Triads). . . . Jan. 7 — 12, 1863 



1S44 

1847 
1S50 

1852 

1856 
1857 



* Instituted by laws passed April 14, 1803, and April 22, 1S06. The statutes were approved Jan. 16, 
1808. In 1810, Napoleon said that its duty was to provide money at all times at 4 per cent, interest. 

t The loundation of the bank in Threadneedle-street was laid, Aug. i, 1732, by, sir Edward Bellamy, 
governor ; it was erected by G. Sampson, architect. Great additions have been made from time to tirne 
by successive architects : sir Robert Taylor, sir John Soane, and Mr. C. R. Cockerell. It now occupies 
the site of the church, and nearly all the parish of St. Christopher-le-£tocks. The churchyard is now 
termed "the garden." 



BAisr 



78 



BAN 



BANK, continued. 

Bank discount, 1863, rawed to 4 per cent., Jan. 
16 ; to 5, Jan. 28 ; reduced to 4, Feb. ; to 3^ and 
3, April; rained to 4, May; raised to 5, "6, in 
Nov. ; to 7 and 8, and reduced to 7, in Dec. 

Bank discount, 1864, raised to 8, Jan. 20; reduced 
to 7, Feb. 12; to 6, Feb. 25; raised to 7, April 
16 ; to 8, May 2 ; to 8, May 5 ; reduced to 8, May 19 ; 



to 7, May 26 ; to 6, June 16; raised to 7, July 25 ; 
to 8, Aus. 4 ; to 9, Sept. 5 ; reduced to 8, Nov. 10 ; 
to 7, Nov. 24, 
Bank discount, 1865, reduced to $}, Jan. 12 ; to 5, 
Jan. 20 ; raised to 5}-, March 2 ; reduced to 4, March 
30 ; raised to 44, May 4 ; reduced to 3^, June i ; to 
3, June IS ; raised to 3^, July 27 ; to 4, Aug. 3. 



AVERAGE AMOUNT OF BANK OF ENGLAND NOTE.S IN CIRCULATION. 



1718 . 
1778 
1790. 
1800 



. £1,829,930 i8io . 
. 7,030,680 1815 
. 10,217,000 
. 15,450,000 



£23,904,000 
26,803,520 
27,174,000 
20,620,000 



1835. 


. . £18,215,220 


1855 . 


. £19,616,627 


1840 


17,231,000 


1857 


21,036,430 


1845. 


. . 19,262,327 


1859 . 


22,705,780 


1850 . 


. 19,776,814 







Dec. 27, 1856. 
Assets — Seciu'itics . . £29,484,000 
Bulhon . . . 10,105,000 
Liahililics 36,329,000 



1} £39.589.0 



Balance £3,260,000 



Nov. II, 1857. (Time (if Panic.) 
Assets — Securities . . £35,4.80,281 ) o ^ 

Bullion . . . 7,170,508! ^42,650,789 
Liabilities 39,286,433 



Balance £3,364,356 



Sept. 14, 1859. Assets. — Securities, 30,099,179?. Bullion, 17,120,822?. Liahilities, 43,503.214?. Balance, 3,716,787/. 

Feb. 14,1861. ,, ,, 29,095,172?. ,, 11,571,332?. ,, 37,167,336?. ,, 3,499,168?. 

Aug. 30, 1862. ,, ,, 30,106,295?. ,, 17,678,698?. ,, 44,453,778?. ,, 3,331,215?. 

Aug. 9, 1865. ,, „ 31,823,066!. „ 14,223,390?. ,, 42,528,577?. „ 3,317,879?. 



1694 
1708 
1716 



PUBLIC DEBT TO THE BANK OF ENGLAND. 

. £9,100,000 

. 10,700,000 

. . 11,686,000 



£1,200,000 


1721 . 


2,175,027 

4,175,027 


1743 
1746 . 



. £14,686,000 
. 11,015,100 



BANK OF Ireland. On Dec. 9, 1721, the Irish house of commons rejected a bill for 
establishing a national bank. Important failures in Irish banks occurred in 1727, 1733, and 
1758 : this led gradually to the establishment of the bank of Ireland at St. Mary's-abbey, 
Dublin, Juno i, 17S3. The business was removed to the late houses of parliament, in 
College-green, in May, 1808. Branch banks of this establishment have been formed in most 
of the proYincial towns in Ireland, all since 1828. Irish banking act passed, July 21, 1845. 

BANKS OF Scotland. The old bank of Scotland was set up in 1695, ^'^ Edinburgh, and 
began Nov. i, the second institution of the kind in tliese kingdoms : lending money to the 
crown was prohibited. The Eoyal bank was chartered July 8, 1727; the British Linen 
Company's bank, 1746; the Commercial bank, 1810 ; National bank, 1825; Union bank, 
1830. The lirst stone of the present bank of Scotland was laid Juno 3, iSoi. The Western 
bank of Scotland and the Glasgow bank stopped in Nov. 1857, causing much distress, 
Scotch banking act passed, July 21, 1845. 

BANK OF Savings. See Savings' Banls. 

BANKS, Joint Stock. Since the act of 1826, a number of these banks have been esta- 
blished. In 1840, the amount of paper currency issued by joint-stock banks amounted to 
4,138,618/. ; the amount in circulation by private banks, same year, was 6,973,613?. — the 
total amount exceeding eleven millions.'^' In /rffojic? similar banks have been instituted, 
the first being the Hibernian bank, in 1825. The note-circulation of joint-stock banks, on 



* The Eoyal British Bank vras established in 1849, by Mr. John McGregor, M.P., and others, under 
sir R. Peel's joint-stock banking act, 7 & 8 Vict. c. 113(1844); as an attempt to introduce tho Scotch 
banking system of cash credits into England. On Sept. 3, 1856, it stopped payment, occasioning much 
distress and ruin to many small tradesmen and others. In consequence of strong evidence of the existence 
of fraud in the management of the bank, elicited during the examination before the court of bankruptcy, 
the government instructed the attorney-general to file tx-officio informations against the manager, Mr. H. 
Innes Cameron, and several of the directors. They were convicted Feb. 27, 1858, after 13 days' trial, and 
sentenced to various degrees of imprisonment. Attempts to mitigate the punishment failed (May, 185S); 
but all were released except Cameron and Esdaile, in July, 1858. In Api-il, i860, dividends had been paid 
to the amomit of 15s. in the pound. The attorney-general brought in a bill called the Fraudulent Trustees' 
Act 20 (fc 21 Vict. o. 54, to prevent the recurrence of such transactions. — On April 19, i860, a deficiency of 
26'>,'ooo?. was discovered in the Union Bank of London. Mr. George PuUingei-, a cashier, confessed himself 
guUty of forgery and fraud, and was sentenced to 20 years' imprisonment. — In Feb. 18, 1S61, it was dis- 
covered that John Dm-den, a clerk of the Commercial Bank of London, had robbed his employers of 67,000?., 
of which 46,000?. might be recovered.— In Dee. 1864, J. W. Teny and Thomas Burch, manager and secre- 
tary of the 'Uait'j Bank, were committed on a charge of conspiracy for fabricating accounts ; but acquitted 
on their trial. 



BAN 



79 



BAN 



Oct. I, 1855, was, in England, 3,990,800?. ; in Scotland, 4,280,000?. ; and in Ireland, 
6,785,000/. ; total, with English private banks, abont 19,000,000?. : and with the bank of 
England, above 39,000,000/. 



Chief Lnnrlon Banl'S. 
Loiiflon and Westminster 
London Joint-Stock 
Union Bank of London 
Oommercial Bank of Loudon . 

Jnint-Stncl: Sanlf, Jaa. 1S60 : — 
England and Wales (including London) 
Scotland 



Founded 
■ 1834 
. 1836 
• 1839 



Chief London Saul:?. 
London and County 
City Bank . 
Bank of London 



185s 



Ireland 

British and foreign colonial banks with offices 
in London 



BANKRUPT (signifying cither bank or bench broken\ a trader declared to be miable 
to yjay his jnst debts. The laws on the subject (1543, 1571 ct seq.) were consolidated and 
amended in 1825, 1849, 1852, 1854, and 1861. 



c. 134 (1861), by which great changes were 
made ; the court for relief of insolvent debtors 
was abolished, and increased powers given to 
the commissionei'S in banki-uptcy, &c. ; the 
new orders were issued . . Oct. 12, 1S61 
[This act has not produced public satisfac- 
tion (1S65).] 

The Irish bankruptcy laws consolidated in 
1836, and further amended in . . . 1S57 

The Scotch bankruptcy laws consolidated in 
1856, and further amended in . . . ,, 



1700 . 
1725 
1750 . 
1775 



1800 . 


• 1339 


1830 . 


• 1467 


1857 England 


i8io . 


. 2000 


1840 


• 1308 


1859 ditto . 


1S20 . 


• 1358 


1845 England . 


. 1028 


i860 ditto 


1825* . 


. . 2683 


1850 ditto 


. 1298 


1863 ditto . 



Lord chancellor Thurlow refused a bankrupt 
his certificate, because he had lost five pounds 
at one time in gaming . . July 17. 178S 

Enacted that members of the house of com- 
mons becoming bankrupt, and not paying 
their debts in full, should vacate their seats 181 2 

Present Bankruptcy Court was erected by 2 
Will. IV. cap. 56, 1831 ; bills for reforming 
bankniptcy law were in vain brought before 
parliament, 1859, i860; at length in 1861 was 
pas.sed the bill brought in by the lord chan- 
cellor (formerly sh- R. BetheU), 24 & 25 Vict. 

NUMBER, OF BANKRUPTS IN GREAT BRITAIN AT DIFFERENT TERIODS. 

. . 38 

416 

■ 432 

. . 520 

In 1857 there were in Scotland, 453 ; Ireland, 73 ; in the United Kingdom, 2014. 
i860 ,, 445 ,, 113 ,, 1826. 

BANNATYNE CLUB, named after George Bannatyne (the publisher), was established 
iu 1823 by sir Walter Scott and others, for printing works illustrative of the histor}^, 
antiquities, and literature of Scotland, of which about 113 volumes were issued. 

BANNERET, a personal dignity between baron and knight, anciently conferred by the 
king under the royal standard. Its origin is of uncertain date : Edmondson says 736 ; but 
it was probably created by Edward I. John Chandos is said to have been made a banneret 
by the Black Prince and the king of Castile at Najara, April 3, 1367. The dignity was con- 
ferred on John Smith, who rescued the royal standard at Edgehill fight, Oct. 23, 1642. 
It fell into di-suse, but was revived by Geo. III. in the person of sir William Ersldue, in 
1764. 

BANNERS were common to all nations. The Jewish tribes had standards or banners — 

/ Ntan. ii. (1491 B.C.) The standard of Constantine bore the inscription. In hoc sigiio vinccs — 

' " By this sign thou shalt conquer," under the figure of the cross. See Cross. The magical 

banner of the Danes (said to have been a black raven on a red ground) was taken by Alfred 

when he defeated Hubba, 878. St. IMartin's cap, and afterwards the celebrated aurifiamma, 

or orifiammc, were the standards of Erancc about iioo. See Aurijlamma, Standards, &c. 

BANNOCKBURN (Stirlingshire), the site of the battle between Robert Bruce of Scotland 
and Edward II. of England, June 24, 1314. The army of Bruce consisted of 30,000 ; that 
of Edward of 100,000 men, of whom 52,000 were archers. The English crossed a rivulet to 
the attack, and Bruce having dug and covered pits, they fell into them, and were thrown 
into confusion. The rout Avas coni])lete : the English king narrowly escaped, and 50,000 
were killed or taken prisoners. At Saucliieburn, near here, James II. was defeated and 
.slain on Juno 11, 1488, by his rebellious nobles. — A national monument was founded here, 
June 24, 1 86 1. 

* According to a return to parliament made at the close of February, 1S26, there had become bankrupt 
ill the fonr raonih." 'preceding, 59 banking-houses, comprising 144 partners ; and 20 otlier banking establish- 
ments' had been declared insolvent. Every succeeding week continued to add from seventy to a hundred 
merchants, traders, and manufacturers to the bankrupt list. This was, however, the period of bubble 
speculation, and of unprecedented commercial embarrassment and ruin. 



BAN 80 BAR 

BANNS, in the feudal law, were a solemn proclamation of any kind : hence arose the 
present custom of asking banns, or giving notice before marriage ; said to have been intro- 
duced into the church about 1 200. 

BANQUETING-HOUSE, Whitehall, London, built by luigo Jones, about 1607. 

BANTAM (Java), where a rich British factory was established by captain Lancaster, in 
1603. The English and Danes were driven from their factories bj'^ the Dutch in 1683. 
Bantam surrendered to the Britisli in 181 1, but was restored to the Dutch at the peace in 
1814. It was not worth retaiiiing, the harbour being choked up and inaccessible. 

BANTINGISM. See CorpuUnce. 

BANTRY BAY (S. Ireland), where a French fleet, bringing succour to the adherents of 
James II., attacked the English under admiral Herbert, May i, 1689 : the latter retired to 
form in line and were not pursued. A French squadron of seven sail of the line and two 
frigates', armed en flute, and seventeen transports, anchored here for a few days, without 
effect, Dec. 1796. Mutiny of the Bantry Bay squadron under adnairal Mitchell was in 
Dec. 1801. In Jan. 1802, twenty-two of the mutineers were tried on board the Gladiator, at 
Portsmouth, when seventeen were condemned to death, of whom eleven were executed ; the 
others were sentenced to receive each 200 lashes. The executions took place on board the 
Majestic, Centaur, Formidable, Tcmerairc, and L'AcMlle, Jan. 8 to 18, 1802. 

BAPTISM, the ordinance of admission into the Christian church, practised by all sects 
professing Christianity, except Quakers. Jolm the Baptist baptized Christ, 30. {Matt, iii.) 
Infant baptism is mentioned by Irenseus about 97. In the reign of Constantine, 319, 
baptisteries were built and baptism was performed by dipping the person all over. In the 
west sprinkling was adopted. Much controversj' has arisen since 1831 (particularly in 1849 
and 1850), in the church of England, respecting the doctrine of baptismal regeneration, 
which the Arches' Court of Canterbury decided to be a doctrine of the church of England. 
See Trials, 1849, and note. 

BAPTISTS (see Anabaptists). A sect distinguished by their opinions respecting (i) the 
proper subjects, and (2) the proper mode of baptism : tlie former they affirm to be those who 
are able to make a profession of faith ; the latter to be total immersion. There are seven 
sections of Baptists — Arminian, Calvinistic (or Particular), &c, The first Baptist church 
formed in London was in 1608. They published a confession of faith in i68g. In 1851 
they had 130 chapels in Loudon and 2789 (with sittings for 752,353 persons) in England and 
Wales. Rhode Island, America, was settled by Baptists in 1635. 

BARBADOES, discovered by the Portuguese, was the first English settlement in the West 
Indies. About 1605 it gave rise to the sugar trade in England ; and was, with other 
Caribbee islands, settled b}' charter granted to James, earl of Marlborough, 2 Charles I., 
1627. Barbadoes has suffered severely from elemental visitations ; in a dreadful hurricane, 
Oct. 10, 1780, more than 4000 of the inhabitants lost their lives. A large plantation with 
all its buildings was destroyed, by the land removing from its original site to another, 
and covering everything in its peregrination, Oct. 1784. An inundation, Nov. 1795; and 
two great fires. May and Dec. 1796. Bishopric established, 1824. Awful devastation, with 
the loss of thousands of lives, and of immense property, by a hurricane, Aug. 10, 1831. 
Nearly 17,000 persons died of cholera here in 1S54. On Feb. 14, i860, property to the 
amount of about 300,000/. was destroyed by a fire at Bridgetown, the capital. 

BARBARY, in N. Africa, considered to comprise Algeria, Morocco, Fez, Tunis, and 
Tripoli, with their dependencies. Piratical states (nominally subject to Turkey) were 
founded on the coast by Barbarossa, about 15 18. ^ 

BARBERS existed at Rome in the 3rd century B.C. In England, formerly, the business 
of a surgeon was united to the barber's, and he was denominated a Bakbeh-Surgeon. A 
London company was formed in 1308, and incorporated, 1461. This union was partially 
dissolved in 1540, a)id whollj' so in 1745. "No person using any shaving or barbery in 
London shall occupy any surgery, letting of blood, or other matter, except only drawing of 
teeth." 32 Henry VIII. 1540. 

BARCA (N. Africa), the Greek Barce, a colony of Cyrene. It was successively .'iubju- 
gated by the Persians, Egyptians, and Saracens. In 1550 the sultan Solj-mau combined 
Barca with the newly conquered pashalik of Tripoli. 



BAR 81 BAR 

BARCELONA, an ancient maritime city, (N. E. Spain), said to have been rebuilt by 
Hamilcar Barca, father of the great Hannibal, about 233 B.C. With the surrounding 
country, it was held by the Romans, Goths, Moors, and Franks, and, Avith tlic province of 
which it is the capital, was made an independent county about A.D. 864, and incorporated 
into Aragon in 11 64, the last count becoming king. The city has suflered much by war. The 
siege by the Frencli, in 1694, was relieved by the approach of the English fleet, commanded 
by admiral Russell ; but the city was taken by the earl of Peterborough in 1706. It was 
bombarded and taken by the duke of Berwick and the French in 17 14, and was taken by 
Napoleon in 1808, and retained till 18 14. It revolted against the queen in 1841, and was 

bombarded and taken in Dec. 1842, by Espartero. 
* 
BARCLAY, Captain, See Pedestrianism.. 

BARDESANISTS, followers of Bardesanes, of Mesopotamia, who embraced the errors of 
A'alentinus, after refuting tliem, and added the denial of the incarnation, the resurrection, 
5:c., about 175. 

BARDS. Demodocus is mentioned as a bard by Homer ; and we find bards, according 
to Strabo, among the Roinans before the age of Augustus. The Welsh bards formed an 
hereditary order, regulated, it is said, by laws, enacted about 940 and 1078. They lost their 
privileges at the conquest by Edward I. in 1284. The institution was revived by the Tudor 
sovereigns ; and their Eisteddfodds (or meetings) have been and are frequently held ; at 
Swansea, Aug. 1863 ; at Llandudno, Aug. 1864 ; and in the vale of Conway, Aug. 7, 1865. 
The Gwyneddigion Society of Bards was founded iu 1770. Turlogh O'Carolan, the last of 
the Irish bards, died in 1737. Chambers. 

BAREBONES' PARLIAMENT. Cromwell, supreme in the three kingdoms, summoned 
122 persons, such as he thought he could manage, who with six from Scotland, and live from 
Ireland, met, and assumed the name of parliament, July 4, 1653. It obtained its appellation 
from a nickname given to one of its members, a leather-seller, named " Praise-God Barbon," 
a great haranguer and frequent in prayer. Although A'iolent and absurd propositions were 
made by some of the members, the majority evinced much sense and spirit, proposing to 
reform abuses, improve the administration of the law, &c. The parliament was suddenly 
dissolved, Dec. 13, 1653, at the instance of Sydenham, an independent, and Cromwell was 
invested with the dignity of Lord Protector. 

BAREILLY, province of Delhi (N. W. India), ceded to the East India company by the 
ruler of Oude in iSoi. A mutiny at Bareilly, the ca]ntal, was siippressod in April, 1816. 
On May 7, 1858, it was taken from the sepoy rebels, who had here committed many 
enormities. 

BARFLEUR (N. France), where William, duke of Normandy, equipped the fleet by 
which he conquered England, 1066. Near it, prince William, son of Henry I., in his 
passage from Normandy, was shipwrecked, Nov. 25, 1120.* Barfleur was destroyed by 
the English in the campaign in which they won the battle of Crecy, 1346. The French 
navy was destroyed near the cape by admiral Russell, after the victory of La Hogue, in 1692. 

BARI (S. Italy), the Barium of Horace, was, in the 9tli century, a stronghold of the 
Saracens, and was captured by the emperor Louis II., a descendant of Charlemagne, in 871. 
In the loth century it became subject to the eastern empire, and remained so till it was 
taken by Robert Guiscard, the Norman, about 1060. A great ecclesiastical council was held 
here on Oct. i, 1098, when the filioque article of the creed and the procession of the Holy 
Sjiirit were the subjects of discussion. 

BARING ISLAND, Arctic Sea, discovered by captain Penny in 1 850-1, and so named by 
him after sir Francis Baring, first lord of the admiralty in 1849. 

BARIUM (Greek, banjs, heavy), a metal found abundantly as carbonate and sulphate. 
The oxide baryta was first recognised as an earth distinct from lime by Sclieele, in 1774; and 
the metal was' first obtained by Humphrey Davy, in 1808, Watfs. 

BARK. See Jesuits' Barl\ 

* 111 this shipwreck jierishod his legitimate son, William, duke of Normandy, and his newly married 
hride, Matilda, daughter of Fulkc, earl of Anjoii; the king's natural son, Richard; his niece, Lucia; 
the carl of Chester, and the flower of the nobility, with 140 ofijcers and soldiers, and 50 sailoi-s, most 
of the latter being intoxicated, which was the cause of their running ujion the rocks ncai- Barfleur. 
This lamentable catastrophe had such an effect upon Henry that ho was never afterwards seen to smile. 
Hdaault ; Hume. 

G 



BAR 82 BAR 

BARMECIDES, a powerful Persian family, celebrated for virtue and courage, were 
massacred tlirougli the jealousy of the caliph Haroun-al-Raschid, about 802. His visir Giafar 
was a Barmecide. The phrase Barmecide (or imaginary) feast originated in the story of the 
barber's sixth brother, in the Arabian Nights' Entertainments. 

BARNABITES, an order of monks, established in Milan about 1530, were much engaged 
in instructing youth, relieving the sick and aged, and converting heretics. 

BARNARD'S, Sir John, Act (7 Geo. II., cap. 8), entitled, "an act to prevent the 
infamous practice of stock-jobbing," was passed in 1734, and repealed in i860. Sir John 
Barnard (born 1685, died 1764) was an eminent and patriotic lord mayor of London. 

BARNET, Hertfordshire. Here Edward IV. gained a decisive victory over the Lancas- 
trians, on Easter-day, April 14, 1471, when the earl of Warwick and his brother the marquis 
ofMontacute, or Montague, and 10,000 men were slain. A column commemorative of this 
battle has been erected at the meeting of the St. Alban's and Hatfield roads. 

BAROMETERS. Torricelli, a Florentine, having discovered that no principle of suction 
existed, and that water did not rise in a pump through nature's abhorrence of a vacuum, 
imitated the action of a pump with mercury, and made the first barometer, about 1643. 
Pascal's experiments ( 1 646) enhanced the value of the discovery by applying it to the measure- 
ment of heights. Wheel barometers were contrived in 1668 ; pendent barometers in 1695; 
marine in 1700, and many improvements have been since made. In the Aneroid barometer 
(from a, no, and nei-os, icatery) no liquid is emjiloycd ; the atmospheric pressure being 
exerted on a metallic spring. Its invention (attributed to Cont^, in 1798, and to Vidi, about 
1844) excited much attention in 1848-9. Barometers Avere jjlaced at N.E. coast stations in 
i860, by the duke of Northumberland and others. 

BARON, now the lowest title in our peerage, is extremely ancient. Its original name in 
England, Vavasour, was changed by the Saxons into Thane, and by the Normans into Baron. 
Many of this rank are named in the history of England, and undoubtedly had assisted in, or 
had been summoned to parliament (in 1205) ; but the first precept found is of no higher date 
than the 49 Henry III. 1265. The first raised to this dignity by patent was John de Beau- 
champ, created baron of Kidderminster, by Richard II., 1387. The barons took arms against 
kino- John, and compelled him to sign the great charter of our liberties, and the charter of 
our'Yorests, at Runnymede, near, Windsor, "June, 1215. Charles II. granted a coronet to 
barons on his restoration. 

BARONETS, the first in rank among the gentry, and the only knighthood that is here- 
ditary, were instituted by James I. 1611. The rebellion in Ulster seems to have given rise 
to this order, it having been required of a baronet, on his creation, to pay into the exchequer 
as much as would maintain "thirty soldiers three years at eightpence a day in the province 
of Ulster in Ireland." It was further required that a baronet should be a gentleman born, 
and have a clear estate of loooZ. per annum. The first baronet was sir Nicholas Bacon (whose 
successor is therefore stjded Primus Baronettorum Anglicv), May 22, 161 1. The baronets of 
Ireland were created in 1619 ; the first being sir Francis Blundell. — Baronets of Nova Scotia 
were created, 1625 ; sir Robert Gordon the first baronet. — All baronets created since the Irish 
union in 1801 are of the United Kingdom. 

BARONS' WAR, arose in consequence of the faithlessness of king Henry III. and the 
oppression of his favourites. The barons, headed by Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, 
and Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester, met at Oxford in 1262, and enacted statutes to 
which the king objected. In 1263 their disputes were in vain referred to the decision of 
Louis IX. of France. War broke out, and on May 14, 1264, the king's party were totally 
defeated at Lewes : and De Montfort become the virtual ruler of the kingdom. Through 
treachery the v,-ar was renewed ; and at the battle of Evesham, Aug. 4, 1265, De Montfort 
was slain, and the barons Avere defeated. They, however, did not render their final sub- 
mission till 1268. A history of this war was published by Mr. W. H. Blaanw in 1844. 

BARRACKS (from " Baraque—IIicUe que font Ics soldats en campagnc pour sc mettre a 
couvert,") were not numerous in these countries until about 1789. A superintendent-general 
was appointed in 1793, since wlicn commodious barracks have been built in the various 
"arrison towns and central points of the empire. — A report, censuring the condition of many 
barracks, was presented to parliament in 1858 ; and great improvements wereeflected under 
the direction of Mr. Sydney Herbert. See Aldcrshot. 

BARRICADES, mounds formed of trees and earth, and for military defence. During 
the wars of the League in France, in 1588, the people made iarricadcs by means of chains, 



BAR 83 BAR 

casks, &c., and compelled the royal troops to retire. Barricades composed of overturned 
vehicles, &c., were erected in Paris in the insmrectious of July, 27-30, 1830, and June 23, 
1848. 

BARRIER TREATY, by which the Low Countries were ceded to the emperor Charles VI., 
was signed by the British, Imperial, and Dutch ministers, Nov. 5, 17 15. 

BARRISTERS are said to have been first appointed by Edward I., about 1291, but there 
is earlier mention of professional advocates in England. They are of various rank, as 
King's or Queen's Counsel, Serjeants, &c., ichkh see. Students for the bar must keep a 
certain number of terras at the Inns of Court, previously to being called ; and by the 
regulations of 1853 must j)ass a public examination. Irish students must keep eight terms 
in England. 

BARROSA, OR Barossa (S. Spain), where a battle was fought on March 5, 181 1, between 
the British army, commanded by major-general sir Thomas Graham, afterwards lord 
Lynedoch, and the French under marshal Victor, After a long conflict, the British achieved 
one of the most glorious triumphs of the Peninsular war. Although they fought at great 
disailvantage, the British compelled the French to retreat, leaving nearly 3000 dead, six 
pieces of cannon, and an eagle, the first that the British had taken ; the loss of the British 
was 1 1 69 men killed and wounded. 

EARROW ISLAND (N. Arctic Sea), discovered by captain Penny in 1850-51, and named 
by him in honour of John Barrow, Es(£., son of sir John. 

BARROW'S STRAITS (N. Arctic Sea), explored by Edwd. Parry, as for as ]\Ielville 
Island, lat. 74° 26' N., and long. 113° 47' W. The strait, named after sir John Barrow, was 
entered on Aug. 2, 1819. The thermometer was 55° below zero of Fahi-enheit. 

BARROWISTS, a name given to the Brownists, ivhich see, 

BARROWS, circular mounds found in Britain and other countries, were ancient 
sepulchres. Sir Richard Hoare caused several barrows near Stouehenge to be opened ; in 
them were found a number of curious remains of Celtic ornaments, such as beads, buckles, 
and brooches, in amber, wood, and gold : Nov. 1808. 

BARS in music appear in the madrigals of Bonini, 1607. Their common use in this 
country is attributed to Henry Lawes, about 1653. Eng. Cyc. 

BARTHOLOMEW, ST., martyred, 71. The festival (on Aug. 24, O.S., Sept. 3, N.S.) 
is said to have been instituted in 1130.* The monastery and hospital of St. Bartholomew 
(Austin Friars), founded in the reign of Henry I., by Rahere, about 1 100. On the dissolution 
the HospiTxVL was re-founded, 1539, and was incoi-porated in 1546-7. It was rebuilt by 
suliscription in 1729. In 1861 it contained 580 beds, and relieved about 70,000 patients : 
it has since been considerably enlarged. The Massacre commenced at Paris on the night of 
the festival of St. Bartholomew, Aug. 24, 1572. According to Sully, 70,000 Huguenots, or 
French Protestants, including women and children, were murdered throughout the kingdom 
by secret orders from Charles IX., at the instigation of his mother, the queen dowager, 
Catherine de Medicis.f 

BARTHOLOMEW, ST., a West Indian island, held by Sweden. It was colonised by 
the French in 1648 ; and has been several times taken and restored by the British, It was 
ceded to Sweden by P'rance in 1785. 

BARTHOLOMITES, a religious order of Armenia, settled 1307, at Genoa, where is pre- 
served in the Bartlmlomite church the image which Christ is said to have sent to king 
Abgarus. The order was suppressed by pope Innocent X. 1650. 

BARTON AQUEDUCT (near Manchester) was constructed by James Brindley, to carry 
the Bridgewater canal over the Irwell, which was done at a height of 39 feet abov3 the river. 
It is said to be in as good a state now as it was on the day it was completed, in 1761, 

* The charter of the Fair was granted by Henry II., and was hold on tlie fTi-onnd which has been the 
former scene of touruameiits and mai-tyrdoms. The shows at the fair were discontinued in 1850, and 
the fair was proclaimed for the last time in 1855. In 1858 Mr. H. Morley published his " History of Bar- 
tholomew Fair," with many illustrations. See Smithfidd. 

t The number of the Tictims is differently stated by various authors. La Popelionbrc calculates the 
whole at 20,000 ; Ach-iani, De Serres, and Do Thou say 30,000 ; Davila states them at 40,000 ; and Perefixe 
makes the nimibcr 100,000. Above 500 persons of rank, and 10,000 of inferior condition, perished in Faris 
alone, besides those slaughtered in the provinces. The pope, Gregory Xlfl., ordered a TeDcum to be per- 
formed on the occasion, with other rejoicings. 

G 2 



BAS 84 BAT 

BASLE, a ricli city in Switzerland. The i8th general council sat here from 143 1 to 
1443. Many important reforms in the church were proposed, but not carried into effect : 
among others the union of the Greek and Roman churches. The university was founded in 
1460. Treaties of peace between France, Simin, and Prussia were concluded here in 1795. 

BASHI-BAZOUKS, irregular Turkish troops, partially employed by the British in the 
Crimean war, 1854-6. 

BASIENTELLO (S. Naples). Here the army of the emperor Otho II. fell into an 
ambuscade, and was nearly cut to pieces by the Greeks and Saracens on Jul}' 13, 982 ; the 
emperor himself barely escaped. 

BASILIANS, an order of monks, which obtained its name from St. Basil, who died 380. 
The order was reformed by pope Gregory, in 1569. — A sect, founded by Basil, a physician 
of Bulgaria, held most extravagant notions ; they rejected the books of Moses, the eucharist, 
and baptism, and are said to have had everything, even their wives, in common, 1 1 10. Basil 
was burnt alive in 11 18. 

BASILIKON DOEON (Koyal Gift), precepts on the art of government, composed by 
James I. of England for his son, and lirst published at Edinburgh in 1599. The coUected 
works of this monarch were published at London, 1616-20, in one vol. fol. 

BASQUE PROVINCES (N. W. Spain, Biscay, Guipuscoa, and Alava). The Basques, 
considered to be descendants of the ancient Iberi, were termed Vascones by the Romans, 
whom they successfully resisted. They were subdued with great difficulty by the Goths 
about 580 ; and were united to Castile in the 13th and I4tli centuries. Their language, 
distinct from all others, is conjectured to be of Tartar origin. 

BASQUE ROADS. Four French ships of the line, riding at anchor here, were attacked 
by lords Gambler and Cochrane (the latter commanding the fireships), and all, with a great 
number of merchant and other vessels, Avere desti'oyed, April 12, 1809. Cochrane accused 
Gambier of neglecting to support him, and thereby allowing the French to escape. At a 
court-martial (July 26 — Aug. 4), lord Gambier was acquitted. 

BASSORAH, Basrah, or Bussorah (Asia Minor), a Turkish city, founded by the caliph 
Omar, about 635. It has been several times taken and retaken by the Persians and Turks. 

BASS ROCK, an isle in the Firth of Forth (S. Scotland), was gi'anted to the Landers, 
1316; purchased for a state-prison, 1671 ; taken by the Jacobites, 1690; surrendered, 1694; 
granted to the Dalrymples, 1 706. 

13ASS'S STRAIT, Australia. Mr. Bass, surgeon of the Reliance, in an open boat from 
Port Jackson, in 1797, penetrated as far as "Western Port, and affirmed that a strait existed 
between New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land. Lieutenant Flinders circumnavigated 
Van Diemen's Laud, and named the strait after Mr. Bass, 1799. 

BASSET, OR Bassette, or Poilv et Contre, a game at cards, said to have been invented 
hy a noble Venetian, in the 15th century ; introduced into France, 1674. 

BASTARD, a child not born in lawful wedlock. An attempt was made in England, in 
1236, to make bastard children legitimate by tlie subsequent marriage of the parents, but it 
failed, and led to the memorable answer to the barons assembled in the parliament of 
Merton : Nolumus leges Anglia' imitari—" We will not have the laws of England changed." 
Women concealing their children's birth deemed guilty of murder, 21 James I., 1624. 
Viners Statutes. In Scotland bastard children had not the power of disposing of their 
moveable estates by will, until 6 Will. IV. 1836. A new act, facilitating the clnims of 
mothers, and making several provisions for proceeding in bastardy cases, was passed 8 Vict, 
cap. 10(1845). 

BASTILLE, Paris, a castle built by Charles V., king of France, in 1369, for the defence 
of Paris against the English ; completed in 1383. It was afterwards used as a state prison, 
and became the scene of much suffering. Henry IV. and his veteran army assailed it in 
vain in the siege of Paris, during the war that desolated France between 1587 and 1594. 
On July 14-15, 1789, it was pulled down by tlie infuriated populace; the governor and 
other officers were seized, conducted to the Place de Greve, and had their hands and heads 
cutoff. The heads fixed on spikes were carried in triumph through the streets.— " The 
man with the iron mask," the most mysterious prisoner ever known, died here, Nov. 19, 
1703. See l7-on Mask. 

BATAVIA and Bata\'^an Republic. See Holland. 



BAT 



85 



BAT 



BATAVIA, the capital of Java, and of all the Dutch settlements in the East Indies, built 
by that peo2:)le about 1619. Taken by the English, Jan. 1782. Again, by the British, under 
general sir Samuel Auchmuty, Aug. 26, iSii ; restored in 1814. 

BATH (Somerset), a favourite station of the Eomans. About 44 b.c. was remarkable 
then for its hot springs. Coel, a British king, is said to have given this citj' a charter, an d 
the Saxon king Edgar was crowned liere, A.D. 973. 



Bath plundered and burnt in the reign of Wil- 
liam Rufus, and again in .... 1137 
The abbey church commenced in 1405 ; finished 1606 

Assembly-rooms built 1771 

Pump room erected 1 797 



Theatre, Beaufort-square, opened . . . , 
Bath philosophical society formed 
Victoria park opened by princess Victoria . . 
British association met here . . Sept. 14, 



1817 



BATH AND WELLS, Bishopric of. The see of Wells, whose cathedral church was 
built by Ina, king of the West Saxons, in 704, was established in 909. Tlie see of Bath was 
established in 1078. John de Villula, the sixteentli bishop, having purchased the city of 
Bath ior 500 marks of Henry I., transferred his seat fronr Wells to Bath in 1088. Disputes 
arose between the monks of Bath and the canons of Wells about the election of a bishop, 
which were compromised in 1135. Henceforward the bishop was to be styled from both 
jilaces ; the precedency to be given to Bath. The see is valued in the king's books at 
531/. IS. yl. per annum. Present income, 5000Z. 



EECENT BISHOPS OF BATH AKD WELLS. 



1802. Richard Beadon, died 
1824. George Henry Law, died 



April 21, 1824 
Sept. 22, 1845 



1845. Richard Bagot, died . . . May 15, 1854 
1854. Robert John, baron Auckland (present bishop). 



BATH ADMINISTRATIOK Mr. Pelham and his friends having tendered their resigna- 
tion to the king (George II.), Feb. 10, 1746, the formation of a newniinistry was undertaken 
by William Pulteney, earl of Bath ; but it expired on Feb. 12, while yet incomplete, and 
received the name of the "Short-lived" administration. The members of it actually 
appointed were : the earl of Bath, first lord of the tre.astvry ; lord Carlisle, lord 2Jrivy seal ; 
lord Winchilsea, first lord of the admiralty ; and lord Granville, one of the secretaries of state, 
with the seals of the other in his pocket, "to be given to whom he might choose." Mi\ 
Pelham and his colleagues returned to power. Cox's Life of Pelham. 

BATH, Oeder of the, said to be of early origin, but formally con.stituted Oct. 11, 
1399, by Henry IV., two days previous to his coronation in the Tower ; he conferred the 
order upon forty-six esquires, who had watched the night before, and had bathed. After 
the coronation of Charles II. the order was neglected untd May 18, 1725, when it was 
revived by George I., who fixed tlie number of knights at 37. On Jan. 2, 1815, the prince 
regent enlarged the order, forming classes of knights grand crosses (72), and knights com- 
manders (180), with an iinlimited number of companions. By an order published May 25, 
1847, all the existing statutes of this order were annulled; and by the new .statutes, the 
order, hitherto exclusively military, was opened to civilians. In 185 1, Dr. Lyon Playfair, 
and other promoters of the Great Exhibition of that year, received this honour. 



Constitution : — -rnt Cla.ts. Knights grand cross, 50 miUtary, 
znd Clof.s. Knights commanders, 100 „ 
3rcJ Class. Companions, 525 ,, 



25 civil. 



BATHS were long used in Greece, and introduced by Agrippa into Rome. The thermte 
of the Romans and gymnasia of the Greeks (of which baths formed merely an appendage) 
were .sumptuous. The marble group of Laocoon was found in 1506 in the baths of Titus, 
erected about 80, and the Farnese Hercules in those of Caracalla, erected, 211. See Bath. 

PUBLIC BATHS AND WASH-HOUSES. 

The first established by Mr. Bowie in the neigh- 
bourhood of the London docks . . . 1S44 

Acts were passed to encourage the establishment 
of public baths and wash houses, "fur the 
health, comfort., and welfare of the inhabi- 
tants of populous towns and districts," in 
England and Ireland 18^6 

In the quarter ending Sept. 1854, 537,345 
bathers availed themselves of the baths in 
London, and in this period there were 85,260 
washers. 

Public baths and wash-houses have since been 
established throughout the empire. 



667 
1697 



BATHS IN LONDON. 

In London, St Agnes Le Celre, in Old-street- 
road, was a spring of gi-eat antiquity ; baths 
said to have been formed in 1502. 

St.Chad's-well, Grey's-inn-road, derives its n.amo 
from St. Chad, the fifth bishop of Lichfield . 

Old Bath-house, Coldbath-square, in use . 

A bath opened in Bagnio-court, now Bath-street, 
Newgate-street, London, is said to have been 
the first bath in England for hut bathing . 1679 

Peerless (Perilous) Pool, Baldwin-street, City- 
road, mentioned by Stow (died 1605); en- 
closed as a bathing place 

Turkish sweating-baths very popular in . 

The Oriental baths in Victoria-street, West- 
minster, were completed in . . . . 1862 



1743 
i860 



BAT 



BAT 



BATON", a trunclieon borne by generals in the French army, and afterwards by the 
marshals of other nations. Henry III. of France, before he ascended the throne, was made 
generalissimo of the army of his brother Charles IX., and received the hdton as the mark of 
the high command, 1569. IlenauU. 

BATTERIES along the coasts were constructed by Henry VIII. (who reigned 1509-47). 
The famous floating batteries with which Gibraltar was attacked, in the memorable siege of 
that fortress, were the scheme of D'Arcon, a French engineer. There were ten of them, and 
they resisted the heaviest shells and 32-pound shot, but ultimately yielded to red-hot shot, 
Sept. 13. 1782. See Gibraltar. 

BATTERING-KAM, Tcstuch Arietaria, with other military implements, some of which 
are still in use, are said to have been invented by Artemon, a Lacedaemonian, and employed 
by Pericles, about 441 B.C. These ponderous engines (from Soto 120 feet long) by their 
own weight exceeded the utmost effects of the battering cannon of the early part of the last 
century. Dcsaguliers. Sir Christopher Wren employed a battering-ram in demolishing the 
old walls of St. Paul's church, previously to rebuilding the edifice in 1675. 

BATTERSEA PARK originated in an act of parliament passed in 1846, which 
cmpowei'ed Her Majesty's commissioners of woods to form a royal park in Battersea- 
fields. Acts to enlarge the powers of the commissioners were passed in 1848, 185 1, and 
1853. The park and the new bridge connecting it with Chelsea were opened in April, 1858. 

BATTLE- ABBEY, Sussex, founded by "William I., 1067, on the plain where the battle 
of Hastings was fought, Oct. 14, 1066. It was dedicated to St. Martin, and was given to 
Benedictine monks, who were to pray for the souls of the slain. The original name of the 
plain was Hetheland. See Hastings. After the battle of Hastings, a list was taken of 
William's chiefs, amounting to 629, and called the Battel-roll ; and amongst these chiefs 
the lands and distinctions of the followers of the defeated Harold were distributed. 

BATTLE, Wager of, a trial by combat formerly allowed by our laws, where the defen- 
dant in an appeal of murder might fight with the appellant, and make proof thereliy of his 
guilt or innocence. See Appeal. 

BATTLE-AXE, a weapon of the Celtic. The Irish were constantly armed with an axe. 
Burns. At the battle of Bannockburn king Robert Bruce clove an English champion down 
to the chine at one blow with a battle-axe, 13 14. Hume. The battle-axe guards, or beau- 
fetiers, who are vulgarly called beef-eaters, and whose arms are a sword and lance, were first 
raised by Henry VII. in 1485. They were originally attendants uiwn the kings buft'et. See 
Tcoman of the Guard. 

BATTLEFIELD, Battle of. See Shreivshury. 

BATTLES. Palamedes of Argos is said to have been the first who ranged an army in a 
regular line of battle, placed sentinels round a camp, and excited the soldier's vigilance by 
giving him a watchword. Lenglct. See Naval Battles, British. The following are the most 
memorable battles, arranged in chronological order. The fifteen battles marked by a f are 
termed " decisive " by Professor Creasy ; n. signifies naval. 



BEFORE CHRIST. 

Abraliam defeats kings of Canaan {Gen. xiv.) . 1913 
Joshua subdues five kings of Canaan (Josh. x.). 1451 
Gideon defeats the Midianites (/Mrfg'ea vii.) . 1245 

Trojan war commenced 1193 

Troy taken and destroyed . . . .1184 
Jophtliah defeats Ammonites . . . . 1143 
Ethiox)ians defeated by Asa (2 Ckron. xiv.) . 941 

*Horatii vanquish Curiatii 669 

*H.alys (Medes and Lydians, stopped hy eclipse) . 585 
■t*Marathon (Greeks defeat Persians) Sept. 28, 490 
"*Thermopylre (Aeroiim 0/ Zco?Mdct.«) Autj. 7-9, 480 
'Salamis, n. (Greeks defeat Persians) . Oct. 20, ,, 
*Mycale (ditto) .... Sept. 22, 479 
*Fla,tsea, (ditto : Pausanias) . . Sept. 22, ,, 
♦Eurymedon n. (ditto: Cimon) .... 466 
*Coronea (Bceotiuns defeat Athenians) . . . 447 
Romans totally defeat Veientes . . . 437 
ToYone (Cleon killed: Athenians defeat Spartans) 422 
*'Ma.i\t\i\Gn, (Spartans defeat Athenians) . . . 418 
■fAthenians defeated before Syracuse . . 413 
*C^zia\\^ n. (Alcibiades defeats Spartans) . . 410 



^Arginusie (Conon defeats Sjiaiians) . .B.C. 406 

*jEgospotamos n. (Athenian fleet destroyed) . . 405 

*Ounaxa(C«/)-!(S defeatedand killed by Artaxerxes) 401 

Cnidus, n. (Conon defeats Spartaiis) . . . 394 

'Coronea. (An/esilaus defeats Athenians and allies) „ 

* AWia, I Brennus and the <^'auls defeat Momans) . 390 

Volsci defeated by Camillus 381 

Volsci defeat the Romans 379 

Naxus (Chabrias defeats Lacedcmionians) 376 or 377 

*'Le\xcty3, [ 2 hebans defeat Spanans) . . . 371 

Camillus defeats the Gaujs 367 

*Cyn(5cephala3 (Ihebans defeat Tkessalians) . 364 

*Mantinea (Ihebans victors: Epamhiondus slain) 362 

*Crimesus (Timoleon defeats Carthatiinians) . 339 

'^Ghx.rowea. ( Philip defeats Athenians, ii:c.) . . 338 

Thebes destroyed by Alexander . . . 333 

*Granicus (Alexander defeats Darius) May 22, 334 

*\san^ (ditto) Oct. 333 

*Pandosia (Alexander of Epirus dftd. and slain) 332 

^*Ai-'he\a(Alex(mder defeats Darius) . Oct. i, 331 

*Cranon (Antipater defeats Greeks) . . . . 322 

fCaudine Forks (Roman army captured) . . 321 



[The battles -u-hich are thus marked '* are more fully described in their alph.abetical ordci- ] 



BAT 



87 



BAT 



BATTLES, contlmced. 

\Ga.zi {Ptolemy defeats lyemetr'ms) . , B.C. 312 
Faliius defeats the Tuscans . . . .310 

llimeva (Oeloti defeats Agathodes) . . . ,, 

llisus {Seleucus defeats Antiffonus, who is slain) . 301 

Scniininn (Romans defeat Samiiites) . . . 295 

Aacnhxm I Pi/rr/ius defeats Romans) . . . 279 

]5i.'neveiit\iiu (Romans defeat Pyrrhits) . . 275 

'Funic Wars begin 264 

M\i:i', n. (Romans defeat Carlhaginians) . . 260 

Xaiitipiius defeats Regulus 255 

Viin^n-awis, (Asdrubal defeated by Metellus) . 250 

iV)Yo\yxn\\n\ n. (Carthaginians defeat Romans) . 249 

.Vjis,.-\.\.QH n. (Romans defeat Carlliaginians) . . 241 

CXw'^mm (Gauls defeated) 225 

Scliasia (Macedonians defeat Spartans) . . 222 

Caphj-ai (Aclia-ans defeat JEtolians) . . . 220 

"'.SaKuutinii taken by Hannibal .... 219 
'Ind Punic IV^ar. — Ticinus (Hannibal dffeats 

Romans) 218 

*Trebia (ditto) ,, 

Thrasymenes (ditto) 217 

Rapbia (Antiochus defeated by Ptol. Philopater) ,, 

\^CimnK. (Victory of Hannibal) . . Aug. 2, 216 

LScipio defeats Hasdrubal in Spain . . . 215 

iMarceUus and Hannibal (former killed) . . 209 

|*Metaurus (Nero defeats Asdrubal, who is killed) 207 

fZa,TiVit,(Scipio defeats Hannibal) . . . . 202 

ibydos (siege of) 200 

ICynocephate (Romans defeat Macedonians) . 197 

PMagnesia ' Scipio defeats Antiochus) . . . 190 

fPydua, (Romans defeat Perseus) . . June 22, i58 

PPunic War(?/ie jTAi)-./) 149 

FCartbage taken by Publius Soipio . . .146 

[Mumniius takes Corinth ,, 

"AfeteUus defeats Jugurtha .... 109 

Aquiv Sextia; (Aix ; Alarius defeats the Teutones) 102 

*Cimbri and Rumans (defeated by Marius) . . loi 

*Chit;ronea (Sylla defeats Milhridates' army) . . 85 

Marius defeated by Sylla 82 

Tigranocerta (LucuUus defeats Tigranes) . . 69 

Pistoria (Catiline defeated) 62 

Citsar defeats Cassivelaunus . . . . 54 
Carrhse (Crassus defeated by the Parthians) 

June 9, 53 

*Pharsalia (Ctesar defeats Pompey) . _ . Aug. g, 48 
*Zela (Ccesar defeats Pharnaces: writes, "Veni, 

■vidi, viol ") 47 

Thapaus (Ccesar defeats Pompey' s friends) . . 46 
Munda, in Spain (Pompey's sons suhdued) 

Mar. 17, 45 

*Philippi (Brutus and Cassius defeated) . . . 42 

Agi-ippa defeats Pompey the Younger . . 36 

*Actiuni, n. (Octavius defeats Antony) . Sept. 2, 31 

A.D. 

tVarus defeated by Herman (or Ai-miniu.9) . . 9 

■ Drusus defeats Germans 19 

*Shi-opshire (Caractacus taken) . . . . 50 

Sunbury (Romans defeat Boadicea) ... 61 

*Jerusalem taken . . . . . . . 70 

Agricola conquers Mona . . ... 78 

He defeats Galgacus and Caledonians . 

Dacians defeated and Decebalus slain 

Issus (Niger slain) 

Lyons (Severns defeats Albinus) 

Naissus (Claudius defeats Goths, 300,000 sljin) 

Verona (emperor Philip defeated) 

Dccius defeated and slain by Goths 

Valerian defeated and captiu-ed by Sapor . 

Chalons (Aurelian victor over rivals) . 

Alectus defeated in Britain 



Constantine def. Maxentius(see Cross), Oct. 

•Adrianople (Constantine defeats Licinius) . 

*Ar\n\\eia,(C nstantine 12. slain) 

•Argentaria (Gratian defeats Gauls) . 

*Aquileia (Maximus slain) 

•Aquileia (Eugenius slain) .... 
PoUentia (Utilicho defeats Alaric) . JIar. 29, 
Rome taken by Alarie . . . Aug. 24, 



106 
194 
197 
269 
249 
251 
260 
274 
296 
312 
323 
340 



394 
403 
410 



Ravenna taken lay Aspar 
'Franks defeated by Aetius . 

Genseric takes Carthage 
t*Chalons-sur-Mame (Atilla defeated by ^i'tius) 

Aylesford (Britons defeat Saxons) 

Crayford, Kent (Hengist defeats Britons) , 
*Soissons (Clovii defeats Syagrius) . 
*Tolbiach or Zulpioh (Clovis defeats Alemanni) 

Saxons defeat Britons .... 

Victories of Belisarius .... 

Narses defeats Totila 

Heraclius defeats the Persians (Chosroes) 

Beder (first victory of Mahommed) 

Muta (Mahometans defeat Romans) . 

Hatfield (Heathfield ; Penda defeats Edwin) 

Saracens subdue Syria 

Kadseah (Arabs defeat Persians) 

Saracens take Alexandria 

*Near Oswestry (Penda defeats Oswald of North- 
umberland) ..... 
*Leeds (Oswy defeats Penda, who is slain) 
*Saracens defeated by Wambo, in Spain 
*Xeres (Saracens defeat Roderic) 
f "Tours (Chas. Martel defeats the Saracens) 

Victories of Charlemagne 
*RoncesYa,lle (death of Roland) 

Cla-'vijo (Moors defeatid) 

Albaida (Musa and Moors defeated) 

D.\NISH INVASION, ETC. 

Hengestdown (Danes defeated by Egbert) . 
Charmouth (Ethelwiilf defeated by the Daws) . 
Danes defeat King Edmund of East Anglia 
Assendon or Ashdown (Banes deflated) . . 

Merton (Banes victorious) 

Wilton (Banes victorious over Alfred) . . . 
tAiidernach (Charles the Bald defiatcd) Oct. 8, 
Ethandun (Alfred defeats Banes) . . . . 
Farnbam (Bams defeated) .... 
Bury (Edward defeats Elhehoald and Bancs) 



439 
4SI 
455 
457 
486 
496 
508 
533-4 
552 
622 
623 
629 
633 



640 

642 
655 
67s 
711 
732 
;-8oo 
778 
844 



S35 
840 
870 



872 



9°5 



*Soissons (king Robert victor, killed) . . . 923 
"Semiucas (Spaniards defeat Moors ?) . 934 or 938 

Nicephorus Phocas defeats Saracens . . 962 

Basientello (Otho II. defeated by Greeks, dx.) 

July 13, 982 
[The Saxons and Danes fought with different 
.success from 638 to 1016.] 

Assmgdon, Ashdon (Canute defeats Edmund) . 1016 
*CIontarf (Banes defeated) ..... 1014 

CiviteUa (Normans defeat Leo IX.) . . . 1053 
*Dunsmane (Macbeth defeated) .... 1056 

Stanford Bridge (Harold defeats Tostig) Sept. 25, 1066 
\''llixstinga (William I. defeats Harold) Oct. 14, ,, 

Fladenheim (emperor Henry defeated) . . . 1080 
*Ahiwick (Scots defeated, Malcolm slain) , . 1093 

*Crusades commence 1096 

*Ascalon (Crusaders victorious) . . Aug. 12, logg 
*Tiaehebra,y (Robert of Normandy defeated) . uo6 

Brenneville, Normandy (Henry I. victorious) . iiig 

* Northallerton, or Battle of the Standard, 

(Bavid I. and Scots defeated) . Aug. 22, 1138 
*Ourique (Alfonso of Portugal defeats Moors,) 

July 25, 1 139 
*'Lmco\n (Stephen defeated) . . Feb. 2, 1141 

* Alnwick. (IHlliam the Lion defeated) . July 13, 1174 
'Legnano (Italians defeated Frd. Barbarossa), 

May 29, 1 1 76 
AscoM (Tancred defeats emperor Henry VI.) . . 1190 
*Ascalon surrenders (Richard I.) . Sejit 7, 1191 
Arcadiopolis (Bulgarians defeat Emp. Isaac) . 1194 
Alarcos (Moors defeat Spaniards) . . July ig, iigs 
*Gisors (Richard I. defeats French) . Oct. 10, iigS 
*Arsonl (Richard I. defeats Saracens) Sept. 7, 1199 

Tulosa (Moors defeated) 1212 

•Bouvines (French defeat Germans) . . . 1214 

*limcoln (French defeated) . . May 19, 1217 

*Mansourah (Louis IX. and Crusaders defeated) . 1250 



[The battles which arc thus marked * arc more fully described in their .alphabetical order.] 



BAT 



BAT 



BATTLES, continued. 

*'Lewcs (Eiuilishbaroni) victorlows) . M.ay 14, 1264 
*Evesham (Barons defeated) . . Aug. 4, 1265 
*Benevento {Chas. of Anjou defeats Manfred) 

Feb. 26, 1266 
*Tagliacozzo (Charles defeats Conradin) Aug. 23, 1268 
*Ka,rchfe\d(Aiistria7tsdefeat Bohemians) Aug. 26, 1278 

Llandewyer (Lleioellyn of Wales defeated) . . 1282 

Unwhax (King of Scots taken) . . April 27, 1296 

Caxahuskenwaiix (Wallace defeats English) . 1297 
*¥3Xk.\r\i (Wallace defeated) . . July 22, 1298 
*Co\iTtr-xY (Flemings deft. Count of Aiiois) July 11, 1302 

Roslin, Scotland .... Feb. 24, 1303 
^Cephisus (Bake of Athens defeated) . . . 1311 
*Bannoclcburn (Bruce defeats English) June 24, 1314 
*i\Iorgarten (Swiss defeat Austrians) . . . ,, 
•Fougbard or Dundalk (Ed. Bruce defd.) Oct. 5, 1318 
*Borougbbridge (Edward II. defeats Barons) . 1322 
*Mubldorf (Bavarians defeat Austrians) . . ,, 

Duplin (Edward Baliol defeats Mar) Aug. 11, 1332 
♦Halidon Hill (Edward III. defs. Scots) July 19, 1333 

Auheroche (earl of Berby defeats French) . -1345 
*Cressy (English defeat French) . Aug. 26, 1346 
•Durbam, Nevil's Cross (Scots defeated) Oct. 17, ,, 

IjO, Moche T)arien (Charles of Blois defeattd) , 1347 
*'Po\t\QYfi (English defeat French) . Sept. 19, 1356 

CachevA (D u, Guesclin defeats Navarre) May 16, 1364 
*Auray (Bu. Guesclin defeated) . Sept. 29, ,, 
*Na.]ara(Black Prince defts. Henry of Trastamare) 

April 3, 1367 
*M.oni\(i\ (Peter of Castile defeatecC) Marcb 14, 1369 
*Rosbeoque (French defeat Flemings) . Nov. 17, 1382 
^Bempach. (Swiss defeat Austrians) . . July g, 1386 
*Otterbum (Chevy Chase ; Scots victors) Aug. 10, 1388 
*Nicopolis (Turks defeat Christians) . Sept. 28, 1396 
*Ancyra (Timour defeats Bajazet) . . July 28, 1402 
*Homeldon Hill (English defeat Scots) Sept. 14, „ 
*Shrev!9ihury (Percies, <i-c., defeated) . July 23, 1403 

Monmouth (Glendojoer defeated) . . May 11, 1405 
*Harlaw (Lord of the Isles defeated) . July 24, 1411 
*Agmcourt (English defeat French) . Oct. 25, 1415 
*Anjou, Bexag^ (English deft, by Scots) Marcli 22, 1421 

Crevant(£)!.'/(is)4dc/i. FrenchandScots),3uriQi 11, 1423 
^Verneuil (d'tto) .... Aug. 27, 1424 
*Herrings (English defeat French) . Feb. 12, 1429 
t*Patay (English defeated, Joan of Arc), June 18, „ 

Kunoh\.tza\Hiiniades defeats the Turks), Tlec. 24, 1443 
*Brecbin, Scotland (//«>!*;»/ df/f>a<s C?-oto/ord) . 1452 
♦Castillon, Chatillon (French defeat Talbot) 

July 23, 1453 

WAR OF THE ROSES — YORKISTS AND LANCASTRIANS. 

*St. Alban's (Yorki$ts victorio^is) . May 22 or 23, 1455 

*Belgrade (Mahomet II. repulsed) . Sept. 10, 1456 

*B\ore\iea.th (Yorkists victors) . . Sept. 23, 1459 

^Northampton (ditto Henry VI. taken) July 10, 1460 

*Wakefield (Lancastrians victors) . Dec. 31, ,, 

Mortimer's Cross (Yorkists victorious) Feb. 2, 1461 

*St. A\ha.n's (Lancastria7is victors) . Feb. 17, ,, 
*To-wton (Yorkists victorious) . . March 29, ,, 

*Ileyiha.m (Yorkists victors) . . May 15, 1464 

^Banbury (rft«o) .... July 26, 1469 

Stamiord (Lancastrians defeated) March 13, 1470 

"Barnet (ditto) April 14, 1471 

♦Tewkesbury (ditto) .... May 4, „ 



*Granson (Siciss defeat Charles the Bold) April 5, 
»Morat (ditto) June 2 



1476 



'''SivacyXCharlfS the Bold killed) . , Jan. 4, 1477 

»Bosworth (Richard III defeated) . Aug. 22, 1485 

Stoke (Lambert Simnel taken) .... 1487 

St. Auhin ( Bret07is defeated) 1488 

*Blackbeath (Cornish rebels defeated) June 22, 1497 

"CerignolsL (Cordova defeats French) April 28, 1503 

»Agnadello (French defeat Venetians) May 14, 1509 

*ilavenna (Gaston deFoix, victor, killed) April 11, 1512 

*Novara (Pa pal' Swiss defeat French) June i, 1513 

*6uinegate (Spurs) (French defeated) Aug. 16, ,, 

*Flodden (English defeat Scots) . Sept. 9, 1515 



*Marigna.no (French defeat Swiss) Sept. 13-15, 151 5 
Bicocoa, near MUan (Lautrec defeated) . . 1522 
*Pavia (Francis I. defeated) . . Feb. 24, 1525 
*Moha.tz (Turks defeat Hungarians) Aug. 29, 1526 
*Ca,i:>liel(Zwinglius slain) . . . Oct. 11, 1531 
Ansens (Christian III. defeats Banish rebels) . 1535 
Solway Moss (English defeat Scots) Nov. 25, 1542 
tCeresuola (French defeat Imperialists) April 14, 1544 
*Miihlberg(C/ja.s. V. defts. Protestants) A-pril 24, 1547 
Pinkey (English defeat Scots) . . Sept. 10, „ 
*Ket's rebellion suppressed by Warwick, Aug. 1549 
"*St. Quintin (Spanish and English defeat French), 

Aug. 10, 1557 

'Calais (taken) Jan. 7, 1558 

Gravelines (Spanish ayid English defeat French), 

July 13, „ 
''Dreu.K, in France (Huguenots defeated), Dec. 19, 1562 
St. Denis (ditto) . . . .Nov. 10, 1567 
^Li^ngside (Mary of Scotland defeased) May 13, 1568 
*Jarnac (Huguenots defeated) . . March 13, 1569 
Moneontour (Coligny defeated) . Oct. 3, ,, 

*Lepanto n. (Bon John defeats Turks) Oct. 7, 1571 
*Alcazar (Moors defeat Portuguese) Aug. 4, 1578 

*Zutphen (Butch and English defeat Spaniards) 

Sejat. 22, 1586 

*Coutras (Henry IV. defeats League) Oct. 20, 1587 

fSpanish Armada defeated, n. . . Aug. 15S8 

*Arqucs (Henry IV. defeats League) . Sept. 21, 1589 

*Ivry (Henry IV. defeats League) . March 14, 1590 

B\ack.wa.tar (Tyrone defeats Bagnal) . . 1598 

Nieuport (Maurice defeats Austrians) . . . 1600 

Kinsale (Tyrone reduced by Mountjoy) . . 1601 

Kirchholm (Poles defeat Swedes) . . . . 1605 

Gibraltar (Butch defeat Spaniards) . . . 1607 

"Prs.gue (king of Bohemia defeated) . Nov. 8, 1620 

*Rochelle (taken) 1628 

''Leipsic (Gustavus defeats Tilly) . Sept. 7, 1631 
*hech (Imperialists defeated; Tilly killed) April 5, 1632 
*Lippstadt, Lutzingen, or Lutzen (Suiedes vic- 
torious ; Gustavus slain) . . Nov. 16, ,, 
*Nordlingen (Swedes defeated) . . Aug. 27, 1634 
Arras (taken by the French) .... 1640 

CIVIL WAR IN ENfiLAND COMMENCES . . . 1642 

'Worcester ( prince Rupe7-t victor) . Sept. 23, ,, 

*Edgehill fight (is.sM(? do«6(!/it/) . Oct. 23, ,, 

*Leipsic or Breitenf eld (Swedes riciors), Oct. 13, ,, 

*Chalgrove (Hampdeii killed) . . June 18, 1643 

Bramham Moor (Fairfax defeated) . March 29, ,, 

*iitYa,ttoTa. (Royedisis victorious) . . May 16, ,, 

*Rocroy (French defeat Spaniards) . May 19, ,, 

*Lansdown (Royalists victorious) . July 5, ,, 

Round-away-down (ditto) . . July 13, ,, 

*Newbury (Royalists defeated) . . Sept. 20, ,, 

Cheriton or Alresford (ditto) . . March 29, 1644 

Friedburg (rcrcmie motor) . . . . ,, 

Cropredy Bridge (Charles I. victor) June 29, ,, 

*Ma,rston Moor (Rupert defeated) . July 2, ,, 

^Newbury (indecisive) .... Oct. 27, ,, 

^Nasehy (king totally defeated) . June 14, 1645 

■■"Alford (Montrose defeats Covenanters) July 2, ,, 

Kilsyth (ditto) Aug. 15, ,, 

'Nordlmgen(Turenne defeats Austrians) . . „ 

*Benburb (O'Neill defeats English) . June 5, 1646 

*Dungan-hill (Irish defeated) . . July 10, 1647 

*Preston (Cromwell victor) . . . Aug. 17, 1648 

*Rathmines (Irish Royalists defeated) Aug. 2, 1649 

*Vrogh.eda, (taken by storm) . . Sept. 12, ,, 

*Corbiesdale (Montrose defeated) . April 27, 1650 

*\)u\iha.Y (Cromwell defeats Scots) . Sept. 3, ,, 

*'Worcester (Cromwell defeats Charles II.), Sept. 3, 1651 
[End of the civil war in England. ] 

Galway (surrendered) 1652 

Arras, France (Tureiine defeats Condi) . . . 1654 

*Dunkirk (ddto) ..... June 14, 1658 
Estremoz (Bon John defeated by Schomberg), 

June 8, 1663 

Candia (taken by Tu7-ks) .... Sept. 6, 1669 



[The battles which are thus marked * are more fully described in their alphabetical order.] 



BAT 



89 



BAT 



BATTLES, continued. 

Choczim (Sobiesk-i ilefeals Turks and Con<J(F) . 1673 
Seucffe {oule.cisivc) .... Aug. i, 1674 
iiwWiMisowiTuremie defeats Allies) Dec. 31, ,, 
^\tzhAc\\ (Twenue killed) . . July 27, 1675 
*Drumclog- {Covenanters defeat Claverkouse), 

June I, 1679 
•Bothwell Brigg (Monmoutli defea'.s Covenanters), 

June 22, ,, 
*yienn!i (Turls defeated by SobiesH) Sept. 12, 1683 
*Sedgeaiooi- (Monmonth defeated) . July 6, 1685 
*'!A.ohi\.t7. (Turks defeated) . . . Aug. 12, 1687 
♦Killiccrankie {Highlanders defeat Mackaij), 

July 27, 1689 
*Newton-butler {James II.' s adherents defeated) 

July 30, ,, 
*Boyne {Williain- III. defeats James II.), July i, 1690 
*Fleurus (Ckarleroi, Luxembourg victor), July i, „ 
*Aughrim (Jame» II.'s caiise ruined) . July 12, 1691 
*Salenckemeu {Louis of Baden defeats Turks), 

Aug. 18, ,, 
.*Engliein (Steenkirk, Tf'illiam III. defeated), 



Jvily 24, 1692 
*lja.n6.en{JVilUar,i III. defeated) . July 19, 1693 
Marsaglia (Pignerol) (French riclor.-i) Oct. i, „ 
*ZeT:ita,{prince Eufiine defeats Turks) . Sept. 11, 1697 
*iia,rva, (Charles XII. defeats Russians) No'^%3o, 1700 
Carpi, Modena (Allies defeat French) July 9, 1701 
Chv.iri (Austrians defeat French) . Sept. i, ,, 
Santa Vittoria (French victors) . . July 26, 1702 
'''Paltn&k (Swedes defeat Pole.'i) . May i, 1703 

*'H.ochstAdt (French defeat Au.'itrians) Sept. 20, ,, 
SchcUonberg (Marlborough victor) . July 2, 1704 
'Gibraltar taken by Rooke . . July 24, ,, 
■t*Blenbeim (Marlborough defeats French), Aug. 

13, N. s. ,, 
Mittau (taken by Russians) , . Sept. 14, 1705 
Cassino (prince Eugene ; indecisive) Aug. 16, ,, 
Tirlemont (Marlborough successful) July 18, ,, 
*Ra,xniyies {M(trlborough defeats French) May 23, 1706 
Turin (French defeated) . ' . . Sept. 7, ,, 
*Alnianza (French defeat Allies) April 14 or 25, 1707 
*Ondeiia.rde (Marlborough defeats French), July 

II, I 70S 
Liesna, Ijenzo (-Russians defeat Swedes) autumn, ,, 
Jjisle [taken by the Allies) . . . Dec. ,, 
^'■Pultowa (Peler defeats Chaides XII.) July 8, 1709 
Dobro (Russians defeat Sweden) . Sept. 20, „ 

*Malplaquet (Marlborough defeats French), Sept. 

II, ,, 
*Almena.ra, (Auslrians defeat French) July 28, 1710 
Saragossa ('/i«o) .... Aug. 20, ,, 
Villa Viciosa (Austrians defeated) . Dec. 20, ,, 
Ai-leux (Marlborough forces French lines), 

Aug. 5, 1711 
Boueliain (taken by Marlborough) . Sept. 13, ,, 
*Dena,\n (Villars defeats Allies) . July 24, 1712 
'FrihwYg (taken by French) . . Nov. 26, 1713 

*'PrQsto'a (rtbels defeated) . . Nov. 12, 13, 1715 

*Dumblane ; Slieriff-Mulr (wirfccisiwc) Nov. 13, ,, 
*Petervvardein (Eugene defeats Turks) Aug. 5, 1716 
'''^(iXgYa.dQ (taken by Eugene) . . Aug. 22, 1717 
*Bitonto (Spaniards defeat Germans) May 26, 1734 
*Parma (Austrians and French, indecisive), June 

29. >. 

G\in,9.t:\\\a (Austrians defeated) . . Sept. 19, ,, 

Erivan (Nadir Shah defeats Turks) . Juno, 1735 

Krotzka, (Turks defeat Austrians) . July 22, 1739 

*Molwitz (Prussians defeat Au.'ftrians) April 10, 1741 

'■^Dettingen (George II. defeats French) June 16, 1743 

'Fontenoy (Sa.ce defeats Cumberland) April 30, 1745 

Friedberg (Prussians defeat Austrians), June 4, ,, 

scots' rebellion,— GEORGE II. 

'^'PrcHion Tans (rebels -defeat Co}}e) . Sept. 21, 1745 

CUitoa 'Moor (rebels defeated) . Dec. 18, ,, 

*Falkirk (rebels defeat Haicley) . Jan. 17, 1746 

*Cnl\od(in (Cumberland defeats rebels) Apiil 16, ,, 



St. Jjizztwo (Sardinians def. Austrians) ,7\me 4, 1746 
Ilocou-x.(Saxe defeats Allies) . . Oct. i, ,, 

*Bcrgon-op-Zoon (taken) . . . Sept. 16, 1747 

Laffeldt (Saxe defeats Cumberlan-l) . June 20, ,, 

'E'x.iWes (Sardinians defeat French) July 8, ,, 

Fort du Quesne (Braddock killed) . July 9, 1755 

^Calcutta (taken) : . . . June 18, 1756 

SEVEN years' war, 1 756-63. 

*7ra.gpe (Frederick defeats- Allies) . May 6, 1757 

*Kollin (Frederick defeated) . . . June 18, ,, 

*Pla.ssey (dive's victory) . . . June 23, ,, 

Norkitten (Russians defeated) . . Aug. 13, ,, 

*lloshi\,ch (Frederick defeats French) . Nov. 5, ,, 
*Bresla.u (Austnans -victors) . . . Nov. 22, ,, 
*'Liasa, (Frederick defeats Austrians) . Dec. 5, ,, 

*Creve\dt (Ferdi7iand defeats French) . June 23, 1758 
Zorador!f (Frederick defeats Rus.nans) Aug. 25, ,, 
*Yloc\ik.irciierx (Austrians def. Prussians) Oat. 14, ,, 

*'Bevgen {French defeat Allies) . . April 13, 1759 
*Niagara (English take Fort) . . . July 24, ,, 
* Minden (Ferdinand defeats French) . Aug. i, „ 
*Cunnersdorf (R'issians def. Prussians) Aug. 12, ,, 
*Q,nehec (IVolfe, victor, kilted) . . Sept. 13, „ 

Wandewash (Coote defeats Lally) . Jan. 22, 1760 
Landshut, Silesia (Prws.sJa)is (i'/ea(ed) June 23, ,, 
Warburg (Ferdinand defeats French) July 31, „ 
*Pfaffendorf (Frederick def. Austrians) Aug. 15, ,, 
Ca.xax>eii. (French dfferd Russians) . Oct. 15, ,, 
Torg-AU. (Frederick defeats Danes) . . Nov. 3, „ 

Johannisberg (French defeat Prussians) Aug. 30, 1762 



''Bn-^ax (Munro defeats army of Omle) . Oct. 23, 1764 
Choczim (Russians defeat Turks) . . , . 1769 
Silistria (ZateR) 1774 



AMERICAN WAR. 

"Lexington (Gage victor, with gr at loss) April ig, 
*Bn-nk.er's Hi]! (Americansrepulsed) June 17, 
*Long Is'and (^/(!.mc«fts defeated) . Aug. 27, 
*\Vh te Plains (Howe defeats Americans) Oct. 28, 
■•Rhode Island (taken 6v Royalists) . Dec. 8, 
* Brandy wiue (Howe d''fecds lVashington)Sept. 11, 
*Germanstown (Burgoyne's victory) . Oct. 3, 4, 
\*^axs.toga. (he is compelled to surrender) Oct. 17, 
*Briar's Qreok. (Americans defeated) March 16, 
*C-2in\dQn (Cornwallis defeats Gates) . Aug. 16, 
*Guildford (ditto) .... March 16, 

Eutaw a-pxings (Arnold def . Americans) Sept. 8, 

*York Town (Comwallis surrenders) . Oct. 19, 

[Many inferior actions with various success. 

Hyder Ali defeated by Coote. . . July i, 

Bednore (taken by Tippoo Saih) . April 30, 
*Martinesti (Austrians deft. Turks) . Sept. 22, 
"Ismael (taken by storm by Suwarrow) Dec. 22, 
•Seringapatam (Tippoo defeated) May 15, 1790, 

Feb. 6, 

FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WAR BEGINS. 



Qiiievrain (French repuUed) . . April 28, 

Menin (French defeat Austrians) . Jiine 20, 
t*Valmy (French defeat Prussians) . Sept. 20, 
*Jeui!ii>Tpes (French lActoriowi) . . Nov. 6, 

Neerwinden (French beatert) . . March 18, 

at. Am-And( French defeated) . . May 8, 
•Valenciennes (rfiH'i) . .May 23, July 26, 
^JjinceVes (Lake defeats French) . Aug. 18, 
•Dunkirk (Duke of York defeated) Sept. 7, 8, 
*Qnesnoy (reduced by Austrians) . Sept. 11, 

Wattiguies (French defeat Coburg) . Oct 16, 
•Toulon (evacuated by British) . , Dec. 17, 
•Cambray (French defeated) . . April 24, 

Troisville, Landrecy (taken by Allies) April 30, 
•Toiu-ooing (Moreau defeats Allies) May, 18-22, 
•Espierres (taken by Allies). . . May 22, 

Howe's naval victory. . . . June i, 
»Charleroi, Fleurus (French defeat Allies) June 26, 

[The l.'uttlcs which arc thus markcl "' arc more fully described in their alphabetical order.] 



1775 
1776 



1779 
17S0 



] 

1783 
1789 
1790 

1792 
1793 

1793 



1794 



BAT 



90 



BAT 



BATTLES, continued. 

*Bois-lc-Duc (duke of York defeated) Sept. 14, 1794 

»Boxtel (rf(Mo) Sept. 17, ,, 

*Wa,rsaw or Mucie^owice (Poles defeated) Oct. 4, ,, 

*Nimeguen . . . Oct. 28, and May 4, „ 

* Warsaw (taken by Suwarrorv) . . Nov. 4, „ 

Bridport's victory of L'Orient, n. June 22, 1795 

*Quiberoii (Emigrants defeated) . July 21, „ 

*Mani]lioim (token) . . , Sept. 20, ,, 

Tjnono (French defeat Austrians) . Nov. 23, „ 

*Montenotte (Bona^Mrte victorious) . April 12, 1796 

*Moiidovi (ditto) .... April 22, ,, 

*Lodi (ditto) May 10, „ 

Altewkirchen (Ausirians defeated) . June 4, 

and Sept. 16, ,, 

Bas.sano (French defeat Austrians) . Sept. 8, ,, 

*Biberacli (ditto) Oct. 10, ,, 

*Castiglione and Lonato . . . Aug. 3-5, ,, 

*NeresLieim (Moreau def. Archd. Charles) Aug. 10, ,, 

*Aroola (Bonaparte victorious) . Nov. 15-17, ,, 

liivoli (ditto) Jan. 14, 15, 1797 

*Cape St. Vincent, n. (French defeated) Feb. 14, „ 
'Tagliamento (Bonaparte defeats Austrians) 

March 16, ,, 

■^"Camperdo%vu n. (Duncan defeats Dutch) Oct. 11, „ 

IRISH REBELLION BEGINS . . . May, I798 

"Kilcullen (Rebels successful) . . May 23, 1798 

*Naas (Relets defeated) .... May 24, „ 

*Tara, (ditto) May 26, „ 

*OulM-t (Rebels sti.ccessful) . . . May 27, ,, 

*Gorey, ' Koss uUtto) . . . June 4, ,, 

fArklow (Rebels beaten) . . . June 10, „ 

*BaUyiiahinch (Nugent defeats Rebels) June 13, ,, 

*Vinegar Hill (Lake defeats Rebels) . June 21, ,, 



fNile (Nelson defeats French fleet] . Aug. i, 

*Ca,ai\&hax (French aujiliaries def eated) Aug. 28, 

Ballinamuck (French and Rebels defeated) 

Sept. 8, 

"Pyramids {Bonapa.rte defeats Mamelukes) July 

21, 

*Jaffa (Stormed bij French) . . March 7, 

Stokach (Auftrians defeat French) March 27, 

Verona (Austrians defeat French) March 28-30, 

Naguano (Kray defeats French) . . April s. 

Mount Thabur April 16, 

*Cassano (Suwarrow defeats Moreau) April 27, 
*Seringapataui (T/ppoo A-iiterf) . . May 4, 
*Ar.re rrelieved : Sir Sydyiey Umith) . May 20, 
Adda (Suwarrow defeats French) . , :May 27, 
*Zurich (French defeated) . . . June 5, 
*Tveiiia, (Suwarrow defeats French) June 18, 19, 
•"Alessandria {taken by French) . . July 2, 
*xVboukir (Turks defeated by Bonaparte) July 25, 
*'HoVi (Suwarrow defeats French) . Aug. 15, 
*'BQvgQna,ndL A.\^m.9.Q,T (Allies defeated) Sept. 19, 

Oct. 26, 

"Zurich (Massena defeats Russians) . Sept. 25, 

Engen (Moreau defeats Austrians) . May 3, 

Mcesku-ch (ditto) May 5, 

*Biberach (ditto) May 9, 

*yi.oi\tehQ\\o I Austrians defeated) . . June 9, 

■"Marengo (Bonaparte defends Austrians) June 14, 

*Hochstadt (Moreau defeats Austrians) June 19, 

■■■ Hohenliuden (ditto) .... Dec. 3, 

Mincio (French defeat Austrians) . Dec. 26, 

"Alexandria (Abercrombie's victory) March 21, 

fCopenhagen (bombarded by Nelson) April 2, 

Ahmednuggur ( Wellesley victorious) Aug. 12, 

"Assaye (ditto, his first great victory) . Sept. 23, 

*Argauni (Wellesley victor) . . . Nov. 29, 

Furruckabad (Lake defeats Holkar) . Nov. 17, 

*Bhurtporc (taken by Lake) . . April 2, 

*Ulni Eurrend. (Ney defeats Austrians) Oct. 17-20, 

^Trafalgar (Nelso7i destroys French fleet, killed) 

Oct. 21, 



1801 
1803 



180S 



"Austerlitz (Napoleon defeats Austrians) Dec. 2 
*Buenos Ayres (taken by Popham) . June 28, 
*Maida (Stuart defeats French) . . July 4, 

*Jenr*^'^* I (French defeat Prussians) Oct. 14, 

*Pultusk (French and Allies, indecisive) Dec 26 

Mohrungen (French defeat Russians 

Prussians) Jan. 25 

"Eylau (indecisive) .... Feb. 7, 
*Fried\a,nd (French defeat Russians) June 14 
*B\\enos Ayres (IViiitelock defeated) . July 
"Copenhagen (bombarded by Cathcart) Sept, 6-8, 
*Baylen (Spaniards defeat French) . July 20, 

PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN BEGINS. 

'Yiraiera. (Wellesley defeats Junot) . Aug. 21 
Tudola (French defeat Spaniards) . Nov. 23, 

*Corunna, (Mooi'e defeats French) , Jan 16, 
'La.udshnt (Austrians defeated) . April 21 

"Eckniuhl (Davoust defeats Austrians) April 22 
Oporto (tatoi) . ., ■ March 29, May 12 

"Essling I (Napoleon defeated) . May 21, 22, 
"Wagram (AustrioMS defeated) . . July 5, 6. 
"Talavera ( Wellesley defeats Victor) July 27, 28. 

Silistria^Tur/.;} defeat Russians) , Sept. 26, 

Ocana, (Mortitr d-f eats Spaniards) . Nov. 19, 
"Buscico (JVtllitigton repuL'es Massena) Sept. 27 
*Barrosa (Graham defeats Victor) . March 5 
"Badajos (taken by the French) . March 11 

*Fuentesd'Onore(?Fe/(i«pi. def. Massena) May $ 
"Albuera (Beresford defeats Soult) . May 16, 
"Ciudad Rodrigo (stormed by English) . Jan 19, 
"Badajos (taken by Wellington) . April 6. 

*Salamanca(li ellingion defis. Marmont) July 22 
*\\ohilovf (French defeat Russians) . July 23 
*Polotzk (trench and Russians) . July 30,31 
*Snaolensko (French defeat Russians) Aug. 17-19; 
"Moskwa ) / ,.,. ^ 
*Borodino [ <'''"''> • ' • 
"Queenstown (Americans defeated) . 
*Moscow (burnt by Russians) 
■Polotzk (retaken by Russians) 

Malo-Jaro.slawatz, or Winkowa 
*Witepsk (French defeated) 
*Krasnoi (ditto) .... 
*Beresina (ditto) .... 

French Tovsoi (taken by Americans) 



. Sept. 7 

Oct. 13 

. Sept. 14 

Oct. 20. 

. Oct 24, 

Nov. 14. 

Nov; 16-18' 

Nov 25-29 

, Jan. 22 

■Kalitsch (Saxons defeated) . . Feb. 13 

Castella (Sir J. Murray defeats Suchet) April 13 

"'Lutzen (Napoleon checks Allies) . . May 2, 

'■Bautzen (Nap. and Allies; indecisive) May 20. 

*Wurtzchen (ditto) .... May 21 

*Vittoria( irp/^oi^'. defeats king JoseiJh) June 21 

*'Pyrcnnes (Wellington defeats Soult) . July 28 

Katzbach (BUicher defeats Ney) . Aug. 26, 

^Dresden (Napoleon checks Allies) Aug. 25, 27 

St. Sebastian (stormed by Graham) . Aug. 31 

*Dennewitz (Ney defeated) . . Sept. 6 

*Mockern (indecisive) .... Oct. 14, 

*Leipzic (Napoleon defeated) . . Oct. 16-18, 

*Hauau (Napoleon defeats Bavarians) Oct. 30, 

"St. Jean de h\iz(Welling. defeats Soult)'NoY. 10, 

[Passage of the Neve ; several engagements 

between the AlUes and French, Dec. 10 to 13 

1813] 

*St. Dizier, France (French defeated) . Jan. 27, 

"Brienne (ditto) Jan. 

"La Rothifere (Napoleon defeats Allies) Feb. 

Bar-sur-Aube (Allies victors) . . . Feb. 

Mincio (pr. Eugene def eats Austrians) Feb. 8, 

Champ Aubert (Fre?ic/t defeat Allics)'Peb. 10-12 

Montmirail (ditto) .... Feb 11, 

Vauchamps (<?iHo) . . . Feb. 14 

"Fontainebleau (((i«o) , . . Feb. 17. 

*Montereau (ditto) .... Feb. t8 

*Orthez (Wellington def eats Soult) . Feb. 27 

*Bergen-op-Zoom (Graham defeated) March 8 



[The battles which are thus marked '■* are more fully described in their alphabetical order.] 



BAT 



91 



BAT 



BATTLES, continued. 

»Laon (French defeated) . . . March g-io, 
Rbeims (Napoleoii defeats St. Priest) March 13, 
*Tarbes ( It illuuiton defeats Soull) . March 20, 
»F&ro C'h.impenuise (French dcfaled) March 25, 
Paris, Moiy;iuartre, Roinamvillo((/(»o) Mar. 30, 
Battle of the Barriers — Marmont evacuates 
Paris, and the alhed armies enter that capital, 
March 31, 
'Toulouse (IVellmgton defeats SouU) . April 10, 

AMERICAN WAR. 

Fort George (token by Americans) . May 27, 
*Burlington Heights (^4)Hfrica/(S routed) June 6, 

Nov. II, 
Dec. 28, 
March 7, 
• July 5, 
July 25, 
Aug. 15, 
Aug. 14, 
Aug. 30, 



Chrystler's Point, Canada 

Black -rook, America 
•Craonno (Blucher dffeated) . 
,„, . „ ) (British defeated) 
»Chippa wa I \j^ ,nericans defeated) 
*Fort Erie (British repulsed) . 
*Bladensburg (Americans defeated) 
*Bellair (ditto) ... 

•Baltimore (British defeated, and victorious) 

Sept. II, 
*New Orleans (British repulsed) Jan. 8, 12, & 13, 



1S13 
1 81 4 

iSrs 



*'Tdlentino(Murat defeated) . . May 3, ,, 

*Ligny (Bliicher repulsed) . . June 16, ,, 

"Quatre Bras (Acy repulsed) . . June 16, ,, 

]*Wa,ter].oo (Napoleon finally/ beaten) June 18, ,, 

*Algiors (bombarded hy ExmoutJi) . . Aug. 27, 1816 
Kirkee (Hastings defeats Pindarrees) Nov. 5, 1817 
'M.aheidpore (Hislop defeats Holkar) . Dec 21, ,, 
Dra.ga,schan (Ipsilanti defeated) . . June ig, 1821 
\aXtezza,(Turhs defeated) . . May 27, ,, 
TriTpolitza (stormed bi/ Greeks) . , Oct. 5, ,, 
Ihermopylie (Greeks defeat Turks) . July 13, 1S22 
Corinth (takeii) .... Sept. 16, ,, 
*Ajacucho (Peruvians defeat Spaniards) Dec. 9, 1824 
*Bhurtpore (taken by Combermere) . Jan. 18, 1826 
Athens (<'A-«!) .... May 17, 1827 
*Navarino (Allies destroy Turkish fleet) Oct. 20, ,, 
'Br-Ahilow t Russians and Turks) . . June 18, 1828 
Akhalzikh (rfi«o) .... Aug. 27, ,, 
*\arivA(sv.rre-ii'iers to Russians) . . Oct. 11, ,, 
*Silistria (ditto) June 30, 1829 

Kainly (R'lssians defeat Turks) . . July i, ,, 
'Balkan (passed by Russians) . . July 26, ,, 
*Advia.noi>le (R'lssiaiis enter) . . Aug. 20, ,, 
•Algiers (cnquered by French) . July 5, 1830 

*Pav\ii (Days of July) . . July 27, 28, 29, ,, 
*Grochow (Poles defeat Russians). . Feb. 20, 1831 

Praga (Poles ond Russia7u) . . Feb. 25, ,, 
*\iav;7.(Skrzynecki defeats Russians) March 31, ,, 
*Seidlice (Poles defeat Russians) . April 10, ,, 
"Ostrolenka (rfi«o) .... May 26, ,, 

\!\\vin. (Poles and Russians) . . June 18, ,, 

*yi-AViiiX^ (taken by Russians) . . Sept. 7, ,, 

Beylau (Ibrahim defeats Turks) . . July 29, 1832 
•Antwerp (taken by Allies) . . Dec. 23, ,, 
*Konieh (Epi/ptians defeat Turks) . Dec. 21, ,, 

llcrn:\m(Ca '-lists defeated) . . Mays, 1836 

*St. Sebastian (tit«o) .... Oct. i. ,, 
'*Bi\hoa, {siege r aised, • Briiish Legion) Dec. 24, ,, 

Hemani March 15, 1837 

*Irun (British Legion defeats Carlists) May 17, ,, 

Valontia (Carlists attacked) . . July 15, ,, 
■^liercr^ (Von Carlos defeats Buereno) Aug. 24, ,, 
*Constantina (^fsriera/ taken by French) Oct. 13 „ 
*St. Eustace (Canadian rebels defeated) Dec. 14, ,, 

VGnnccorrada, (Carl i^ts defeo ted) . June 22, 1838 
*Prescott (Canadian rehels defeated) Nov. 17, 
*Ghiznee (token by Keane) . . July 23, 

'Sidon {taken by >-topford) . . Sept. 26, 

*\\<iyroni (Allies defeat E{iyx)tians) . Oct. 10, 

Afghan War. See India. 
•Acre (stormed by Allies) . , Nov. 3, 

Kotriah (Scinde : English victors) . . Dec. i, 



1839 
1840 



Chuen-pe (English victors) . . Jan. 7, 1841 

Canton (English take Bogue forts) . Feb. 26, ,, 

Amoy (taken) ..... Aug. 27, ,, 

Chin-hae (taken) Oct. 10, „ 

Candahar (Afghans defeated) . . Jlarch 10, 1842 

t^ingpo (Chinese defeated] . . March 10, „ 

''JellaXa.had (Khyber Pciss forced) . April 5, 6, ,, 

Chin-keang (taken) .... July 21, ,, 

•Ghiznee (Afghans defeated) . . Sejit. 6, ,, 

*Meeanee (Napier defeats Ameers) . Feb. 17, 1843 

*Ma,hara,j'poor (Goughdefeats 3Iahrattas),'Dec. 29, ,, 

Isly (French defeat Moors) . . Aug. 14, 1844 

"Moodkee (Hardinge defeats Sikhs) . Dec. 18, 1845 

*Ferozeshah {ditto) . . . Dec. 21, 22, ,, 

*Aliwal (Smith defeats Sikhs) . . Jan. 28, 1846 

•Sobraon (Gough defeats Sikhs) . . Feb. 10, ,, 
*Montery (Mexicans defeated by Americans) 

Sept. 21-23, >> 

Palo Alto (Taylor defeats Mexicans) May 8, g, ,, 

Bueno Vista (Americans deft. Mexicans), Feb. 22, 1847 

St. Ubes (Portugal) . . . May 9, „ 

Ozontero (Americans (?e/. Mexicans), Aug. iq, 20, ,, 

''Curtalone (Au-itrians defeat Italians) May 29, 1848 

Custoza (ditto) .... July 23, ,, 

\elencze (Croats and Hungarians) . Sept. 29, ,, 

*Moo\ta,n (Sikhs repulsed) . . . Nov. 7, ,, 

*Chilianwallah (Gough defeats Sikhs) Jan. 13, 1849 

*Qoojera,t (ditto) Feb. 21, ,, 

'''Novaxa,(Rade.tzky defeats Sardinians) March 23, ,, 

V eviid{ Russians defeat Hungariems) June 21, „ 

Acs (Hungarians repulsed) . . . July 10, „ 
Vfnitzeu (token by Russians) , July 17, ,, 

Schiissberg (Russians defeat Bern) . July 31, ,, 

*Temeswar( /faynaw iiefeats Hungarians) Aug. 10, , , 

Idstedt (Banes defeat Holsteiners) . July 25, 1850 



1853 
1854 



1853 



EUSSO-TURKISH WAR. 

^Olicnitza (Turks repjulse Russians) . Nov. 4, 
*Citate ( Turks defeat Hussia^is) . . Jan. 6, 

"Silistria (cZiito) .... June 13-15, 
Giurgevo (ditto) .... July 8, 
Bayazi'i (Russicnis defeat Turks). . July 30, 
"Kuruk-Derek (ditto) . . . . Aug. 5, 
*^Alma (Allies defeat Russians) . . Sept. 20, 

* Balaklava (ditto) Oct. 25, 

*Inkermann (ditto) .... Nov. 5, 
Eupatoria (Turks defeat Russians) . Feb. 17, 
*Malakoff Tower (Allies and Russians) 

May 22, 23, 24, 

Capture of the Mamelon, &c. . June 7, 

Unsuccessful attempt on Malakoff tower, and 

Redan (Allien and Russian.i) . . June 18, 

■Tchernaya or Bridge of Traktir (Allies defeat 

liussians) Aug. 16, 

"Malakoff taken by the French . Sept. 8, 

*lr]gour (Turks defeat Russia^is) . . Nov. 6, 

Baidar (French defeat Russians) . . Dec. 8, 



PERSIAN WAR. 

*Bu!3hire (English defeat Persians) , Dec. 10, 1856 

Kooshab (ditto) Feb. 8, 1857 

Mohammerah (ditto) . , . March 26, „ 

INDIAN MUTINY. (Ses India.) 
-Conflicts before Delhi. May 30, 31 ; June 8 ; 

July 4, 9, 18, 23, i8s7 
Victories of General Havelock, near Futteh- 

pore July II, Cawnpore, &c. July 12 to Aug 16, ,, 

Pandoo Nuddee (i-ic<o)-j/ 0/ JVei;() . Aug. 15, „ 

Nujuffghur (dea^ft of Nicholson, victor) Aug. 25, „ 

Assault and capture of Delhi . Sept. 16-20, ,, 
Conflicts before Lucknow, Sept. 25, 26; 

Nov. 18, 25, „ 

Victories of Col. Greathed, Sept 27 ; Oct. 10, , , 

*Cawnpore (victory of Campbell) . Dec. 6, „ 

Futteghur (liiHo) Jan. 2, 1858 

Calpi,.(wic;orj/ of Inglis) . . . Feb. 4, „ 

*Alumbagh (victory of Outram) . . Feb. 21, ,, 



[The battles which are thus marked '' are more fully described in their alphabetical order.] 



BAT 



92 



BAY 



BATTLES, continued. 

Conflicts at Lueknow (taken) . March 14-19, 
ihM-isi {Rose victorious) . . . April 4, 
Kooneh (ditto) . . .■ .■ . May 11, 
Gwalior (ditto) . . . . June 17,' 
'Ra.jghm(Mitchdl defeats Tantia ropcc),Sept.i5' 
Dhoodea Khera (CZyrfg de/. BeniMahdo)Noy. 24, 
Gen. Horsford defeats the Begum of Oude, 

Feb. 10, lasg 

ITALIAN WAR. (See Italy.) 

Austrians cross the Ticino . . April 27, 1859 

^French troops enter Piedmont . . May, „ 

"Montebello (Allies victorious) . . May 20, „ 

Palestro (ditto) .... May 30, 31, ,, 

"Magenta (ditto) June 4, „ 

*Malegnano (ditto) .... June 8, ,, 

*Solferino (ditto) . . ■ . . . June 24, ,, 

(Armistice agreed to, July 6, 1859 ) 

*Taku, at the mouth of the Peiho or Tien- 
Tsin-ho (English attack on the Chinese Forts 

defeated) Jvme 25, ,, 

*Castillejo (Spaniards defeat Moors) . Jan i, i860 

*Tet\\a.n (ntio) ■ Feb. 4, ,, 

*Guad-el-Ras (ditto) .... March 23, „ 

Calatiflmi (Garibaldi defs. Neapolitans) May 15, „ 

■'Melazzo (Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans) July 21, „ 

Taku forts taken (see C/iiwa) . . Aug. 21, „ 
*Castel Fidardo (Sardinians defeat Papal troops) 

Sept. 18, ,. 
Insurrection in New Zealand; English re- 
pulsed, March 14, 28 ; June 27 ; Sept. 10, 19 ; 

Oct. 9, 12, ,, 

Maohetia (Maoris defeated) . . Nov. 6, ,, 

Chang-kia wan,. Sept 18; and Pa-li-chiau 

(Chinese defeated) .... Sept. 21, ,, 

*Volturno (Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans) Oct. i, ,, 

Isernia (Sardinians defeat Neapolitans) Oct. 17, „ 

*6arigliano (ditto) .... Nov. 3, ,, 

Sardinians defeat Neapolitan re-actionists, 

Jan. 22, 1861 

*Gaeta taken by the Sardinians . Feb. 13, ,, 

CIVIL WAR ID,- UNITED STATES BEGUN, f 

"Big Bethcll (Federals repulsed) . . June 10, ,, 

"Carthage (Federal victory) . . July 10, „ 

Rich Mountain (ditto) . . . July 11, ,, 
*Bull Run or Manassas (Federal defeat and panic) 

July 21, „ 
Wilson's Creek (Federals, victors, lose Gen. Lyon) 

Aug. 10, „ 
Carnifex ferry (Rosencrans defeats Floyd, Con- 
federate) Sept. 10, ,, 

Lexington (taken hy Confederates) . Sept. 20, ,, 
Pavon, South America (Mitra defeats Urqv.iza) 

Sejat. 17, ,, 



Turks defeat Montenegrins . Oct. 19, Nov. 21, 1861 
■Ball's Bluff (Federals defeated) . Oct. 21, „ 
MiU Springs, Kentucky (Confederates defeated 

and their general ZoHicoffer killed) Jan 19, 1862 
Roanoke island, N.C. (Federals victors^ Feb. 

7,8, „ 
Sugar Creek, Arkansas (Confederates defeated) 

Feb. 8, ,, 
Fort Donnolson (J.aken by Federals) . Feb. 16, ,, 
Pea Ridge, Arkansas (Federals vict. ) March 6, 7, ,, 
Hampton roads (Merrimac and Monitor used) 

March g, ,, 
*Pittsburg landing, or Shiloh (indecisive) April 

6,7, „ 
\fi\\ia.m.fih\\rg (Federals 7-epulsed) . Mays, •> 
l'ueh\a. (Mexicans defeat French) . Mays, ,, 
Successful sortie of Confederates from Rich- 
mond May 14, ,, 

Orizaba (Mexicans defeat French) , May 18, ,, 
^Winchester (Federals repulsed) . May 25, ,, 

Ne.ar Orizaba (French defeat Mexicans) June 13, ,, 
"Fairoaks (before Richmond, indecisive) May 31, 

June I, „ 
*Severe conflicts between Federals and Con- 
federates before Richmond — the former re- 
treat . : ". . June 26 to July i, ,, 
Cedar Mountain (favourable to Confeile rates) 

Aug. 9, ,, 
Severe conflicts on the Rappahannock 

Aug. 23-29, ,, 
'Bull Run (de/t'ft^ p/' ii'ede)Y(Zs) . . Aug. 29, ,, 
Aspromonte (Garibaldi and his volunteers cap- 
tured by Royal Italian Troops) , Aug. 29, ,, 
*Antietam (severe; Confederates retreat) Sept. 17, ,, 
Ferryviile (Confederates zcorsled) . . Oct. 8, ,, 
*Fredericksbui-gh (Federcds defeated by Lee) 

Dec. 13, ,, 
*Murfreesburg (indecisive) . . Dec. 29-31, 
Nashville (Confederates defeated) . . Jan. 
*Uhancellorsville (Cojj/cdera^es virtow) May 2-4, 
Winchester (Swell defeats Confederates) Jime 13, ,, 
*Gettyshurg (severe but indecisive) . July 1-3 ,, 
*Chicamauga (Cori/Vdcrafcs uic^oriows) Sept. 19-20, 
Cami^bell's Station, &c. (Longstreet de*'eats 

Burnside) ..... Nov. 14-17, ,, 
Spottsylvania, &c., in the Wilderness, near 

Chancellorsville (indecisive) . May 10-12, 1864 
Petersburg, near Richmond (indecisive, but 

Grant advances) . . . June 15-18, ,, 
Petersburg (Lee defeated ; Richmond evacuated) 

March 31; April 2, 1865 
Furmrfiile (Lee fin alii/ defeated) . . April 6, ,, 



1863 



Oeversee (Banes and Allies) . . Feb. 6, 
Dlippel (taken by the Prussians) . . April 18, 
Alsen (ditto) Jiuic 29, 



[The battles which arc thus marked * arc more fully described in their alphabetical order.] 

BAUG:e. • See Avjoii. 

BAUTZEN aHcI WUETZCHEK (iu Kortli Germany), tlie sites of battles fotiglit May 20, 
and 21, 1813, between the French commanded by Napoleon, and the allies nnder the 
emiieror of Paissia and the king of Prnssia. The strnggle commenced on the 19th with a 
contest on the ontposts, which cost each army a loss of above 2000 men. On the 20th (at 
BArTZP:N) the French were more snccessful ; and on the 21st (at Wurtzchen) the Allies 
were compelled to retire ; bnt Napoleon obtained no permanent advantage from these san- 
guinary engagements. Duroc was among the killed at Bautzen, to the great sorrow of the 
emperor and the French army. 

BAVAEIA (part of ancient Noricum and Vindelicia), a "kingdom in South German}', 
conquered from the Celtic Gauls (Boii) by the Franks between 630 and 660. The country 
was afterwards .governed by dukes subject to the French monarchs. Tassilion II. was 
deposed by Charlemagne, who established margraves in 788. ' The first duke was Leopold I, 

t We have no space for the numerous smaller conflicte, of which the accounts are very uncertain. 



BAY 



93 



BAY 



895. Guelf of the house of Este was made duke by the emperor Henry IV. in 1071. His 
descendant Henry the •Lion, duke of Saxony, Bavaria, and Brunswick (ancestor of the 
present Brunswick fomily, see Brunswick), was dispossessed in 1180 by the emperor Frede- 
rick Barbarossa (who had been previously his friend and benefactor). Otho of Wittelsbach 
became duke, whose descendants reigned till 1777, when the elector palatine acquired 
Bavaria, which was made an electorate 1623. In Dec. 1805, Bavaria was erected into a 
kingdom by Bonaparte, and obtained by the treaty of Presburg the incorporation of the 
whole of the Italian and German Tyrol, the bishopric of Anspach, and lordships in Germany. 
Bavaria sull'ered much by its alliances with France against Austria in 1726 and 1805. The 
king joined the Allies in Oct. 1813. Population, Dec. 1861, 4,689,837. 



1071. 

IIOI. 

1 120. 

1126. 



II38. 
1142. 
II54- 

1 1 80. 
. 1185. 
1231. 

1253- 
1294. 

1347- 
1375- 
1397- 
1438. 
1460. 
1465. 
1508, 
1550- 
1579- 



DUKES. 1596. 

Guelf I. , an illustrious warrior. 

Gvielf II. 1651. 

Henry the Black. 1679. 

Henry the Proud. He competed with Conrad 

of Hohenstaufen for the empire and failed, 

and was deprived of Bavaria. 1726. 

Leopold of Austria. 

Henry of Austria. i74S- 

Hemy the Lion (son of Henry the Proud), 

restored by the emperor Frederick Barba- 177S. 

rossa, but afterwards expelled by him ; and 
Otho, count of Wittelsbach, made duke. 
Louis of Wittelsbach. i799- 

Otho II., the Illuistrious : his sou Louis was 

raised to the electoral dignity. 
Heniy and Louis the Severe. 
Louis III. (the palatinate sei^aratcd). 
Stephen I. 
John. 
Ernest. 
Albert I. 

John II. and Sigismund. 
Albert II. 
William I. 
Albert III. 
WiUiam II. 



Maximilian the Great ; the first Elector ot 

Bavaria, 1623; the palatinate restored, 164S. 
Ferdinand and Mary. 
MaximUiau Emanuel ; allies with France, 

1702; defeated at Blenheim, 1704; restored 

to his dominions, 1714 
Charles Albert ; elected emperor of Germany 

in 1742 ; defeated, 1744. 
MaximiUan-Joseph I., as elector. The house 

of Wittelsbach extinct at his death, 177S. 
Charles Theodore (the elector palatine of the 

Khine since 1743). The French take Munich ; 

treats with them, 1796. 
Maximilian- Joseph II., as elector; territories 

changed by treaty of Luneville, 1801 ; made 

king, by treaty of Presburg, Dec., 1805. 

KINGS OF B.WARIA. 

Maximilian-Joseph I. deserts Napoleon, and 
has his enlarged territories confirmed to him, 
Oct. 1813; grants a constitutional charter, 
1818. 

Louis-Charles, Oct. 13; abdicated March 20.* 

Maximilian-Joseph II. (son) born Nov. 28, 
1811 ; dies March 10, 1864. 

Louis IL (son) March 10; born, Aug. 25, 1845 : 
Hciv : bis brother Otho, born AprU 27, 1S4S. 



BAYEUX TAPESTRY, said to have been wrought by Matilda, queen of William I. It 
is 19 inches wide, 214 feet long, and is divided into compartments showing the events, from 
the visit of Harold to the Norman court, to his death at Hastings ; it is now preserved in 
the town house at Rouen. A copy, drawn by C. Stothard, aiad coloured after the original, 
was published by the Society of Antiquaries in 1821-3. 

BAY ISLANDS (the chief, Ruatan), in the Bay of Honduras, Central America, belonged 
to Spain till 1821, then to Great Britain, which formed them into a colony in 1852, but 
ceded them to Honduras, Nov. 28, 1859. See Honduras. 

BAYLEN (S. Spain), where on July 20, 1808, the French, consisting of 14,000 men 
commanded by generals Dupont and Wedel, were defeated by the Spaniards under Reding, 
Coupigny, and other generals, whose force amounted to 25,000. The French had nearly 
3000 killed and wounded, and the division of Dupont (about 8000 men) was made pri- 
soners. 

BAYONET, the short dagger fixed at tlie end of fire-arms, said to have been invented at 
Bayonne, in France, about 1647, 1670, or 1690. It was used at Killiecrankie in 1689, and 
at Marsaglia by the French, in 1693, "with great success, against the enemy imprepared for 
the encounter with so formidable a novelty." The ring bayonet was adopted by the British, 
Sept. 24, 1693. Aspin. 

BAYONNE (S. France), an ancient city. It was held by the English from 1265 till it 
was taken by Charles VII. The queens ot' Spain and France met here in 1565 the cruel 
duke of Alva, it is supposed to arrange the massacre of St. Bartholomew. Charles IV. of 
Spain abdicated here in favour of "his friend and ally" the emperor Napoleon ; and Ferdi- 
nand, prince of Asturia.s, and Don Carlos and Don Antonio renounced their rights to the 
Spanish throne. May 5, 1S08. In the neighbourhood of Bayonne was much desperate 
fighting between the French and British armies, Dec. 10, 11, and 13, 1813. Baj'onno was 

• The abdication of Charles-Louis was mainly caused by his attachment to an intriguing woman, 
known throughout Europe by the as.sumcd name of Lola Monies, who, in the end, was expelled the king- 
dom for her interference in state affairs, and afterwards led a wandering life. She delivered lectiu'es in 
London, in 1859, and thence proceeded to the United States. She died at New York, Jan. 17, 1861. 



BAY 94 BE A 

invested by the British, Jan. 14, 1814 ; on April 14 the Frencli made a sally, and attacked 
the English with success, but were at length driven back. The loss'of the British was con- 
siderable, and lieut.-gen. sir John Hope was wounded and taken prisoner. — A Franco-Spanish 
industrial and fine-arts exhibition was opened at Bayonne in July, 1864. 

BAYRETJTH (N. Gerniany), a margraviate, held foi-merly by a branch of the Branden- 
burg family, was with that of Anspach abdicated by the reigning prince in favour of the 
king of Prussia, 1790. The archives were brought (in 1783). from Plassenburg to the city of 
Bayreuth, which was incorporated with Bavaria by Napoleon in 1806. 

BAZAAR, or Covered Market, a word of Arabic origin. The bazaar of Ispahan is magni- 
ficent, yet it is excelled by that of Tauris, which has several times held 30,000 men in order 
of battle. In London, the Soho-square bazaar was opened by Mr. Trotter in 1816 to relieve 
the relatives of persons killed in the war. The Queen's bazaar, Oxford-street, a very exten- 
sive one, was (with the Diorama) burnt down, and the loss estimated at 50,000?., May 27, 
1829. It was rebuilt, and converted into the Princess's Theatre, opened Sept. 30, 1841. 
The St. James's bazaar was built by Mr. Crockford in 1832. There are also the Pantheon, 
the Western Exchange, &c. The most imposing sale termed a bazaar was opened for the 
benefit of the Anti-Corn-Law League, in Covent-garden theatre, May 5, 1845 ; in six weeks 
25,000?. was obtained, mostly by admission money. 

BEACHY HEAD, a promontory on the S.E. coast of Sussex, where the British and 
Dutch combined fleet, commanded by the earl of Torrington, was defeated by a superior 
French force, under admiral Tourville, June 30, 1690 ; the allies suffered very severely. 
The Dutch lost two admirals, 500 men, and several ships — sunk to ])revent them from 
falling into the hands of the enemy ; the English lost two ships and 400 n^en. The 
admirals on both sides were blamed ; ours, for not fighting ; the French, for not pursuing 
the victory. 

BEACONS. See Lighthouses. 

BEADS were early used in the Ea.st for reckoning prayers. St. Augustin mentions them, 
366. About 1090, Peter the Hermit is said to have made a series of 55 beads. To Dominic 
de Guzman is ascribed the invention of the Rosary (a series of 15 large and 150 small beads), 
in honour of the Blessed Virgin, about 1202. Beads soon after were in general use. The 
Bead-roll was a list of deceased persons, for the repose of Avhose souls a certain number of 
prayers was recited, which the devout counted by a string of beads. Beads appear to have 
been used by the Druids, bemg found in British barrows. 

BEAM AND Scales. The apparatus for weighing goods was so called, "as it weighs so 
much at the king's beam.'" A public beam was set up in London, and all commodities 
ordered to be weighed by the city officer, called the weigh-master, who was to do justice 
between buyer and seller, statute 3 Edw. II. 1309. Stow. Beams and scales, M'ith weights 
and measures, were ordered to be examined by the justices at quarter sessions, 35 Geo. III. 
1794. See Weights and Measures. 

BEANS, Black and White, were used by the ancients in gathering the votes of the 
people for the election of magistrates. A white bean signified absolution, and a black one 
condemnation. The prece]5t of Pythagoras to abstain from beans, ahstine a, fabis, has been 
variously interpreted. "Beans do not favour mental tranquillity." Cicero. The finer 
kinds of beans were brought to these countries at the period of the introduction of most 
other vegetables, in Henry VIII. 's reign. . 

BEAR-BAITING, an ancient popular English sport, prohibited by act of parliament in 
1835- 

BEARDS.* The Egyptians did not wear beards ; the Assyrians did. They have been 
worn for centuries by the Jews, who were forbidden to mar their beards, B.C. 1490. Lev. 
xix. 27. The Tartars waged a long war with the Persians, declaring them infidels, because 
they would not cut their beards, after the custom of Tartary. The Greeks wore their beards 

* A bearded woman was taken by the Eu.ssian"! at the battle of Pultowa, and presented to the czar, 
Peter I., 1724; her beard measured 1 4 yard. A woman is said to have been seen at Paris with a bushy 
beard, and her whole body covered with hair. Diet, de Trevoux. The great Itlargaret, governess of the 
Netherlands, had a very long stiff beard. In Bavaria, in the time of Wolfius, a virgin had a long black 
beard. Mdlle. Eois do Chene, borne at Geneva (it was said) in 1834, was exhibited in London, in 1852-3, 
when, consequently, eighteen years of age : she had a profuse head of hair, a strong black beard, large 
whiskers, and thick hair on her arms and dov.'n from her neck on her back, and masculine features. 



The ancients slept on skins. Beds were afterwards made of loose rushes, heather, 
The Romans are said to have first nsed feathers. Feather-beds were in use iu 



BEA 95 BEE 

till the time of Alexander, who ordered the Macedonians to be shaved, lest the beard should 
give a liandic to their enemie.s, 330 B.C. Boards were worn by the Romans, 297 B.C. The 

■ emjieror Julian wrote a diatribe (entitled " Miso2Wf/on") against wearing beards, a.d. 362. 

In England, tliey were not fashionaldo after the Conquest, 1066, until the 13th century, and 
were discontinued at the Restoration. Peter the Great enjoined the Russians, even of rank, 

^ to shave, but was obliged to keep officers on foot to cut off the beard by force. Since 1851 

i the custom of wearing the beard has gradually increased. 

BEAUGE. See Anjou. 

BEAULIEU, Abbey of, founded by king John, in the New Forest, Hampshire, in 1204, 

It was dedicated to the Blessed Virgin, had the privilege of sanctuary, and was devoted to 

monks of the reformed Benedictine order. It afforded an asylum to Margaret, queen of 

Henry VI., after the defeat of the earl of Warwick at Barnet, A]iril 14, 147 1. Here, too, 

[ Perkin Warbeck obtained refuge in the reign of Henry VII., in 1497. 

BEAUVAIS (N. France), the ancient Bellovaci, and formerly capital of Picardy. On the 
town being besieged by Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, at the head of 80,000 men, the 
women under the conduct of Jeanne Fourquet, or Laine, also De la Hachette, from her using 
that weapon, particularly distinguished themselves, and the duke was obliged to raise the 
siege, July 10, 1472. In memory of this, the women of Beauvais walk first in the procession 
' on the anniversary of their deliverance. IlciiauU. 

n BECKET'S MURDER.* Thomas Becket, archbishop of Canterbury, was murdered at 
]•' the altar, Dec. 29, 11 70. The king was absolved of guilty knowledge of the crime in 11 72, 
I and did penance at the tomb in 1 1 74. The bones of Becket were enshrined in gold and 
; jewels in 1220 ; but were burned in the reign of Henry VIII, 1539. 

;• BED. 
j, or straw. 

England in the reign of Henry VIII. The bedsteads of the Egyptians and later Greeks, like 
1^ modern couches, became common among the Roman upper classes. The ancient great bed 
I at Ware, Herts, capable of holding twelve persons, was sold, it is said, to Charles Dickens, 
r Sept. 6,1864. A bedstead of gold was presented to the queen on Nov. 2, 1859, by the 

Maharajah of Cashmere. Air-beds and water-beds have been made since the manufacture of 

india-rubber cloth by Clark in 1813 ; and by Macintosh in 1823. Dr. Arnott's hydrostatic 

bed was invented in 1830. 

BED OF Justice, a French court presided over by the king, whose seat was termed 
a " bed." It controlled the ordinances of the parliament. The last was held by Louis XVI. 
I at Versailles in 1787. 

BEDER (Arabia). Here Mahomet gained his first victory (over the Koreish of 
> Mecca), 623. It was considered to be miraculous. 

BEDFORD, a town, N.N.W. London, renowned for its many free educational establish- 
ments endowed in 1561 by sir Wm. Harpur, a London alderman. Here John Bunyan 
ipreached, wrote " The Pilgrim's Progress," and died (in 1688). 

BEDFORD LEVEL, a portion of the great fen districts in the eastern counties, drained 
,iin the early part of the 17th century by the earl of Bedford, aided by the celebrated Dutch 
:enginecr, sir Cornelius Vermuydeu, amid gi'cat opposition. See Levels. 

BEDLAM. See Bcmchcm. 

BEDOUINS, wandering tribes of Arabs, living on the plunder of travellers, &c. They 
profess a form of Mahomedanism, and are governed by sheikhs. They are said to be descen- 
dants of Lshmael, and appear to fulfil the prophecy respecting him, Geii. xvi. 12, 191 1 B.C. 
'"They are the scourge of Arabia and Egypt. 

BEEF-EATERS. See Battle-axe. 

* Thomas Becket was born in iiig. His father Gilbert was a London trader, and his mother is stated 
to have liecn a convert from Mahomedanism. He was educated at Oxford, and made archdeacon by Theo- 
bald, archbishop of Cantcrbniy, who introduced him to the king Henry II. He became chancellor in 1155, 
, but on being elected arclibishop of Canterbury in 1162, he resigned the chanccllorshii), to the great offence 
of the king. Ho opposed strenuously the constitutions of Clarendon in 1164, and tied the country ; and, 
. in 1 166, excommunicated all the clergy who agreed to abide by them. He and the king met at Fretville, 
, inTouraine, on July 22, 1170, and were formally reconciled. On his return he re-commenced liife struggle 
with the king, which led to bis tragical death. The Merchant-Adventurers were at one time termed " the 
Brotherhood of St. Thomas a Becket.'' 



BEE 96 BEL 

BEEF-STEAK SOCIETY, the members of which dine together in a room behind the 
Lyceum theatre, was founded in 1735 by John Eich, patentee of Covent-garden theatre, and 
George Lambert, the scene-painter, in whose work-room the society originated. Beef-stcalv 
clubs existed in 1709 and 1733. 

BEER. See Ale, Porter, Victuallers. 

BEES. Mount Hybla, on accoxmt of its odoriferous flowers, th3Tne, and abundance of 
honey, has been poetically called the "empire of bees." Hjanettus, in Attica, was also 
famous for its bees and honey. The economy of bees was admired in the earliest ages ; and 
Eumelus, of Corinth, wrote a poem on bees, 741 B.C. There are 292 species of the bee or 
apis genwa, and iii in England. Bees were first introduced into Boston, New England, by 
the English in 1670, and have since spread over the whole continent. Mandcville's satirical 
" Fable of the Bees" appeared in 1723. Huber published his observations on bees in 1792. 
The Apiarian Society had an establishment at JIuswell Hill, near London (1860-2). The 
Ligurian variety of the honey-bee was successfully iutroduced-into England in i860. 

BEET-ROOT is of recent cultivation in England. Beta vulgaris, red beet, is used for 
the table as a salad. Margraff first produced sugar from the M'/u'fc beet-root in 1747. M. 
Achard produced excellent sugar from it in 1799 ; and the chemists of France, at the 
instance of Bonaparte, largely extracted sugar from the beet-root in 1800. 60,000 tons of 
sugar, about luilf the consumption, are now manufactured in France from beet. It is also 
largely manufactured in other countries. A refinery of sugar from beet-root has been erected 
at the Thames-bank, Chelsea. 

BEGGARS were tolerated in ancient times, being often musicians and ballad-singers. In 
modern times severe laws have been passed against them. In 1572, by 14 Eliz. c. 5, sturdy 
beggars were ordered to be "grievously whipped and burnt through the right ear." By the 
Vagrant Act (1824), 5 Geo. IV. c. 83, all public beggars are liable to a month's imprisonment. 
See Poor Lav)s and Mendicity Society. The "Beggar's Opera," by John Gay, a satire 
against the government of sir Robert Walpole, was produced at the Lincoln's-inji-fields 
theatre, 1727, and had a run of 63 nights. 

BEGUJNES, a congregation of nuns, first established at Liege, and afterwards at Mvelle, 
in 1207, some say 1226. The "Grand Beguinage" of Bruges was the most extensive. Some 
of these nuns imagined that they could in this life arrive at impeccability. The council of 
Vienne condemned this error, and abolished a branch of the order in 131 1. They still exist 
in Germany and Belgium, acting as nurses to the sick and wounded, &c. 

BEHEADING, the DecoUatio of the Romans, introduced into England from Normandy 
(as a less ignominious mode of putting high criminals to death) by William the Conqueror, 
1076, Avhen Waltheoff, earl of Huntingdon, Northampton, and Northumberland, was first so 
executed. Since then this mode of execution became frequent, particularly in the reigns of 
Henry VIII. and Mary, when even women of the noblest blood thus perished.* 

BEHISTUN, in Persia. At this place is a rock containing important inscriptions in 
three languages, in cuneiform (or wedge-shaped) characters, which were deciphered and 
translated%y sir H. Eawlinson in 1844-6 and published in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic 
Society. Each paragra^jli commences with " I am Darius the Great King." 

BEHRING'S STRAIT, discovered by captain Vitus Behring, a Danish navigator in the 
service of Russia. He thus proved that the continents of Asia and America are not united, 
but are distinct from each other about thirty-nine miles, 1728. He died at Behring's island 
in 1 741. The current from the west between the shores is very inconsiderable, the dejrth 
not being more than from twelve to thirty fathoms. In 1788 captain James Cook accurately 
surveyed the coast of both continents. 

BELFAST, capital of Ulster, Ireland, First mentioned about 1315 ; its castle, supposed 
to have been built by John de Courcy, was then destroyed by the Scots under Edward Bruce. 
See Orange. 



Feb. 

she knew o'f no Kiilit.lnd'wouid not submit to die like a criminal.' He pursued her round and roimd the 
scaffold aiminK at her hoary head, and at length took it off, after mangling the neck and shoulders of the 
illustrious victim in a horrifying manner. She was daughter of George, duke of Clarence, and last of the 
royal line of Plautageuet. May 27, 1541. Hume. 



BEL 



97 



BEL 



BELFAST, continued. 

Belfast granted by James I. to sir Arthur 
Chichester, then lord deputy, 1612; and 
erected into a corporation .... 1613 
The long bridge with 21 arches, 2562 feet long, 

built 1682-6 

The first edition of the Bible published in Ire- 
land, printed here 1704 

The castle burnt April, 1708 

The bank built 1787 

The nicohauics' institute e.stablished . . . 1S25 
The Qtiecn's bridge (5 arches) built on site of 

tbc long bridge 1841 

or thri.-e colleges established in Ireland under 
the act 8 & 9 Vict. c. 66, passed in 1845, one 



was inaugurated in Belfast . . . Oct. 1849 
(See Colleges in Ireland.) 

Much rioting at Belfast through Mr. Hanna ' 
persisting in open-air preaching, July, Aug., 
and Sept 

Victoiia chambers were burnt down ; the lo.«s 
was estimated at loo.oooi. . . July 2, 

Exciting religious revivals . . . Sejjt. 

Fierce conflicts between Roman Catholics and 
Protestants on account of the foundation of 
the O'Connell monument at Dulilin — 9 lives 
lost and 150 persons iujui'ed . Aug. 10 — ^27, 

Rioting again ..... April 30, 

Election riots July, 



1S57 
1859 



1864 



BELGIUM, late the soutliem portion of the kingdom of the Netherlands, and anciently 
the territory of the Belgre, who were finally conquered by Julius Ctesar, 51 B.C. Its size is 
about one-eighth of Great Britain. The population, December 31, 1862, was 4,836,566. Its 
government is a liberal constitutional monarchy, founded in 1831. For previous history, 
see Flanders, Netherlands, and Holland. 



The revolution commences at Brussels, Aug. 25, 
The Provisional Government declares Belgium 

independent ..... Oct. 4, 
Antwerp taken .... Dec. 23, 

Belgian independence acknowledged by the 

allied powers ..... Deo. 26, 
Duke de Nemours elected king (his father, tlie 

French king, refused his consent) . Feb. 3, 
Surlet de Chokier is elected regent Feb. 24, 
Leopold, prince of Coburg, elected king, Jiily 12, 

enters Brussels .... July 19, 

The king of the Netherlands commences war 

Aug. 3, 
Conference of ministers of the five great powers 

held in London : acceptance of 24 articles of 

pacification Nov. 15, 

France sends 50.000 troops to assist Belgium, 

and an armistice cn.sues . . . Aug. 
Antwerp besieged, Nov. 30 ; and taken by the 

French Dec. 23, 

The French army returns to France Dec. 27, 
Riot at Brussels (see iJ(-jj.?«t(s) . . April 6. 
Treaty* between Holland and Belgium signed 

in London April 19, 

Queen of England visits Belgium . . Aug. 



1832 



1839 
1852 



The king and his son visit England . Oct. 

Increase of army to 100,000 men voted May lo. 
Opposition to religious charities' bill \ June, 
A new ministry under M. Charles RogierNov. 9, 
The chambers dissolved ; re-assembled Dec. 10, 
The king proclaims Belgium neutral in the 

Italian war 5I'iy> 

Death of M. Potter .... July 22, 

The king vi.sits England . . . Jime, 

Vague rumours of annexation to France produce 

warm loyal addresses to the king . June 13, 

The octrois abolished . . . July 21, 

Successful military volunteer movement Aug. 

Commercial treaty with France signed May i. 

Continued illaess of the king ; with occasional 

amendment .... May, June, 

Commercial treaty with Great Britain adopted 

by the chamber .... Aug. 22, 

Great distress through decay of trade Aug. 

Fierce dissensions between Roman Catholics, 

Jan. ; the ministry resigns, but resumes 

office, Feb. 4 ; dissolution of the chambers, 

July 17 ; the Protestants superior in the 

election Aug. 



1852 
1853 
1857 



i8s9 
i860 

1861 
1862 



KING OF THE BELGIANS. 



1831. Leopold, t first king of the Belgians ; born 
Dec. 16, 1790 ; inaugurated July 21, 1S31, at 
Brussels ; married Aug. 9, 1S32, Louise, 
eldest daughter of Louis Philippe, king of 



The 



the French; she digd Oct. 11, 1850. 
PRESENT king, 1865. J 
Heir : his son Leopold, duke of Brabant ; bom 
April 9, 1835 ; married archduchess Maria 
of Austria, Aug. 22, 1853. 



BELGRADE, an ancient city in Scrvia, on the right bank of the Danube. It was taken 
from the Greek emperor by Solomon, king of Hungary, in 10S6 ; gallantly defended by 
John Huniadcs against the Turks, under Mahomed II., July to Sept. 14S6, when the latter 
was defeated with the loss of 40,000 men. Belgrade was taken by sultan Solyman, 1522, and 
retaken liy the Imperiali-sts in 1688, from whom it again reverted to the Turks in 1690. It 
■was besieged in May, 171 7, by prince Eugene. On Aug. 5 of that year, the Turkish army, 
;200,ooo strong, approached to relieve it, and a sanguinary battle was fought at Peter- 
waradein, on August 22, in which tlie Turks lost 20,000 men ; after this battle Belgrade 
surrendered. In 1739 it was ceded to the Turks, after its fine fortifications had been 
demolished. It was again taken in 1789, and restored at the peace of Reichenbach, in 
1790. The Servian insurgents had possession of it in 1806. In 181 5 it was jdaced under 

* This treaty arose out of the conference held in London on the Belgian question ; by the decision 
of which, the treaty of Nov. 15, 1831, was maintained, and the pecuniary compensiftion of sixty miUions of 
francs offered by Belgium for the territories adjudged to Holland, was declared inadmissible. 

t At the revolution in 1830, the Roman Catholic clergy lost the administration of the public charities, 
which they have struggled to recover ever since. In April, 1S57, M. Decker, the head of the ministry, 
brought in a bill for this purpose ; tlje principle of which was carried. This led, however, to so much 
agitation that the ministry were compelled to withdraw the bill, ?nd eventually to resign. 

J Leopold married, in Jlay, 1S16, the princess Charlotte of Wales, daughter of the prince regent, 
afterwards George IV. of England; .she died in childbed, Nov. 6, 1817. 



BEL 



98 



EEL 



prince Milosch, subject to Turkey. The fortifications were restored iu 1820. On June 19, 
1862, the Turkish pacha was dismissed for firing on the town during a riot. University 
established by private munificence, 1863. See Servia. 

BELL, Book, and Candle : in the Eomish ceremony of Excommunication (which see), 
the bell is rung, the book is closed, and candle extinguished ; the effect being to exclude the 
excommunicated from the society of the faithful, divine service, and the sacraments. Its 
origin is ascribed to the 8th century. 

BELL-EOCK LIGHTHOUSE, nearly in front of the Frith of Taj^ one of the finest in 
Great Britain ; it is 115 feet high, is built upon a rock that measures 427 feet in length 
and 200 feet in breadth, and is about 12 feet under water.* It was erected in 1806-10 ; it is 
provided with two bells for hazy weather. 

BELLAIK, in North America. The town was attacked by the British forces under sir 
Peter Parker, who, after an obstinate engagement, were repulsed with considerable loss ; 
their gallant commander was killed, Aug. 30, 1814. 

BELLEISLE, an isle on the south coast of Brittany, France, was erected into a duehy in 
favour of marshal Belleisle, in 1742, in reward of his brilliant military and diplomatic 
services, by Louis XV. Belleisle was taken by the British forces under commodore Keppel 
and general Hodgson, after a desperate resistance, June 7, 1761, but was restored to France 
in 1763. 

BELLES-LETTRES, or Polite Learning. See Academies and Literature. 

BELLMEN, appointed in London to proclaim the hour of the night before public 
clocks became general, were numerous about 1556. They were to ring a bell at night and 
cry " Take care of your fire and candle, be charitable to the poor, and pray for the dead." 

BELLOWS. Anacharsis, the Scythian, is said to have been the inventor of them, about 
569 B.C. ; to him is also ascribed the invention of tinder, the potter's wheel, anchors for 
ships, &c. Bellows were not used in the furnaces of the Romans. The jiroduction of the 
great leviathan bellows of our foundries (suggested by the diminutive domestic bellows) must 
have been early, but we cannot trace the time. See Blowing-Machines. 

BELLS were used among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans. The responses of the Dodonsean 
oracle were in part conveyed by bells. Straho. The monument of Porsenna was decorated 
by pinnacles, each surmounted by bells. Pliny. Introduced by Paulinus, bishop of Nola, 
in Campagua, about 400. First known in France in 550. The army of Clothaire II., king of 
France, was frightened from the siege of Sens by the ringing of the bells of St. Stephen's 
church. The second excerption of our king Egbert commands every priest, at the proper 
hours, to sound the bells of his church. BeUs were ustd in churches by order of pope John 
IX., about 900, as a defence, hy ringing them, against thunder and lightning. First cast in 
England by Turketel, chancellor of England, under Edmund I. His successor improved the 
invention, and caused the first tuneable set to be put up at Croyland abbey, 960. Stoiv. 
The celebrated " Song of the Bell," by Schiller (died 1805), has been frequently translated. 
The following list is that given by Mr. E. Beckett Denison in his discourse on bells at the 
Royal Institution, March 6, 1857. 



WeiciU— Tons Cwt. 
Moscow, 1736 ;t broken, 

1737 250 ? 

Another, 1817 . . . no ? 



'WdgU—'ior^s Cwt. 
Three others . 16 to 31 
Novgorod . . . . 31 o 
Olmtltz 17 18 



Weight— T:oi\% Cwt. 
Vienna, 1711 . . . 17 14 
Westminster, 18564 "Big 
Ben" . . " . . IS 8J 



* Upon this rock, tradition says, the abbots of the ancient monastery of Aberbrothook succeeded in 
fixing a bell in such a manner that it was rung by tlie impulse of the sea, thus warning mariners of their 
impending danger. Tradition also tells us that this apparatus was carried away by a Dutchman, who was 
afterwards lost upon th^ rock, with his ship and crew. 

t The metal has been valued, at the lowest estimate, at 66,565?. Gold and silver are said to have been 
thrown in as votive offerings, 

X The largest beU in England (named Big Ben, after sir Benjamin Hall, the then chief commissioner 
of works), cast at Houghton-le-Spring, Burham, by Jlessrs. Warner, mider the superintendence of Mr. E. 
Becket Denison and the rev. W. Taylor, at an expense of 3343^ 14''. grf. The composition was 22 parts 
copper and 7 tin. The diameter was 9 ft. 5J in. ; the height 7 ft. loi in. The clapper weighed 12 cwt. 
Rtv. W. Tai/lor. 



BEL 



09 



BEN 



BELLS, 


continued. 








Weight- 


—Tons Cwt 


Erfurt, 1497 . 






13 


IS 


Westminster, 


i858,» " 


St. 






Steplieu" . 






i^ 


loi 


Sens . 






i^ 


V 


Paris, 16S0 . 






12 


16 


Montreal, 1S47 






12 


IS 


Cologne, 1448 






II 


3 


Breslau, 1507 






II 





Gorlitz . 






10 


17 



tVdghl— Tons Cwt. 

York, 1S4S . . . 10 15 

Bruftes, 1680 . . . 10 5 

St. Peter's, Rome . .80 

Oxford, 1680 . . . . 7 12 

Lucerne, 1636 . . . 7 11 

Halbcrstadt, 1457. . . 7 10 

Antwerp . . . .73 

Brussels . . . . 7 li 

Dantzic, 1453 . . . 61 



Lincoln, 1834 
St. Paul's, 1716 t 
Ghent . . . . 
Boulogne, new . 
Exeter, 1675 
Old Lincoln, 1610 
Fourth quarter-bell,We 
minster, 1S57 



-Tons Cwt. 
. 5 8 
5 4 
4 18 



4 It 
4 10 
4 £ 



RiNGiNO OF Bells, in ch.anges of regvilar peaLs, 
is almo.st peculiar to the English, w!io boaet of 
having brought the practice to an art. There 
were formerly societies of ringers in London. 
Holden. A sixth bell was added to the peal of 
five, in the church of St. Michael, 1430. Stow. 
Nell Gwynne left the ringers of the bells of St. 
Martin's-in-the-fields money for a weekly entertain- 
ment, 1687, and many others have dono the same. 



Baptism op Bells. — They were anointed and 
baptized in churches it is said from the loth century. 
l)u, Fresno;/. The bells of the j^riory of Little Dun- 
mow, in Essex, were baptized by the names of St. 
Michael, St. John, Virgin Mary, Holy Trinity, &c., 
in 1501. JVecver. The great bell of Notre Dame, in 
Paris, was baptized by the name of Duke of Angou- 
Igme, i8i6. On the continent, in Roman Catholic 
states, they baptize bells as we do ships, but with 
religious solenmity. Ashe. 

BELOOCHISTAN, the ancient Geclrcsia (S. Asia). The capital was taken by the British 
in the Afglian war, in 1839 ; abandoned in 1840 ; taken and held for a short time in 1S41. 

BELVIDERE EXPLOSION. See Gunimicdcr (note), 

BENARES, in India, a holy city of the Hindoos, abounding in temples. It was ceded 
by the nabob of Oude, Asoph-nd-Dowlah, to the English in 1775. An iiistirrection took 
place here, wliich had nearly proved fatal to the British interests in Hindostan, 1781. The 
rajah, Cheyt Sing, was deposed in consequence of it, in 1783. Mr. Cherry, capt. Conway, 
and others, were assassinated at Benares, by vizier Aly, Jan. 14, 1799. In June, 1857, col. 
Neil succeeded in suppressing attempts to join the Sepoy mutiny. See India, 

BENBURB, near Armagh (N. Ireland). Here O'Neill totally defeated the English under 
Monroe, June 5, 1646. Moore says that it was "the only gi-eat victory since tlie days of 
Brian Born, achieved by an Irish chieftain in the cause of Ireland." 

BENCOOLEN (Sumatra). The English East India Company made a settlement here 
•which preserved to them the pepper trade after the Dutch had dispossessed them of Bantam, 
1682. Anderson. York Fort was erected by the East India Company, 1690. In 1693 a 
dreadful mortality raged here, occasioned by the town being built on a pestilent morass : 
among others the governor and council perished. The French, under count D'Estaign, 
destroyed the English settlement, 1760. Bencoolen was reduced to a residency under the 
gOTcrnment of Bengal, in iSoi, and was ceded to the Dutch in 1825, in exchange for their 
possessions in Malacca. See India. 

BENDER (Bessarabia, European Russia) is memorable as the asylum of Chailes XII. of 
Sweden, after his defeat at Pultowa by the czar Peter the Great, July 8, 1709.^ The peace of 
Bender was concluded in 171 1. Bender was taken by storm, by the Russians, in Sept. 
1770 ; Avas again taken by Potemkin in 1789, and again stormed in 1809. It was restored 
at the peace of Jassy, but retained at the peace of 1812. 

BENEDICTINES, an order of monks founded by St. Benedict (lived 480— 543^ who 
introduced the monastic life into western Europe, in 529, when he founded the monastery 
on Monte Cassino in Campania, and eleven others afterwards. His Regula Monaclwrum (rule 
of the monks) soon became the common rule of western monachism. No religious order has 
been so remarkable for extent, wealth, and men of note .and learning, as the Benedictnie. 
Among its branches the chief were the Cistercians, founded in 1098, and reformed by St. 
Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, in 1116 ; and the Carthusians, from the Chartreux (hence 
Charter-house), founded by Bruno about 1084. The Benedictine order was introduced into 
England by Augustin, in 596 ; and William I. built an abbey for it on the plain where the 

• The bell "Big Ben " having been found to be cracked on Oct. 24, 1857, it was broken up and another 
beU cast with the same metal, in 5Iay, 1858, by Messrs. Mears, Whitechapel. It is rather different in shape 
to its predecessor, " Big Ben," and about 2 tons lighter. Its diameter is 9 ft. 6 in. ; the height 7 ft. 10 m. 
It was struck for the first time, Nov. iS, 1858. The clapper weighs 6 cwt.— half that of the former bell. 
The note of the beU is E natural; the quarter-beUs beuag G, B, E, F. On Oct. i, 1859, this bell was also 
found to be cracked. It remains in this state (Sept. 1865). •,.,,,•, 

+ The clapper of St. Paul's bcU weighs 180 lbs. ; the diameter of the bell is 10 feet, and its tluckness 10 
inches The hour strikes upon this bell, the quarters upon two smaller ones. See Clocks. 

H 2 



BEN 



100 



BEO 



battle of Hastings was fought, 1066. See Baltic- Abbey. AVilliam de Warrenne, earl of 
Warrennc, built a convent at Lewes, in Sussex, in 1077. "At Hammersmith is a nunnery, 
whose inmates are denominated Benedictine dames." Leigh. Of this order it is reckoned 
that there have been 40 popes, 200 cardinals, 50 patriarchs, Ii5 archbishops, 4600 bishops, 
4 emperors, 12 empresses, 46 kings, 41 queens, and 360x3 saints. Their founder was 
canonised. Baronius. The Benedictines have taken little part in politics, but have 
produced many valuable works : especially the congregation of St. ]\Iaur, who iiublished the 
celebrated I'Art de Verifier Us Dates, in 1750, and edited many ancient authors. 

BENEFICE (literally a good deed or favour), or Fief. Clerical benefices originated in 
the 12th century, when the priesthood began to ^imitate the feudal lay system of holding 
lands for performing certain duties : till then the priests were supported by alms and oblations 
at mass. Vicarages, rectories, perpetual curacies, and chaplaincies, are termed benefices, in 
contradistinction to clignities, bishoprics, &c. A rector is entitled to all the tithes ; a vicar, 
to a small part or to none. — All benefices that should become vacant in the space of six 
months, were given by pope Clement VII. to his nephew, in 1534. Notitia Monastica. An 
act for the augmentation of poor benefices, by the sale of some of those in the presentation 
of the lord chancellor, was passed in 1863. 

BENEFIT OF CLEEGY. See Clergy. 

BENEFIT SOCIETIES. Seo Friendly Societies. 

BENEVENTUM (now Benevento), an ancient city in South Italy, said to have been 
founded l)y Diomedes the Greek, after the fall of Troy. Pyvrhns of Macedon, during his 
invasion of Italy, was totally defeated near Beneventum, 275 b.c. Near it was erected 
the triumphal arch of Trajan, a.d. 114. Benevento Avas formed into a duchy by the 
Lombards, 571. A.t a battle fought here, Feb. 26, 1266, Manfred, king of Sicily, was 
defeated and slain by Charles of Anjou, who thus became virtually master of Italy. The 
castle was built 1323 ; the town was nearly destroyed by an earthquake, 16S8, when the 
archbishop, afterwards pope Benedict XIII., was dug out of the ruins alive, and contributed 
to its subsequent rebuilding again, 1703. It was seized by the king of Naples, but restored 
to the pope on the suppression of the Jesuits, 1773. Talleyrand de P^rigord, Bonaparte's 
arch-chancellor, had the title of prince of Benevento conferred upon him. Benevento was 
restored to the pope in 1S14. 

BENEVOLENCES (Aids, Free Gifts, actually Forced Loans) appear to have been claimed 
by our Anglo-Saxon sovereigns. Special ones were levied by Edward IV. 1473, ^^Y Kichard 
111. 14S5 (although a statute forbidding them was enacted in 1484), by Henry VII. 1492; 
and b}^ James I. in 1613, on occasion of the marriage of the princess Elizabeth with the king 
of Bohemia. In 1615 Oliver St. John, M.P., was fined 5000Z., and chief justice Coke 
disgraced, for severely censuring such modes of raising money. Benevolences were declared 
illegal by the bill of rights, Feb. 1689. 

BENGAL, the chief presidency of British India, containing Calcutta, the capital. It 
was ruled by governors delegated by the sovereigns of Delhi, till 1340, when it became 
independent. It was added to the Mogul empire by Baber, about 1529. See India and 

Calcutta. 

The English first permitted to trade to Bengal 1534 
Thej' establish a settlement at Hooghly about 1652 
Factories of the French and Danes set up . . 1664 
Bengal made a distinct agency . . . . 16S0 
The English settlement removed to Hooghly . i6g8 
Imperial grant vesting the revenues of Bengal 

in the company, by which it gained the 

sovereignty of the country . . Aug. 12, 1765 



India Bill ; Bengal made the chief presidency ; 
supreme court of judicature established 

June 16, 1773 
Bishop of Calcutta appointed . . July 21, 1813 
Railway opened Aug. 15, 1854 

See India. 



BENZOLE, a compound of hydrogen and carbon, discovered by Faraday in oils (1S25), 
.and by C. B. Mansfield in coal tar (1849), the latter of whom unfortunately died in con- 
sequence of being severely burnt while experimenting on it (Feb. 25, 1855). Benzole has 
become useful in the arts. Chemical research has produced from it coniline {which see), the 
source of the celebrated modern dj'cs, mauve, magenta, &c. 

BEOWULF, an ancient Anglo-Saxon epic poem, describing events M'hich probably 
occurred in the middle of the 5th century, and supposed to have been vyritten subsequent 
to 597. An edition by Kemble was published in 1833. It has been translated by Kemble, 
Thorpe, and Wackerbath. 



BER 101 BER 

BERBICE (British Guiiiua, S. America), settled by the Dutch, ■\vho surrendered it to tlie 
Britisli, April 23, 1796, and again Sept. 22, 1S03. It was finally ceded to England in 
1S14. 

BEREXGARIANS, followers of Berenger, or Berengarius, ai'chdeacon of Angers, a 
learned man, who about 1049 uttered opinions opposed to the Romish doctrine of transub- 
stantiation or the real presence in the Lord's supper. Several councils of the church were 
held condemning his doctrine. After much controversy he recanted about 1058. He 
died grieved and wearied in 10S8. 

BERESINA, a river in Russia, crossed by the French main army after its defeat by the 
* Russians, Nov. 25-29, i8i2. The French lost upwards of 20,000 men, and their retreat Avas 
w attended bj' great calamity and suffering. 

I BERG (W. Germany), on the extinction of the line of its counts, in 1348, was incorporated 

' with Juliers. Napoleon I. made Murat grand-duke in 1806. The principal part is now held 
by Prussia. 

k. BERGEN (in Germany), Battle of, between the French and allies, the latter defeated, 
April 13, 1759. — (In Holland) The allies under the duke of York were defeated by the 
French, under gen. Brune, with gi-eat loss, Sept. 19, 1799. In another battle, fought Oct. 
2, same year, the duke gained the victor}^ over Brune ; but on the 6th, the duke was 
defeated before Alkmaer, and on the 20th entered into a convention, by which he exchanged 
his army for 6000 French and Dutch prisoners in England. 

BERGEN-OP-ZOOM, in Holland. This place, whose works were deemed impregnable, 
was taken by the French, Sept. 16, 1747, and again in 1794. An attempt made by the 
British under general sir T. Graham (afterwards lord Lynedoch), to carry the fortress by 
^ storm, was defeated ; after forcing an entrance, their retreat was cut oif, and a dreadfiil 
" slaughter ensued ; nearly all were cut to pieces or made prisoners, March 8, 1814. 

BERKELEY CASTLE, Gloucestershire, was begun by Henry I. in 1 108, and finished in 
the next reign. Here Edward II. was cruelly murdered by the contrivance of his queen 
Isabella (a princess of France), and her paramour, Mortimer, earl of March, Sept. 21, 1327. 
Mortimer was hanged at the Elms, near London, Nov. 29, 1330 ; and Edward III. confined 
his mother in her own house at Castle Rising, near Lynn, in Norfolk, till her death. 

BERLIN (capital of Prussia, in the province of Brandenburg), was founded by the mar- 
gi-ave Albert, surnamed the Bear, about 1163. Its five districts were united under one 
magistracy, in 1714 ; and it was subsequently made the cajntal of Prussia. It was taken by 
an army of Russians, Austrians, and Saxons, in 1760 ; but they were obliged to retire in a 
few days. On Oct. 27, 1806, after the battle of Jena (Oct. 14), the French entered Berlin ; 
and from this place Napoleon issued the famous Berlin decree or interdict against the com- 
merce of England, Nov. 20. It declared the British islands to be in a state of blockade, 
and ordered all Englishmen found in countries occupied by French troops to be treated as 
prisoners of war. On Nov. 5, 1S08, Napoleon entered into a convention with Prussia, by 
which he remitted to Russia the sum due on the war-debt, and withdrew many of his troops 
to reinforce his armies in Spain. An insurrection commenced here in March 1848. Berlin 
was declared in a state of siege, Nov. 1848. The continuation of this state of siege was 
declared to be illegal without its concurrence by the lower chamber, April 25, 1849. The 
railway to Magdeburg was opened, Sept. 10, 1841. The first constituent assembly was held 
here on June 21, 1842. 

BERMUDAS, or Someiis' Isles, a group in the North Atlantic ocean, discovered by 
Joao Bermudas, a Spaniard, in 1522 or 1527, but not inhabited until 1609, when sir George 
Somers was cast away upon them. They were settled by a statute 9 James I. 1612. Among 
the exiles from England during the civil war, was Waller, the poet, who wrote, while resi- 
dent here, a poetical description of the islands. There was an awful hurricane here, Oct. 31, 
1780, and another, by which a third of the houses was destroyed, and all the shipping driven 
ashore, July 20, 18 13. 

BERNAL COLLECTION of articles of taste and virtii, formed by Ralph Berual, Esq., 
many years chairman of committees of ways and means in the house of commons. He died 
Aug. 26, 1854. The sale in March, 1856, histed 31 days, and enormous prices were given. 
The total sum realised was 62,680^. 6s. 8(^. 

BERNARD, MOUNT ST., so called fron^ a monastery founded on it by Bernardine 
Mcnthon in 962. Yelan, its highest peak, is about 8000 feet high, covered with perpetual 
snow. Hannibal, it is said, conducted the Carthaginian army by this pass into Italy 



BEK 102 BHO 

(218 B.C.) ; and it was by the same route, in May, 1800, that Bonaparte led his troops to 
the pUiins of Lombardy, before the battle of Marengo, fought Juiie 14, 1800. On the 
summit of Great St. Bernard is a large community of monks, who entertain travellei-s in 
their convent. 

BERNAEDINES, a strict order of Cistercian monks, established by St. Bernard, of 
Clairvaux, about 11 15. He founded seventy- two monasteries. 

BERNE, the sovereign canton of Switzerland, joined the Swiss League 1352 ; the town 
Berne surrendered to the French under general Brune, April 12, 179S. The town has bears 
for its arms, and some of these animals are still maintained on funds specially provided for 
the purpose. 

B^RRY, an ancient province {Biturigum regis), central France, held by the Romans 
since the conquest of Gaul by Cresar (58 — 50 B.C.) till it was subdued by the Visigoths; 
from whom it Avas taken by Clovis in 507. It was erected into a duchy by John in 1360, 
and was not incorporated into the royal domains till 1601 ; since then the title of duke has 
been merely nominal. 

BEESAGLIERI, the sharpshooters of the Sardinian army, first employed about 1848. 

BERWICK-ON-TWEED, a fortified town on the north-east extremity of England. It 
has been the theatre of many bloody contests between the English and Scots ; and while 
England and Scotland remained two kingdoms, was always claimed by the Scots as belonging 
to them, because it stood on their side of the river. It was taken from the Scots, and annexed 
to England in 1333 ; and after having been taken and retaken many times, was finally ceded 
to England in 1482. In 1551 it was made independent of both kingdoms. The tovm 
surrendered to Cromwell in 1648, and afterwards to general Monk in 1659. Since the union 
of the crowns (James I. 1603), the fortifications, which were formerly very strong, have been 
much neglected. 

BESSARABIA, a frontier ]n'ovince of European Russia, part of the ancient Dacia. After 
being possessed by the Goths, Huns, &c., it was conquered by the Turks in 1474, and ceded 
to Russia in 1812. 

BETHLEHEM (Syria) now contains a large convent, enclosing, as is said, the veiy birth- 
place of Christ ; a church erected by the empress Helena, in the form of a cross, about 
325 ; a chapel, called the Chapel of the Nativity, where they pretend to show the manger in 
which Christ was laid ; another, called the Chapel of Joseph ; and a third, of the Holy 
Innocents. Bethlehem is much visited by pilgrims. — The Bethlehemite monks existed in 
England in 1257. 

BETHLEHEM HOSPITAL (so called from having been originally the hospital of St. 
Mary of Bethlehem), a royal foundation for the reception of lunatics, incorporated by Henry 
VIII. in 1546. The old Bethlehem Hospital, Moorfield.s, erected in 1675, pulled down in 1814, 
was built in imitation of the Tuileries at Paris. The present hospital in St. George's-fields 
was begun April, 1812, and opened in 1815. In 1856 extensive improvements were 
completed under the direction of Mr. Sydney Smirk, costing between nine and ten 
thousand pounds. 

BETTING-HOUSES, aff'ording much temptation to gaming, and consequent dis- 
honesty, in the lower classes, were suppressed by an act passed in 1853 (16 & 17 Vict. c. 119), 
a penalty of 100^. being enforced on the owners or occupiers. 

BEYROUT (the ancient Berytus), a seaport of Syria, colonised from Sidon. It was 
tiestroj'ed by an earthquake, 566 ; was rebuilt, and was alternately possessed by the 
Christians and Saracens ; and after a frequent change of masters, fell into the power of 
Amurath IV., since when it remained with the Ottoman empire up to the I'cvolt of Ibrahim 
Pacha, in 1832. The total defeat of the Egyptian army by the allied British, Turkish, and 
Austrian forces, and evacuation of Beyrout (the Egyptians losing 7000 in killed, wounded, 
and prisoners, and twenty pieces of cannon), took place Oct. 10, 1840. Sir C. Napier was 
the English admiral engaged. Beyrout suffered greatly in consequence of the massacres in 
Syria in May i860. In Nov. i860 above 27,000 persons were said to be in danger of starving. 
See Syria. 

BHOOTAN, a country north of Lower Bengal, with whom a treaty was made April 25, 
1774. After fruitless negotiations, Bhootan was invaded by the British in Dec. 1864, in 
consequence of injurious treatment of an envoy. See India, 1864-5. 



BHU 



103 



BIB 



BHURTPOEE (India), capital of Bhurtpore, was besieged by the British, Jan. 3, 1805, 
and attacked five times up to March 21, without success. Tlie fortress was taken by general 
Lake, after a desperate engagement with Holkar, the Mahratta chief, April 2, 1805. The 
defeat of Holkar led to a treaty, by which the rajah of Bhurtpore agreed to pay twenty lacs 
■ of rupees, and ceded the territories that had been granted to him by a former treaty, 
delivering up his son as hostage, April 17, 1805. On the rajah's death, during a revolt 
against his son, Bhurtpore was taken by storm, by lord Combermere, Jan. 18, 1826. See 
India. 

BIANCHI (Whites), a political party at Florence, in 1300, in favour of the Ghibelines 
or imperial party, headed by Vieri de' Cerchi, opposed the Neri (or Blacks), headed by 
Corso de' Douati. The latter expelled their opponents, among whom was the poet Dante, 
in 1301. 

BIARCHY. When Aristodemus, king of Sparta, died, he left two sons, twins, Eury- 
sthenes and Procles ; and the peojde not knowing to whom precedence should be given, 
placed both upon the throne, and thus established the first biarchy, 1102 B.C. The descen- 
dants of each reigned alternately for 800 years. Herodotus. 

BIARRITZ, a bathing-iilace, near Bayonne. Here resided the comtesse de Mont ijo and 
her daughter Eugenie, now empress of the French, till her marriage Jan. 29, 1853 ; since 
when it has been annually visited by the emperor and empress. 

BIBERACH (Wurtemberg). Here Moreau twice defeated the Austrians, — under Latour, 
Oct. 2, 1796, and under Kray, ifay 9, 1800. 

BIBLE (from the Greek hiUos, a book), the name esx^ecially given to the Holy Scriptures. 
The Old Testament is said to have been collected and arranged by Ezra between 458 and 
450 B.C. The Apocrypha are considered as inspired writings by the Roman Catholics, but 
not by the Jews and Protestants.* See Apocrypha. 

OLD TESTAMENT, t 

Genesis contains the history 
of the world from B.C. 4004 — 1 63 s 

Exodus . . . 1635—1490 

Leviticus . . . 1490 

Numbers . . . 1490 — 1451 

Deuteronomy. . . 1451 

Job . . about 1520 

Joshua . . from 1451 — 1420 

Judges .... 1425 — 1 120 

Ruth . . . . 1322 — 1312 

ist and 2nd Samuel , 1171 — 1017 

ist and 2nd Kings . . 1015 — 562 

ist and 2nd Chronicles 1004 — 536 

Book of Psalms (princi- 
pally by David) . . 1063 — 1015 

Proverbs wi-itteu about 1000 — 700 

Song of Solomon about 1014 

Ecclesiastes . about 977 

Jonah. . . about 862 

Joel . . . about 800 



Hosea . 


. about 


Amos 


. about 


I.saiah . 


. about 


Micah 


. about 


Nahum . 


. about 


Zephaniah 


. about 


Jeremiah 


. about 


Lamentations . 


. about 


Habakkuk . 


. about 


Daniel 


. from 


Ezekiel 




Obadiah . 


. about 


Ezra 


. about 


Esther . 


. about 


Haggai . 


. about 


Zechariah 


. about 


Nehemiah 


. about 


JLalachi 


. about 



785—725 
787 

760 — 698 

750 — 710 

713 
630 
629—588 

5S8 
626 

607—534 
595—574 

587 

536—456 

521—495 

520 

520 — 518 

446—434 

397 



NEW TESTAMEXT. 

Gospels by Matthew, Mark, 



Luke, and John. B.C. 5— a.d. 33 
Acts of the Apostles . ad. 33 — 65 
Epistles — ist and 2ud toThes- 
salonians . . about 
Galatians . . . . 
ist Corinthians . 
2nd Corinthians . . . 
Romans .... 

Of James 

ist of Peter .... 
To Ephesians, Philippians, 
Colossians, Hebrews, 
Philemon . . .64 
Titus and ist to Timothy 65 
and to Timothy , . . 66 
2nd of Peter . . . .65 
OfJude . . . •. . 66. 
ist, and, and 3rd of John 

after 90 
Revelation . • . .96 



The most ancient copy of the Hehreio Scriptures 
existed at Toledo, called the Codex of Hillel ; it 
was of very early date, probably of the 4th century 
after Christ, some say about 60 years before Chi-ist. 
The copy of Ben Asher, of Jerusalem, was made 
.about 1 100. 

The oldest copy of the Old and New Testament in 
Greek, is that in the Vatican, which was written 
in the 4th or 5th century, and jiublishod in 1586. 
The next in age is the Alexandrian Codex (referred 
to the 5th century) in the British Museimi, pre- 
sented by the Greek patriarch to Charles L in 



1628. It has been printed in England, edited by 
Woide and Baber, 1786— 1821.— Codex Ephraemi, 
or Codex Regius, ascribed to the 5th century, in 
the Royal Library, Paris : published by Tisehen- 
dorf in 1843. 
The Hebrew Psalter was printed at Bologna in 1477. 
The complete Hebrew Biljle was first printed by 
Soncino in Italy in 1488, and the Greek Testament 
(edited by Erasmus) at Rotterdam, in i5i6._ Aldus's 
edition was printed in 1518; Stephens' in 1546; 
and the textus receptva (or received text) by the 
Elzevirs m 1624. 



* In April, 1865, was ■tiublishcd a proposal for raising a fund for exploring Palestine in order to 
illustrate the Bible by antiquarian and scientific investigation. The first meeting was held June 22, 1865, 
the archbishop of York in the chair. 

t The division of the Bil)lc into ehapterx has been ascribed to archbishop Lanfranc in the nth and to 
archbishop Langton in the 13th century ; but T. Hartwell Homo considers the real author to have been 
cardinal Hugo de Sancto Caro, about the middle of the 13th century. The division into sections was 
commenced by Rabbi Nathan (author of a Concordance), about 1445, and completed by Athras, a Jew, in 
1661. Tlie present division into verses was introduced by the celebrated printer, Robert Stephens, iji his 
Greek Testament (1551) and in his Latin Bible (1556-7)- 



BIB 



]04 



BIB 



BIBLE, continued. 

TRANSLATIONS. 

The Old Testament, in Greel.; termed the Septnagint 
{which see), generally considered to have lieen made 
by order of Ptolemy Philadelphus, kinr; of Egypt, 
about 286 or 285 b.c. ; of this many fabulous ac- 
counts are given. 

Origen, after spending twenty-eight years in col- 
lating MSS., commenced his poh/fflot Bible at 
Ciesaroa in a.d. 231 ; it contained the Greek ver- 
sions of Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion, all 
made in or about the 2nd century after Christ. 

The following are ancient versions : — Syriac, ist or 
2nd century ; the old Latin version, early in 
the 2nd century, revised by Jerome, in 3S4 ; who, 
however, completed a new version in 405, now 
called the Vulgate, which see; the first edition 
was printed in 1462 ; — Coptic, 2nd or 3rd century ; 
Ethiopic : Armenian, 4th or 5th century ; Sclavonic, 
gib. century ; and the Ma'so-Gothic, by Ulfilas, 
about 370, a manuscript copy of which, called the 
Codex Argenteus, is at Upsal. The Psalms were 
translated into Saxon by bishop Aldhelm, about 
706 ; and the Gospels by bishop Egbert, about 
721 ; the whole Bible by Bode, in the loth 
century. 

EXGLISH VERSIONS AND EDITIONS.* 

JIS. paraphrase of the whole Bible at the 
Bodleian Library, Oxford, dated by Usher . 1290 



Versions (from the Vulgate) by Wickliffe and 
his followers about 1380 

[Part published by Lewis, 1731 ; by Baber, 1810 ; 
the whole by Madden and Forshall, 1850.] 

William Tyndale's version of Matthew and Mark 
from the Greek, 1524 ; of the whole New Testa- 
ment 1525 or 1526 

Miles Coverdale's version of the whole Bible . 1535 

[Ordered by Henry VIII. to be laid in the choir 
of every church, "for every man that would 
to look and read therein."] 

T. Matthews' (fictitious name for John Rogers) 
version (partly by Tyndale t and Coverdale) . 1537 

Cranmer's Great Bible (Matthews' revised) . 1539 

Geneva version (the first with figured verses) 

1540—1557 

Archbi.shop Parker's, called "The Bishop's 
Bible " (eight of the fourteen persons em- 
ployed being bishops) 1568 

King James' Bible,! the present authorised ver- 
sion — Translation began 1604 ; published . 1611 

Roman Catholic authorised version : New Tes- 
tament, at Rheims, 1582 ; Old Testament, at 
Douay 1609-10 

Dr. Benjamin Blayney's revised edition . . 1769 

Authorised Jewish English version . . . 1S51 61 



N. 


TEST. BIBLE. 


N. 


TEST. 


BIBLE. 




N. TEST. 


BIBLE 


Flemish . 


. A.D 


1477 


Italian . 




I471 


Irish 


1602 


1686 


Spanish (Valencian) 




1478 


Spanish . . . 


IS43 


1569 


Georgian . 




1743 


German . 


1522 


1530 


Russian (parts) 


1519 


1822 


Portuguese . 


I7I2 


1748 


English . . . 


1526 


1535 


Welsh . . . 


1567 


I58S 


Manks 


. 1748 


1767 


French . 


1512 


1530 


Hungarian . 


1574 


1589 


Turkish . 


. 1666 


1814 


Swedish . . . 


1526 


1541 


Bohemian . . . 




1488 


Sanscrit 


. 1808 


1822 


Danish . 


1524 


1550 


Polish . 


iSSi 


1561 


Modern Greek 


1638 


1821 


Dutch . . . 




1560 


Virginian Indians . 


1661 


1663 


Chinese 


I8I4 


1S23 



The British and Foreign Bible Society continue to make and print translations of the Bible 
iu all the dialects of the world. See Polyglot. 

BIBLE DICTIONARIES. The most remarkable are Calraet's "Dictionary of the Bible," 
1722-8; Kitto's "Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature," 1843; and Smith's " Dictionary of 
the Bible," i860. See Concordanccs.X 

BIBLE SOCIETIES. Among the principal and oldest societies which have made the 
dissemination of the Scriptures a collateral or an exclusive object, are the following : — The 
Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge was formed 1698 ; Society for Projmgating the 
Gospel in Foreign Parts, 1701 ; Society in Scotland, for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 
1709; Society for Promoting Religious Knowledge among the Poor, 1750; Naval and 
Military Bible Societj', 1780; Sunday School Society, 1785; French Bible Society, 1792; 
British and Foreign Bible Society, 1804 ;§ Hibernian Bible Society, 1806 ; City of London 
Auxiliary Bible Society, 1812. A bull from the Pope against Bible Societies appeared in 1817. 

BIBLIA PAUPERUM (the Bible for the Poor), consisting of engravings illustrating 
scripture historj^, Avith texts, carved in wood, a "block book," printed earl}^ in the 15th 
century, was compiled by Bonaventura, general of the Franciscans, about 1260. A fac- 
simile was published by J. Russell Smith, in 1859. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY, the Science of Books. Gesner's " Bibliotheca Universale " appeared 
in 1545 : and De Bure's " BibliogTaphie Instructive" in 1763. The following works on this 
subject are highly esteemed : Peiguot, Manuel, 1823 ; Home, Introduction to the Study of 

* " The Bible of Every Land," ed. i860, published by Messrs. Bagsters, London, is full of information 
respecting ancient and modern versions of the Bible. 

t He was strangled at Antwerp in 1536, at the instigation of Hcni-y VIII. and his council. His last 
words were, " Lord, open the king of England's eyes ! " 14 editions of his Testament had then been 
published. 

t An " Index to the Persons, Places, and Subjects occurring in the Holy Scriptures," by B. Vincent, 
editor of the present work, is sold by the Queen's printers. 

§ At the end of 1850 this society had t-<sucd 24,247,667 copies of the Bible or parts of it ; in May, 1863, 
the mnnber had risen to 43,044,334. In 1857 they published a catalogue of their library, which contains a 
large number of remarkable editions of the Bible. 



BIB 105 BIL 

BiMiography, 1814 ; Scriptural, Ormc, Bibliothcra Biljlica, 1S24 ; Darling, Cycloptedia 
Bibliographica, 1854-8 ; Classical, the works of Fabricius, Clarku, and Dibdin ; English, 
Watts' Bibliotheca Britaimiea, 1824 ; Lowndes, Manual, 1834 (new edition by Bolin, 
1857-64) ; French, Querard, 1828-64 ; Brunet's Manuel da Libraire (first published in 1810) 
is exceedingly valuable : the 5th edition, 1S62-5 ; British Catalogues, by Sampson Low, 
1835-62. 

BIBLIOMANIA (or book-madness) vei-y much prevailed in 181 1, when Dr. Dibdiu's 
work with this title was published. See Boccaccio. 

BIDASSOA. The allied army under lord Wellington, having driven the French from 
Spain, effected the passage of this river, Oct. 8, 1813, and entered France. 

BIDDENDEIST MAIDS. A distribution of bread and cheese to the poor takes place at 
Biddenden, Kent, on Easter Sundays, the expense being defrayed from the rental of twenty 
acres of land, the reputed bequest of the Biddenden maids, two sisters named Chalkhurst, 
wlio, tradition states, were born joined together by the hips and shoulders, in iioo, and 
having lived in that state to the age of thirty-four, died within six houi's of each other. 
Cakes, liearing a corresponding impression of the figures of two females, are given on Easter 
day to all who ask for them. Hasted deems this tale faljulous, and states that the print on 
the cakes is of modern origin, and that the land was given by two maiden ladies named 
Preston. See Siamese Twins. 

BIGAJIY. The Eomans branded the guilty party with an infamous mark ; with us 
the punishment of this offence, formerly, was death. The first act respecting it was jiassed 
5 Edw. I. 1276. Vincr's Statutes. Declared to be felony, without benefit of clergy, i James 
I. 1603. Subjected to the same punishments as grand or petit larcenj^, 35 Geo. III. 1794. 
Now punished, according to circumstances, by imprisonment or transportation. 

BIG BETHEL (Virginia, U.S.). On Juno 10, 1861, the Federals were defeated in an 
attack on some Confederate batteries at this place. 

BILBOA (iST.E. Spain), was taken by the French in 1795. This place, wliicli had 
been invested bj' the Carlists under Villareal, and was in considerable danger, was delivered 
by the defeat of the besiegers by Espartero, assisted by British naval co-operation, Dec. 24, 
1836. Espartero entered Bilboa in triumph next day. 

BILL OF EXCEPTIONS. The right of tendering to a judge upon a trial between parties 
a bill of exceptions to his charge, his definition of the law, or to remedy other errors of the 
court, was prowled by the 2nd statute of Westminster, 13 Edw. I. 1284. Such bills are 
tendered to this day. 

BILL OF PAINS, &c. See Qnecii Caroline's Trial. BILL of Rights, &c. See Ricjlits. 

BILLIARDS. The French ascribe their invention to Henrique Devigne, an artist in 
the reign of Charles IX., about 157 1. Slate billiard tables were introduced in England 
in 1 82 7. 

BILLINGSGxVTE, the celebrated market-place foi-fish in London, is said to have derived 
its name from Belinus Magnus, a British prince, the father of king Lnd, 400 c.c, but Stow 
thinks from a former owner. Mortimer. It was the old port of London, and the customs 
were paid here under Ethelred II., a.d. 979. Stoio. Billingsgate was made a perfect free market, 
1669. Chambcrledn. Fish by te^^^-carriago, as well as seaborne, now arrives daily here. 
In 1849, the market was very greatly extended and improved, and is now well cleaned, 
lighted, and ventilated. 

BILLS OF EXCHANGE were invented by the Jews as a means of removing their 
property from nations where they were persecuted, 1160. Anrlerson. Bills are said to have 
been used in England, 1307.- The only legal mode of sending money from England, 4 
Richard II. 1381. Regulated, 1698; first stamped, 1782; duty advanced, 1797; again, 
June, iSoi ; and since. It was made capital to counterfeit bills of exchange in 1734. In 
1825, the year of disastrous speculations in bubbles, it was computed that there were 
400 millions of pounds sterling represented by bills of exchange and promissory notes. _ The 
present amount is not supposed to exceed 50 millions. Tlie many statutes regarding bills of 
exchange were consolidated by act 9 Geo. IV. 1828. An act regulating bills of exchange 
passed 3 A'^ict. July, 1839. Great alterations were made in the law on the suliject by 17 & 
18 Vict. c. 83 (1854), and 18 & 19 Vict. c. 67 (1855). 

BILLS OF JIORTALITY for LoxnoN. These bills were first compiled by order of 
Cromwell, about 1538, 30 Hen. VIII., but in a more fonnal and recognised manner in 



BIN 



106 



BIR 



1603, after the great plague of that year. 1^0 complete series of them has been preserved 
They are now superseded by the weekly returns of the registrar-general. The foUowing 
show the numbers at decennial periods :— ^ luiiuwing 



1780 
1790. 
1800 



1845 
1849 
1853 



Christenings. 
. 16,634 • 
. . 18,980 
. 19,176 . 



Births. 
502,303 
543.521 
578,159 
612,391 



Burials. 
■ 20,507 
. 18,038 
. 23,068 



Deaths. 
356,634 
349.366 

440.839 
421,097 



1810. 



Christenings. 
• ■ 19.930 

. 26,158 . 
. . 27,028 



Burials. 

. 19,892 

• 19.348 

• 23.524 



1854 .... 
1856 . . . . 
1858 (Females, 43,400). 



Birtlis. 
84,684 
86,833 



IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 

[ Births. Deaths. 

1856 . . 657,453 • . 390,506 

1858 . . 655,481 , . 449,656 

1859 . • 689,881 . . 441,790 
i85o . . 684,048 . . 422,721 

IN LONDON AND SUBURBS. 

Deaths. 



1850. 



1862 
1S63 



Christenings. 
■ 30,387 . 
• • 39.973 



Birth!). 

696, 406 
712,684 
729,399 
739,763 



73,697 
• — - - 57,786 

:,62o {Females, 31,319) 63,882 



Births. 

1859 (i^emnJcs, 45,367). g2,ss(> {Females, 30,1^ 
1862 .... 97,114 
1864 . . . . 102,187 . 



Burials. 
■ 26,774 
• 36,947 



Deaths. 
436,114 
436,573 
475,582 
495.520 

Deaths. 

>) 61,617 

66,950 

77.723 



^J'}^^V ARITHMETIC, that which counts by twos, for expeditiously ascertaining, the 
property of numbers, and constructing tables, was invented by 13aron Leibnitz of Lefpsic 
the celebrated statesman, philosopher, and poet, 1694. Moreri. -i^eipsic, 

«7»?i'f^^*"'^^ ROOT, in Algebra, composed of only two parts connected with the signs 

tS.1 T1V''*'™7^.;'*'''"^V*^'^°''^"' ''^^'^"t '550, when he published his Algebra. 
The celebrated hmomial theorem of Newton was first mentioned in 16S8. HiMon. 

bv e^xl?TSfp'^^?iy/?^? ^Y^''^'^^ ^'''\ ^^^> f^*i 9rapn-o, I write), defined as history teaching 
thirnf P f;- f pf ?^ f Genesis cont^mf, the biography of the patriarchs ; and the Gospell 
M,^L1V ^ '*''''^' /T*' ^^'^ ^^'^^ °f Illustrious Men ; Cornelius Nepos, Lives of 

c^ i74er"chSr=n''''^ Suetomus, Lives of the Twelve Caesars (all three in the first 
T ;r! If T 1 ^^^"^t v^iogenes Laertius, Lives of the Philosophers (about 205).-Boswell's 
Life of Johnson (published m 1790) is the most remarkable English biography. 

BIOLOGY, a name given to the science of life and living things, by Treviranus, of 
Bremen, m his work on Physiology, published 1802-22. Biolo|y includes Lology, ant ro- 
pologj', and ethnology, which sec. °^' ""''"'" 

b.-r.?^?,^? J^'^^" Ti''' ^^^f ^^ ^^'^"'^"' '"■^'■"^' ^^oixgU from North America, 1736. The 
TamoVr..! T' ^^ ^^^ ^etula pumilcc, introduced into Kew-gardens, England, by Mr! 

rulh-vnf;.l ;? '11 ^r ^°'/^ ^T^'^^^ ^762. The tree known as'the iJ.VcA is no^ llrgei; 
cultivated m all the countries of Europe, nardy's Annals. ° ^ 

nr.w?^^^?^'^^ (Cheshire), a prosperous modern town on the Mersey, immediately 
ITm t.^T^.lf ^^''Sre.t dock here was projected by Mr. John Laird, constructed 
amSnmP SlU,. T""''} I'r ^^^- ^^^7 by lor.l Morpeth. In 1861 Birkenhead was made 
2^-TmT/s^^^^^^^^^ ^^"^^''"* representative. Population in 1831. 

BIRMAN EMPIRE, or Empire of Ava. See Burmese Empire and Bidia. 

rei^n^ o?^Afr?p?\\^; ^°™?'\^ Bromwichara and Brummegem (Warwickshire), existed in the 
reign of Alfied, 872 ; and belonged to the Bermengehams, at Domesday survey, 1086 
There were "many smythes " here in the time of Henry VlII (Leland) but its Seat 
eTpc/''' ^°"^°^'^"'^^'1 '"^ '''' ^-"g^^ «f William III. It las been^st^deT" the toyshf^ ff 



Grammar scliool founded 

Besieged and taken by prince Rupert . ' . ' 

Button manufactures established 

Soho works established by Matthew Bo'ulton 

about 1764; and steam engine works about 
Birmingham canal was originated . 
Biots against persons commemorating the 

French revolution .... July 14, 1791 



1552 
1643 



1774 
1768 



Theatre destroyed by fire . , Aug. 17, 1702 

More commotions Nov. 1800 

Theatre burnt Jan. 7, iS-'o 

Political Union, headed by T. Attwood, formed^ 
TT . , ^eb. 1831 

Birmingham made a borough by Reform Act . 1852 
Town-hall built . . . . . . . 1833 

Political Union dissolved itself . . May 10* 1834 



BIR 



107 



BIS 



BIRMINGHAM, continued. 

Birmingham and Liverpool railway opened as 

the Grand Junction . . . July 4, 1837 
London and Birmingham railway opened its 

entire length .... Sept. 17, 1838 
Great Chartist riot ; houses burnt . July 15, 1839 
Town incorporated, and Police Act passed . „ 
Meeting of British Association . Aug. 29, ,, 

Queen's College incorporated 1843 

Com Exchange opened . . . Oct. 27, 1847 
Meeting of British Association (2nd time) 

Sept. 12, 1849 
Queen's College organised . . . Jan. 1853 
Public park opened (ground virtually given by 

Mr. Adderley) Aug. 3, 1856 

New music-hall opened .... Sept. 3, ,, 
Another parli opened by the duke of Cambridge, 



100,000 persons present (ground given by 
lord Calthorpe) .... June i, 
Death of G. F. Muntz, MP.. . July 30, 
J. Bright elected M. P., Aug. 10, 1857, <fc April, 
The Queen and Prince Consort visit Birming- 
ham, Warwick, (fee, for the first time, and 
open Aston park . . . June 14-16, 

The Free Library opened . . . April 4, 
Dreadful factory explosion ; g killed and many 

injured June 23, 

The people's park purchased by the corpora- 
tion Sept. 

New Exchange solemnly opened . . Jan. 2, 
The bank of Attwoods and Sixioner stop pay- 
ment and cause much distress . March 10, 
Meeting of British Association (3rd time) 

Sept. 6, 



1S57 
1859 



1853 
1861 



BIRTHS. The births of children were taxed in England, viz., birth of a duke 30?., of a 
common person 2s., 7 Will. III. 1695. Taxed again, 1783. The instances of four children 
at a birth are numerous ; but it is recorded that a woman of Konig.sberg had five children at 
a birth, Sept. 3, 1784, and that the wife of Nelson, a journeyman tailor, of Oxford-Market, 
London, had also five children at a birth, in Oct. 1800. See Bills of Mortality and Registers. 
The Queen usually presents a small sum of money to a poor woman giving birth to three or 
more children at one time. 

BISHOP (Greek ejnscojms, overseer), a name given by the Athenians to those who had 
the inspection of the city. The Jews and Romans had also like officers. The bishop has 
the government of church affairs in a certain district. St, Peter, styled the first bishop of 
Rome, was martyred 65. The episcopate became an oljject of contention about 144. The 
title of pope was anciently assumed by all bishops, and was cxclu.sively claimed by Gregory 
VII. (1073-85). 

BISHOPS IN ENGL.A.ND* wcre coeval with the introduction of Christianity. The see of 
London is said to have been founded by Lucius, king of Britain, 1 79. 



Bishops made barons 1072 

The Coikjl' d'EUrt of the king to choose abishop 

originated in an arrangement of king John. 
Bishops were elected by the king's Conge 

d'Etire, 2S Sen. Vlll.\ 1534 

Bishops to rank as barons by stat. 31 Hen. 

VIII 1540 

Seven were deprived for being married . . 1554 
Several suffered martyrdom under queen Mary, 

See Cranmer. I55S-6 

Bishops excluded from voting in the house of 

peers on temporal concerns, 16 Charles I. . 1640 
Several committed for protesting against the 

legality of all acts of parliament passed while 



they remained deprived of their votes, Dee. 2S, 1641 
The order of archbishops and bishops abolished 

by the ijarliament .... Oct. 9, 1646 
Bisliops regain their seats . . . Nov, i66i 
Seven sent to the tower for not reading the 
king's declaration for liberty of conscience 
(intended to bring the Roman Catholics into 
ecclesiastical and civil power;, Juno 8, and 
tried and acquitted . . Juno 29-30, 16S8 
The archbishop of Canterbury (Dr. Sancroft) 
and five bishops (Bath and Wells, Ely, Glou- 
cester, Norwich, and Peterborough) sus- 
pended for refusing to take the oaths to 
WiUiam and Mary, 1689 ; deprived . . i6go 



ENGLISH BISHOPRICS. 



Sets. 
Ijondon {abpc.) 
York (a6jic.) 
Sodor and Man 
Llandaff . 
St. David's . 
Bangor t . 
St. Asaph . 
Canterbury 
London {sec above) 
Rochester 



Founded. 

■ (?) 179 

4th cent. 

4th cent. 

5th cent. 

5th cent. 

about 516 

about 560 
598 
609 
604 



Sees. Founded. 

East Anglia {after- 
wtJ.s.Norwich.iogi) 630 

Lindisfame, or Holy 
Island (afterwards 
Durham, 995) . . 634 

West Saxons (after- 
wards Winchester, 
705) . . .635 

Mercia (afterwards 
Lichfield, 66g) . . 656 



Founded 
. 676 



Sees. 
Hereford . 
Worcester . . . 
Lindisse (afterwards 

Lincoln, 1067) . . 
Sherborne (afterzcards 

Salisbury, 1042) . 
Cornwall (afterwards 

Devonshire, ar'ter- 

wrds. Exeter, 1050) 909 
Wells . . . ,, 



7°5 



Sees. 
Bath . 
Ely . 
Carlisle 
Peterborough 
Gloucester § 
Bristol! . 
Chester 
Oxford . 
Ripon . 
Manchester 



Founded. 
. . 1088 

. 1 108 
. • 1132 

. 1 541 



1836 
1847 



* Bishops have the titles of Lr.rd and Right Rev. Father in God. The archbishops of Canterbury and 
York, t;iking place of all dukes, liave the title of Grace. The bishops of London, Durham, and Wmchester 
have precedence of all bishops ; the others rank according to seniority of consecration. _ 

t Retirement nf Bishops. In 1856 the bishops of London and Durham retired on annuities. The new- 
bishops held their sees subject to future provision. In 1857 tlie bishop of Norwich also resigned. 

t An order in council, Oct. 1838, directed the sees of Bangor and St. Asaph to be united on the next 
vacancy in either, and Manchester, a new see, to be created thereupon : this order, as regarded the union 
of the sees, was rescinded 1846. 

§ The sees of Bristol and Gloucester were united, 1856. 



BIS 



108 



BIS 



BISHOPS IN Ireland are said to have been consecrated in the 2nd century. 



Prelacies were constituted, and divisions of the 
bishoprics in Irelixnd made, by cardinal Pa- 
paro, legate from pope Eugene III. . . 1151 
Several prelates deprived by queen Mary . . 1554 
Bp. Atherton suffered death ignominiously . 1640 
Two bishops deprived for not taking the oaths 

to William and Mary 1691 

Church Tetnporahtie.s Act, for reducing the 
number of bishops in Ireland, 3 & 4 Will. IV. 
c. 37, passed Aug. 14, 1833 



[By this statute, of the four archbishoprics of 
Armagh, Dublin, Tuam, and Cashel, the last 
two were to be abolished on the decease of the 
then arohprelates which has since occurred ; and 
it was enacted that eight of the then eighteen 
bishoprics should, as they became void, be 
henceforth imited to other sees, which was ac- 
complished in 1850 : so that the Irish Church 
establishment at present consists of two arch- 
bishops and ten bishops.] 



irjsii EisiiorKics. 



Ossory . . . 402 

Killala . about 434 

Trim . . . 432 

Armagh, 445 ; uhpc. 1152 

Emly . . about 448 

Elphin . . . 450 

Ardagh . . . 454 

Clogher . before 493 

Down . . about 499 
Ardfcrt and Aghadoe 

before 500 



Connor . about 500 
Tuam, about 501 ; 



ahpc. 
Dromore 
KOdare . 
Meath . 
Achonry . 
Louth . 
Clonmacnois 
Clonfert 
Ross 



. 1152 

about 510 

before 519 

. . 520 

• 530 

• • 534 
. . 548 

• . 558 
about 570 



Ferns . . 
ClojTie 
Cork . 
Glandalagh . 
Derry 

Kilmacduach, 
Lismore 
Leigh Un . 
Mayo . 
Raphoe , 



about 


SqS 


before 


604 


about 


606 


before 


612 


before 


61 S 


about 


620 


abovit 


631 




632 


about 


665 


before 


885 



Cashel, before 901 ; 

dbpc. . . . 1152 
Killaloe, ahpc. . . loiq 
Waterford 
Limerick . 
Kilmore 



Dublin, ahpe. 
Kilfenora . 



. logf) 
before 11 06 
. . 1136 i 

• 1152 [ 
before 1254 



(For the new combina- I 
tions, see the sepa- 
rate articles.) 



BISHOPS IN Scotland were constituted in the 4th century. Episcopacy was abolished 
in 1638 ; but restored by Charles II. 1661, which caused an insurrection. Episcopacy was 
again abolished in Scotland in 1689.* 



Orkney . Uncertain. 
Isles . . . 360 

Galloway . before 500 
St. Andrew's, 800 ; 

ahpc. . . . 1470 
Glasgow, about 560 ; 

ahpc. . . . 1488 
Caithness . about io56 





SCOTCH Bisiiornics. 


Brec]\in . 


before 1155 




Moray . 


. . HIS 


POST- RE VOLUTION 


Ross . 


. 1124 


BISHOPS. 


Aberdeen 


. . II2S 


Edinl;>urgh . . 1720 


Dunkeld . 


• 1 1 30 


Aberdeen and the 


Dunblane . 


before 11 53 


Isles . . . 1721 


Argyll 


. 1 200 


Moray (and Ross) . 1727 


Edinburgh 


■ • 1633 





Brechin 



1731 



Gla.sgow (and Gallo- 
way) . . . „ 

St. Andrew's (Dun- 
keld, Dunblane, 
&c.) . . . . 1733 

Argyll and the Isles 1847 



BISHOPS, Colonial. The first was Samuel Seabury, consecrated bishop of Connecticut 
by four nonjuring prelates, at Aberdeen, in Scotland, Nov. 14, 1784. The bishops of New 
York and Pennsylvania were consecrated in London, by the archbishop of Canterbury, Feb. 
4, 1787, and the bishop of Virginia in 1790. The first Roman Catholic bishop of the United 
States was Dr. Carroll of Maryland, in 1789. By 15 & 16 Vict. c. 52, and 16 & 17 Vict, 
c. 49, the colonial bishops may perform all episcopal functions in the United Kingdom, 
but have no jurisdiction. 

colonial bishoprics. 



i860 



Nova Scotia . 


• lyS? 


New Zealand . 


1841 


Australia) . 


• 1847 


Brisbane . 


Quebec . . 


• 1793 


Antigua . . . 


1842 


Rupert's Land . 


. 1849 


British Columbia 


Calcutta . , . 


. 1814 


Guiana 


,, 


Victoria . 


• )) 


Goulburn 


Barbadoes . 


. 1824 


Huron. . . . 


,, 


Sierra Leone 


. 1852 


St. Helena . 


Jamaica . 




Tasmania 


,, 


Graham's-town 


• 1853 


Waiapu . 


Madras 


• 1S35 


Cohmilso . . . 


1845 


Natal . 




Melanesian Islands 


Australia 


. 1836 


Fredericton 




Mauritius 


• 1854 


Kingston, Canada 


Montreal 


■ > 


Adelaide 


1847 


Labuan 


. 1855 


Ontario, Canada 


Bombay . 


• 1S37 


Cape Town 




Christchurch . 


. 1856 


Nassau, Bahamas 


Newfoundland . 


. 1839 


Melbourne 


,, 


Perth . 


M 


Central Africa . 


Toronto . 




Newcastle . 


,, 


Wellington 


. 1858 


Grafton, Australia 


Gibraltar 


'. 1841 


Sydney (formerly 




Nelson 


• >> 


Niger territory 



1863 



BISMUTH was recognised as a distinct metal by Agricola, in 1529. It is very fusible 
and brittle, and of a yellowish white colour. 

BISSEXTILE. See Calendar and Leap Year. 



* Bishop Rose connected the established episcopal church of Scotland with that form of it which is now 
merely tolerated, he having been bishop of Edinburgh ft-om 1687 till 1720, when, on his death. Dr. FuUarton 
became the first post-revolution bishop of that see. Fife (now St. Andrew's, so called in 1844) now unites 
the bishopric of Dimkcld (re-instituted in 1727) and that of Dunblane (re-instituted in 1731). Ross (of 
uncertain date) was united to Moray (re-instituted in 1727) in 1838. Argyll and the Isles never existed 

Moray and Ross, or to Ross alone, previously to that 
;gow. 



independently until 1847, having been conjoined to M 
year. Galloway has been added to the see of Glasgow 



BIT 



109 



BLA 



BITHYNIA, a province in Asia Minor, proviouslj- called Behricia, is said to liave been 
invaded by tlie Thracians under Bithynus, eon of Jupiter, who gave it the name of Bithynia. 
It was subject successively to the Assyrians, Lydians, Persians, and Macedonians. Most of 
the cities were built by Grecian colonists. 



Dydtilsus revolted and reigned about . b. c. 430 — 440 

BotjTas, his son, succeeds 37S 

Bas, or Bias, son of BotjTas, 376 ; repulses the 
Greeks 

JZipcetas, son of Bias, resists Lysimachus . 

He dies, leaving four sons, of whom the eldest, 
Niconiedes I., succeeds (he invites the Gauls 
into Asia^ 

He rebuilds Astacus, and names it Nicomedia . 

Zielas, son of Niconiedes, reigns . . . . 

Intending to massacre the chiefs of the Gauls 
at a feast, Zielas is detected in his design, 
and is himself put to death, and his son 
Prusias I. made king, aliout .... 

Prusias defeats the Gauls, and takes cities . . 

Prusias allies with Philip of Macedon, and 
marries Apamea, his daughter 



328 
326 



223 



208 



He receives and employs Hannibal, then a 

fugitive 1S7 

Who poisons himself to escape betrayal to the 

Romans jg^ 

Prusias 11. succeeds igo 

Nioomedes II. kills his father Prusias and 

reigns i^g 

Nicomedes III., surn.amed Philopator . . gi 

Deposed by Mithridates, king of Pontus . . 88 

Restored by the Romans 84 

Bequeaths his kingdom to the Romans . . 74 

Pliny the younger, pro-consul . . . a.d. 103 
The Oghusian Tartars settle in Bithynia . .1231 
The Othman Turks take Prusa, the capital Cand 

make it the seat of their emi^ire till they 

possess Constantinople) 1327 



BITONTO (ISTaples). Here Montemar and the Spaniards defeated tlie Germans, on May 
■ 26, 1730, and eventually ac(pured the kingdom of the Two Sicilies for Don Carlos. 

BLACK ASSIZES. See under Oxford. 

BLACK BOOK* (Liber Niger), a book kept in the exchequer, which received the orders 
of that court. It was published by Hearn in 1728. 

BL.\CKBUR]Sr, Lancashire, so called in Domesday-book. The manufacture of a cloth 
called Blackburn cheque, carried on in 1650, was superseded liy Blackburn greys. In 1767, 
Janu's Hargreaves, of this town, invented the spinning-jenny, for which he was eventually 
expelled from the county. About 18 10 or 181 2, the townspeople availed themselves of his 
discoveries, and engaged largely in the cotton manufacture, now their staple trade. 



BLACK DEATH. 
BLACK FRIARS. 



See Plagues, 1340. 
See Dominican, 



BLACKFRIARS BRIDGE, London. The first stone was laid Oct. 31, 1760, and it was 
completed by Mylne, in 1770. It was the first work of the kind executed in England, in 
which arches, approaching to the form of an ellipsis, were substituted for semicircles. It was 
repaired in 1834, and in 1837-1840. Since 1850 the bridge gradually sank. The old bridge 
was pulled down : and a new temporary one opened for use in 1864. The foundation stone 
of the new bridge (to be erected according to a design by Mr. J. Cubitt) was laid by the lord 
mayor. Hale, July 20, 1865. The first railway train (London, Chatham, and Dover) entered 
the city of London over the new railway bridge, Blackfriars, Oct. 6, 1864. 

BLACKHEATH, near London. Here AVat Tyler and his followers assembled June, 
1381 ; and here also Jack Cade and his 20,000 Kentish men encamped, June i, 1450. See 
Ti/lcr and Cade. Battle of Blackheath, in which the Cornish rebels were defeated and 
Flannock's insurrection quelled, June 22, 1497. The cavern, on the ascent to Blackheath, 
'1 the retreat of Cade, and the haunt of banditti in the time of Cromwell, was re-discovered 
in 1780. 

BLACK-HOLE. See Calmtta. 

BLACK LEAD. See GraiMtc. 

BLACK LETTER, employed in the first printed books in the middle of the 15th 
century. The first j)rinting types were Gothic ; but they Avere modified into the present 
Roman tyi)e about 1469 ; Pliny's Natural History being then printed in the new characters. 

BLACK-I\IAIL, a compulsory payment made in parts of Scotland by the lowlanders 
to the highlanders, for the protection of their cattle, existed till within a few months 
of the outbreak of the rebellion, 1745. It rendered agricultural improvement almost 
impossible. 

* .\ book was kept in the English monasteries, wherein details of the scandalous enormities practised 
in religious houses were entered for the inspection of visitors, under Henry VIII. 1535, in order to blacken 
them and hasten their dissolution : hence possibly the phrase, " I'U sot you down in the black book." 



BLA 110 BLE 

BLACK MONDAY, Easter Monday, April 6, 135 1, "when tlie hailstones are said to 
have killed both men and horses, in the army of oiTr king Edward III. in France." Bailey. 
"This was a memorable Easter Monday, which in the 34th of Edward III. happened to bu 
full dark of mist and hail, and so cold that many men died on their horses' backs with tho 
cold," 135 1. Sto2v. In Ireland, Black Monday was the day on which a number of the 
English were slaughtered at a village near Dublin, in 1209. 

BLACK ROD has a gold lion at the top, and is carried by the usher of the Order of the 
Knights of the Garter (instituted 1349), instead of the mace. He also keeps the door when 
a chapter of the order is sitting, and during the sessions of parliament attends tlie house of 
lords and acts as their messenger to the commons. 

BLACK SEA, the Euxine (Pontus Euxinus of the Ancients), a large internal sea 
between the S.W. provinces of Russia and Asia Minor, connected with the sea of Azoff by 
the straits of Yenikale, and with the sea of ilarmora by the channel of Constantinople. 
This sea was much frequented by the Greeks and Italians, till it was closed to all nations by 
the Turks after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The Russians obtained admission by the 
treaty of Kainardji, in 1774. In 1779 it was partially opened to British and other traders, 
since which time the Russians gradually obtained the preponderance. It was entered by the 
British and French fleets, Jan. 3, 1854, at the requisition of the Porte, after the destruction 
of the Turkish fleet at Sinope by the Russians, Nov. 30, 1853. A dreadful storm in this 
sea raged from Nov. 13 to 16, 1854, and caused gi-eat loss of life and ship|)iug, and valuable 
stores for the allied armies. See Rtisso-TurJcish War. By the treaty of 1856 the Black Sea 
was opened to the commerce of all nations. 

BLACKAVALL (London). The site of fine commercial docks and warehouses. See 
Docks. The Blackwall railway was opened to the public, July 4, 1840 ; the eastern terminus 
being at Blackwall wharf, and the western in Fenchurch-street. 

BLACK WATCH, armed companies of the loyal clans (Campbells, Monros, &c.) 
employed to watch the Highlands from about 1725 to 1739, when they were formed into the 
celebrated 42nd regiment, which was formally enrolled " The Royal Highland Black Watch," 
in 1861. Their removal probably facilitated the outbreak in 1745. They wore dark tartans, 
and hence were called Black Watch. 

BLACKWATER, Battle of, in Ireland, Aug. 14, 1598, when the Irish chief O'Neal 
defeated the English under Sir Henry Bagnall. Pope Clement VIII. sent O'Neal a conse- 
crated plume, and granted to his followers the same indulgence as to crusaders, 

BLADENSBURG, See Washington, 1814. 
BLANK VERSE. See Verse. 

BLANKETEERS. A number of operatives who on March 30, 181 7, met in St. Peter's 
field, near Manchester, many of them having blankets, rugs, or great coats rolled up and 
fastened to their backs. This Avas termed the Blanket meeting. They proceeded to march 
towards London, but were dispersed by the magistracy. It is stated that their object was 
to commence a general insurrection. See Derby. Eventually the ringleadei'S had an inter- 
view with the cabinet ministers, and a better understanding between the working classes and 
the government ensued. 

BLANKETS are said to have been first made at Bristol by T. Blanket, about 1705. 

BLASPHEMY was pimished with death by the law of Moses (Lev. xxiv. 1491 B.C.) ; 
and by the code of Justinian, a.d. 529. It is punishable by the civil and canon law of 
England, regulated by 60 Geo. III. c. 8 (1819). In Scotland the blasphemer's tongue was 
cut out ; he was punished with fine and imprisonment by law, 1696-7. Daniel Isaac Eaton 
was tried and convicted in London of blasphemj', March 6, 1812. Robert Taylor, a protestant 
clergyman, was tried twice for the same crime. He was sentenced to two years' imprison- 
ment, and largely fined, July, 183 1. In Dec. 1840, two publishers of blasphemous writings 
were convicted. 

BLAZONRY. Bearing coats-of-arms was introduced and became hereditary in France 
and England about 1192, owing to the knights painting their banners with different figures, 
thereby to distinguish them in the crusades. Dugdalc. 

BLEACHING was known in Egypt, Syria, India, and Gaul. Plmy. An improved 
chemical system was adopted by the Dutch, who introduced it into England and Scotland in 
1768. There are large bleach-fields in Lancashire, Fife, Forfar, and Renfrew, and m the 
vale of the Leven, in Dumbarton. The application of the gas chlorine to bleaching is due 
to BerthoUet about 1785. Its combination with lime (as cliloride of lime) was devised by 



BLE 



111 



BLO 



Mr. Tcuiiant, of Glasgow, who took out a patent for the process in 1798, and by his firm it 
i is still extensively manufactured. In 1822 Dr. Ure published an elaborate series of experi- 
i; ments on this substance. In i860 bleaching and dyeing works were j)laced under the regu- 
u lations of the Factories' Act. 

«;. BLENHEIM, or Blindheim, in Bavaria, the site of a battle fought Aug. 2 (new style, 13)) 
i 1704, between the English and confederates, commanded by the duke of Marlborough, and 
j the French and Bavarians, under marshal Tallard and the elector of Bavaria. The latter 
! were defeated with the loss of 27,000 killed, and 13,000 jirisoners (including Tallard). 
' Bavaria became the prize of the conquerors. The British nation gave Marlljorough the 
honour of Woodstock and hundred of AVotton, and erected for him the house of Blenheim.* 

BLIND. The first public school for the blind was established by Valentine Haiiy, at 
Paris, in 1784. The first in England was at Liverpool, in 1791 ; in Scotland, in Edinburgh, 
in 1792 ; and the first in London in 1799. Printing in raised or embossed characters for the 
use of the blind was begun at Paris by Haiiy in 1786. The whole Bible was printed at 
Glasgow in raised Koman characters about 1848. A sixpenny magazine for the blind, edited 
by the rev. W. Taylor, F.R.S., so eminent for his exertions on behalf of these sufferers, was 
published in 1855-6. There is hardly any department of human knowledge in which blind 
persons have not obtained distinction. + Laura Bridgman, born in 1S29, became dumb and 
blind two years after : she Avas so well taught by Dr. Howe, of Boston, U.S., as to become 
an able instructor of blind and dumb persons. By the census of 1851, there were in Great 
Britain, 21,487 blind persons, 11,273 males; 10,214 females : about one blind in 975. 

BLINDING, by consiiming the ej'eballs with lime or scalding vinegar, was a punishment 
inflicted anciently on adulterers, perjurers, and thieves. In the middle ages the penalty 
was frequently changed from total blindness to a diminution of sight. A whole army was 
deprived of their eyes, by BasU, in the nth century. See Bulgarians. Several of the 
eastern emperors had their eyes torn from their heads. 

BLISTERS, used by Hippocrates (460-357 B.C.), made, it is said, of cantharides, vlikhscc. 

BLOCK BOOKS. See Printing. 

BLOCKADE is the closing an enemy's ports to all commerce ; a practice introduced by 
the Dutch about 1584. The principle recognised by the European powers is that every 
blockade, in order to be binding, must be effective. The Elbe was blockaded by Great 
Britain, 1803; the Baltic, by Denmark, 1848-49 and 1864; the gulf of Finland, by the 
Allies, 1854 ; and the ports of the Southern States of North America by president Lincoln, 
April 19, 1 86 1. See Orders in Council, and Berlin. 

BLOCKS employed in the rigging of ships were much improved in their construction by 
Walter Taylor, about 1781. In 1801, Mark I. Brunei invented a mode of making blocks 
which was put into operation in 1808, and in 1815 was said to have saved the country 
20,oooZ. a year. 

BLOOD. The circulation of the blood through the lungs was known to Jlichael 
Servetus, a Spanish physician, in 1553. Cresalpinus j)ublished an account of the general 
circulation, of which he had some confused ideas, improved afterwards by experiments, 1569. 
Paul of Venice, or Father Paolo (real name Peter Sarpi), discovered the valves which serve for 
the circulation ; but the honour of the positive discovery of the circulation belongs to 
William Harvey, between 1619 and 1628. Freind. 



Eatino Blood was prohibited to Noah, Gen. ix., to 
the Jew9, Lev. xvii., <fec., and to the Gentile con- 
verts by the apostles at an assembly at Jerusalem, 
A.D. 52, Acts XV. 

Blood-Deinkino was anciently tried to give vigour 
to the system. Louis XI. , in his last ilhiess, drank 
the warm blood of infants, in the vain hope of 
restoring his decayed .strength, 1483. Henav.U. 

In the 15th century an oiiinion pi-evailod that the 
dccUning vigour of the aged might bo rcijaired by 



TRANSFUSING into their veins the blood of yoimg 
persons. It was countenanced in Krance by the 
physicians about 1668, and jarevailed for many 
years, till the most fatal effects having ensued, ifc 
was supijressed by an edict. It was attempted 
again in France in 1797, and more recently there, 
in a few cases, with success ; and in England (but 
the instances are rare) since 1823. Med. Journ. 
"An English physician (Louver, or Lower) prac- 
tised in this way; he died in 1691." Freind. 



* On Feb. s. 1861, a fire broke out at this place, which destroyed the "Titian Gallery" and the 
pictures ; the latter, a present from Victor Amadeus, king of Sardinia, to .Joh7i, the great duke of 
Marlboroufjh. 

t James Holman, the "lilind traveller" (Iwm 17S6, died 1857), visited almost every place of note in the 
world. His travels were published in 1S2S. In Api-il, 1858, a blind clergyman, rev. J. Sparrow, was 
elected chaplain to the Mercers' Companj-, London, and read the service, &c., froai embossed books. 
Viscount Cranbourne (blind) was the .author of many interesting historical essays. Ho died in June, 
1865. On July 13, 1865, Henry Fawcett, the blind professor of political economy at Cambridge, was elected 
M.P. for Brighton. 



BLO 112 BOD 

BLOOD'S CONSPIRACY. Blood, a discarded officer of Oliver Cromwell's liousehold, 
with his confederates, seized the duke of Ormond in his coach, and had got him to Tyburn, 
intending to hang him, when he was rescued by his friends, Dec. 4, 1670. Blood afterwards, 
in the disguise of a clergyman, attempted to steal the regal crown from the Jewel-office in 
the Tower, May 9, 1671 ; yet, notwithstanding these and other offences, he was not only 
pardoned, but had a pension of 500Z. per annum settled on him by Charles 11., 1671. He 
died in 1680, in prison, for a libel on the duke of Buckingham. 

"BLOODY ASSIZES," held by Jeffreys in the west of England, in Aug. 1685, after the 
defeat of the duke of Monmouth in the battle of Sedgmore. Upward of 300 persons were 
executed after short trials ; very many were whipped, imprisoned, and fined ; and nearly 
1000 were sent as slaves to the American plantations. 

BLOOMER COSTUME. See a note to article Dress. 

BLOOMSBURY GANG, a cant term applied to an_ influential political party in the 
reign of George III., in consequence of the then duke of Bedford, the chief, being the 
owner of Bloomsbury square, &c. The marquess of Stafford, the last survivor, died Oct. 
26, 1803. 

BLOREHEATH (Staffordshire), Battle of, September 23, 1459, in which the earl of 
Salislmry and the Yorkists defeated the Lancastrians, whose leader, lord Audley, was slain 
with many Cheshire gentlemen. A cross commemorates this conflict. 

BLOWING-MACHINES, the large cylinders, used in blowing-machines, were erected 
hj Mr. Smeaton at the Carron iron works, 1760. One equal to the supply of air for forty 
forge fires was erected at the king's dock-yard, Woolwich. The hot-air blast, a most 
imjiortant improvement, was invented by Mr. James B. Neilson, of Glasgow, and patented 
in 1828. He died Jan. 18, 1865. It causes great economy of fuel. 

BLOW-PIPE. The origin is unknown. An Egyptian using a blow-pipe is among the 
paintings on the tombs at Thebes. It was employed in mineralogy, by Andrew Von Swab, a 
Swede, about 1733, and improved by WoUaston and others. In 1802, professor Robert Hare, 
of Philadeljohia, increased the action of tlie blow-pipe by the application of oxj^gen and 
hj'drogen. By the agency of Newman's improved blow-pipes, in 1816, Dr. E. D. Clarke 
fused the earths, alkalies, metals, &c. The best work on the blow-pipe is by Plattner and 
Muspratt, 1854. 

BLUE was the favourite colour of the Scotch covenanters in the i6th century. Blue 
and orange or yellow, became the whig colours after the revolution in 1688 ; and were 
adopted on the cover of the whig periodical, the "Edinburgh Review," first published in 
1802. The Prussian blue dye was discovered by Diesbacli, at Berlin, in 1710. Fine blues 
are now obtained from coal-tar, 1864. See Aniline. Blue-coat Schools, so called in 
reference to the costume of the children. The Blue-coat school in Newgate-street, London, 
was instituted by Edward VI. in 1552. See Christ's Hospital. Blue-stocking, a term 
applied to literary ladies, was originally conferred on a society compiising both sexes 
(1760, ct scq.). Benjamin StilUngfleet, the natui'alist, an active member, wore blue worsted 
stockings ; hence the name. The beautiful Mrs. Jerningham is said to have worn blue 
stockings at the conversaziones of lady ilontagu. 

BOARD OF ADMIRALTY, Control, Geeex-Cloth, Health, Trade, &c. See 
under Admiralty, &c. 

BOATS. Flat-bottomed boats, made in England in the reign of William I. ; again 
brought into use by Barker, a Dutchman, about 1690. See Life-Boat. A mode of 
building boats by the help of the steam-engine was invented by Mr. Nathan Thomjison 
of New York in i860, and premises were erected for its application at Bow, near London, 
in 1861. 

BOCCACCIO'S DECAMERONE, a collection of a hundred stories or novels (many 
very immoral), severely satirising the clergy, feigned to have been related in ten days, during 
the plague of Florence in 1348. Boccaccio lived 13 13 — 75. A copy of the first edition 
{that of Valdarfer, in 147 1) was knocked down at the duke of Roxburgh's sale, to the duke 
of Marlborough, for 2260Z., June 17, 1812. This identical copy was afterwards sold by 
public auction, for 875 guineas, June 5, 1819. 

BODLEIAN LIBRARY, Oxford, founded in 1598, and opened in 1602, by sir Thos. 
Bodley (died, 1612). It is open to the public, and claims a copy of all works published in 
this country. For rare works and JMSS. it is said to be second only to the Vatican. 



BCE 



113 



BOH 



BCEOTIA, a division of Greece, north of Attica, known successively as Aonia, Messapia, 
Hyantis, Ogygia, Oadmeis, and Bojotia. Thebes, the capital, was celebrated for its exploits 
and misfortunes of its kings and heroes. The term Boeotian was used by the Athenians as a 
synonym for dulness ; but unjustly, — since Pindar, Hesiod, Plntarch, Democritus, Epami- 
iiondas, and Corinna, were Boeotians. The early dates are doubtful. See Thebes. 



Arrival of Cadmus, founder of Oadmea {Hales, 
1494 ' Clinton, 1313) .... B.C. 

Reign of Polydore 

Labdachus a.«ceiids the throne .... 

Amphiou and Zethus besiege Thebo.s, and de- 
throne Laius ....... 

CEdipus, not knowing hi.s father Laius, kills 
him in an affray, confirming the oracle fore- 
telling his death by the h.ands of his son 

ffidipus resolves the Sphinx's enigmas . . 

War of the Seven Captains .... 

Thebes besieged and talcen 

Thersander reigns i ig8 ; slain .... 

The Thebans abolish royalty (ages of obscurity 
follow) about 

The Thebans fight with the Persians against 
the Greeks at Platiea 



1493 
1459 
1430 



1276 
1266 
1225 
1213 
1193 



Battle of Coronea, in which the Thebans defeat 
the Athenians B.C. 

The Thebans, under Epaminondas and Pelopi- 
das, enrol their Sacred Baud, and join Athens 
against Sparta 

Epaminondas defeats the Lacediemonians at 
Leuctra, and restores Thebes to independence 

Pelopidas killed at the battle of Cynosoephahe . 

Epaminondas gains the victory of Mantinea, 
but is slain ....... 

Philip, king of Macedon, defe'ats Che Thebscns 
and Athenians near Chieronea . ' . . 

Alexander destroys Thebes, but' spares the 
house of Pindar 

Boeotia henceforth partook of the fortunes of 
Gi-eece ; and was conquered by the Tiu'ks 
under Mahomet II. .... a.d. 



371 
364 

362 



1456 



BOGS, probably the remains of forests, covered with peat and loose soil. An act for 
the drainage of Irish bogs, passed March, 1830. The bog-land of Ireland has been estimated 
at 3,000,000 acres ; that of Scotland at upwards of 2,000,000 ; and that of England at near 
1,000,000 of acres. In Jan. 1849, Mr. Reos Ecece took out a patent for certain valuable 
j)roducts from Irish peat. Candles and various other articles produced from peat have been 
since sold in London. 

BOHEMIA, formerly the Hercynian Forest (Boiemum, Tacitus), derives its name from 
the Boii, a Celtic tribe. It was governed by dukes, till Ottocar assumed the title of king, 
1 198. The kings at first held their territory from the empire, but at length threvv off 
the yoke : and the crown was elective till it came to the house of Austria, in w'hich it is 
now hereditary. Prague, the capital, is famous for sieges and battles. Population in 1857, 
4,705,525. See Prague. 



The Slavonians seize Bohemia about . . 550 

< ;ity of Prague founded . • 795 

Introduction of Christianity .... 894 
Bohemia conquered by the emperor Henry 
III., who spreads devastation through the 

country 1041 

Ottocar (or Premislas) I., first king of Bohemia 1198 
Ottocar II., rules over Austria, and obtains 

Styria, itc, 1253; refuses the imperial crown 1272 
Ottocar vanquished by the emperor Rudolph, 
and deprived of Austria, Styria, and Car- 
niola, 1277 ; killed at M.archfeld . . . 1278 
King .John {blind), slain at the battle of Crccy 1346 
John lluss and Jerome of Prague, two of the 
first Reformers, are burnt for heresy, which 
occasions an insiirrection . . 141 5, 1416 

Ziska, leader of the Hussites, takes Prague, 

1419; dies of the plagiie 1424 

Albert, duke of Austria, marries the daughter 
of tlie late emperor and king, and receives 
the crowns of Bohemia and Hvmgary . . 1437 
The succession infringed by Ladislas, son of 



the king of Poland, and George Podiebrad, a 

Protestant chief 1440-1458 

L.adislas, kinsr of Poland, elected king of Bo- 
hemia, on the death of Podiebrad . . _ . 1471 
The emperor Ferdinand I. marries Anne, sister 

of Louis the late king, and obtains the crown 15 >7 
The emperor Perdinand II., oppressing the 
Protest:^nts, is. deposed, and Frederic the 
elector-palatine, elected king . Sept. 5, i6ig 
Frederic, totally defeated at Prague, flies to 

Holland Nov. 9, 1620 

Bohemia secured to Austria by treaty . . 1648 
Silesia and Glatz ceded to Prussia . . . 1742 
Prague taken by tlie Prussians . . . . i744 
The Pi'ussians defeat the Austrians at Pr.ague 

May 6, 1757 

Revolt of the peasantry i775 

Edict of Toleration promulgated . . .1781 

The French occupy Prague 1806 

Insurrection at Prague, June 12 ; submission, 
state of siege raised . . . . July 20, 1848 



1 19S. Premislas I. , or Ottocar I. 
1230. Wenceslas III. 
1253. Premislas II., or Ottocar II. 
1278. Wenceslas IV., king of Poland. 

1305. Wenceslas V. 

1306. Rudolph of Austria. 

1307. Henry of Carinthia. 

1310. John of Luxemburg fkiUed at Crccy). 
1346. Charles I., emperor (1347). 



1378. Wenceslas VI., emperor. 

1419. Sigismund I., emperor. 

1437. Albert of Austria, emperor. 

1440. Ladislas V. 

1458. George von Podiebrad. 

1471. Ladislas VI., king of Hungary (in 1490). 

1 5 16. Louis king of Hungary (killed at Mohatz). 

1526. Bohemia united to Austria under Ferdinand I. 
elected king. 



BOHEMIAN BRETHREN, a body of Christians in Bohemia, appear to have separated 
from the Calixtines {which sec), a branch of the Hussites in 1467. Dupiu says "They 

I 



BOI 



114 



BOM 



rejected the sacrament of the church, were governed Ly simple laics, and held the scriptures 
for tlieir only rule of faith. They presented a confession of faith to king Ladislas in 1504 to 
justify themselves from errors laid to their charge." They appear to have had communica- 
tion with the Waldenses, but were distinct from them. Luther, in 1533, testifies to their 
purity of doctrine, and Melanchthon commends their severe discipline. They were doubt- 
less dispersed during the religious wars of Germany in the 17th century. 

BOII, a Celtic people of N. Italy, who emigrated into Italy, and were defeated at the 
Vadimoniau lake, 283 B.C. They were finally subdued by Scipio Nasica, 191 B.C. 

BOILING OF Liquids. Dr. Hooke, about 1683, ascertained that liquids were not 
increased in heat after they had once begun to boil, and that a fierce fire only made them 
boil more rapidly. The following boiling points have been stated ; — 



Ether . 


, . 94° Fahr. 


Nitric acid 


. .187° Fahr. 


Oil of turpentine . 


. 312° Fahr 


Alcohol , 


• • 173 „ 


Sulphuric acid 


. 600 ,, 


Sulphur . 


■ 822 „ 


Water . 


. 212 ,, 


Phosphorus 


• • 554 ., 


Mercury 


. 662 



BOILING TO Death, made a capital punishment in England, by statute 22 Henry VIII., 
1531. This act was occasioned by seventeen persons having been poisoned by John Roose, 
the bishop of Rochester's cook, two of whom died. Margaret Davie, a young woman, suffered 
in the same manner for a similar crime, in 1542. 

BOIS-LE-DUC, Dutch Brabant, the site of a battle between the British and the French 
republican armj^, in which the British were defeated, and forced to abandon their position 
and retreat to Schjmdel, Sept. 14, 1 794. This place Avas captured by the French, Oct. lo 
following ; it surrendered to the Prussian army, under Bulow, in Jan. 1814. 

BOKHARA, the ancient Sogdiana, after successively fomiing part of the empires of 
Persia, of Alexander, and of Bactriana, was conquered by the Turks in the 6th century, by 
the Chinese in the 7th, and by the Ai-abs about 705. After various changes of masters it 
was subdued by the Uzbek Tartars, its present possessors, in 1505. The British Envoys, 
colonel Stoddart and captain ConoUy, were murdered at Bokhara, the capital, by the khan, 
in 1843. 

BOLIVIA, a republic in South America, formerly part of Peru. Population in 1858, 
1,987,352. 



The insurrection of the ill-used Indians, headed 

by Tupac Amaru Andres, took place here, 1780-2 
The country declared its independence, Aug. 6, 1824 
Took the name of Bolivia, in honour of general 

Bohvar Aug. 11, 1825 

Fh-st congress met .... May 25, 1826 

Slavery aboUshed 1836 

General Sucre governed ably . . . 1826-8 

BOLLANDISTS. See Ada Sanctorum. 



Santa Cruz ruled 1828-34 

Free-trade proclaimed 1853 

General Cordova, president 1855-7 

Succeeded by the dictator Jos^ Maria Linares, 

March 31, 1859 
George Cordova, constitutional president . . i860 
Succeeded by Josd M. de Achal . May, i86i 



BOLOGKA, central Italy, the ancient Bononia, a city distinguished for its architecture. 

433 after the battle of Marengo, in 1800; and re- 

1167 stored to the pope in 1815 

A revolt suppressed by Austrian interference . 1831 
1506 The Austrians evacuate Bologna : and cardinal 
1515 Ferretti departs : the citizens rise and form 

a provisional govenmient . . June 12, 1859 
Which decrees that all public acts shall be 
headed "Under the reign of king Victor 

1653 Emmanuel," &c Oct. i, 1S60 

He enters Bologna as Sovereign . May 2, ,, 



University founded by Tlieodosius . 

Bologna joins the Lombard league . . . 

Tope Jiilius II. takes Bologna ; enters in 
triumph Nov. 11, 

It becomes part of the States of the Church 

In the church of St. Petronius, remarkable for 
its pavement, Cassini drew his meridian line 
(over one drawn by Father Ignatius Dante 

ill 1575) 

Bologna wa.s taken by the French, 1796; by 
the Austrians, 1799; again by the French, 



BOMARSUND, a strong fortress on one of the Aland isles in the Baltic sea, taken by 
sir Charles Napier, commander of the Baltic expedition, aided by the French military con- 
tingent under general Baraguay d'Hilliers, Aug. 16, 1854. The governor Bodisco, and the 
gairison, about 2000 men, became prisoners. The fortifications were destroyed. 

BOMBAY, the most westerly and smallest of our Indian presidencies, was visited by the 
Portuguese in 1509, and acquired by them in about 1530. It was given (with Tangier in 
Africa, and 300,000?. in money) to Charles II. as the marriage portion of the infanta, 
Catherine of Portugal, 1661. In 1668, it was granted to the East India Company, who had 



BOM 



115 



BOO 



long desired it, "in free and common socage," as of the manor of East Greenwich, at an 
annual rent of lol. Confirmed by AVilliam III. 1689. The two principal castes at Bombay 
are the Parsees (descemUmts of the ancient Persian lire-worshippers) and the Borahs (spruno- 
from early converts to Islamism). They are both remarkable for commercial activity. 



First British, factory cstaljlishod at Ahmed- 

nuggur 1612 

Mr. Gyfford, deputy-governor, 100 soldiers, and 
other English, perish tlu-ough the climate, 

Oct. 1675— Feb. 1676 
Captain Keigwin usurps the government . 1681-84 
Bombay made chief over the company's settle- 
ments ....... 

The whole island, except the fort, seized and 

held for a time by the mogul's admiral . 
Bombay becomes a distinct presidency 
Additions to the Bombay territory : — Bancoot 
river, 1756; island of Salsette . . . ,,„ 

Bishopric established 1833 

Population of the j)residency, 12,034,483 . . 1858 



1687 

i6go 
1708 

1775 



Tlio benevolent sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy, a 
Parsee (who erected several hospitals, <&c.) 
dies April 15, 1859 

His son, sir Cursetjee, visits England . . i860 

Rioting against the income-tax suppressed 

Nov. i& Dec. ,, 

Sir Henry Bartle Frere appointed governor 

March, 1862 

Greatly increased prosperity through the cot- 
ton trade, leads to immense speculation, Nov. 1864 

Reported failure of Mr. Byi-amjee Cama, a Par- 
see, for 3,300,000?. ; other failures, and great 
depression ; the projected international ex- 
hibition in 1867 abandoned . . . May, 1865 

Recovering from commercial crisis . Aug. ,, 



BOMBS (iron shells filled with gunpowder), said to have been invented at Venlo, in 
1495, ^^^'^ used by the Turks at the siege of Rhodes in 1522. They came into general use 
in 1634, having been previously iised only by the Dutch and Spaniards. Bomb-vessels were 
invented in France in 1681. Voltaire. The shrapnel shell is a bomb filled with balls, and 
a lighted fuse to make it explode before it reaches the enemy ; a thirteen-inch bomb-shell 
weighs 198 lbs. 

BONAPAETE FAMILY, &c. See France, 1793, and note. 

BONDAGE, or Villanage. See Yillaimge. 

BONE-SETTING cannot be said to have been practised scientifically until 1620. Bell. 

BONES. The art of softening bones was discovered about 1688, and they were used in 
the cutlery manufacture, &c., immediately afterwards. The declared value of the bones of 
cattle and of other animals, and of fish (exclusive of whale-fins) imported into the United 
Kingdom from Russia, Prussia, Holland, Denmark, &c. , amounts annually to more than 
300,000?. (in 1851 about 32,000 tons). Bone-dust has been extensively employed in manure 
since the publication of Liebig's researches in 1840. 

BONHOMMES, hermits of simple and gentle lives, appeared in France about 1257 ; in 
England about 1283. The prior of the order was called le ban hommc, by Louis VI. 

BONN, a town on the Rhine (the Roman Bonna), was in the electorate of Cologne. It 
lias been frequently besieged, and was assigned to Prussia in 1814. The Prince Consort of 
England was a student at the university, founded in 18 18. 

BOOK OF SPORTS. See Sports. 

BOOKS (Anglo-Saxon, ioc; German, huch). Books were originally made of boards, or 
the inner bark of trees : afterwards of skins and parchment. Papyrus, an indigenous plant, 
was adopted in Egyiit. Books with leaves of vellum were invented by Attains, king of 
Pergamus, about 198 15. c, at which time books were in volumes or rolls. The MSS. in 
Herculaneum consist of Papyrus, rolled and charred and matted together by the fire, and 
are about nine inches long, and one, two, or three inches in diameter, each being a separate 
treatise. The most ancient books are the Pentateuch of Moses and the poems of Homer and 
Hesiod. The first Pkinted Books (see Printing) were printed on one side only, the leaves 
being pasted back to back . 



Books of astronomy and geometry were or- 
dered to be destroyed in England as being 
infected with magic, 6 Edw. VI. Stoxo . . 1552 

2032 volumes of new works, and 773 of new 
editions, were pubUshcd in London in . . 1839 

3359 new woi-ks, and 1159 new editions, exclu- 
sive of 908 pamphlets, were published in . 1852 

3553 volumes were published in . . . . 1864 

In Paris, 6445 volumes were published in 1842 ; 
.and 7350 in 1851. See Bibliography. 



Prices of Books. — Jei-onie (who died 420) states 
that he had ruined himself by buying a copy of the 
works of Origen. A large estate was given by 
Alfred for one on cosmography, about S72. The 
Roman de la Rose was sold for about 30^ ; and a 
homily was exchanged for 200 sheep and five quar- 
ters ot wheat. Books frequently fetched double or 
treble their weight in gold. They sold at prices 
varying from io(. to 4o(. each in 1400. A copy of 
ilaclclin's Bible, ornamented by Mr. Tomkins, was 
declared worth 500 guineas. Butler. A yet more 
superb copy was insured in a London office for 3000?. 
See Boccaccio. 

I 2 



BOO 



116 



BOR 



BOOKS {continued). 

Book-Binding. — The book of St. Cuthbert, the 
earliest ornamental book, is supposed to have 
been bound about 650 

A Latin Psalter, in oak boards, was bound in 
the gth century. 

A MS. copy of the Four Evangelists, the book 
on which our kings from Henry I. to Edward 
VI. took their coronation oath, was bound in 
oaken boards, nearly an inch thick . . iioo 

Velvet was the covering in the 14th century ; 
and silk soon after. Vellum was introduced 
early in the 15th century ; it was stamped 
and ornamented about 1510 

Leather came into use about the same time. 



The rolling machine, invented by Mr. Wm. 
Burr, was substituted for the beating-ham- 
mer, and gas-stoves began to take the place 
of the charcoal fires used to heat the gilder's 
finishing tools about 1830 

Cloth binding superseded the common boards 
generally about ...... 1831 

Caoutchouc, or India-rubber, backs to account- 
books and large volumes, were introduced in 1841 

Book-Hawking Societies (already in Scotland) 
began in England in 1851 by archdeacon 
Wigram (since bishop of Rochester). The 
hawkers vend moral and religious books in 
a similar manner to the French colporteurs. 



BOOK-KEEPING. The system by double-entry, called originally Italian book-keeping, 
was taken from the coiirse of Algebra published by Burgo, in tlie 15th century, at Venice. 
John Gowghe, a printer, published a treatise "on the kepyng of the famouse reconynge 
. . . Debitor and Creditor," London, 1543. This is our earliest work on book-keeping. 
James Peele published his Book-keeping in 1569. John Mellis published " ABriefe Insti'uc- 
tion and Manner how to Keepe Bookes of Accompts," in 1588. Improved .systems were pub- 
lished by Benjamin Booth in 1789 and by Edw. Thos. Jones in 1821 and 183 1. 

BOOKSELLERS, at first migratory like hawkers, became known as stationarii, from 
their practice of having booths or stalls at the corners of streets and in markets. They 
were long subject to vexatious restrictions, from whick they were freed in 1758.* 

BOOTHIA FELIX, a large peninsula, the N.W. point of America, discovered by sir 
John Ross in 1831, and named after sir Felix Booth, who had presented him with 20,oooZ. 
to fit out his Polar expedition. Sir Felix died at Brighton in Feb. 1850. 

BOOTS, said to have been the invention of the Carians, were made of iron, brass, or 
leather. Leather boots were mentioned by Homer 907 B.C., and frequently by the Roman 
historians. A variety of forms may be seen in Fairholt's " Costume in England." An 
instrument of torture termed " the boot" was used in Scotland so late as 16^0. 

BORAX (Boron), known to the ancients, is used in soldering, brazing, and casting gold 
and other metals, and was called chrysocoUa. Borax is produced naturally in the mountains 
of Thibet, and was brought to Europe from India about 17 13. Homberg in 1702 discovered 
in borax boracic acid, which latter in 1808 was decomposed by Gay-Lussac, Thenard, and H. 
Davy, into oxygen, and the previously unknown element, boron. Borax has lately been 
found in Saxony; and is now largely manufactured from the boracic acid found by Hoefer to 
exist in the gas arising from certain lagoons in Tuscany ; an immense fortune has been made 
by their owner M. Tiardarel since 1818, 

BORDEAUX. See Bourcleaux. 

BORNEO, an island in the Indian Ocean, the largest in the world except Australia, was 
discovered by the Portuguese about 1520. 



The Dutch trade here in 1604, and establish 
factories in 

The pirates of Borneo chastised by the British 
in 1813, and by captain Keppel in March, 

By a treaty with the sultan, the island of La- 
booan, or Labuan (N.W. of Borneo), and its 
dependencies, incorporated with the British 
empire, and formally taken possession of in 
presence of the Bornean chiefs . Dec. 2, 

James Brooke, rajah of Sarawak, by whose 
exertions this island was annexed to the 
British crown, governor of Labuan and 
consul-general of Borneo, visits Enjjland and 
receives many honours . . . Oct. 

He destroys inany of the Bornean pirates 

Labuau made a bishopric ; the bishop was con- 



1776 



1846 



1847 
1849 



secrated at Calcutta, the first English bishop 
consecrated out of England . . Oct. 18, 1S55 

The Chinese in Sarawak rise in insurrection,- 
and massacre a number of Europeans ; sir J. 
Brooke escapes by swimming across a creek ; 
he speedily returns with a force of Malays, 
&c., and chastises the insurgents, of whom 
2000 were killed .... Feb. 17, 18, 1857 

He comes to England to seek help from the 
government, without success .... 1858 

His health being broken up, an appeal for a 
subscription for him made ,, 

Deputation of merchants waits on the earl of 
Derby, recommending the purchase of Sara- 
wak, which is declined . . . Nov. 30, „ 

Sir J. Brooke returns to Borneo . . Nov. 20. 



i860 



* BooKSELi.rRs' Association. In 1829 a number of eminent publishers in London formed themselves 
into an association for the regulation of the trade, and fixed the amount of discount to be allowed, Dec. 
29, 1829. and for some years re^tvicted the retail booksellers from selling copies of wnrk.s under the full 
publishing price. A di.spute afterwards arose .as to the right, maintained by the lafter, to dispose of 
books (when they h:^d once become theirs by purchase) at such le.'s profit as they might deem .sufficiently 
remuner.ative. The dispute was referred to lord chief justice Campbell, before whom the parties argued 
tbeir respective cases, at Stratheden House, April 14, 1852. His lordship gave judgment in effect againat 
the association ; this led to its immediate dissolution, May 19 following. 



BOR 117 BOS 

BORNOU, an extensive kingdom in central Africa, explored by Denham and Clapperton, 
who were sent out by the British government in 1822. The population is estimated by 
Denham at 5,000,000, by Barth at 9,000,000. 

BORODINO, a Russian village on the river Moskwa, near which a sanguinary battle was 
fought, Sept. 7, i8i2, between the French imder Napoleon, and the Russians under KutusofF; 
240,000 men being engaged. Each party claimed the victory, but it was rather in favour of 
Napoleon ; for the Russians retreated, leaving Moscow, which the French entered, Sept. 14. 
See Moscow. 

BORON. See Borax. 

BOROUGH, or Burgh, anciently a company of ten families living together, now such 
towns as send members to Parliament, since the election of burgesses in the reign of Henry 
III. 1265. Charters were granted to towns by Henry I., 1132 ; which were remodelled by 
Charles II. iu 1682-4, but restored in 1688. 22 new English boroughs were created in 1553. 
Burgesses were first admitted into the Scottish jiarliament by Robert Bruce, 1326 ; and 
into the Irish, 1365. The "Act to amend the Representation of the People in England and 
Wales" was passed June 7, 1832 ; and the Act for the Regulation of Municipal Corporations, 
Sept. 9, 1835. See Constituency. 

BOROUGH-BRIDGE (W. R. of York), the site of a battle between the earls of Hereford 
and Lancaster and Edward II., March 16, 1322. The latter, at the head of 30,000 men, 
pressed Lancaster so closely, tliat he had not time to collect his troops together in sufficient 
force, and being defeated and made prisoner, was led, mounted on a lean horse, to an 
eminence near Pontefract, or Pomfret, and beheaded by a Londoner. 

BOROUGH-ENGLISH, an ancient tenure by which the younger son inherits, is men- 
tioned as occurring 834. It was abolished in Scotland by Malcolm III. in 1062. 

BOSCOBEL, near Doniugton, Shropshire, where Charles II. concealed himself after his 
defeat at Worcester (ivhich sec), Sept. 3rd, 1651.* The " Boscobel Tracts " were first pub- 
lished in 1660. In 1861 Mr. F. Manning published "Views," illustrating these tracts. 

BOSNIA, a province in Turkey, formerly a dependent upon Servia, was conquered by 
the Turks about 1526, who still retain it after losing it several times. 

BOSPHORUS, Theacian (now channel of Constantinople). Darius Hystaspes threw a 
bridge of boats over this strait when about to invade Greece, 493 B. c. See Constantinople. 

BOSPORUS (improperly Bosphorus), now called Circccssia, near the Bosphorus 
Cimmerius, now the straits of Kertch or Yenikale. The history of the kingdom is involved 
iu obscurity, though it continued for 350 years. It was named Cimmerian, from the 
Cimmcri, who dwelt on its borders, about 750 B.C. 



Battle of Zela, gained by Julius Cassar over 
Pharnaces If. (Cajsar writes home, Veni, vidi, 
vici, " I came, I saw, I conquered ") . b.c. 47 

Asander usurps the crown , 

Cajsar makes Slithridates of Pcrgamns king . ,,' 
Polemon conquers Bosporus, and, favoured by 

Agrippa, reigns 14 

Polemon killed by barbarians of the Palus 

Mieotis A.D. 33 

Polemon II. reig-ns, 33; Mithridates II. reigns 41 
Mithridates conducted a prisoner to Home, by 
order of Claudius, and his kingdom made a 
province of the empire. 



The Archienactidee from Mitylene rule, B.C. 502-480 

They are dispossessed by Sparfcicus I. . 480-438 

Seleucus, 431 ; Satyrus 1 407 

Leucon, 393 ; Spartacus II., 353 ; Parysades . 348 

Eumelus, aiming to dethrone his brother Saty- 
rus II., is defeated ; but Satyrus is killed . 310 

Prytanis, his next brother, ascends the throne, 
but is murdered by Eumelus . . . 310-9 

Eumelus puts to death aU his relations, 309 ; 
and is killed /304 

The Scythians conquer Bosporus . . . . 285 

Mithridates VI., of Pontus, conquers Bosporus 80 

He poisons himself ; and the Romans make his 
son, Pharnaces, king 63 

BOSTON, a city in the United States, built about 1627. Here originated that resistance 
to the British authorities which led to American independence. The act of parliament laying 
duties on tea, papers, colours, &c. (passed June, 1767), so excited the indignation of the 
citizens of Boston, that they destroyed several hundreds of chests of tea, Nov. 1773. Boston 
seaport was shut by the English parliament, until restitution should be made to the East 
India Company for the tea lost, March 25, 1774. The town was besieged by the British 
next year, and 400 houses were destroyed. A battle between the royalists and independent 
troops, iu which the latter were defeated, took place on June 17, 1775. The city was 
evacuated by the king's troops, April, 1776. The inhabitants were very zealous against 
slavery. An industrial exhibition was opened here in Oct. 1856, and lasted two weeks. 

* The king, disguised in the clothes of the Pendrills, remained from Sept. 4-6, at White Ladies : on 
Sept. 7 and 8 he lay at Boscobel house, near which exists an oak, said to be the scion of the Royal Oak In 
which tlie king was part of the time hidden with col. Careless. Sharpe. 



BOS 



118 



BOU 



BOSWORTH FIELD, Leicestershire, the site of the thirteenth and last battle between 
the houses of York and Lancaster, Aug. 22, 1485 ; Richard 111. was defeated by the earl 
of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII., and slain. Sir Wm. Stanley at a critical moment 
changed sides, and thus caused the loss of the battle. It is said that Henry was crowned on 
the spot with the crown of Richard found in a hawtliorir busli, near tlie field. 

BOTANY. Aristotle is considered the founder of the science of botany (about 347 B.C.). 
Historia Plantarum of Tlieophrastus was written about 320 B.C. Authors on botany 
became numerous at the close of the 15th centmy. Fuchsius, Bock, Bauhiu, Cajsalpinus, 
and others, wrote between 1535 and 1600. The system and arrangement of the great 
Linnajus was made known about 1750; and Jussieu's system, founded on Tourncfort's, and 
called "the natural system," in 1758. At Linnfeus's death, 1778, the species of plants 
actually described amouiited in number to 11,800. The number of species now recorded 
cannot fall short of 100,000.* J. C.Loudon's " Encyclopedia of Plants," a most compre- 
hensive work, first appeared in 1829. De GandoUe's "Prodromus Systematis Naturalis 
Regni Vegetabilis" (of which Vol. I. appeared in i8i8), is nearly completed (1865). 



BOTANIC GARDENS. 



Established about 


Established 


about 


Established about 


Padua . . . 154s 


Upsal 


1657 


Camlsridge . .1763 


Leyden . . . 1577 


Chelsea . . . 


1673 


Coinibra . . . 1773 


Leipsic . . . 1580 


Edinburgh 


1680 


St. Petersburg . 1785 


Paris (Jardiu des 


Vienna , . . 


1753 


Calcutta . . . 1793 


Plantes) . . . 1624 


Madrid . 




Dublin . . . 1800 


Jena . . . 1629 


Kew (greatly im- 




Horticultural Soci- 


Oxford . . . 1632 


proved, 1841-65) . 


1760 


ety's, Chiswick . 1821 



Established 
Royal Botanic So- 
ciety's, Regent's 
Park . . . 1839 
Royal Horticultural 
Society's, S. Ken- 
sington. , . i860 



BOTANY BAY, Australia, was discovered by captain Cook, April 28, 1770, and took its 
name from the great variety of jilants which abounded on the shore. It was fixed on for a 
colony of convicts from Great Britain. The first governor, capt. Arthur Phillip, who sailed 
from England in Ma)% 1787, arrived at the settlenleut in Jan. 1788. The colony was 
eventually established at Port Jackson, about thirteen miles to the north of the bay. See 
Neiv South Wales and Transportation, 

BOTHWELL BRIDGE, Lanarkshire. The Scotch covenanters took up arms against 
the intolerant government of Charles II. in 1679, and defeated the celebrated Claverliouse 
at Drumclog. They were however totally routed by the earl of Monmouth at Bothwell 
Bridge, June 22, 1679, and. many of the prisoners were cruelly tortured and afterwards 
executed. 

BOTTLE-CONJUROR. On Jan. 16, 1748, a charlatan at the old Haymarket theatre 
had announced that he would jump into a quart bottle. The theatre was besieged by 
thousands anxious to gain admittance and witness the feat. The duped crowd nearly pulled 
down the edifice. 

BOTTLES in ancient times were made of leather. Bottles of glass were first made in 
England about 1558. See Glass. The art of making glass bottles and drinking-glasses was 
known to the Romans at least before 79 ; for these articles and other vessels have been found 
in the ruins of Pompeii. A bottle which contained two hogsheads was blown, we are told, 
at Leith, in Scotland, in Jan. 1747-8. 

BOULOGNE, a seaport in Picardy, N. France, was taken by the British under Henry 
VIII. on Sept. 14, 1544, but restored at the peace, 1550. Lord Nelson attacked Boulogne, 
disabling ten vessels and sinking five, Aug. 3, 1801. In another attempt he was repulsed 
with great loss, and captain Parker of the Medusa and two-thirds of his crew were killed, 
Aug. 18 following. In 1804 Bonaparte assembled 160,000 men and 10,000 horses, and a 
flotilla of 1300 vessels and 17,000 sailors to invade England. The coasts of Kent and 
Sussex were covered with martello towers and lines of defence ; and nearly half the adult 
population of Britain was formed into volunteer corps. It is supposed that this French 
armament served merely for a demonstration, a*ud that Bonaparte never seriously intended 
the invasion. Sir Sidney Smith unsuccessfully attempted to burn the flotilla -with fire- 
machines called catamarans, Oct. 2, 1804. Congreve-rockets were used in another attack, 
and they set the town on fire, Oct. 8, 1806. The army was removed on the breaking out of 
war with Austria in 1805. Louis Napoleon (now emperor) made a descent here with about 



* Robert Brown, who aeoonipanied Flinders m his survey of New Holland in 1803, died June 10, 1S58, 
aged 85. Ho was acknowledged to be the chief of the botanists of his day (facile priticeps). 



BOU 119 BOW 

SO followers, Aug. 6, 1840, without success. On July 10, 1854, he reviewed the French 
troops destined for the Baltic, and ou Sept. 2, following, he entertained prince Albert and 
the king of the Belgians. See France. 

BOUNTIES, premiums granted to the producer, exporter, or importer of certain articles; 
a principle introduced into commerce by the British parliament. The first granted on com 
in 1688, were repealed in 1815. They were first legally granted in England for raising naval 
stores in America, 1703, and have been granted on sail-cloth, linen and other goods. 

BOUNTY MUTINY, took place on board the Bounty, an armed ship which quitted 
Otaheite, with bread-fruit trees, April 7, 1789. The mutineers put their captain, Bligh, and 
nineteen men into an open boat, near Annamooka, one of the Friendly Isles, April 28, 1789 ; 
these reached the island of Timor, south of the Moluccas, in June, after a periloirs voyage 
of nearly 4000 miles ; their preservation was next to miraculous. Some of the mutineers were 
tried, Sept. 15, 1792 ; six were condemned and three executed. For the fate of the others, 
see Pitcairii's Island. 

BOURBON, House of (from which come the royal houses of Fi-ance, Spain, and Naples), 
derives its origin from the Archambauds, lords of Bourbon in Berry. Robert, count of 
Clermont, son of Louis IX. of France, married the heiress Beatrice in 1272 : their son 
Louis I. was created duke of Bourbon and peer of France by Charles IV. in 1327. The List 
of the descendants of their elder son Peter I. was Susanna, wife of Charles, duke of Mont- 
pensier, called constable of Bourbon, who, offended by his sovereign Francis I., entered into 
the service of the emperor Charles V., and was killed at the siege of Rome, May 6, 1527. 
Fi'om James, the younger son of Louis I., was descended Antonj', duke of Vendome, who 
married (1548) Jean d'Albret, daughter of Henry, king of Navarre. Their son the great 
Henry IV. was born at Pan, Dec. 23, 1553, and became king of France, July 31, 1589. — ■ 
The crown of Spain was settled ou a younger branch of this family, 1700, and guaranteed by 
the peace of Utrecht, 17 13. Rapin. The Bourbon Family Compact (w7u'c7i 5cc) was made 
1761. The Bourbons were expelled France, 1791 ; restored, 1814 ; again expelled on the 
return of Bonaparte from Elba, and again restored after the battle of Waterloo, 1815. The 
elder branch M\as expelled once more, in the person of Charles X. and his family, in 1830, in 
consequence of the revolution of the memorable daj's of July in that year. The Orleans 
branch ascended the throne in the person of the late Louis-Philippe, as "king of the 
French," Aug. 9, following. He was deposed Feb. 24, 1848, when his family also was 
expelled. The Bourbon family fled from Naples, Sept. 6, i860 ; and Francis II. lost his 
kingdom. See France, Spain, Naples, Orleans, Parma, Condi, and Legitimists. 

BOURBON, Isu; of (in the Indian Ocean), discovered by the Portuguese about 1545. 
The French are said to have first settled here in 1642. It surrendered to the British, 
under admiral Rowley, Sept. 21, 1809, and was restored to France in 1815. Alison. An 
awful hurricane in Feb. 1829 did much mischief. See Mauritius. 

BOURDEAUX, on Bordeaux (W. France), was united to the dominions of Henry II. 
of England by his marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine. Edward the Black Prince brought 
his royal captive, John, king of France, to this city after the battle of Poictiers in 1356, and 
here held his court during eleven years : his son, our Richard II., M-as born at Bourdeaux, 
1366. Bourdeaux finally surrendered to Charles VII. of France in 1453. The fine eques- 
trian statue of Louis XV. was erected in 1743. Bourdeaux was entered by the victorious 
British army after the battle of Orthes, fought Feb. 27, 1814. 

BOURIGXONISTS, a sect founded by Antoinette Bourignon, who, in 1658, took the 
Augustine habit and travelled in France, Holland, England, and Scotland ; in the last she 
made many converts about 1670. She maintained that Christianity does not consist in faith 
and practice, but in inward feeling and supernatural impulse. A disciple named Court left 
her a good estate. She died in 1680, and her works, in 21 volumes 8vo, were published 
in 1686. 

BOURNOUS, the Arabic name of a hooded garment worn in Algeria, which has been 
introduced in a modified form into England and France since 1847. 

BOUVINES (N. France), the site of a desperate battle, July 27, 1 214, in which Philip 
Augustus of France obtained a complete victory over the emj^eror Otlio and his allies, 
consisting of more than 150,000 men. The earls of Flanders and Boulogne were taken 
prisoners. 

BOWLS, on Bowling, an English game as early as the 13th century. Charles I. played 
at it, and also Charles II. at Tunbridge. Grammont. 



BOW 120 BKA 

BOW-STREET. See Magistrates. 

BOWS AND Arrows. See Archery. 

BOXING, OR Prize-Figiiting, the 2Jugilaiiis of the Romans, once a favourite sport with 
the British, who possess an extraordinary strength in the arm, an advantage which gives the 
British soldier great superiority in battles decided by the bayonet. A century ago boxing 
formed a regular exhibition, and a theatre was erected for it in Tottenham-court. — Brotigh- 
ton's amphitheatre, behind Oxford-road, was built 1742. Schools were opened in England 
to teach boxing as a science in 1790. Mendoza opened the Lyceum in the Strand in 1791. 
Boxing was much patronised from about 1820 to 1830, but is now out of favour.* John 
Gully, originally a butcher, afterwards a prize-fighter, acquired wealth and became M.P. for 
Pontefract in 1835. He died March 9, 1863. 

BOXTEL (in Dutch Brabant), where the British and allied army, commanded by the 
duke of York, was defeated by the French republicans, who took 2000 prisoners and eight 
pieces of cannon, Sept. 17, 1794. 

BOX-TREE, indigenous to this country, and exceedingly valuable to wood-engravers. 
In 1815 a large box-tree at Box-hill, Surrey, was cut down, and realised a large sum. 
Macculloch says, that "the trees were cut down in 1815, and jjroduced upwards of 10,000?." 
About 1820 the cutting of all the trees on the hill produced about 6oooZ. 

BOYDELL'S LOTTERY for a gallery of paintings was got up in 1791 at a vast expense 
by alderman Boydcll, lord mayor of London, a great encourager of the arts. The collection 
was called the Shakspeare gallery, and every ticket was sold at the time the alderman died, 
Dec. 12, 1804, before the decision of the wheel. 

BOYLE LECTURES, instituted in 1691 by Robert Boyle (sou of the great earl of 
Cork), a philosopher, distinguished by his genius, virtues, and benevolence. Eight lectures 
(in vindication of the Christian religion) are delivered at St. Mary-le-bow church, London, 
on the first Alonday in each month, from January to May and September to November. 

BOYNE (a river in Kildare, Ireland), near Avhich William III. defeated his father-in- 
law, James II., July i, 1690. The latter lost 1500 (out of 30,000) men ; the Protestant army 
lost about a third of that number (out of 30,000). James fled to Dublin, thence to Water- 
ford, and escaped to France. The duke of Schomberg was killed in the battle, having been 
shot by mistake by his own soldiers as he was crossing the river. Here also was killed ths 
rev. George Walker, who defended Londonderry in 1689. Near Drogheda is a splendid! 
obelisk, 150 feet in height, erected in 1736 by the Protestants of the empire in commemora- 
tion of this victory. 

BOYNE, man-of-war of 98 guns, destroyed by fire at Portsmouth, May 4, 1795, by the 
explosion of the magazine ; numbers perished. Portions were recovered June, 1840. 

BRABANT (now part of the kingdoms of Holland and Belgium), an ancient duchy, part 
of Charlemagne's em|)irc, fell to the share of his son Lothaire. It became a separate duchy 
(called at first Lower Lorraine) in 959. It descended to Philip II. of Burgundy, and in 
regular succession to the emperor Charles V. In the 17th century it was held by Holland 
and Austria, as Dutch Brabant and the Walloon provinces, and underwent many changes 
through the wars of Europe. The Austrian division was taken by the French in 1746 and 
1794. It was united to the Netherlands in 1814, but has formed part of Belgium, under 
Leopold, since 1830. His heir is styled duke of Brabant. See Belgium. 

BRACELETS were worn by the ancients, and armillcc were Roman military rewards. 
Tho.se of pearls and gold were worn by the Roman ladies. 

BRADFIELD RESERVOIR. See Sheffield, 1864. 

BRADFORD. See Poison. 

BRADSHAW'S RAILWAY GUIDE was first published by Mr. G. Bradshaw in Dec. 
1 84 1. He had previously published occasionally a Raihvay Companion. 

* On April 17, i860, a large number of persons of all classes assembled at Parnborougli to witness a 
desperate conflict between Thomas Sayers, the Champion of England, a light Sussex man, about 5 feet 
8 inches high, and John Heenan, the " Benccia JS'iy," a huge American, in height 6feet i inch. Strength, 
however, was matched by skill ; and eventualiy the fight was inten-upted. Both men received a silveV 
belt on May 31 following. Tom King beat Mace, and obtained the champion's belt, fee, Nov. 26, 1862 ; 
he beat Goss, Sept. i, 1863, and Heenan (nearly to death) Dec. 10, 1863. A trial, in consequence of the 
last fight ensued : the culprits were discharged, on promising not to offend again, April 5, 1864. On Jan. 
4, 1S65, Wormald obtained the championship after a contest witli Marsden. 



BRA 121 BRA 

BRAGANZA, a city in Portup;al, gave title to Alfonso, natural son of Pedro I. of Portugal 
I (in 1422), founder of the house of Bragauza. When the nation, in a bloodless revolution in 
;, 1640, threw olf tlie Spanisli yoke, John, duke of Braganza, as John IV., was called to the 
I throne ; his family continues to reign. Sec Portugal and Brazil. 

BRAHMINS, the highest of the four castes of the Hindoos. Pythagoras is thought to 
h.ave learned from them his doctrine of the Metcmx>sychosis ; and it is affirmed that some of 
the Greek philosophers went to India on purpose to converse with them. The modern 
Brahmins derive their name from Brahmah, one of the three beings whom God, according 
to their theology, created, and with whose assistance he formed the world. The modern 
Indian priests are still the depositaries of the sacred learning of India. See Vcdas. 

BRAINTREE CASE (in Essex), which was decided in 1842 by Dr. Lnshington, who 
determined that a minority in a parish vestry cannot levy a church rate. 

BRAMPIAM (W. R. York) : near here the earl of Northumberland and lord Bardolf were 
defeated and slain by sir Thomas Rokeby, the general of Henry IV., Feb. 19, 1408; and 
Fairfax was defeated by the royalists under the duke of Newcastle, March 29, 1643. 

BRANDENBURG, a city in Prussia, founded by the Slavonians, who gave it the name 
of Banher, which signified Guard of the Forest, according to some ; others say. Burg, or 
city of the Brcnns. Henry I., surnamed the Fowler, after defeating the Slavonians, fortified 
Brandenburg, 926, as a rampart against the Huns, and bestowed the government on Sigefroi, 
count of Ringelheim, with the title of Margrave, or protector of the marches or frontiers. 
The emperor Sigismund gave perpetual investiture to Frederick IV. of Nuremburg, ancestor 
of the Royal family of Prussia, who was made elector in. 141.7. For a list of the Margraves 
since 1134, see Prussia. 

BRANDENBURG HOUSE, Hammersmith. Sec Queen Caroline. 

BRANDY (German Brannlioein, burnt wine), the spirit distilled from wine. It appears 
to have been known to Raymond Lidly in the 13th centur}^ and to have been manufactured 
in France early in the 14th. It was at first used medicinally, and miraculous cures were 
ascribed to its influence. In 1851, 938,280 gallons were impoi'ted with a duty of 15s. per 
gallon. It is now manufactured in Britain. 

BRANDYWINE, a river in N. America, near which a battle took place between the 
British and the revolted Americans, in which the latter (after a day's fight) were defeated 
with great loss, and Philadelphia fell into the possession of the victors, Sept. 11, 1777. 

BRASS was known among all the early nations. Usher. The British from the remotest 
period were acquainted with its use. Whitakcr. Wh§n Lucius Mummius burnt Corinth 
to the gi'onnd, 146 B.C., he found immense riches, and durhig the conflagration, it is .said, 
all the metals in the city melted, and running together, formed the valuable composition 
described as Corinthian Brass. This, however, may well be doubted, for the Corinthian 
artists had long before obtained great credit for their method of combining gold and silver 
with cojjper ; and the Syriac translation of the Bible says, that Hiram made the vessels for 
Solomon's temple of Corinthian brass. Du Fresnoy. Some of the English sepulchral 
engraved brasses are said to be as old as 1277. 

BRAURONIA, festivals in Attica, at Brauron, where Diana had a temple. The most 
remarkable that attended these festivals were young virgins in yellow gowns, dedicated to 
Diana. They were about ten years of age, and not under five ; and therefore their consecra- 
tion was called " dckateuein," from dcka, ten ; 600 B.C. 

BRAY, THE Vicar of. Bray, in Berks, is famous in national song for its vicar, the 
rev. Symou Symonds, who is said to have been twice a papist and twice a Protestant — in 
four successive reigns — those of Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth, between 
the years 1533 and 1558. Upon being called a turn-coat, ho said he kept to his principle, 
that of " living and dying the vicar of Bray." Fuller's Church History. 

BRAZEN BULL, contrived by Perillus, a brass-founder at Athens, for Phalaris, tyrant of 
Agi'igentum, 570 B.C. He cast a brazen bull, larger than life, with an opening in the side 
to admit the victims. A fire was kindled imderneath to roast them to death ; and the throat 
was so contrived tliat their dying groans resembled the roaring of a bull. Phalaris admired 
the invention and workmanship, but said it was reasonable the artist should make the first 
experiment, and ordered his execution. Ovid mentions that the Agrigentes, maddened by 
the tyrant's cruelties, revolted, seized him, cut his tongue out and roasted him in the brazen 
bull, 549 B.C. 



BRA 



122 



CRE 



BRAZIL, an empire in South America, was discovered by Alvarez de Cabral, a Portu- 
guese, who was driven upon its coasts hy a tempest, Jan. 26, 1500. He called it the land of 
the Holy Cross ; but it was subsequently called Brazil, on account of its red wood. The 
French having seized on Portugal in 1807, the royal family and nobles embarked for Brazil, 
and landed March 7, 1808. The dominant religion is Roman Catholic ; but others are 
tolerated. Population in 1S56, 7,677,800. See Portugal. 



Pedro Alvarez Cabal discovers Espirito Santo, 

coast of Brazil, and lands . . . May 3 1500 
Brazil explored by Amerigo Vespucci, about . 1504 
Divided into captaincies by the king of Portugal 1530 
Martin Le Souza founds the first European 

colony at San Vincente 1531 

Jews banished from Portugal to Brazil . . 1548 
San Salvador (Bahia) founded by Thom^ de 

Souza 1549 

French Protestants occupy bay of Rio Janeiro . 1555 

Expelled 1567 

Sebastian founded ,, 

Brazil, with Portugal, becomes subject to Spain 1580 
James Lancaster captures Pernambuco . . 1593 
The French establish a colony at Maranhani . 1594 

Belem founded by Caldeira 1615 

The French expelled „ 

The Dutch seize the coast of Brazil, and hold 

Pernambuco 1630 

Defeated at Guararapfes 1646 

Give up Brazil . . . . . . . 1661 

Gold mining commences . . . . . 1693 

Destruction of Palmares 1697 

The French assault and capture Rio Janeiro 1710-11 
Diamond mines discovered in Sezzo Frio . . 1729 

Jesuits expelled 1758-60 

Capital transferred from Bahia to Rio Janeiro 1763 
Roj-al family of Portugal arrive at Brazil, Mar. 7, 1 808 
First printing-press established . . . . „ 
Brazil becomes a kingdom .... 1815 

King John VI. returns to Portugal, and Dom 

Pedro becomes regent 1821 

Brazil declares its independence . Sept. 7, 1822 

Pedro I. crowned emperor . . Dec. i, ,, 

Xew constitution ratified . . March 25, 1824 
Independence recognised by Portugal, Aug. 29, 1825 
Abdication of Dom Pedro I. . . April 7, 1831 

Reform of the constitution 1834 

Accession of Pedro II. 1840 

Steamship line to Europe commenced . . 1850 
Supi^ressiou of the slave-trade ; railways com- 
menced 1852 

Rio Janeiro lit with gas 1854 

The British ship "Prince of Wales" wrecked 
at Albardas, on coast of Brazil, is plundered 
by some of the natives, and some of the crew 

killed, about June 7, 1861 

Reparation long refused ; reprisals made ; five 
Brazilian merchant ships being seized by the 



British Dec. 31, 1862 

The Brazilian minister at London pays 3,200^. 
as an indemnity, under protest . Feb. 26, 1863 

The Brazilian government request the Briti-sh 
to express regret for rejirisals ; declined ; 
diplomatic intercourse between the two 
countries suspended . . May 5-28, „ 

Dispute between the British and Brazilian 
governments respecting the arrest of some 
British officers at Rio Janeiro (June 17, 1S62) 
is referred to the arbitration of the king of 
Belgium, who decides in favoui' of the latter 

June 18, ,, 

New ministry formed ; F. J. Furtado, presi- 
dent — prospect of reconciliation with Great 
Britain ..... Aug. 30, 1S64 

U. S. war-steamer " Wachusett " seizes the 
Confederate steamer " Florida," in the port 
of Bahia, while under protection of Brazil, 
Oct. 7 ; after remonstrance, Mr. Seward, 
U. S. foreign minister, apologises. [Tlie 
" Florida" had been (inadvertently?) sunk.] 

Dec. 26, „ 

The Comte d'Eu and the Princess Isabella fon 
their marriage tour) land at Southampton 

Feb. 7, 1865 

War with Uruguay — the Brazilians take Pay- 
sandu, and march upon Monte Video, Feb. 2, „ j 

Lopez, president of Par.aguay, declares war 
against the Argentine Republic, which unites 
with Brazil — New combinations forming 

April, May, ,, 

Amicable relations with England restored 

Aug. ,, 

The emperor joins the army marching against 
Lopez Aug. ,, 

EMPERORS OF BRAZIL. 

1825. Dom Pedi-o (of Portugal) first emperor, Oct. 
12, abdicated the throne of Brazil in favour of his 
infant son, April 7, 1831 ; died Sei^t. 24, 1834. 

1831. Dom Pedro II. (born Dec. 2, 1825) succeeded 
on his father's abdicatic>n : assumed the govern- 
ment July 23, 1S40 ; crowned July 18, 1841 ; mar- 
ried Sept. 4, 1843, Princess Theresa of Naples ; the 
PRESENT emperor (1865). 

Heiress : Isabella, born July 29, 1846 ; married to 
Louis comte d'Eu, son of the Due de Nemours, 
Oct. 15, 1S64. 



BREAD. Ching-Noung, the successor of Fohi, is reputed to have been the first who 
taught men (the Chinese) the art of husbandr}' and the method of making bread from wheat, 
and wine from rice, 1998 B.C. Univ. Hist. Baking of bread was known in the patriarchal 
ages; sea Exodus xii. 15. It became a profession at Rome, 170 B.C. After the conquest of 
Macedon, 148 B.C., numbers of Greek bakers came to Rome, obtained special privileges, and 
soon obtained the monopoly of the baking trade. During the siege of Paris by Henry IV., 
owing to the famine which then raged, bread, which had been sold whilst any remained for 
a crown a pound, was at last made from the bones of the charnel-house of the Holy 
Innocents, a.d. 1594. Henmdt. In the time of James I., barley bread was used by the 
poor ; and now in Iceland, cod-fish, beaten to powder, is made into bi'ead ; jiotato-bread is 
used in Ireland. The London Bakers' Company was incorporated in 1307. Bread-street 
was once the London market for bread. Until 1302, the London bakers were not allowed 
to sell any in their o^\ai .shops. Stow. Bread was made with yeast by the English bakers in 
1634. In 1856 and 1857 Dr. Dauglish patented a mode of making "aerated bread," in 
which carbonic acid gas is combined with water and mixed with the flour, which is said to 
possess the advantages of cleanliness, rapidity, and uniformity. In 1862 a company was 



BRE 



123 



BRE 



formed to encourage Stevens' bread-making machinery, 
was passed in July, 1863. 



An act for regulating bakehouses 



1805 . . . i2^d. 


1835 . 




7d. 




June. 


Dec. 


1810 . . . . 154 


1840 




9 


1858 . 


. 8r7. 


7</. 


1812 (Aug.) . . 214 








i8s9 


. 8 


74 


1814 . . . . I2i 




June. 


Dec. 


i860 . 


. 84 


g 


1820 • . . .11 


184s . 


• 7i''- 


7id. 


1 861 


• 9 


9 




1850 


• 7 


6i 


1862 . 


• 9 


8 


Four-pound Loaf(hest). 


1854 . 


. 10 


II 


1863 


. 8 


7 


1822 . . . lod. 


x85S 


. II 


lOj 


1864 . 


• 7 


7 


1825 . . . . II 


1856 . 


. II 


io4 






Sept 


1830 . . . loi 


1857 


. 94 


84 


186s 


• 7 


74 



PRICES OF BREAD IN VARIOUS YEARS. 
Quartern Loaf (4Z&. s4oz-) 
1735 ■ • • Sid. 
1745 . . . . 4i 
1755 ... 5 
1765 . . . . 7 
1775 . . . 6', 

1785 . . . . 6± 

1795 . . . I2i 

1800 . . . . i7i 
iSoo [For 4 weeks, 224''-] 

BREAD-FRUIT TREE, mentioned by Dampier, AnsOn, Wallis, and other voyagers. 
A vessel under captain Bligh was fitted out to convey these trees to various British colonies 
in 1789 (see Bounty), and again in 1791. The number taken on board at Otaheitowas 11 51. 
Some were left at St. Helena, 352 at Jamaica, and five were reserved for Kew Gardens, 1793. 
The tree Avas successfully cultivated in French Guiana, 1802. 

BREAKWATERS. The first stone of the Plymouth breakwater was lowered August 12, 
1812. It was designed to break the sa^II, and stretches 5280 feet acro.ss the sound ; it is 
360 feet in breadth at the bottom and more than thirty at the top, and consumed 3,666,000 
tons of granite blocks, from one to five tons each, up to April, 1841, and cost a million and 
a half sterling. The architects were Mr. John Rennie and his son sir John. The first stone 
of the lighthouse on its western extremity was laid Feb. i, 1841. Breakwaters are now in 
course of construction at Holyhead, Portland, Dover, &c. (1865). 

BREAST-PLATE. One was worn by the Jewish high priest, 1491 B.C. [Exod. xxxix.). 
Goliath "was armed with a coat of mail," 1063 B.i;. (i Sain, xvii.) Breast-plates dwindled 
to the diminutive gorgets. Ancient breast-plates are mentioned as made of gold and silver. 

BRECHIN", Scotland; sustained a siege against the army of Edward III., 1333. The 
battle of Brechin was fought between the forces of the earls of Huntly and Crawfurd ; the 
latter defeated, 1452. The see of Brechin was founded by David I. in 1150. One of its 
bishops, Alexander Campbell, was made prelate when but a boy, 1556. The bishopric, dis- 
continued soon after the revolution in 1688, was revived in 1731. 

BREDA, Holland, was taken by prince Maurice, of Nassau, in 1590; by the Spaniards, 
under Spinola, in 1625 ; and by the Dutch, in 1637. Our Charles II. resided here at the 
time of the restoration, 1660. ^Qe Restoration. Breda was taken by the French in 1793. 
The French garrison was expelled by the burgesses in 1813. The " Compromise of Breda" 
was a proposal to Philip II., deprecating his harsh measures in the Netherlands, presented 
and refused in 1566. 

BREECHES. Among the Greeks, this garment indicated slavery. It was worn by the 
Dacians, Parthians, and other northern nations ; and in Italy, it is said, wa# worn in the 
time of Augustus Ca'sar. In the reign of Honorius, about 394, the hraccarii, or breeches- 
makers, were expelled from Rome ; but soon afterwards the use of breeches was adopted in 
other countries, and at length became general. 

BREHONS, ancient judges in Ireland, are said to have administered justice with religious 
impartiality, but in later times with a tendency to love of country. It was enacted by the 
statute of Kilkenny, that no English subject should submit to the Brehon laws, 40 Edw. III., 
1365. These laws, however, were recognised by the native Irish till about 1650. A trans- 
lation of them was proposed in 1852, the publication of which may be expected. 

BREITJ:NFELD, battle of, SceLeipsic. 

BREMEN (N. Germany), said to have been founded in 788, and long an archbishopric 
and one of the leading towns of the Hanseatic league, was allowed a seat and a vote in the 
college of imperial cities in 1640. In 1648 it was secularised and erected into a duchy and 



* Assize of Bread. The first statute for the regulation of the sale of bread was 3 John, 1203. The 
chief justiciary, and a baker commissioned liy the king, bad the inspection of the assize. Mallhev} Paris. 
The assize was further regulated by statute in 51 Henry III. 1266, and 8 Anne, 1710. Bread Act, Ireland, 
placing its sale on the same footing as in England, i Vict. 1838. Bread was directed to be sold by weight 
in London in 1S22 ; the statute " Assessa Panis '' was repealed in 1824; and the sale of bread throughout 
the country was regulated in 1836. 



BRE 124 BRI 

held lay Sweden till 1712, when it was taken possession of by Denmark in 1731, by ■whom 
it Avas ceded to Hanover. It was taken by the French in 1757, who were expelled by the 
Hanoverians in 1758. Bremen was annexed by Napoleon to the French empire in 1810 ; 
but its independence was restored in 1813, and all its old franchises in 181 5. Population of 
the province in 1862, about 90,000. See Ilanse Toions. 

BRESCIA, N. Italy (the ancient Brixia), became important under the Lombards, and 
suffered by the wars of the Italian Republics. It was taken by the French under Gaston de 
Foix in 15 12, when it is said 40,000 of the inhabitants were massacred. It surrendered to 
the Austrian general Haynau, March 30, 1849, on severe terms. 

BRESLAU," in Silesia, was burnt by the Mongols in 1241, and conquered by Frederick 
II. of Prussia, in Jan. 1741. A fievce battle took place here between the Austrians and 
Prussians, the latter under prince Bcvern, who was defeated Nov. 22, 1757. Breslau was 
taken : but was regained, Dec. 21, the same "year. It was besieged by the French, and sin-- 
renderedto them Jan. 1807, and again in 1813. 

BREST, a sea-port, N.W. France, was besieged by Julius Ctesar, 54 B.C. — possessed by 
the English, a.d. 1378 — given up to the duke of Brittany, 1390. Lord Berkeley and a 
British fleet and army were rcjnilsed here with dreadful loss in 1694. The magazine burnt, 
to the value of some millions of pounds sterling, 1744. The marine hospitals, with fifty 
galley slaves, burnt, 1766. The magazine again destroyed by fire, July 10, 1784. From 
this great depot of the French navy, numerous squadrons were equipped against England 
during the late war, among them the fleet which lord Howe defeated on the ist of June, 
1794. England maintained a largo blockading squadron off' thehai'bour from 1793 to 18 15 ; 
but with little injury to France. It is now a chief naval station of that country, and from 
the fortificatious and other vast works of late construction it is considered impregnable. The 
British fleet visited Brest, Aug. 1865. 

BRETAGNE. • See Britlamj. BRETHREN. See Boheviian and Plymouth Brethren. 

BRETIGNY, Peace of, concluded with France, May 8, 1360, by which England retained 
Gascony and Guienne, and acquired other provinces ; renounced her pretensions to Maine, 
Anjou, Touraine, and Normandy ; was to receive 3,000,000 crowns, and to release king John, 
long a prisoner. The treaty not being carried out, the king remained and died in London. 

BRETON. See C«^;c Breton. 

BRETWALDA (wide-ruling chief), one of the kings of the Saxon heptarchy, chosen by 
the others as a leader in war against their common enemies. The following are mentioned 
by Bede (500 to 642), Ella, king of Sussex ; Ceawlin of Wessex ; Ethelbert of Kent; 
Redwald of East Anglia ; Edwin, Oswald, and Oswy of Northumberland. The title (then 
become obsolete) was bestowed ujwn Egbert, 828. 

BREVIARY (so called as being an abridgment of the books used in the Roman Catholic 
Service), contains the seven canonical hours, viz. : matins or lauds, primes, tierce, sexte, 
nones, vespers, and complines. Its origin is ascribed to pope Gelasius I. about 492. It was 
first called tiie custos, and afterwards the breviary ; and both the clergy and laity use it 
publicly and at home. It was in use among the ecclesiastical orders about 1080 ; and was 
reformed by the councils. of Trent and Cologne, and by Pius V., Urban VIII., and other popes. 
The quality of type in which the breviary was first printed gave the name to the type 
called brevier (in which this page is printed). 

BREWERS are traced to Egjqit. Brewing was known to our Anglo-Saxon ancestors. 
Tindal. " One William Murle, a rich maltman or bruer, of Dunstable, had two horses all 
trapped with gold, 1414." Stow. In Oct. 1 851, there were 2305 licensed brewers in England, 
146 in Scotland, and 97 in Ireland ; total 2548 : these are exclusive of retail and inter- 
mediate brewers. There were 40,418 licensed brewers in the United Kingdom in 1858 ; the 
revenue from whom to the state was in that year 81,030^. In 1858 in England there were 
205 great brewers. See AJc, Porter. 

BRIAR'S CREEK (N. America), near which the Americans, 2000 strong, under general 
Ashe, were totally defeated by the English under general Prevost, March 16, 1779. 

BRIBERY forbidden, Deut. xvi. 19. Samuel's sons were guilty of it, B.C. 11 12. (i Sam. 
viii. 3.) Thomas de Weylaud, a judge, was banished for bribery in 1288 ; he was chief 
justice of the common pleas. William de Thorpe, chief justice of the king's bench, was 
hanged for bribery in 135 1. Another judge was fined 20,000^. for the like off"ence, 1616. 
Mr. Walpole, secretary-at-war, was sent to the Tower for bribery, in 1712. Lord Straugford 
was suspended from voting in tlie Irish house of lords, for soliciting a bribe, January, 1784. 



BRI 



125 



BRI 



BRIBERY AT Elections. In 1854 an important act was passed consolidating and 
amending previous acts relating to this offence, from 7 Will. III. (1695) to 5 & 6 Vict. c. 184.* 



Messrs. Sykes and Rumbold fined and im- 
prisoned for bribery . . . M;irch 14, 1776 

Messrs. Davidson, Parsons, and Hopping, im- 
prisoned for bribery at Ilchestcr . April 28, 1804 

Mr. Swan, M.P. for Penryn, fined and im- 
prisoned, and sir Manasseh Lojjez sentenced 
to a fine of io,oooi. and to two years' im- 
prisonment for bribery at Grampound, Oct. 1819 

The members for Liverpool and Dublin un- 
seated in i8ti 



The friends of Mr. Knight, candidate for Cam- 
bridge, convicted of bribery . . Feb. 20, 1835 
Elections for Ludlow and Cambridge made void 1840 
Sudbury disfranchised, 1848; St. Alb.an's also . 1852 
Elections at Derby and other places declared 
void for bribery, in . . . . . . 1853 

Gross bribery practised at Gloucester, Wake- 
field, and Berwick, in 1859 

M r. Edward Leatham convicted of bribery at 
Wakefield July ig, iS(5o 



BRICKS were used in Babyloii, Egypt, Greece, and Rome ; in England by the Romans 
about A.D. 44. Made under the direction of Alfred the Great, about 886. Saxon Chron. 
The size regulated by order of Charles I., 1625. Taxed 1784. The number of bricks 
which paid duty in England in 1820 was 949,000,000; in 1830, above 1,100,000,000; iu 
1840, 1,400,000,000; and in 1850, 1,700,000,000. The duties and drawbacks of excise on 
bricks were repealed in 1850. In 1839 Messrs. Cooke and CunniTighani brought out their 
machinery by which, it is said, 18,000, bricks may be made in ten hours. Messrs. Dixon 
and Corbett, near Newcastle, iu 1861, were making bricks by steam at the rate of 1500 per 
liour. The machinery is the invention of Clayton & Co., London. 

BRIDEWELL, originally a palace of king John, near Fleet-ditch, London, was rebuilt 
by Henry VIII., 1522, and given to the city for a workhouse by Edward VI., 1553. The 
New Bridewell prison, erected in 1829, was pulled down iu 1864 ; that of Tothill-helds was 
rebuilt in 183 1. 

BRIDGES were first of wood. The ancient stone bridges in China are of great magni- 
tude. Abydos is famons for the bridge of boats which Xerxes built across the Hellespont, 
480 c.c. Trajan's magnificent stone bridge over the Danube, 4770 feet in length, was built 
in A.D. 105. Brotherhoods for building bridges existed in S. France about iiSo.f 

Triangular bridge at Croyland Abbey referred 
to in a charter dated ... . 943 

First stone bridge erected at Bow, near Strat- 
ford, by qiieen Matilda . . about iioo-iS 

Bishop's bridge, Norwich ..... 1295 

London Bridge : one existed about 978 ; one 
biiilt of wood 1014 ; one by Peter of Cole- 
church 1 176-1209 ; new London Bridge 
finished 1831 

The first large iron bridge erected over the 
Severn, Shropshire .... 

Sunderland bridge by Wilson, 100 feet high, an 
arch, with a span of 236 feet 



1777 



1796 



The fine chain suspension bridge at the Menai 
Strait 

Westminster, 1750; Blackfriars, 1769 ; Water- 
loo, 181 7; Southwark, 1819; Hungerfoi-d, 
1845; Chelsea, 1858; Vauxhall, 1816. 

A railway bridge 2i miles long is projected 
over the Firth of Forth . . . Dec. 

Probably the widest bridge in the world at pre- 
sent is the Victoria bridge over the Thames 
(by which the London, Ch.atham, and Dover 
railway will enter the Victoria station, Pim- 
lico) ; founded by Lord Harris . Feb, 22, 

For details see separate articles, and also Tubu- 
lar bridge, Victoria bridge, &c. 



1865 



BRIDGEWATER, Somersetshire, was incorporated by king John, in 1200. In the war 
between Charles I. and the parliament, the forces of the latter reduced part of the town 
to ashes, 1643. Here stood an ancient castle in which the ill-advised duke of Monmouth 
lodged when he was proclaimed king in 1685. 

BRIDGEWATER CANAL, the first great work of the kind iu England, was begun by 
the duke of Bridgewater, styled the father of canal navigation in this countr}', in 1759, and 
opened 1761. Mr. Brindley was the engineer. It commences at Worsley, seven miles from 
Manchester ; and at Barton Bridge is an aqueduct wliich, for upwards of 200 yards, convej's 
the canal across the river Irwell. The length of the canal is about twenty-nine miles. 

BRIDGEWATER TREATISES. The rev. Francis, earl of Bridgewater, died in April, 
1829, leaving by will 8000?. to be given to eight persons, appointed by the president of the 

« On April 1 7, 1 858, in the case of Cooper v. Slade, it was ruled that the pa3Tnent of travelling expenses 
was bribery ; and in the same ye.ar an act was passed which permits candidates to provide conveyances 
for voters, but forbids payment of travelling expenses 

t The Devil's bridge," in the canton of Uri, so called from its frightful situation, was built on two high 
rocks, so that it could scarcely be conceived how it was erected, and many fabulous stories were invented 
to account for it. At Schaffhausen an extraordin.ary bridge was built over tlie Kliine, which is there 400 
feet wide : there was a pier in the middle of tlie river, but it is doiibtful whether the bridge rested upon 
it : a man of the lightest weight felt the bridge totter under him, yet waggons heavily laden passed over 
without danger. The bridge was destroyed by the French in 1799. 



BRI 



126 



BRI 



Royal Society, wlio should write an essay "on the Power, Wisdom, and Goodness of God, 
as manifested in the Creation." The essays (by sir Charles Bell, Drs. T. Chalmers, John 
Kidd, William Buckland, William Front, Peter M. Roget, and the re\'s. William Whewell 
and William Kirby) were published 1833 — 5. 

BRIEF, a written instrument in the Roman Catholic church, of early but uncertain date. 
Briefs arc the letters of the pope despatched to princes and others on public affairs, and are 
usually written short, hence the name, and without preface or preamble, and on paper ; in 
which particulars they are distinguished from hiilh. The latter are ample and are always 
written on parchment. Briefs are sealed with red wax and the seal of the fisherman, or St. 
Peter in a boat, and always in the presence of the pope. The Queen's letter authorising 
collections in churches for charitable purposes are called "briefs." 

BRIENNE (N.E. France). Hei-e the allied armies of Russia and Prussia were defeated 
by the French, Feb. i and 2, 1 814. 

BRIGHTON, or Bkighthelmstone, in Sussex, formerly inhabited chiefly by fishei-men, 
now a place of fashionable resort. The length of the esplanade here from the Steyne is 
about 1250 feet. 



Here Charles II. embarked for France after tlie 
battle of Worcester 

The Prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.) 
founded the Pavilion, 1784; greatly enlarged 
and made to resemble the Kremlin at Mos- 
cow, 1784-1823 ; it was sold to the town for 
53)Ooo' 



1651 



The Block-house swept away . . March 26, 1786 
Part of the cliff foil ; great damage Nov. 16, 1807 
Chain-pier, 1,134 feet long, 13 wide, completed 1823 
Brighton made a parliamentary borough . 1832 
The railway to London opened . Sept. 21, 1841 
Collision of trains in Clayton tunnel, 23 per- 
sons killed and many wounded . Aug. 25, 1861 



BRILL (or Briel), Holland. A seaport, seized by the expelled Dutch coiifederates, 
became the first seat of their independence. Brill was given up to the English in 1585 as 
security for advances made by Queen Elizabeth to the states of Holland. It was restored in 
1616. 

BRISTOL (W. England), built by Brennus, a British prince, 380 B.C., is mentioned in 
A.n. 430 as a fortified city. It was called Caer Oder, a city in the valley of i^ath ; and 
sometimes Caer Brito, the British city, and by the Saxons Brightstowe, pleasant place. 
Gildas and Nennius speak of Bristol in the Sth and 7th centuries. 



Taken by the earl of Gloucester, in his defence 
of his sister Maud, the empress, against king 

Stephen 11 38* 

Eleanor of Brittany (daughter of Geoffrey, son 
of Henry I.) dies in the castle after 39 years' 
impi'isonment ....... 1241 

St. Mary's church built ..... 1292 

Bri.stol made a distinct covmty by Edward III. 1373 
Bishopric founded by Henry YIII. . . . 1542 

A new charter obtained 1581 

Taken by prince Rupert, July 26, 1643 ; by 

Cromwell Sept. 1645 

Edwd. Colston's hospital, a free school, and 
other charities established [his birthday, 

Nov. 14, kept annually] 1708 

Act passed for new exchange, 1723 ; ei-ected . 1741 

Bread riots 1753 

Bridge built May, 1760 

Attempt to set the shipping on fire . Jan. 22, 1777 



Riot on account of a toll ; the troops fire on the 
populace, and many are wounded . Oct. 25, 1793 

Docks built 1804-9 

Riot on the entrance of sir Charles Wetherell, 
the recorder, into the city. He was opposed 
to the reform bill, and thus obnoxious to 
the lower classes. The mansion house, the 
bishop's palace, several merchants' stores, 
some of the prisons (the inmates liberated), 
and nearly 100 houses had been burned and 
many lives lost . . . Oct. 29-31, 1831 
Trial of rioters, Jan. 2 (four executed and 
twenty-two transported). Suicide of Col. 
Brereton, during his trial by court-martial 

Jan. 9, 1832 
Meeting of British Association . . . Aug. 1S36 
Railway to London completed . June 30, 1841 
Clifton Suspension-bridge opened . Dec. 8, 1864 
Industrial Exhibition about be to opened . Oct. 1865 



BRISTOL, See of, one of the six bishoprics erected by Henry VIII. out of the spoils 
of the monasteries and religious houses which that monarch had dissolved, 1542. The 
cathedral was tlie church of the abbey of St. Austin, founded here by Robert Fitz-Harding, 
son to a king of Denmark, and a citizen of Bristol, 1 148. It is valued in the king's books 
at 338^. 8s. ^cl. Paul Bnshe, provincial of the Bons-hommes was the first bishop, in 1542 — 
deprived for being married, 1554. The see of Bristol was united by an order in council 
Avith that of Gloucester, in 1836, and they now form one see under the name of Gloucester 
and Bristol. The cathedral (under repair since 1844) was reopened in 1861. 



* From the period of Henry II. in the 12th to the middle of the i8th century, Bristol ranked next to 
London, as the most populous, commercial, and flourishing place in the kingdom ; but since the latter 
time it has declined, and been exceeded in these respects by Liverpool, Manchester, Leeds, Birmingham, 
and Glasgow. 



BRI 



127 



BRI 



BRISTOL, continued. 



EECEXT BISHOPS OF BKISTOL. 



1803. Hon. G. Pelham, translated to Exeter . 1807 

1807. John Luxmoore, translated to Hereford 1808 

1808. Wni. Lort Mansell, died . June 27, 1820 
1820. JoLu Kaye, translated to Lincobi . . 1S27 



1827. Robert Gray died . . . Sept. 28, 1834 
1834. Joseph Allen, the last bi.shop, translated 
to Ely in June, 1836. (In October the 
diocese was united with Gloucester.) 



BRITAIN" (called by the Romans Britannia,* from its Celtic name Prydlmin, Camden). 
The earliest records of the hi.story of this island are the manuscripts and poetry of the Cam- 
brians. The Celts, the ancestors of the Britons and modern AVeLsh, were the first inhabi- 
tants of Britain. It is referred to as the Cassiterides or tin-islands by Herodotns, 450 B.C. ; 
as Albion or lerne by Aristotle, 350 B.C. ; Polybiu.?, 260 B.C. Britain, including England, 
Scotland, and Wales, was anciently called Albion, the name of Britain being applied to all 
the islands collectively — Albion to only one. Pliny. See Albion. It was invaded by 
Julius Cresar. 55 B.C. ; subdued by Agricola, A.D. 84; left by the Romans, about 426 ; 
invaded by the Saxons, 429 ; the southern part became one kingdom under Egbert, 828 ; 
subdued by William I., 1066. See England, Scotlarid, and Wales. 



57 



Divitiacus, king of the Suessones, in Gaul, 
said to have supremacy over part of Britain 



First invasion of Britain by the Romans, under 
Julius Csesar 55-54 

He defeats Cassivelaunus, general of the 
Britons 54 

Cymbeline (Cunobelin) king of Britain . . 4 

Aulus Plautus defeats the Britons, a.d. 43 ; he 
and Vespasian reduce S. Britain ... 47 

Caractacus defeated by Ostorius, 50 ; earned 
in chains to Rome 51 

Romans defeated by Boadicea ; 70,000 slain, 
and London burnt : she is defeated by Sue- 
tonius ; 80,000 .slain . . . . . . 61 

Agricola conquers Anglesea, and overruns 
Britain in seven campaigns, and reforms 
the government .78-84 

He defeats the Caledonians under Galgacus ; 
surrenders the islands . . ,. . . 84 

The emperor Adrian visits Britain, 120 ; and 
builds a wall from the Tyne to the Solway . 121 

Lucius, king of the Britons, raid to have sent 
an embassy on religious affairs to pope 
Eleutheriiis, about 181 

The Britons (allies of Albinus) defeated at 
Lyons by Severus . . . . . . 197 

Southern Britain subdued and divided l.iy the 
Romans into two provinces . . . . 204 



Severus keeps his court at York, then called 
Eboracum, 208 ; finishes his wall, and dies 

at York 

Carausius usurps the throne of Britain . . 
He is killed by Alectus, another usurper 
Constantius recovers Britain from Alectus . . 
St. Alban and 17,000 Christians martyred (Bede) 
Constantius, emperor of Rome, dies at York . 
British bishoijs at the council of Aries 
Scots and Picts invade Britain, 360 ; routed by 

Theodosius 

Roniaus gradually withdraw from Britain . 402 
The Saxons and Angles are called in to aid the 

natives against the Picts and Scots . 429 or 
Having expelled these, the Anglo-Saxons attack 
the Britons, driving them into Wales . . 
Many Britons settled in Armorica (Brittany) 388- 
The Saxon Heptarchy ; Britain divided into 
seven or more kingdoms .... 

Supposed reigns of Vortigern, 446 ; Vortimer, 
464 ; Vortigern again, 471 ; Aureliiis Ambro- 
sius, 481 ; and Arthur Peiidragon 
The renowned king Arthur said to reign . 506- 
Arrival of St. Augustin (or Austin), and re- 
establishment of Christianity . . . . 
Cadwallader, last king of the Britons, reigns . 
Landisf arne church destroyed by the Northmen 
The Saxon Heptarchy ends, and Egbert, king 
of Wessex, becomes king of England 



211 
2S6 
294 
296 
304 
306 
314 



418 
449 

455 
457 



500 
542 



597 
678 

794 



Kings of the Heptabchy.+ See Bretivalda. 



454- 



Kf.nt. {The shire of Kent. 1 
Hengist. [473, Saxon Chronicle.] 
iEsc, Esoa, or Escus, son of Hengist; in honour 

of whom the kings of Kent were for some time 

called jEscings. 
512. Octa, son of jEsc. 
542. Hermem-ic, or Ermenric, son of Octa. 
560. St. Ethelbert ; first Christian king (styled Rex 

A ngloruni). 
616. Eadbald, son of Ethelbert. 
640. Ercenbert, or Ercombert, son of Eadbald. 
664. Ecbert, or Egbert, son of Ercenbert. 
773. Luther, or Lothair, brother of Ecbert. 
6S5. Edric; slain in 687. [The kingdom now subject 

to various leaders.] 
694. Wihtred, or Wihgtred. 

^^3' S'?i'^''rl'"*V TT Isons of Wihtred, .succeeding 

74S. Ethelbert IL, V ^^^^ ^tl^gr. 

760. Alnc, ; 

794. Edbcrt, or Ethelbert Pryn ; deposed. 



796. Cuthred, or Guthred. 

805. Baldred ; who in 823 lost his life and kingdom 
to Egbekt, king of Wessex. 

South Saxons. [Sussex and StM-ret/.} 
490. Ella, a wai-likc prince, succeeded by 
514. Cissa, his son, whose reign was long and peace- 
ful, exceeding 70 j'ears. 
[The South Saxons then fell into an almost total 
dependence on the kingdom of Wessex. ] 
648. Edilwald, Edilwach, Adelwach, or Rthelwach. 
685. Authun and Berthun, brothers ; reigned jointly ; 
vanquished by Ina, king of Wessex, 689 ; king- 
dom conquered in 725. 

West Saxons. [Berl-s, Sovihampion, WilU, Somerset^ 

Dorset, Devon, and part of CormixUi.] 
519. Cerdicus. 

534. Cynric, or Kenrick, son of Cerdic. 
560. C'eawlm, sou of Cynric ; banished ; dies in 593. 



* The Romans eventually divided Britain into Britannia Prima (the country south of the Thames and 
Severn); Britannia Secunda (Wales); Ftavia Cytsariensis (between the Thames, Severn, and Humber); 
Jl/o.ri'mra Ctewiricnsis (between the Humber and the Tyne); and Fo?(/i<i(c (between the Tyne and the Firth 
of Forth). 

t The term, "Octarchy" is sometimes u.sed ; Northumbria being divided into Bernicia and Deira, 
ruled by separate kings. 



BRI 



128 



BRI 



BRITAIN, continued. 

591. Ceolric, nephew to Ceawlin. 

597- Ceolwulf. 

611. ) Cj'iiegils, and in 

614. ) Cwichelm, liis son reigfned jointly. 

643. Cenwal, Cenwalh, or Cenwald. 

672. Sexburga, his queen, sister to Penda, king of 

Mercla ; of great qualities ; probably deposed. 
674. Escvvine ; in conjunction with Centwinc ; on 

the death of Escwine. 
676. Centwine rules alone. 
685. Caidwallo : went to Rome, to expiate his deeds 

of blood, and died there. 
6S8. Ina or Inas, a brave and wise ruler ; journeyed 

to Rome ; left an excellent code of laws. 
72S. Ethelheard, or Ethelard, related to Ina. 
740. Cuthred, brother to Ethelheard. 

754. Sigebriglit, or Sigcbert, having niiirderod his 

friend Cumbran, governor of Uampshire, was 
compelled to fly. He was slain by one of his 
victim's retainers. 

755. Cynewulf, or Kenwnlf, or Cenulpe, a noble 

youtli of the line of Cerdic ; murdered by a 

banished subject. 
7S4. Bcrtric, or Bt orhtric : poisoned by drinking of 

a cup his queen had prepared for another. 
Soo. Egbert, afterwards sole monarch of England, 

and Bretwalda. 

East Saxons. [Essex, Middlesex, and part of Herts.'\ 
526, 527, or 530, Erchenwin, or Erchwiue. 

587. Kledda ; his son. 

597. St. Sebert, or Sabert ; son of the preceding : 

first Christian king. 
614. Saxred or Sexted, or Serred, jointly with Sige- 

bert and Seward ; all slain. 
623. Sigebert II. surnamed the little : son of Seward. 
655. Sigebert III. surnamed the good ; brother of 

Sebert : put to death. 
661. Swithelm (or Suidhelm), son of Sexbald. 
663. Sigher, or Sigeric, jointly with Sebbi, or Sebba, 

who became a monk. 
693. Sigenard, or Sigehard, and Suenfrid. 
700. Offa ; left his queen aud kingdom, and became 

a monk at Rome. 
709. Suebricbt, or Selred. 
738. Swithred, or Swithed ; a long reign. 
792. Sigeric ; died in a pilgrimage to Rome. 
799. Sigered 
823. Kingdom seized by Egbert of Wessex. 

NoRTHUMBRiA. [Lancasta; Yorl; Cumberland, West- 
morland, Durham, and Northumberland. ] 
*f.* Northumbria was at first divided into two sepa- 
rate governments, £fr«icia and Z>eira; the for- 
mer stretching from the river Tweed to the 
Tyne, and the latter from the Tyue to the 
Humber. 
547. Ida ; a valiant Saxon. 
560. Adda, his eldest son ; king of Beniicia. 
,, Ella, king of Deira ; afterwards the sole king of 

Northumbria (to 587). 
567. Glappa, Clappa, or Elapea ; Bemicia. 

572. Heodwulf ; Bernicia. 

573. Freodwulf ; Bernicia. 
5?o. Theodoric ; Bernicia. 

588. Ethelric ; Bernicia. 

593. Ethelfrith, svirnamed the Fierce. 

617. Edwin, son of Ella, king of Deira in 590. The 

greatest prince of the heptarchy in that age. 

Hume. Slain in battle with Penda, of Mercia. 

634. The kingdom divided ; Eanfrid niles in Ber- 

nicia, and Osric in Ueira ; both p\it to death. 

635. Oswald slain in battle. 

642. Osweo, or Oswy ; a reign of great renown. 
-670. Ecfrid, or Egfrid, king of Northumbria. 
685. Alcfrid, or Ealdferth. 
705. Osred, son of Ealdferth. 



716. Cenric ; sprung from Ida. 

718. Osric, son of Alcfrid. 

729. Ceolwulf ; died a monk. 

737. Eadbert, or Egbert ; retired to a monastery. 

757. Oswulf, or Osulf ; slain in a sedition. 

759. Edilwald, or MoUo ; slain by Aired. 

765. Aired, Ailred, or Alured ; deposed. 

774. Ethelred, son of Mollo ; expelled. 

778. Elwald, or Celwold ; deposed and slain. 

789. Osred, son of Aired ; fled. 

790. Ethelred restored ; afterwards slain. 
794. Erdulf , or Ardulf ; deposed. 

806. Alfwold. 

808. Erdulf restored. 

809. Eaia-ed. 

841. Kingdom annexed by Egbert. 

East Angles. [Norfolk; SuffuU; Cambridge, Eli/.] 
571 or 575. Uffa; a noble German. 
578. Titilus or Titulus ; son of Uffa. 
599. Redwald, son of Titilus ; the greatest piince 

of the Ea.st Angles. 
624. Erpwald, Eorpwald, or Eordwald. 
627. Richbert. 

629. Sigebert., half-brother to Erpwald. 
632. Egfrid, or Egric ; cousin to Sigebert. 
635. Anna, or Annas ; a just nder ; killed. 

654. Ethelric, or Ethelhere ; slain in battle. 

655. Ethelwald ; his bi-other. 
664. Aldulf, or Aldwulf. 

713. Seh-ed, or Ethelred. 

746. Alphwuld 

749. Beorna and Ethelred, jointlj'. 

758. Beorna alone. 

761. Ethelred. 

790. Ethelbert, or Ethelbryht ; treacherously put 
to death in Mercia in 792, wLen Offa, king 
of Mercia, overran the country, which was 
finally subdued by Egbert. 

Mercia. [Gloucester, Hereford, Chester, Stafford, 
Worcester, Oxford, Salop, Warwick; l)erby, 
Leicester, Bucks, Northampton, Notts, Lincoln, 
Bedford, Rutland, Huntingdon, and part of 
Herts.l 

586. Crida, or Cridda, a noble chieftain, 

593. [Interregnum — Ceolric ] 

597. Wibba, a valiant prince, his son. 

615. Ceorl, or Cheorl ; nephew of Wibba. 

626. Penda; fierce and cruel ; killed in battle. 

655. Peada, son of Penda ; killed to make way for 

656. Wulfhere (brother) ; he slew his two sons with 

his own hand. 
675. Ethelred ; became a monk. 
704. Cenred, Cendred, or Kendred ; became a monk 

at Rome. 
709. Ccolred, Celred, or Chelred ; son of Ethelred. 
716. Ethelbald ; slain in a mutiny by one of his own 

chieftains, his successor, after a defeat in 

battle. 
755. Beornred, or Bernred ; himself slain. 
,, Offa ; he formed the great dyke on the borders 

of Wales known by his name. 
794. Egfrid or Egferth, son of Offa ; died suddenly. 
,, Cenulph, Cenwulph, or Keiiulph; slain. 
819. Kenelm, or Cenelm, a minor ; reigned five 

months ; killed by his sister Quendreda, from 

the hope of reigning. Hume. 
„ Ceolwulf, uncle to Kenelm ; expelled. 
821. Beornulf; kiUed by his own subjects. 
823. Ludccan ; a valiant ruler ; slain. 
825. Withlafe, or Wiglaf. 
838. Berthulf, or Bertulf. 
852. Burhred, or Burdred. 
874. Ceolwulph ; deposed by the Danes 877. 
[The kingdom merged into that of England. 



BRITANNIA TUBULAR BRIDGE. See Tubular Bridge. 



BRI 



129 



BRI 



BRITANNY. See BrUlany. 

BRITISH AMERK'A comprises Lowei- and Upper Canada, Nova Scotia, New Bruns- 
•\vick, Newfoundland and Prince Edward's Island, Labrador, British Columbia and Van 
couver's Island. Population about 3,334,000. Delegates from the first six provinces 
met at Quebec on Oct. 10, 1864, and on Oct. 20, agreed to the basis of a Federal union, 
•with the Queen as the executive (represented by the governor-general), a legislative council 
of 96 members for life, and a house of commons of 194 members. The project has been 
transmitted to lay before parliament, and the secretary for the colonies, Mr. Cardwell, 
rxpressed his approval of the plan, Dec. 3, 1864. The plan was opposed by New Brunswick, 
March 7, 1865. Messrs. Cartier and Gait came to England, in April, 1865, to advocate the 
project, and were well received. 

BRITISH ASSOCIATION for the Advancement of Science, was established by sir 
David Brewster, sir R. I. Murchison, &c. in 183 1. Professor John Phillips was secretary till 
1863. It holds annual meetings; the first of which was held at York on Sept. 27, 1831, 
One of its main objects is "to promote the intercourse of those who cultivate science with 
each other." It appoints commissions and makes jiecuniary grants for scientific research ; 
and publishes annually a volume containing Reports of the proceedings. Kew observatory 
was presented to the association by the Queen in 1842. 



I. 


York Jlceting 


■ 1831 


2. 


Oxford . 


. 1832 




Cambridge 


. 1833 


t- 


Edinburgh . 


. 1834 


S. 


Dublin 


. 183s 


<s. 


Bristol . 


. 1836 


7- 


Liverpool . 


• 1837 


8. 


Newcastle 


. 1838 


•9- 


Birmingham 


• 1839 



10. Glasgow . . 1840 

11. Plyroouth . . 1841 

12. Manchester . . 1842 

13. Cork . . . 1843 

14. York (2nd time) 1844 

15. Cambridge (2ud) 1845 

16. Southampton . 1846 

17. Oxford (2nd) . 1847 

18. Swansea . . 1848 



Birmingham(2d) 1849 
Edinburgh (2nd) 1850 
Ipswich . . 1851 
Belfast . . . 1852 
Hull . . . 1853 
Liverpool (2nd) . 1854 
Glasgow (2nd) . 1855 
Cheltenham . 1856 
Dublin (2nd) . 1857 



28. Leeds . . 1858 

29. Aberdeen . . 1859 

30. Oxford (3rd) . 1S60 

31. Manchester (2d) 1861 

32. Cambridge (3rd) 1862 

33. Newcastle (2nd) 1863 

34. Bath . . .1864 

35. Birmingham(3d) 1865 

36. Nottingham for 1866 



BRITISH BANK. See Banks, Joint Stock. 



BRITISH COLUMBIA (N. America). In June, 1858, news came to California that in 
April gold had been found in abundance on the mainland of North America, a little to the 
north and east of Vancouver's Island. A great influx of gold-diggers (in a few Aveeks above 
50,000) from all parts was the consequence. Mr. Douglas, governor of Vancouver's Island, 
evinced much ability in preserving order. The territory with adjacent islands was made a 
Briti-sh colony with the above title, and jdaced under Mr. Douglas. The colony was 
nominated and the government settled by 21 & 22 Vic. c. 99 (Aug. 1858), and a bishop 
nominated in 1859. — For a dispute in July, 1859, see United States. The colony is said to 
be flourishing. 

BRITISH GUIANA, &c. See Guiana. BRITISH HONDURAS. See Honduras. 

BRITISH INSTITUTION (for the encouragement of British artists, Pall Mall, founded 
in 1805) opened Jan. 18, 1806, on a plan formed by sir Thomas Bernard. In the gallery 
(erected by aldennan Boydell, to exhibit the paintings executed for his edition of Shaks- 
peare), are" exhibited pictures by the old masters and deceased British artists. 

BRITISH LEGION, raised by lord John Hay, col. De Lacy Evans, and others, to 
assist queen Isabella of Spain against the Carlists in 1835, defeated them at Hernani, May 
5, 1836, and at St. Sebastian's, Oct. i. 

BRITISH MUSEUM, originated with the grant by parliament (April 5, 1753) of 20,000?. 
to the daughters of sir Hans Sloane, in payment for his fine library, and vast collection of 
the productions of nature and art, which had cost him 50,000?. The library contained 50,000 
volumes and valuable MSS., and 69,352 articles of virtu enumerated in the catalogue. 
Montafu-house was obtained by government as a place for their reception. The museum 
was opened in 1759, and has since been enormously increased by gifts, bequests, and pur- 
chases ; by the Cottonian, Harleian, and other libraries ; by the Townley marbles (in 1812) : 
by the 'Elgin marbles (1816) ; by the Lycian marbles obtained by sir C. Fellows (1842-6) ; 
by the Assyrian antiquities collected by Mr. Austin Layard between 1847 and 1850 ; by the 
antiquities brought from Halicarnassus (now Budrum), including remains of the celebrated 
tomb of Mausolus, by Mr. C. T. Newton (Nov. 1858) ; and by antiquities from Carthage (i860), 
Cyrene, Rhodes, and the Farnese palace (1864). George II. presented the royal library in 
1757 ; and in 1823, George IV. presented the library collected at Buckingham-house by 



BRI 



130 



BRO 



George III., consisting of 65,250 volumes, and al^ont 19,000 pamphlets. In 1846 the right hon. 
Thos. Grenville bequeathed to the museum his library, consisting of 20,240 volumes. Great 
additions to, and improvements in, the buildings have since been made, independently 
of the annual grant.* The fine iron railing enclosing the frontage, was completed in 
1852. The magnificent reading-room, erected by Mr. Sydney Smirke, according to apian 
by j\Ir. Antonio Panizzi, the librarian, at a cost of about 150,000/., was opened to the 
j)ublic, May 18, 1857. The height of the dome is 106 feet, and the diameter 140 feet. The 
room contains about 80,000 volumes, and accommodates 300 readers. — The daily increasing 
library contained in i860 above 562,000 volumes, exclusive of tracts, MSS. , &c. In 1861 
the incorporation of the four library catalogues into one alphabet began — three copies being 
made. Tlie prqposed separation of the antiquarian, literary, and scientific collections, wa.s 
disapproved by a commission in i860 ; and a bill to remove the natural history collections 
to South Kensington was rejected by the commons on May 19, 1862. A refreshment room 
for readers was opened Nov. 21, 1864. Mr. Panizzi resigned his oflSce in 1865. 

BRITISH PORTRAIT GALLERY. See National, d.c. 

BRITTANY, or Bretagne (N. W. France), the ancient Armoriea, v:7iic7i, see. It 
formed part of the kingdom of the Franks. 

Nomenoi revolts and becomes the first count . 841 

Geoffroy I., the first duke .... 992 

Alan v., 1008; Coiian II 1040 

Hoel v., 1066; Alan VI 1084 

Conan III 1112 

Hoel VI. expeUed; Geoffroy of Anjou elected 
duke 1 155 

Conan IV. duke, 1156; on the death of Geof- 
froy, cedes Brittany to Henry II. of England, 
and betroths his daughter, Constance, to 
Henry's son, Geoffroy (both infants) . . 1159 

Geotfroy succeeds, 1171 ; killed at a tournament 1185 

His son, Arthur, murdered by his uncle, John 
of England ; his daughter, Eleanor, impri- 
soned at Bristol (for 39 years) . . . . 1202 

Alice, daughter of Constance, and her second 
husband, Guy de Thours, proclaimed duchess, 
1203 ; marries Peter of Dreux, made duke . 1213 

John I., duke, 1237; John II 12S6 

John III., 1312 ; dies without issue . . . 1341 



The succession disputed between John of 
Montfort (John IV.) supported by Edward 
of England, and Charles of Blois, made duke 
by Philij) VI. of France. John is made pri- 
soner ; his wife, Jane, besieged at Henne- 
bonne, holds out, and is relieved by the 
English, 1343; Jobn of Montfort dies . . 1345. 

Charles of Blois defeated and slain at Auray, 
Sept. 29 : John V., son of Montfort, duke . 1364 

John VI., duke, 1399; Fr.ancis I. . . . 1442 

Peter II., 1450; Arthur III 1457 

Francis II., 1458 ; takes part with the Orlean- 
ists in France ; defeated at St. Aubin, July 
28, 1488 ; he dies in 1488 ; his heiress, Anne, 
compelled to marry Charles VIII. , who 
annexes Brittany to France . . . . 1491 

Brittany held by the Spaniards, 1591 ; re- 
covered by Henry IV. 1594 

The Bretons take part in the Vendean insur- 
rection (see La Vendue) in 1791 



BROAD ARROW, a mark for goods belonging to the royal dockyards or navy is said to 
have been ordered to be used in 1698, in consequence of robberies. 

"BROAD BOTTOM" ADMINISTRATION. The Pelham administration (?(»7wc7i see) 
was so called because it formed a coalition of parties, Nov. 1744. 

BROCADE, a silken stuff, variegated with gold or silver, and enriched with flowers and 
figures, originally made by the Chinese ; the manufacture was established at Lyons in 1757. 

BROCOLI was brought to England from Italy in the 17th century. 

BROKERS, both of money and merchandise, were known early in England. See 
AjJjiraisers. They are licensed, and their dealings regulated by law in 1695-6, 1816, and 
1826. The dealings of stock-hrokers, were regulated in 1719, 1733, and 1736, and subse- 
quently. See Pawnbro'ker and Barnard^s Act. 

BROMINE (from the Greek brdmos, a stink), a poisonous volatile liquid element dis- 
covered in salt water by M. Balard in 1826. It is found in combination with metals and 
mineral waters, but not as yet in the free state. 

BRONZE was known to the ancients, some of whose bronze statues, vessels, &c. are in 
the Bi'itish Museum. The bronze equestrian statue of Louis XIV., 1699, in the Place 
Vendome at Paris (demolished Aug. loth, 1792), the most colos-sal ever made ; it contained 
60,000 lbs. Bronze is composed of copper and tin, with sometimes a little zinc and lead. 
Ure. The present bronze coinage, penny, halfpenny and farthing (composed of 95 parts of 
cojiper, 4 tin, i zinc), came into circulation Dec. i860. 



* The total expenditure by the government en the British Museum for the ye.ar ending March 31, 
1S60, was 78,445f. ; 1861, 92,776?. ; 1864, 95,500?. : the number of visitors to the general collection in 1 851 
(exhibition year), 2,524,754; in 1859, 517,895 ; in 1E62 (exhibition year), 895,007 ; in 1863, 440,801. 



BRO 



131 



BRU 



BROWNIAN MOTION. So called from Robert Brown, the celebrated botanist, who, 
in 1827, by the aid of the microscope, observed in tbops of dew a motion of minute particles 
which at first was attributed to rudimentary life, but was afterwards decided to be due to 
currents occasioned by iner|ualities of temperature and evaporation. 

BROWNISTS (afterwards called Barrowists), the first Independents (which see), began 
with Robert Brown, a schoolmaster in Southwark, about 1580. In 1592 there were said to 
be 20,000 Brownists. Henry Penry, Henry Barrow, and other Brownists, were cruelly 
executed for alleged sedition, May 29, 1593. 

BRUCE'S TRAVELS. James Bruce, the "Abyssinian Traveller," set out in June, 1768, 
to discover the source of the Nile. Proceeding first to Cairo, he navigated the Nile to Syene, 
thence crossed the desert to the Red Sea, and, arriving at Jedda, passed some months iu 
Arabia Felix, and after various detentions reached Gondar, the capital of Abyssinia, in Feb. 
1770. On Nov. 14th, 1770, he obtained a sight of the sources of the Blue Nile. He 
returned to England in 1773, and died in 1794. 

BRUGES, Belgium, in tlie 7th century was capital of Flanders, and in the 13th and 14th 
centuries had become almost the commercial metropolis of the world. It suffered much 
through an insurrection in 1488, and the consequent repression. It was incorporated with 
France in 1794, with the Netherlands in 1814, and with Belgium in 1830. 

BRUNSWICK CLUBS, established to maintain the house of Hanover and the Protestant 
ascendancy in church and state, began in England at Maidstone, Sept. 18, 1828 ; in Ireland 
at the Rotunda in Dublin, Nov. 4, same year. Other cities formed similar clubs. 

BRUNSWICK, House of. The duchy of Brunswick, in Lower Saxony, was conquered 
by Charlemagne, and governed afterwards by counts and dukes. Albert-Azzo, marquis of 
Italy and lord of Este, died in 1055, and left by hismfe Cunegonde (the heiress of Guelph, 
duke of Carinthia in Bavaria), a sou, Guelph, who was invited into Germany by Imitza, his 
mother-in-law, and invested with all the possessions of his wife's step-father, Guelish of 
Bavaria. (See Bavaria.) His descendant, Henry the Lion, married Maud, daughter of Henry 
II. of England, and is always looked upon as the founder of the Brunswick family. His 
dominions were very extensive ; but having refused to assist the emperor Frederick Barbarossa 
iu a war against pope Alexander III., through the emperor's resentment he was proscribed at 
the diet at Wurtzburg, in 11 80. The duchy of Bavaria was given to Otho, from whom is 
descended the fiimily of Bavai-ia ; the duchy of Saxony to Bernard Ascanius, founder of the 
house of Anhalt ; and his other territories to different persons. On this, he retired to 
England ; but at the intercession of our Henry II. Brunswick and Lunenburg were restored 
to him. The house of Brunswick in 1409 divided into several branches. Brunswick was 
included by Napoleon in the kingdom of Westphalia in 1806, but Avas restored to the duke in 
1815. — Population of the duchy of Brunswick in 1858, 273,400 ; 1862, 282,400. 

Lewis-Rodolph, and succeeded him. 

1735. Charles (son). 

1780. Charles-William-Ferdinand (son) : a great 
general (served under his uncle Ferdinand 
in the Seven Years' War, 1756-1763) ; married 
princess Augusta of England : was killed at 
the battle of Auerstadt, Oct. 14, i8o5 ; snc- 
ceeded by his fourth son (his elder sons being 
blind, abdicated). 

1806. William-Frederick, whose reign may be dated 
from the battle of Leipsic in Oct., 1813 ; fell 
at Quatre-Bnis, commanding the avanigarde 
under the duke of Wellington, June 16, 1815; 
s\xcceeded by his eldest -son, 

181 5. Charles-Frederick- William ; .assumed govern- 
ment Oct. 30, 1823. [Revolution at Bruns- 
wick ; the duke retires to England, Sept. 7, 
1830.] 

1830. WilUam-Augustns-Louis, brother ; bom April 
25, 1806; succeeded provisionally, Sept. 7, 
1830 ; and, on the demand of the Germanic 
diet, definitively, Ajiril 25, 1S31 ; the pre- 
sent duke ; uiiviarrkd. (His magnificent 
palace was destroyed by fire, Feb. 24, 1865.) 

DUKES OF BRUNSWICK-LUNEBURG. 

1409. Bernard (son of Magnus II., duke of Bruns- 
wick. See above). 
1434. Otho and Frederic (bis son.s). 
1478. Henry (son of Otho). 

K 2 



DUKES OF BRUNSWICK. 

1139. Henry the Lion, succeeded by 

1 195. Henry the Long and WiUiam (sons). 

1213. Otho I. (son of William). 

1252. Albert I. (son of preceding). 

1278. Albert II. (son). 

1318. Otho, Magnus I., and Ernest (sons). 

1368. Magnus II. (Torquatus) (son of Magnus I.) 

DUKES OF BRUNSWICK- WOLFENBUTTEL. 

Fir Sit Branch. 

1409. Henry I. (son of Magnus II.) 

1416. William I. and Henry II. (sons). 

1482. Frederic and William II. )„ „„ „r tt-it,,. t 
Ti TTT „ A -c- ■ 1 sons ot William I. 

1495. Henry III. and Enc. ) 

1514. Henry IV. (son of Henry II.) 

1568. Julius (son of preceding). 

1589. Henry Julius (son). 

1613. Froderic-Ulric (son) died without issue. 

Second Branch. 

1634. Augustus (son of Henry of Lunebui-g). 

1666. Rodolph-Augustus ; who as.sociated his next 

brother, Anthony- Ulric, in the government, 

from 1685 ; died, 1704. 
1704. Anthony Ulric now ruled alone; became a 

Roman Catholic in 1710 ; died iu 1714. 
1714. Augustus-William (son). 
1731. Lewis-Rodolph (brother). 
1735. Ferdinand-Albert, duke of Brunswick-Be vem, 

married Antoinette-Amelia, daughter of 



BRU 



132 



BUG 



BRUNSWICK, continued. 

1532. Ernest I. (son of Otho). His sons were 

1546. Henry (founder of second branch of Brunswick- 
Wolf enbuttcl) and William, whose seven sons 
cast lots to determine who should marry. 
The lot fell on George, sixth son. Four of 
the brothers reigned, viz. : — 

1592. Ernest II. "k 

1 61 1. Christian. f 

1633. Aug-ustus. po iss'^e- 

1636. Frederic II. J 



1648. Christian-Lewis (son of the George above-men- 
tioned). 

1665. George-William (brother of Christian- Lewis), 
dies in 1705 ; leaving as heiress Sophia- 
Dorothea, his daughter, who married in 
1682 her cousin, prince George-Lewis of 
Hanover, afterwards George I. of England 
(son of Ernest of Hanover, youngest son of 
the abo»e-me7itioned George. 

(See Hanover and England.) 



BRUNSWICK THEATRE, Well-street, Ea.st London, was bnilt to replace the Royalt}', 
burnt down April 11, 1826. It was opened Felj. 25, 1828. On the 29th the building was 
destroyed by the falling in of the walls, due to too much weight being attached to the heavy 
iron roof Fortunately, the catastrophe happened in the day time (during a rehearsal of Guy 
Manneriug), and only twelve persons perished. 

BRUSSELS, once capital of Austrian Brabant, now of Belgium (since 183 1), was 
founded by St. Gery, of Cambray, in the 7th century. It is celebrated for its fine lace, 
camlets, and tapestry. The Hold de Villc has a turret 364 feet in height ; and on its top is 
a copper figure of St. Michael, 17 feet high, which turns with the wind. See Belgium. 



Bombarded by marshal Villeroi, 14 churches 

and 4000 houses destroyed . . Aug. 1695 

Takenbythe French, 1746 ; and by Dumouriez, 1792 

The revolution commences . . Aug. 25, 1830 

The costly furniture of 16 houses demolished 

in consequence of a display of attachment to 

the house of Orange . . . April 5, 1834 



Maritime conference to obtain uniform me- 
teorological observations held here . . 1853 

International philanthropic congress meet 

Sept. 1856 

International 'association for social science 
meet Sept. 22-5, 1862 



BRUTTIUM (now Calabria Oltra), S. Italy. 
slew Alexander of Epirus at Pandosia, 332 B.C. 

BUBBLE COMPANIES. 



The Bruttians and Lucanians defeated and 
They were conquered by Rome, 277 B.C. 

See Companies, Law's Bubble, and South-sea Bubble. 



BUCCANEERS,* piratical adventurers, chiefly French, English, and Dutch, who com- 
menced their depredations on the Spaniards of America soon after the latter had taken 
possession of that continent and the West Indies. Their numbers were much increased by a 
twelve years' truce between the Spaniards and Dutch in 1609, when many of the discharged 
sailors joined the Buccaneers, and extended the range of their ravages. The first levy of 
ship-money in England in 1635 was to defray the expense of cha.stising these pirates. The 
principal commanders of the first Buccaneers were Montbar, Lolonois, Basco, and Morgan, 
said to have murdered thousands and plundered millions. The expedition of Van Horn, of 
Ostend, was undertaken in 1603 ; that of Gramont in 1685 ; and that of Pointis in 1697. 

BUCENTAUR, the vessel in which the doge of Venice used to proceed to wed the 
Adriatic, from the twelfth to the eighteenth century. 

BUCHANITES (in Scotland) : followers of Mrs. Buchan, who about 1779 promised to 
conduct them to the new Jerusalem, prophesied the end of the world, «&c. She died in 1791, 
when her followers dispersed. 

BUCHAREST (in Wallachia). Preliminaries of peace were ratified at this place between 
Russia and Turkey, it being stipulated that the Pruth should be the frontier of the two 
empires ; signed May 28, 1812. The subsequent war between these powers altered many of 
the provisions of this treaty. Bucharest was occupied by the Eu.ssians, Turks, and Austriaus 
sticcessively in the Crimean war. The last quitted it in 1856. 

BUCKINCJHAM PALACE, the London residence of the sovereign. Old Buckingham- 
house was built on the "Mulberry-gardens," by John Sheffield, duke of Buckingham, in 
1703. In 1761 it was bought by George III., who in 1775 settled it on his queen, Charlotte. 
She made it her town residence ; and here all her children, except the eldest, were born. 
Here were married the duke of York and princess Frederica of Prussia, in 1791 ; the duke 
of Gloucester and princess Mary, 1816 ; the prince of Hesse-Hom burg and princess Elizabeth, 
181 8 ; and the duke of Cambridge and princess of Hes.se the same year. The house was pulled 
down in 1825, and the present jjalace commenced on its site. After an expenditure of 

* Raynal asserts that the na me is derived from a Caribbee word boucan, signifying the place where 
the native savages dried their fo od by smoke ; a custom necessarily adopted by the pirates from their 
mode of life. 



BUC 133 BUI 

nearly a million sterling it was completed, and occupied by queen Victoi'ia, July 13, 1837. 
Further improvements were made in 1853. The marble arch, taken down from the exterior 
of this palace was re-erected at Cumberland-gate, Hyde-park, March 29, 185 1. 

BUCKLERS, used in single combat, are said to have been invented by Proetus and 
Acrisius of Argos, about 1370 B.C. When Lucius Papirius defeated the Samnites, he took 
from them bucklers of gold and silver, 309 B.C. The light cuirass of the horse-soldiers called 
cuirassiers is something akin to the ancient buckler. 

BUCKLES were first worn instead of shoe-strings in the reign of Charles II., and soon 
became fashionable and expensive from the richness of their material ; aboiit 1791 they had 
fallen out of use. Buckles continue to be used in court dress and by persons of rank in most 
countries of Europe. 

BUDA, on the Danube, once called the Key of Christendom, is, in conjunction with Pesth, 
the capital of Hungary. It was taken by Charlemagne in 799 ; and sacked by Solj'man II. 
after the battle of Mohatz, when the Hungarian king, Louis, was killed, and 200,000 of his 
subjects carried away captives, 1526. Buda was sacked a second time, when the inhabitants 
were put to the sword, and Hungary was annexed to the Ottoman empire, 1541- Retaken 
by the Imperialists, under the duke of Lorraine, and the Mahometans delivered up to the 
fury of the soldiers, 1686. It suffered much in 1848-9. See Hungary. 

BUUE LIGHT (so named from Bude in Cornwall, the residence of Mr. Goldsworthy 
Giimey, its inventor), consists of two or more concentric argand gas-burners, one rising above 
another, which produce a most brilliant flame, like the petals of a rose. The illuminating 
powers were increased by subjecting to the action of the flame manganese, &c., in order to 
produce oxygen and hydrogen gas. The patent was issued in 1841. 

BUDDHISM, the relignon {formerly of India, and now of a large part of Asia beyond the 
Ganges and Japan) from which Brahminism is said to be derived. Buddha (also Bud, Bot, 
and Root), or the Wise, flourished about 1000 or 800 B.C. The Buddhists believe that the 
soirl is an emanation from God, and that if it continue virtuous, it will return to him on the 
death of the body ; but if not so, that it will undergo various degrees and changes of abode. 
Buddhism was expeUed from India about A.D. 956. 

BUDGET (from the French hougctte, a small bag), a term applied to the English chan- 
cellor of exchequer's statement of the finances of the country. The budgets of Sir R. Peel 
in 1842 (including the income-tax) and 1846 (free trade), and of Mr. Gladstone in i860 (in 
connection with the treaty M'ith France), are the most important in recent times. 

BUENOS AYRES, a republic of S. America. The country was explored by Sebastian 
Cabot in 1526, and the capital founded by Don Pedro de Mendoza in I535._ In 1585 the 
city was rebuilt and recolouised, after several abandonments. Population in 1859 about 
350,000. 

Urquiza deposed, Sept. 10 ; invests the city ; 
after some successes lie retires . . Dec. 1852 

Buenos Ayres secedes from the Argentine con- 
federation, and is recognised as an inde- 
pendent state ; the first governor, Dr. D. 
Pastor Obligado, elected . . Oct. 12, 1853 

Dr. Valentin Alsina elected governor . May, 1857 

War breaks out ; Urquiza, general of the forces 
of the Argentine confederation, has an inde- 
cisive conflict with the Buenos Ayres general 
Mitre Oct. 23, 1859 

A treaty signed, by which Buenos Ayres is re- 
united with the Argentine confederation 

Nov. II, 1859 

Fresh contests : Mitre defeats Urquiza in an 
almost bloodless contest at Pavon ; Urquiza 
retires ...."■.. Sept. 17, 1861 



A British fleet and army, under sii- Home Pop- 
ham and general Beresford, take the city 
with slight resistance, June 27 ; it is re- 
taken Aug. 12 1806 

Monte Video taken by storm by sir Samuel 
Auchmuty, Feb. 3 ; evacuated July 7 . . 1807 

General Whitelock and 8000 British enter 
Buenos Ayres ; severely repulsed . July 5, 1807 

Independence of the province declared, July 19, 1816 

Recognised as forming part of the Argentine 
confederation Feb. 1822 

[A prey to civil war through the violent in- 
trigues of Rosas, Oribe, Urquiza, and others, 
for many years.] 

Oribe defeated by general Urquiza, to whom 
Buenos Ajtcs capitulates . . Feb. 3, 1852 

Rosas flees, arrives at Plymouth . AprU 25, ,, 

BUFFOONS were originally mountebanks in the Roman theatres. Their .shows were 
discouraged by Domitian, and abolished by Trajan, 98. See Jesters. 

BUILDING. In early times men dwelt in caves ; wood and clay were the first building 
materials. Building with stone was early among the Tyrians ; in England it may be referred 
to Benedict the monk, about 670. In Ireland a castle was built of stone at Tuam by the 
king of Connaught, in 1161 ; and it was "so new and uncommon as to be called the 



BUI 134 BUL 



^Vonderful Castle _ Building with brick was introduced by the Romans into their provinces 
Altred encourac^ed it m England in 886. It was adopted by the earl of Arundel, about i qgS 
London being then almost wholly built of wood. See Architecture. 

■ ??^^^^^^ ^^"^^ ^^^^^ P''^^'^'^^ ^y Elizabeth in 1562, 1580, and 1592 ; and by Charles II. 
m 1007. Ivecent acts are very numerous ; and building is now regulated by strincrent pro- 
..visions enforced by law. The Building Act for the Metropolis is 7 & 8 Vict, c 84 (1844) 
amended in 1855 and i860. ^ ^ ^^'' 

BUILDING SOCIETIES, formed to enable a person to purchase a house by pavino' 
money periodical y to a society for a certain number of years, instead of paying rent to a 
hindlord, began about 1836, when an act was passed for their regulation, 

BULGARIA, anciently Moesia, now part of European Turkey. The Bulgarians were a 
bJavonian tribe, who harassed the Eastern empire and Italy from 499 to 678, when thev 
established a kingdom. They defeated Justinian II. , 687 ; but were subdued, after several 
conHicts, by the emperor Basil, in 1018, who in 1014, having taken ic,ooo Bul<^arian 
prisoners, caused their eyes to be put out, leaving one eye only to every hundredth niMi to 
enable him to conduct his countrymen home. The kingdom was re-established in 1096 • but 
atter niany changes, it was conquered and annexed to the Ottoman empire, about ngi ' In 
churcli '* '^""'^ ''^'''^''^ ^^^^ ^^^ Bulgarians had seceded from .tlie Greek to the Roman 

BULL, OR Edict of the Pope. The bulla is properly the seal, either of gold, silver 
lead or wax. On one side are the heads of Peter and Paul ; and on the other the name 
ot the pope, and year of his pontificate. A bull against heresy was issued by Gre<rory IX 
m 1231. Pius V. published a bull against Elizabeth, April 25, 1570; in 1571 bulls were 
torbidden to be promulgated in England. The -bull Unigeniius against the Jansenites was 
issued by Clement XI. in 1713. The Golden Bull of the emperor Charles IV.. so called 
troin Its golden seal, was made the fundamental law of the German empire, at the diet of 
Nuremberg, 1356. See Brazen Bull. ^ ' 

BULL-BAITING, or Bull Fighting, a sport somewhat equivalent to the fights of the 
gladiators among the Romans, still exists in Spain, where the ladies are among the spectators 
It IS recorded as being an amusement at Stamford so early as the reign of John 1209 BuU- 
runmiig was a sport at Tutbury in 1374. In the Sports of England-, we read of the "Easter 
fierce hunts, when foaming boars fought for their heads, and lusty bulls and huge bears were 
baited with dogs ; and near the Clmk, London, was the Paris, or Bear Garden, so celebrated 
?%M?. T ?.\^r'?,^"'?*^} ^°^ *^i^ exhibition of bear-baiting, then a fashionable amusement. 
A bill to abolish bull-baitmg was thrown out in the commons, chiefly through the influence 
ot the late Mr. Windham, who made a singular speech in favour of the custom. May 24 
1802 It was made illegal in 1835. See Cniclti/ to Animals. Bull-fights were introduced 
into Spam about 1260 : abolished there, "except for 2noics and 2)atriotic purposes," in 1784 
In June, 1833, ninety-nine bulls were killed at bull-fights at Madrid. There was a bull- 
hght at Lisbon, at Campo de Santa Anna, attended by 10,000 spectators, on Sunday 
June 14, 1840. •" 

BULLETS of stone were in use, 15 14. Iron ones are mentioned in the Fmdera, i^ito 
Leaden bullets were made before the close of the sixteenth century. The cannon-ball in 
some eastern countries was long of stone. Ashe. The conoidal cup rifle-ball was invented 
by_ capt. Mini(5, about 1833 ; a modification of this (conoidal but without cup), by Mr 
Pritchett (1853), is used with the Enfield rifle. Other bullets have been since devised. 

BULLION, uncoined gold and silver. The " Bullion Report" of a parliamentary com- 
mittee in 1810, principally guided by Mr. Horner and Mr. (afterwards Sir R. ) Peel, established 
the c^onclusion, that paper money is always liable to be over-issued and consequently depre- 
ciated, unless itbe at all times immediately convertible into gold. This principle has been 
adopted m British monetary arrangements. 

BULL RUN BATTLES. See Manassas. 

BULWER-CLAYTON TREATY, ratified July 4, 1850, by which sir Henry Lytton ' 
Bulwcr on behalf of the British, and Mr. Clayton on behalf of the American government, 
declared that neither would obtain exclusive control over the proposed ship canal throu^di 
Central America, or erect any fortification on any part of the country. Disputes afterwards 
arose with respect to this treaty and the connection of Great Britain with the Mosquito 
territory {which sec), which were settled in 1S57. 



BUN 135 BUR 

BUNKER'S HILL (near Boston, U.S.), the site of a severe contest on June 17, 1775, 
between the British (nearly 3000) and the revolted Americans (about 2000) ; the latter were 
ultimately compelled to retreat. It was one of the earliest actions iu the war, and the 
Americans refer to it with national ]iride, on account of their heroic resistance. Ralph 
Farnham, who was present at the battle, died on Dec. 28, i860, aged 1044 j'ears. He was 
introduced to the prince of Wales when in America. 

BUONAPARTE. See France. 

BURFORD CLUB, the appellation given (according to Mr. Layer, the barrister, a con- 
spirator, see Layer) by the Pretender antl liis agents to a club of Tory lords and others, of 
which lord Orrery was chairman, and lord Strafford, sir Henry Goring, lord Cowper, Mr. 
Hutcheson, the bishop of Rochester, sir Constantine Phipps, general Webb, lord Bingley, 
lord Craven, Mr. Dawkins, lord Scarsdale, lord Bathurst, Mr. Shippen, and lord Gower, 
were members. This club was said to meet at the members' houses, to form designs against 
the government. This story was set aside by the solemn declarations of lord Cowper and lord 
Stratford, that they did not know of its existence. The list of this pretended club was 
published in the Weekly Journal, printed in Whitefriars ; but when Read, the printer of the 
paper, was ordered to appear at the bar of the house, he absconded. March, 1722. Salmon. 

BURGESSES, from the French Bourgeois, a distinction coeval in England with its corpo- 
rations. They were called to parliament in England, 1265 ; in Scotland in 1326 ; and iu 
Ireland about, 1365. Burgesses to be resident in the places they represented in parliament, 
I Hen. V. (1413). See Borough. 

BURGHER SECEDERS, a small number of dissenters from the clmrch of Scotland, 
from a difference regarding the lawfulness of taking the burgess oath, 1739- 

BURGLARY was a capital offence till 1829. Formerly, he who convicted a burglar was 
exempted from parish offices, 1699 ; Statute of Rewards, 5 Anne, 1706 ; and 6 Geo. 1. 1720. 
Receivers of stolen plate and other goods to be transported, 10 Geo. III. 1770. Persons 
having upon them picklock-keys, &c., to be deemed rogues and vagabonds, 13 Geo. III. 
1772-3. The laws with respect to burglary were amended by Mr. (afterwards sir Robert) 
Peel's acts between 1823 and 1829. 

BURGOS (Spain), the burial place of the Cid, 1099. Lord Wellington entered Burgos 
on Sept. 19, after the battle of Salamanca (fought July 22, 1812). The castle was besieged 
by the British and allied army, but the siege was abandoned Oct. 21, same year. The forti- 
fications were blown up by the Freuch, June 12, 1813. 

BURGUNDY, a large province in France, derives its name from the Burgnndians, a 
Gothic tribe who overran Gaul in 275, but were driven out by the emperor Probus : they 
returned in 287, and were defeated by ilaximin. In 413 they established a KTNGDO>r, 
comprising the pi'esent Burgundy, large parts of Switzerland, with Alsace, Savoy, Provence, 
&c. Gondicar, their leader, was the first king. — The second kingdom, consisting of a part of 
the first, began with Gontran, son of Clotaire I. of France, in 561. The kingdom of Aries, 
Provence, and Transjurane Burgundy, were formed out of the old kingdom. — In 877 Charles 
the Bald made his brother-in-law Richard the first Duke of Burgundy. In 938, Hugh the 
Great, count of Paris, f(iunder of the house of Capet, obtained the duchy. His descendant, 
Henry, on becoming king of France, conferred it on his brother Robert, in whose family it 
remained till the death of Philippe de Rouvre, without issue, in 1361. In 1363, king John 
of France, made his fourth son, Philip, duke, who greatly enlarged his dominons by marrying 
the heiress of Louis, count of Flanders, Artois, &c. (See Austria and Germany.) 



1363. Philip the Bold. 

1404. John the Fearless (son), joined English in- 
vading France ; supposed to have been privy 
to the assassination of the duke of Orleans 
in 1407 ; was himself as.sassinated at Mon- 
tereau, in the presence of the dauphin, Sept., 
1 4 19. 



in the world ; married to Margaret of York, 

sister to Kdward IV. 
1467. Charles the Bold : killed in an engagement 

with the Swiss, before Nancy, Jan. 4, 1477. 
1477. Mary (daughter); married Aug., 1477, to 

Maximilian of Austria ; died Alarch 27, 1482. 
1479. Louis XI. annexed Burgundyto France. The 



1419. Philip the Good (son), the most powerful duke I other donunions fell to Austria. 

BURIALS. Abraham buried Sarah at Machpelah, i860 B.C., Gen. xxiii. Places of 
burial were consecrated under pope Calixtus I. in a.d. 210. Eusehius. The Greeks had 
their burial-places at a distance from their towns ; the Romans near the highways ; hence 
the necessity for inscriptions. The first Christian burial-place, it is said, was instituted iu 
596 ; burial in cities, 742 ; in consecrated places, 750 ; in churchyards, 758. Many of the 
early Christians are buried in the catacombs at Rome. See Catacombs. Vaults were 



BUR 



136 



BUR 



erected in chancels first at Canterbury, 1075. "Woollen sliroiuls were used in England, 1666. 
Linen scarfs were introduced at funerals in Ireland, 1729; and woollen shrouds used, 1735. 
Burials were taxed, 1695 — again, 1783. The acts relating to metropolitan burials were 
passed 1853, 1854, 1855, and 1857. See Cemeteries. Parochial registers of burials, births, 
and marriages, were instituted in England by Cromwell, lord Essex, about 1538. Stow. 
A tax was enacted on burials in England— for the burial of a duke 50Z., and for that of a 
common person 45. — under Will. III. 1695, and Geo. III. 1783. 'tice. Bills of Mortality. 

BURKING, a new species of murder, committed in Britain, thus named from Burke, the 
first known criminal by whom it was perpetrated. His victims were killed by pressure or 
other modes of suffocation, and the bodies, which exhibited no marks of violence, were sold 
to the surgeons for dissection. He was executed at Edinburgh, Jan. 28, 1829. A monster 
named Bishop was apprehended in Nov. 1831, and executed in London, Dec. 5, with 
Williams, one of his accomplices, for the murder of a poor friendless Italian boy named 
Carlo Ferrari. They confessed to this and other similar murders. 

BURLINGTON HEIGHTS. Here a fierce contest took place between the British and 
the United States American forces, June 6, 1813. The British carried the heights. 

BURMESE, OR BIRMAN, EMPIRE, founded in the middle of the i8th century by 
Alompra, the first sovereign of the present dynasty. Our first dispute with this formidable 
power in 1795, was amicably adjusted by general Erskine. Hostilities were commenced by 
the British in 1824, and they took Rangoon on May 11. The fort and pagoda of Syriam 
were taken in 1825. After a short armistice, hostilities were renewed, Dec. i, same year, 
and pursued until tlie successive victories of the British led to the cession of Arracan, and to 
the signature of peace, Feb. 24, 1826. For the events of this war, and of the war in 1851, 
see Jndia. Pegu was annexed to our Indian empire, Dec. 20, 1852. The war ended June 
20, 1853. 

BURNING ALIVE was inflicted among the Romans, Jews, and other nations, on the 
betrayers of counsels, incendiaries, and for incest. The Britons punished heinous crimes by 
burning alive in wicker-baskets. See Stonclungc. — This punishment was countenanced by 
bulls of the pope ; and witches suffered in this manner. See Witches. Many persons have 
been burned alive on account of religious principles. The first sufferer was sir William 
Sawtre, parish prie.st of St. Osyth, London, 3 Hen. IV., Feb. 9, 1401. In the reign of 
ilary, numbers were burned ; among others, Ridley, bishop of London, Latimer, bishop of 
Rochester, and Cranmer, archbishop of Canterburj'^, at Oxford in 1555 and 1556.* 
Bartholomew Leggatt and Edward Wightman were burned for heresy in 1612, bj- warrant 
of James I. 

BURNING THE DEAD was practised among the Greeks and Romans, and the poet 
Homer gives descriptions of it. It was very general about 1225 B.C., and was revived by 
Sylla about 78 B.C. It is still practised in parts of the East Indies. See SzUtces, Barrows. 

BURNING-GLASS and Concave Mirrors. Their power was known to Archimedes, 
and it is even asserted that by their aid he burnt a fleet in the harbour of Syracuse, 214 B.C. ; 
their powers were increased by Settalla ; Tschirnhausen, 1680 ; Buffon, 1747 ; and Parker 
and others more recently. The following experiments were made about 1800, with Mr. 
Parker's lens or burning mirror, which cost 700?., and is said to liave been the largest ever 
made. It was sold to capt. Mackenzie, who took it to China, and left it at Pekin. 

Substances fused. ■ Wtight. Time. 

Pure gold 20 grains 4 seconds. 

Silver 20 ,, 3 ,, 

Copper 33 ,, 20 ,, 

Platina 10 ,, 3 ,, 

Cast iron (a cube) . . . 10 ,, 3 ,, 

Steel 10 ,, 12 ,, 

A topaz 3 -, 45 J. 

An emerald . . . . 2 ,, 25 ,, 

BURAVELL FIRE. A number of persons assembled to see a puppet-show in a barn at 
Burwell near Newmarket, Sept. 8, 1727. A candle having set fire to a heap of straw, 
seventy-six individuals perished, and others died of their wounds. 

* It is computed, that during the three years of Mary's reign, there were 277 persons brought to the 
stake ; besides those who were punished by imprisonment, fines, and confiscations. Among those who 
suffered by fire were 5 bishops, 21 clergymen, 8 lay gentlemen, 84 tradesmen, 100 husbandmen, servants, 
and labourers, 55 women, and 4 children. The principal agents of the queen were the bishops Gardiner 
and Bonner. The latter is said to have derived a savage pleasure fi-om witnessing the torture of the 
sufferers. 



IVeiffht. 7'ime. 
7 grains 6 seconds. 

O >> 30 J. 

3 ,, 75 



Substances fused. 

A crystal pebble . 

Fhnt .... 

Cornelian 

Pumice stone ... 

Green wood takes fire instantaneously ; water boils 
immediately ; bones are calcined ; and things not 
capable of molting at once become red-hot, like 
u-on. 



BUR 137 BUT 

BURY ST. EDMUND'S, SuHolk, nametl from St. Edmund, king of East Anglia, who 
was murdered by the Danes in 870, and buried here, and to whom its magnificent abbey was 
founded. It shares with Runnymede the honour of producing Magna Charta in 1215 ; it 
havino-been prepared here by the barons in 1214. Henry VI. summoned a parliament m 
1447, when Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, was imprisoned, and died here, it is supposed by 
poison. It was almost consumed by fire in 1608 ; and was desolated by plague in 1636. 

BURYING ALIVE. A mode of death adopted in Bceotia, where Creon ordered Antigone, 
the sister of Polynices, to be buried alive, 1225 B.C. The Roman vestals were subjected to 
it for any levity that excited suspicion of their chastity. Tlie vestals buried alive on a charge 
of incontinence, were Minutia, 337 B.C. ; Sextilla, 274 B.C. ; Cornelia, A. D. 92. Lord Bacon 
o-ives instances of the resurrection of persons who had been buried alive ; the famous Duns 
Scotus is of the number. The two assassins of Capo d'Istria, president of Greece, were 
sentenced to be immured in brick walls built around them up to their chins, and to be 
supplied with food iu this species of torture until they died, Oct. 183 1. 

BUSACO or BuzAco (Portugal). Here the British, under lord Wellington, repulsed 
the French army, commanded by Massena, Sept. 27, 1810. The latter losing one general 
and 1000 men killed, two generals and about 3000 men wounded, and several hundred 
iirisoners • the loss of the aUies did not exceed 1300 ; the British retreated to the lines of 
Torres Vedras, which were too strong for Massena to force, and the two armies remained m 
sight of each other to the end of the year. 

BUSHEL This measure was ordered to contain eight gallons of wheat, 12 Henry VIII. 
ic;20- the legal Winchester bushel was regulated 9 Will. III. 1697; the imperial corn 
bushel of 2218-192 cubic inches is to the Winchester of 2150-42, as 32 to 31. Regulated by 
act 5 Geo. IV. June, 1824, which act came into operation Jan. i, 1826. 

BUSHIRE (on the Persian Gulf), attacked by sea by sir H. Leeke and by land by 
r^-eueral Stalker, was taken Dec. 10, 1856. The place proved stronger than was expected, 
and was bravely defended. Brigadier Stopford and col. Malet were killed in a previous 
attack on the fort at Reshire, Dec. 9. The loss of the British was four officers killed, and 
one wounded ; five men killed and thirty-five wounded. 

BUSSORAH. See Bassomh. 

BUSTS This mode of preserving the remembrance of the human features is the same 
with the JmcK of the Greeks. Lysistratus, the statuary, was the inventor of moulds, from 
which he cast wax figures, 328 B.C. PUmj. Busts from the face m plaster of Pans were 
lirst taken by Andrea Verrochi, about A.D. 1466. Smaller busts and statuettes are now 
accurately x^roduced from larger -ones by machinery. 

BUTCHERS Among the Romans there were three classes : the Suarii provided hogs, 
the Boarii oxen, which the Lanii killed. The butchers' company in London is ancient, 
although not incorporated tiU 1604. 

BUTE ADMINISTRATION. John earl of Bute, tutor of prince George (afterwards 
George III.), obtained great influence over him. His administration formed in May, 1762, 
resigned April, 1763. It was severely attacked by Junius and John Wilkes. 

^^^^S^[>SJ^?r<^^^.y^Se.u... j S?^x:^t^?^^ord Holland, ,a,.nasUr of 
^:'^^^^r^yl:il'" """"' v/scoffiarnngton, treasurer oj ike na.y. 

HHiSS^..eOre..n., ..... \ KS^f ^^ot,.. H..Un.don , 
of state. '' ' 

BUTTER It was late before the Greeks had any notion of butter, and by the early 
Romans it was used only as a medicine-never as food. The Christians of Egypt burnt 
bX hi heir lamps instead of oil, in the 3rd century. Butter forming an important article 
of com erce as we las food in these countries, various statutes have passed respecting its 
packaT wei4t, and sale ; the principal of which are the 36th & 3Sth Geo. III. and 10 Geo 
fv 1829 In Africa, vcgUablJ buttir is made from the fruit of the J-^ /ree and is of 
richer taste at Kebba, tlmn any butter made from cow's milk. Mungo Park. The impoit 
duty of 5. per cwt. on foreign butter (producing in 1859, 104,587^- on 421,354 cwts.) was 
repealed in i860. 



BUT 138 CAB 

BUTTONS, an early manufacture in England ; those covered with cloth were prohibited 
"by a statiite, thereby to encourage the manufacture of metal buttons, 8 Geo. I. 1721. They 
are now made of glass, porcelain, &c. 

BUXAE, a town in Bengal, near to which, on Oct. 23, 1764, sir Hector Monro (with 
857 Europeans and 6215 sepoys) gained a great victory over the troops of the nabob of Oude, 
&c., 50,000 m number ; 6000 of these were killed, and 130 pieces of cannon were taken. 
The loss of the English was trifling. 

BY-LAWS, OR Bye-Laws (from Danish, hjc), a town, private ordinances made by sub- 
ordinate communities, such as corporations. These laws must not militate against the law 
of the land. By 5 & 6 Will. IV. 1834, those made by corporate bodies become valid, if not 
disallowed by the king's council within forty days after their enactment. 

BYFG, Hon. Admiral John, was charged with neglect of duty in an engagement with 
the enemy off Minorca, May 20, 1756, condemned for an error of judgment, and shot on 
board the Monarch at Spithead, March 14, 1757. 

BYRON'S VOYAGE. Commodore Byron left England on his voyage round the globe 
June 21, 1764, and returned May 9, 1766. He discovered the populous island in the Pacific 
Ocean which bears his name, Aug. 16, 1765. Though brave and intrepid, such was his 
general ill-fortune at sea, that he was called by the sailors of the fleet " Foulweather Jack." 
BYZANTIUM, now Gonstantincyplc, founded by a colony of Megarians, under B3^zas, 
667 B.C. ; but various dates and persons are given. It was taken successively by the Medes, 
Athenians, and Spartans. In 340 B.C., in alliance with the Athenians, the Byzantines 
defeated the fleet of Philip of Macedon. During the w^ars with Macedon, Syria, &c., it 
became an ally of the Romans, by whom it was taken, a.d. 73. Rebelling, it was taken 
after two years' siege and laid in ruins by Severus in 196. Byzantium was re-founded by 
Constantine in 324, and dedicated in May 22, 330, all the heathen temples being destroyed ; 
from_ him it received the name of Constantinople. See Constaniinople. Byzantine Art 
flourished from the time of Constantine to about 1204. The Byzantine or Eastern empire 
really commenced in A.D. 395, when Theodosius divided the Roman empire. See East. 



C. 

CABAL (from Italian and Spanish, cabala, secret knowledge). In English history the 
term was applied to the cabinet of Charles II. in 1670 ; the word Cabal being formed frorn the 
initials of their names : sir Thomas, afterwards lord Cliff'ord (C) ; the lord Ashley (A), 
(afterwards earl of Shaftesbury); George Villiers, duke of Buckingham (B) • Henry lord 
Arlington (A) ; and John, duke of Lauderdale (L). * 

CABBAGE. Varieties were brought to these realms from Holland about 15 10. To sir 
Arthur Ashley of Dorset the first planting in England is ascribed. It was introduced into 
Scotland by the soldiers of Cromwell's army. See Gardening. 

CABBALA, a Hebrew word, signifying recension or tradition, applied to a mystical mode 
of interpreting the Scriptures as well as natural things, said to have been given to Adam by 
angels, and transmitted from fbither to son by his descendants. It is said to have been lost 
at the Babylonian captivity (587 B.C.), but to have been revealed again to Ezra. The 
Cabbalists were opposed by the philosophers and by Talmudists, which see. 

CABINET COUNCIL. There were councils in England as early as the reign of Ina 
king of the West Saxons, 690 ; Off"a, king of the Mercians, 758 ; and in other reigns of the 
Heptarchy. State councils are referred to Alfred the Great. Spelman. See Adminis- 
trations, p. 8. 

CABLES. A machme was invented in 1792, for making the largest, by which human 
labour was reduced nine-tenths. Chain cables were introduced into the British navy 
about 1812. 

CABRIOLETS {vulgo Cabs), one-horsed vehicles, were introduced into the streets of 
London m 1823, when the number plying was twelve. In 183 1 they had increased to 165 
and then the licences were thrown open. The number in 1862 running m the metropolis 
exceeded 6000 (of which about 1800 only plied on Sunday). Previous to throwing open the 
trade, the number of hackney carriages was limited to 1200, when there were few omnibuses, 
tvhich see. 



CAB 



139 



C^ 



Cabmen's clubs began at Paddington in . Feb. 

A London General Cab Company published its 
prosijectus, professing a reformed system, 

July, 

Cab Tragedi/.—S. H. Hunt, a servant of Butler 
and MacCulloch's, seedsmen, Covent-garden, 
London, poisoned his wife and children in a 
cab, on Nov. 7, 1863 ; and himself on Nov. g, 
at his own house, just before his apprehen- 
sion. 

The cabmen in Paris strike against a company ; 

above 3000 vehicles stopped, June 16 ; fierce 

attack on men who give in ; strike subsides, 

June 23, 



CABRIOLETS, continued. 

\ Cab Strike.— On Jinie 28, 1853, an act (called 
t Mr. FitzRoy's act) was passed for "the bet- 
ter regulation of metropolitan stage and 
hackney carriages, and h'T prohibiting the 
use of advertising vehicles," by which the 

• cab fares were reduced to 6d. a mile. It came 

' into operation July 11, and on the 27th a 
general strike of the Ijondon cabmen took 
place. Much inconvenience was felt, and 
every kind of vehicle was employed to sup- 
ply the 'deficiency. Some alterations (pre- 
viously agi'ccd on) having been made in tbe 
act, the cabs re-appeared on the stands on 
the 30th. 

CABUL, OR Cabool, a city of Afghanistan, taken 977 by Sulnictajeen, grandfather of 
Mahomed, founder of the Gaznevide dynasty. It was taken by Nadir Sliah in 1738. It was 
the capital of the Durani empire at the end of the last century. In 1809 the sovereign Shah 
Soojah was expelled, and eventually Cabul came into the hands of Dost Mahomed, a clever and 
ambitious chieftain. In 1839 the Briti.sh restored Shah Soojah ; but in 1842 a dreadful out- 
break took place. The chief Briti.sh civil officer, sir Wm. M'Naghten, was massacred, and 
the British commenced a most disastrous retreat. Of 3849 soldiers, and about 12,000 camp 
followers, only one European, Dr. Di-yden, and four or five natives escaped. In the same 
year (Sept. 16) general afterwards sir George Pollock retook the town, and rescued lady Sale 
and many of the prisoners. After destroying many public buildings, he left Cabul to its 
fate, Oct. 12, 1842. 

CADDEE, OR League of God's House, the celebrated league of independence in Swit- 
2erland, formed by the Grisons to resist domestic tyrannj', 1400 to 1419. A second league 
of the Grisons was called the Grise or Gray League, about 1424. A third league, called the 
League of Ten Jurisdictions, was formed in 1436. 

CADE'S INSURRECTION. Jack Cade, an Irishman, a fugitive on account of his 
crimes, assumed the name of Mortimer, and headed about 20,000 Kentish men, who armed 
"to punish evil ministers, and procure a redress of grievances." He defeated and slew sir 
Humphrey Stafford, at Sevenoaks, Jime 27, 1450 ; entered London in triumph, and Ijeheaded 
the lord treasurer, lord Sayc, and several other persons of consequence, July 3. The in.sur- 
gents at length lo.sing ground, a general pardon was proclaimed ; and Cade, deserted by his 
followers, fled. A reward was offered for his ajiprehension : he was discovered, and refusing 
to surrender, was slain by Alexander Iden, sheriff of Kent, July 11. 

CADIZ (W. Spain), anciently Cadiz, the Roman Gades ; said to have been built by the 
Phcenicians. 



a frigate suiTender to the Spaniards and 

British June 14, 

Besieged by the French, but the siege was 

raised after the battle of Salamanca . July, 
Massacre of a thousand inhabitants by the 

soldiery ..... March 10, 
Taken by the French in 1823, and held till 
Declaimed a free port 



1808 
1812 



One hundred vessels of the Spanish armada 

destroj'ed in the port by sir Francis Drake . 1587 
Cadiz was taken by the Enghsh, under the earl 

of Essex, and plundered . . Sejit. 15, 1596 
Vainly attacked by sir Geoi-ge Rookc . . 1702 
Bombarded by the British in . . . . 1797 
Blockaded by lord St. Vincent for two years 1797-9 
Again bombarded by the British . . Oct. 1800 
A French squadron of five ships of the line and 

CADMIUM, a metal, discovered by Stromeyer in 1818. 

CAEN (N. France), a place of importance before 912, Avhen it became the capital of the 
possessions of the Normans, under whom it flouiished. It was taken by the English in 1346 
and 141 7 ; but was finally recovered by the French in 1450. 

CAERNARVON (N. Wales). In the castle (founded in 1283 or 1284) Edward II. was 
born, April 25, 1284; and the town was chartered by Edward I. in the same year. The 
town suffered bj'^ the civil war of Charles, but was finally retained for the parliament. 

CiESAREAN SECTION, which, it is said, first gave the name of Cajsar to the Roman 
family, is performed by cutting the child out of the womb, when it cannot otherwise be 
delivered. The case of Alice O'Neal, an Irishwoman, who survived the section, which was 
performed by a female, is authenticated by Dr. Gabriel King, of Armagh, and surgeon Duncan 
Stewart, of Dungannon. In Jan. 1847, the operation was performed in St. Bartliolomew's 
hospital, London, on a young woman of diminutive stature, under the influence of ether : 



C^ 140 CAL I 

Lilt she died the next day. On Dec. 9, i860, a simihir operation was successfully perfomea 
by Dr. James Edmunds at Bethnal Green. On the continent the operation is said to hav.- 
been more frequent and more successful. Cooper's Surgical Dictionary (ed. 1861) contains 
a table, which, out of 2009 cases, gives a mortality of 55-4 per cent, of the mothers and 
29-45 pel' cent, of the children. 

CiESARS. See Rome : E7nperors. The Era of the Caesars or Spanish Era, is reckoned 
trom the ist of Jan. 38 B.C., being the year following the conquest of Spain by Augustus, 
it was much used m Africa, Spain, and the south of France ; but by a synod held in 1180 
its use was abolished in all the churches dependent on Barcelona. Pedro IV. of Arragon 
abolished the use of it in his dominions in 1350. John of Castile did the same in 1383. It 
was used in Portugal till 1415, if not till 1422. The months and days of this era are 
Identical with the Julian calendar ; and to turn the time into that of our era, subtract thirty- 
eight from the year ; but if before the Christian era, subtract thirty-nine. 
_ CiESIUM (Latin, bluish), a rare alkaline metal, found in some mineral waters by Bunsen 
in Iboi, by means of the "Spectrum analysis," which see. 

CAFFEARIA, and Caffue War. See Kaffraria. 
CAGLIARI. See Naples, note. 

CA IRA ! the burden of a popular song, during the French revolution, 1791 : 
"Ah! (jaira, f a ira, ?a ira ! Les Aristocratesalalanteme!" (" It will proceed ! &c. Hang the aristocrats.") 

CAI-FONG (China), was besieged by 100,000 rebels, in 1642. The commander of the 
relieving forces, in order to drown the enemy, broke down its embankments. AU the 
besiegers perished ; but 300,000 of the citizens also. 

CAIRO, OR Grand Cairo, the modern capital of Egyi^t, remarkable for the minarets of 
Its mosques, and the sepulchres of its caliphs, in what is called the " city of the dead." 

It was built by the Saracens . . .569, when 40,000 persons perished JuneiT.:.! 

Tader^ ^"^ '^ occupation by the Cru- Taken by'the French undei Napoleon Bona- "'^ 

Taken by th^ Turks from tke Egyptian sultans \7y iS^i^'^^^^^ w/en ^60^0^0 ''"' 
Rumed by an earthquake and a great fire, | French capitulated . . ' . Jime 27° i8ox 

CALABRIA (the ancient Messapia, S.E. Italy), was conquered by the Romans, 266 B c 
It formed part of the kingdom of the Ostrogoths under Theodoric, a.d. 493 ■ was re-con- 
quered (for the Eastern empire) by Belisarius, 536 ; subdued by the Lombards and joined 
to the duchy of Benevento 572. After various changes, it was conquered by Robert 
Guiscard, the Norman, 1058, who obtained the title of duke of Calabria, and eventually 
that 01 king 01 Naples. See A^aplcs. •' ^ 

1, 1 F^H^^/^-. ^- ^^'^i^ce), taken by Edward III. after a year's siege, Aug. 4 1^47 and 
held by England 210 years. It was retaken by the duke of Guise, iS the ?eigu of Mary 
Jan. 7, 1558, and its loss so deeply touched the queen's heart, as to cause some to .say it 
occasioned her death, which occurred soon afterwards, Nov. 17, same year "When I am ' 
dead, said the queen, "Calais will be found written on my heart." It was held by the 
Spaniards, 1594-6 ; and was bombarded by the English, 1694. Here Louis XYIII. landed 
alter his long exile from France, April 18 14. 

CALATRAVA. See Knighthood. 

CALCIUM, tlie naetallic base of lime, was discovered at the Royal Institution, London, 
by Humphrey Davy in 1808. 

. CALCULATING MACHINES. With the utmost care, errors in computation and in 
pnnting wiU always occur in logarithms and tables of figures. To avoid them, machines to 
calculate and print have been devised. Pascal, when nineteen years of age, invented one 
about 1650. I he construction of Mr. C. Babbage's machine was commenced at the expense 
of government, m 1821, and continued till 1833, when the work was suspended after an 
expenditure of above 15,000?. The portion completed is in the library of King's Collecre 
London. In 1857, Messrs. E. and G. Scheutz, two Swedish engineers, published in Lond?)n 
specimen tables, calculated and printed by machinery constructed between 1837 and 1843 
alter a study of the account of Mr. Babbage's machine. Messrs. Scheutz brought their 
machine to England m 1854. It was bought for lOooZ. by Mr. J. F. Rathbone, an American 
merchant, to be presented to Dudley observatory in his own town, Albany. In 1857 Messrs 



CAL 141 CAL 

Scheutz were engaj^ed to make one for the British government, which is now completed. 
Mr. "Wiberg's machine, exliibited at Paris, Feb. 1863, was mnch commended. 

I CALCUTTA, capital of Bengal and British India. The first settlement of the English 
here was made in 1689. 

It was purchased as a zcmindary, and Fort Wil- { Supreme court of judicature established . . 1773 

liam built, in 1698 College founded 1801 

Made the bead of a separate presidency . . 1707 1 Bishopric of Calcutta instituted by act . July, 1813 

The fort attacked and taken by an .army of | An industrial exhibition held in . . Jan. 1855 

70,000 horse and foot, and 400 elephants (146 j Great cyclone, followed by a " bore " or spring 

of tlie British crammed into the " Black-hole tide in the Hooghly ; water rises 30 feet high ; 

prison," a dungeon, about 18 feet square, immense damage done to shipping and 

f roin whence 23 only came forth the next houses ; 43 lives lost in Calcutta (see Cijdone) 

morning .alive) .... June 18, 1756 | Oct. 5, 1864 

Calcutta retaken by Clive, and the Soubah put Population in 1850, 413,582. 

to death Jan. 2, 1757 | ^en Bengal a.Ti6. India. 

CALEDONIA (now Scotland). The name is sujiposed by some to be derived from Gael, 
or b'ad-men, or Crtf/cZ-rfotwc, corrupted by the Romans. Tacitus, who died 99, distinguishes 
this portion of Britain by the appellation of Caledonia. Venerable Bede says that it 
retained this name until 258, when it M'as invaded by a tribe from Ireland, and called Scotia. 
The ancient inhabitants appear to have been the Caledonians and Picts, tribes of the Celts, 
who passed over from the opposite coast of Gaul. About the beginning of the fourth 
century of the Christian era they were invaded (as stated by some authorities) by the 
Scuyths or Scythins (since called Scots), who, having driven the Picts into the north, settled 
in the Lowlands, and gave their name to the whole countr}'. Hence the remarkable 
distinction of language, habits, customs, and persons between the Highlanders and the 
southern inhabitants. See Scotland. 

Caledonian monarchy, said to have been I The Caledonians invade South Britain, 207 ; 

founded by Fergus I, about . . B.C. 330 1 repelled by the emperor Severus, who ad- 

The Picts from England settle in the south . 140 I vances to the Moray Frith .... 209 



Agricola carries the Roman arms into Cale 
donia, in the reign of Galdus (Corbred II.) 

A.D. 79 
He defeats Galgacus, and builds a wall between 

the Frith and Clyde 84 

WaU of Antoninus built 140 

Ulpius Marcelhis repels their incursions . .184 
Christianity introduced in the reign of Donald I. 201 



Caledonia invaded by the Souths, or Scotti, 

from Ireland, atfout 306 

Caledonian monarchy revived by Fergus II. . 404 
After many wars, Kenneth II., king of the 
Scotti, subdues the Caledonians and Picts, 
and unites the country under one monarchy, 
then named Scotland . , . 838 to 843 



CALEDONIAN CANAL, from the North Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. The act for its 
construction received the royal assent July 27, 1803 ; and the works were commenced same 
year. The nautical intercourse between the western ports of Great Britain and those also of 
Ireland to the North Sea and Baltic, is .shortened in some instances 800, and in others 1000 
miles. A sum exceeding a million sterling was granted by parliament from time to time ; 
and the safe navigation for ships of nearly every tonnage was opened Nov. i, 1822. It has 
not paid. Annual income from tonnage, May i, 1859, 5080Z. ; expenditure, 6951Z. 

CALENDAE. The Pioman Calendar, which has in great part been adopted by almost all 
nations, was introduced by Romulus, who divided the year into ten months, comprising 304 
days, 738 B.C. This year was of fifty days' less duration than the lunar year, and of sixty- 
one less than the solar year, and its commencement did not of course correspond with any 
fixed season. Numa Pompilius, 713 B.C., corrected this calendar, by adding two months; 
and Julius Cfesar, 45 B.C., desirous to make it more correct, fixed the .solar year at 365 da3's 
and 6 hours, every fourth year being bissextile or leap year. See Lca2) Yea?: This almost 
perfect arrangement was denominated the Julian style, and prevailed generallj' throughout 
the Christian world till the time of pope Gregory XIII. The calendar of Julius Ca?sar was 
defective in this particular, that the solar year consisted of 365 days, 5 hours, and 49 
minutes; and not of 365 days 6 hours. This difference, then, amounted to 10 entire days, 
the vernal equinox falling on the iitli instead of the 21st of March. To obviate tliis error, 
Gregory ordained, in 15S2, that that year should consist of 356 days only (Oct. 5 became 
Oct. 15) ; and to ])revent further in-egularity, it was determined that a year beginning a 
century should not be bissextile, with the exception of that beginning each fourth century ; 
thus, 1700 and 1800 have not been bissextile, nor will 1900 be so : but the year 2000 will be 
a leap year. In this manner tliree days are retrenched in 400 years, because the lapse of 
eleven minutes makes three days in about that period. The year of the calendar is thus 
made as nearly as possible to correspond with the true solar year, and future error's of 
chronology are avoided. See New Style and French Revolutionary Calendar. 



CAL 



142 



CAL 



CALENDAR, continued. 



CORKESPONDENCE OF CALENDARS WITH A.D. 1 865. 



Year of the world (Jewish) .... 5625 

Juhan period 6578 

Hegira, 1282 (began Mav 27, 1S65 ; ends, May 
15, 1866). 



Foundation of Eome (Varro) .... 2616 
United States' Independence . . . 89-90 

Year of Queen Victoria 29-.S0 

Year of Napoleon III 14 



CALENDER, a machine iised in glazing various kinds of cloth, was introduced into 
England by the Huguenots, wlio were driven by persecution from France, Holland, and the 
Nctlierlands to these countries, about 1685. Anderson. 

CALENDS were the first day of the Roman months. The Nones of March, May, July, 
and October, fell on the 7th ; and their Ides on the 15th. The other months had the Nones 
on the 5th and the Ides on the 13th. As the Greeks had no Calends, ad Grcccas Calendas, 
"on the Greek Calends," meant never. 

CALICO, the well-known cotton cloth, is named from Calicut, a city of India, which 
was visited by the Portuguese in 1498. (3alico was first brouglit to England by the East 
India Company in 1631. Calico-printing and the Dutch loom engine were first used in 
1676, when a Frenchman established a factory at Richmond, near London. Anderson. 
Calicoes were prohibited to be printed or worn in 1700 ; and again in 1721, a penalty of 5Z. 
was laid on the wearer, and 20I. on the seller of calico. In 1831, by the exertions of Mr. 
Poulett Thompson, afterwards lord Sydenham, and others, the consolidated duty of 34c^. on 
the square of printed calico was taken off. Since 1834, the manufacture has been greatly 
increased by the applications of science. Cylinders for printing are now engraved by 
galvanism, and new dyes have been introduced by the discoveries of Liebig, Hoff'mann, 
Perkin, &c. See Cotton and Dyeing. 

CALIFORNIA (from the Spanish, Caliente Fornalla, hot furnace, in allusion to the 
climate) was discovered by Cortez in 1537 ; others say by Cabrillo in 1542 ; and visited by 
sir Francis Drake, who named it New Albion, in 1579. California was admitted into the 
United States in 1850. It is 'advancing rapidly in wealth and importance, but society is still 
in a very disorganised state. The population in 1856 was 506,067 ; in i860, 700,000. 

The Spanish establish missionai-y and military Ceded to the United States .... 1846 

stations . . • 1698 Gold discovered in great abundance by Capt. 

California becomes subject to Mexico . . . 1823 • Sutter and Mr. Marshall . . . Sept. 1847 

After a bloodless revolution^ it becomes virtu- Made a sovereign state 1850 

ally independent 1836 Numerous murders in San Francisco — Ijynch 

Occupied by the army of the United States . 1846 law prevails 1853-60 

CALIPER COMPASS, whereby founders and gunners measure the bore or diameter of 
cannon, small arms, &c. : shot is said to have been invented by an artificer of Nuremberg 
in 1540. 

CALIPH (Arabic), Vicar, or Apostle, the title assumed by the sophi of Persia, as suc- 
cessor of Ali, and, since 1517, by the sultan of Turkey, as successor of Mahomet. The 
caliphat began with Abubeker, the father of the prophet's second wife. 

In 775 they were styled caliphs of 
Bagdad. 

Haroun-al-Raschid ruled 7S6 — 809. 
See Oinmiades and Abbasides. 



Caliphs or Arabia. 
632. Abubeker. 
634. Omar I. 
644. Othman. 



: 655. Ali. 

661. Hassan. 

The Ommiades mled 661 — 750. 

The Abb.\sides ruled 750 — 1258 



CALIPPIC PERIOD, invented by Calippus, to correct the Metonic cycle, consists of 
four cycles, or of seventy-six years, at the expiration of which he imagined the new and fuU 
moons returned to the same day of the solar year ; which is incorrect. Tliis period began 
about the end of June, in the third year of the 112th Olympiad, in the year of Rome 424, 
and 330 B. c. 

CALIXTINS, a sect derived from the Hussites, about 145 1, demanded the cup (Greek, 
Kalix) in the Lord's supper. Also the followers of George Calixtus, a Lutheran, who died in 
1656. He wi'ote against the celibacy of the priesthood, and proposed a re-union of Catholics 
and Protestants based on the Aj^ostles' creed. 

CALI YUGA, the Hindoo era of the Dehige, dates from 3101 B.C. (according to some, 
3102), and begins witli the entrance of the sun into the Hindoo sign As win, now on April 
II, N.S. In 1600 the year began on April 7, N.S., from which it has now advanced four 
days, and from the precession of the equinoxes is still advancing at the rate of a day in sixty 
years. The nimiber produced by subtracting 3102 from any given year of the Call Yuga era 
will be the Christian year in which the given year begins. 



CAL 143 CAM 

CALLAO (Peru). Here, after an eartliqiiake, the sea retired from the shore, and returned 
in mountainous waves, which destroyed the city in 1687, and on Oct. 28, 1746. 

CALLIGRAPHY (beautiful writing). Callicrates is said to have Avrittcn an elegant 
distich on a sesanmur seed, 472 B.C. In tlie i6th century Peter Bales wrote the Lord's 
Prayer, Creed, and Decalogue, two short Latin prayers, his own name, motto, day of the 
inontli, year of our Lord, and of the reign of Queen Elizabeth (to whom he presented them 
at Hampton-court), all within the circle of a silver penny, enchased in a ring and border of 
i;«ild, and covered with crystal, so accurately done, as to be plainly legible. Ilolimhed. 

CALMAR, Union of. The treaty, whereby Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, were united 
under one sovereign ; Margaret of Walderaar, "the Semiramis of the North," being the first, 
June, 1397. The deputies of the three kingdoms assembled at Calmar for the election of a 
king ; and Margaret, having defeated Albert of Sweden (whose tyranny had caused a revolt 
of his subjects) in 1393, was made choice of to rule over Denmark, as well as Sweden and 
Norway, of which she was then queen. This union was dissolved by Gustavus Vasa in 1523. 

CALMUCKS. See Tartary. 

CALOMEL ("beautiful black"), a compound of mercury, .sulphuric acid, and chloride of 
sodium, first mentioned by Crollius early in the 17th. century. The first directions given for 
its preparation were by Beguin in 1608. 

CALORESCENCE. In Jan. 1865 Professor Tyndall rendered the ultra-red rays of the 
spectrum of the electric light visible by causing them to impinge on a plate of platinum 
raised to a white heat. He termed the phenomenon Caloresceuce. See Fluorescence. 

CALORIC. See Heat. 

CALOTYPE PROCESS (from the Greek Tcalos, beautiful), by which negative photograpihs 
are produced on paper, is the invention of Mr. Henry Fox Talbot, about 1840. 

CALOYERS (meaning good old onen). The monks of the Greek church, of the order 
of St. Basil. Their most celebrated monastery in Asia is at Mount Sinai, endowed by 
Justinian (died 565) ; the European one is at Mount Athos. 

CALVARY, Mount, the place where the Redeemer suffered death, April 5, a.d. 30 ; 
(Hales, 31 ; Clinton, 29, others, 30). See Luke xxiii. 33. Adrian, at the time of his per- 
secution of the Christians, erected a temple of Jupiter on Mount Calvary, and a temple of 
Adonis on the manger at Bethlehem, 142. The empress Helena built a church here about 
326. See Holy Places. 

CALVES' HEAD CLUB, noblemen and gentlemen, who exposed raw calves' heads at 
the windows of a tavern, Jan. 30, 1735, ^^^ anniversary of the execution of Charles I. An 
incensed mob was dispersed by soldiers, and the club Avas suppressed. 

CALVI (Corsica). The British forces besieged the fortress of Calvi, June 12, 1794. 
After fifty-nine days it surrendered on Aug. 10. It surrendered to the French in 1796. 

CALVINISTS, named after John Calvin (or Chauvin), who was born at Noyon, in 
Picardy, July 10, 1509. Adopting the reformed doctrines, he fled to Angouleme, where he 
composed his InsHtutio Christiana:- Religionis in 1533; x>ublished in 1536. He retired to 
Basle, and settled in Geneva, where he died, May 27, 1564. He was instrumental in burn- 
ing Servetus for denying the Trinity in 1553. A formal separation between the Calvinists 
and Lutherans first took place after the conference of Poissy in 1561, where the former 
expressly rejected the tenth and other articles of the confession of Augsburg, and took the 
name of Calvinists. In France (see Huguenots) they took up arms against their persecutors. 
Henry IV., originally a Calvinist, on becoming king, secured their liberty by the Edict of 
Nantes \\\ 1598 {which see). Calvinistic doctrines appear in the Articles of the Church of 
England and in the Confession of the Church of Scotland, and are held by many Protestant 
sects. 
• CAMBIUM REGIS. See Royal Exchange. 

CAMBRAY (N. France), an independent archbishopric in 1007, and lordship in 1076, 
gives name to cambric. It was taken by the Spaniards by surprise in 1595 ; and has been 
taken and retaken several times. Fenelon was archbishop in 1695. 

by C'lairfait, the Austrian general, on 

Sept. 10, 1793 
The French wore defeated at Caesar's camp, in 
the neighbourhood, by the allied army under 



It was invested by the Austrians, Aug. 8, when 
the republican general, Declay, replied to the 
imperial summons to surrender, that "he 
knew not how to do tkat, b>it his soldiers 



knew how to fight." It was, however, taken I the duke of York .... April 24, 1794 



CAM 



144 



CAM 



CAM BRAY, continued. 

Cambi-ay seized by the British, under sir 
Charles Ct'lville .... June 24, 1815 

League of Canihray against the republic of 
Venice, comprising pope Julian II., the em- 
peror Maximilian, and Louis XII. of France, 
and Ferdinand of Spain, entered into Dec. 10, 1508 

Treaty between Francis I. of France and 



Charles V. of Germany ("called Paix des 
Dames, because negotiated by Louisa of 
Savoy, mother of the French king, and Mar- 
garet of Austria, aunt of the emperor) . . 1529 
Treaty between the emperor Charles V'l. and 
Philip V. of Spain 1724-5 



CAMBRIA, ancient name of Wales {which see). 

CAMBRICS were first worn in England, and accounted a great luxmy, 1580. Stoti:. 
Their importation was restricted in 1745 ; and prohibited in 1758 ; re-admitted in 1786. 

CAMBRIDGE, the Roman Camboricum and the Saxon Granta, frequently mentioned by 
the earliest British historians, was burnt by the Danes in 870 and loio. Roger de Mont- 
gomery destroyed it with fire and sword to be revenged of king William Rufus. 



The unitersiiy, said to have been commenced 
toy Sigebert, king of the East Angles, about 
A.D. 630; lay neglected during the Danish 
invasions, from which it suffered much ; wa.s 
restored by Edward the Elder in 915; and 
began to revive about 

Henry I. bestows many privileges . . . 

Henry III. granted a charter to the university, 

1230 or 

Incorporated by Elizabeth in . . . . 

In Wat Tyler's and Jack Straw's rebellion, the 
rebels entered the town, seize the university 
records and burn them in the market-place . 

"University press was set up ... . 

Letterspatent granted by Henry VIII. . . 

The university refuses the degree of M.A. to 
father Francis, a Benedictine monk, recom- 
mended by the king ; and the presidency of 
Magdalen college to Farmer, a Roman Catho- 
lic, notwithstanding the king's mandate 

Cambridge Philosoiihical Society established 
in 1819, and chartered in .... 

Bailway to London opened . . . June, 

Commissioners were appointed for the govern- 
ment and extension of this university and 
Eton college, by 19 & 2o'\'ict. c. 88 

New statutes confimied by the Queen . . . 

British Association met here, 1833, 1845, 1862. 

Fitzwilliam museum, endowed 1816; founded 
1837 ; completed 



1231 
1571 



1381 
1534 



1687 



1847 



Jesus College, by John Alcock, bishop of Ely . 1496 
St. John'.s College, endowed by Margaret, 

countess of Richmond 1511 

Magdalen College, by Thomas, baron Audley . 1519 

Trinity College, by Henry VIII. . . . 1546 

Emmanuel College, by sir Walter Mildmay . 1584 
Sidney-Sussex College, founded by Frances 

Sidney, countess of Sussex . . . . 1598 
Downing College, by sir George Downing, by 

will, in 1717 ; its charter .... iBco 

THRKE HALLS. 

Clare Hall, or CoUege, first by Dr. Richard 
Baden, in 1326 ; destroyed by fire and re- 
established by Elizabeth de Burg, sister to 
Gilbert, earl of Clare .... about 1342 
Trinity Hall, by Wm. Bateman, bp. of Norwich 1350 
St. Catherine's College or Hall, founded . . 1473 
[Cambridge University Calendar']. 

CHANCELLORS. 

Charles, duke of Somerset, elected . . . 1688 

Thomas, duke of Newcastle 1748 

Augustus Henry, duke of Grafton . . . 1768 
H.R.H. William Frederick, duke of Gloucester iSii 

John, marquess Camden 1834 

Hugh, duke of Northumberland . . . 1840 
The Prince Consort [died Dec. 14, 1861.] Feb. 28, 1847 
Duke of Devonshire .... Dec. 31, i86i 



PROFESSORSHtPS FOUNDED. 

Divinity 

Laws, Hebrew and Greek 

Arabic . 

Mathematics 

Music . 

Chemistry 

Astronomy ...... 1704, 

Anatomy 

Modern History, Botany 

NaUu-al and Experimental Philosophy 
Mineralogy ........ 

Political Economy 



1502 
IS40 
1632 
1663 
1684 
1702 

1749 
1707 
1724 



1863 



FOURTEEN COLLEGES. 

Peterhouse College, by Hugo de Balsham, 

bishop of Ely, founded 1257 

Pembroke College, founded by the countess of 

Pembroke 1347 

Gonville and Caius, by Edmund GonviUe . . 1348 
Enlarged by Dr. John Caius in . . . . 1558 

Corpus Cbristi, or Benct 1352 

King's College, by Henry VI 1441 

Christ's College, founded 1442; endowed by 

Margaret, countess of Richmond, mother of 

Henry VII 150S 

Queen's College, by Margaret of Anjou . .1448] 

CAMBUSKENNETH (Central Scotland). Here Wallace defeated the English in 1297. 

CAMDEN (N. America). A battle was fought here Aug. t6, 1780, between general 
Gates and lord Cornwallis, the former commanding the revolted Americans, who were 
defeated. At a second battle, between general Greene and lord Rawdon, the Americans 
were again defeated, April 25, 1781. Camden was evacuated and burnt by the British, May 
13. 1781. 

CAMERA LrciDA, invented by Dr. Hooke about 1674 ; another by Dr. Wollaston in 
1807. Camera Obscura, or dark chamber, constructed, it is said, by Roger Bacon in 
1297 ; and improved by Baptista Porta, about 1500 ; and remodelled by sir Isaac Newton. 
By the invention of M. Daguerre, in 1839, the pictures of the camera are fixed. See 
Photography. 



CAM 



145 



CAN 



CAMERONIANS, a name freqiiently given to the Reformed Presbyterian Chnrcli 
of Scotland, the descendants of the covenanters of the 17th century, the established 
church, 1638-50.* Charles II. signed the League and Covenant in 1650, in hopes of 
recovering his kingdoms, but renounced it in 1661, and revived episcopacy. A revolt 
ensued in 1666, -when many covenanters were slain in battle (in the Pentland hills, &c.), 
and many refusiug to take the oaths required, and declining to accept the king's indulgrnce, 
died on the scaffold, after undergoing cruel tortures. The name Cameronian is derived from 
Richard Cameron, one of their ministers, who was killed in a skirmish, in 1680. In 1689 
they raised a body of soldiers to support William III., who enrolled them under the 
command of lord Angus, as the 26th regiment, since so famous. In 17 12 they renewed the 
public covenants, and are described in one of their tracts as "the suffering anti-popish, and 
anti-prelatical, anti-erastian, true presbyteriau church of Scotland." They have now between 
thirty and forty congregations in Scotland. — The 79th regiment {Cameron Highlanders), 
raised in 1793 by Allan Cameron, has no connection with the Cameronians. 

CAMISAEDS (from chemise, a shirt, which they frequently wore over their dress in night 
attacks), a name given to the more warlike French Protestants in the neighbourhood of tlic 
Cevennes (mountain chains in S. France), who defended themselves and attacked their 
enemies after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, in 1685. They were suppressed in 1704. 
Their leader, Cavalier, is said to have been made governor of Jersey by William III. 

CAMLET, formerly made of silk and camel's hair, but now of wool, hair, and silk. 
Oriental camlet first came here from Portuguese India, iii 1660. Anderson. 

CAMP. The Hebrew encampment was first laid out by divine direction, 1490 B.C. 
{Numbers ii.) The Romans and Gauls had intrenched camps in open plains; and vestiges 
of such exist to this day in England and Scotland. A camp was formed at Hyde Park in 
1745 and 1 8 14. See Chohliam and Alder'shott. 

CAMPANIA (S. Italy), was occupied by Hannibal and declared in his favour 216 B.C., 
but regained by the Romans, 213. Its capital was Capua {which see). 

CAMPBELL'S ACT, introduced by lord Campbell, in order to compel railway companies 
to gi'ant compensation for accidents, was passed in 1846 ; amended in 1864. In accordance 
with it the family of a gentleman killed through the breaking of a rail, obtained a verdict 
for 13,000?. from the Great Northern Railway Company. On appeal the sum was reduced. 

CAMPEACHY-BAY (Yucatan, Central America), discovered about 1520, and settled in 
1540; was taken by the English in 1659 ; by the buccaneers, in 1678 ; and by the free- 
booters of St. Domingo, in 1685. These last burnt the town and blew up the citadel. The 
English logwood-cutters made their settlement here about 1662. 

CAMPERDOWN : south of the Texel, Holland, near which admiral Duncan defeated 
the Dutch fleet, commanded by admiral De Winter ; the latter losing fifteen ships, either 
taken or destroyed, Oct. 11, 1797. The British admiral obtained a peerage. He died sud- 
denly on his way to Edinburgh, Aug. 4, 1804. 

CAMPO FORMIO (N. Italy). Here a treaty was concluded between France and 
Austria ; the latter vielding the Low Countries and the Ionian Islands to France, and Milan, 
Mantua, and Modena to the Cisalpine republic, Oct. 17, 1797. By a secret article the 
emperor gained the Venetian dominions. 

CAMPO SANTO (Holy Field), a burial-place at Pisa, surrounded by an arcade erected 
by archbishop Ubaldo, about 1300, which is celebrated for the frescoes painted on the walls 
by Giotto, Memmi, and others. 

CANAAN (Palestine), is considered to have been settled by the Canaanites, 1965 B.C. 
(Clinton, 2088). The land was divided among the Israelites by Joshua, 1445 (Hales, 1602). 

CANADA (N. America), was discovered by John and Sebastian Cabot, in June, 1497 ; 
in 1535 Jacques Cartier (a Breton mariner), ascended the St. Lawrence as far as where 
Montreal now stands. See Montreal and Qmbcc. ^ 

by the peace 1763 

Legislative council established ; the French 
laws confirmed, and religious liberty given to 
Roman Catholics 1774 



Quebec founded 1^8 

Canada taken by the English 1628 ; restored . 1632 
War begins in 1756 ; Canada conquered by the 
English 1759 (see Quebec}, confirmed to them 



* They were frequently called hill-men or mountain-men, and society people (from the places and modes of 
worship to which they were frequently reduced), and McMillanltes, from John McJIillan, their first 
minister, after their secession from the church of Scotland on account of its sub.servieucy toihe English 
government, and its declining from its orgiual rigid principles. 



CAN" 



146 



CAN" 



17-30 
1836 

1837 



CANADA, contimted. 

The Americans under Montgomery invade 
Canada, and surjirise Montreal, Nov. 1775 ; 
expelled by Carleton • . . March 1776 
Canada divided into Upper and Lower . . 1791 
The "clergy reserves" established bj' parlia- 
ment — one seventh of the waste lands of the 
colon3' appropriated for the maintenance of 

the Protestant clergy ,, 

During the debates on this bill the quarrel 
between Mr. Burke and Mr. Fox arose. Mr. 
Fox seemed anxious for a reconciliation, but 
Mr. Burke rejected it with disdain . . „ 

Canada made a bishopric 1793 

The Americans invade Canada at different 
points, with 30,000 men, but are forced to 
retire after several sanguinary battles . .1812 
Beginning of Disposition to the clergy reserves 

18 
First railway in Canada opened . . July. 
The Pajiineau rebellion commences at Montreal 

by a body called Fils de la Liberie . 
The rebels defeated at St. Eustace . Dec. 14, 
Repulsed at Toronto, by sir F. Head . Jan. 5. 1838 
Earl of Durham appointed gov. -gen. . Jan. 16, ,, 
Loinit and Mathews (rebels) banged April 12, „ 
Lord Durham resigns his government . Oct g, ,, 
Rebellion appears in Beauharnais Nov. 3 ; the 
insurgents at Napierville, under Nelson, are 
routed with great loss Nov. 6 ; the rebellion 

suppressed Nov. 17, ,, 

Acts relating to government of Lower Canada, 

passed in Feb. 1838, and . . . Aug. 1839 
Upper and Lower Canada reunited . July 23, 1840 
Lord Sydenham appointed governor . Feb. 10, 1841 
The Canada clergy reserves, aft*;r much discus- 
sion, abolished by the British parliament 

May 9, 1853 
Lord Elgin gov.-general (1846-54) concluded an 

imijortant treaty with United States June 7, 1854 
The grand trunk railroad of Canada, 850 miles 

long, from Quebec to Toronto, opened Nov. 12, 1856 
On reference having been made to the queen, 
Ottawa, formerly Bytown, appointed the 
capital ; this decision was unpopular ; a 
federal union of the N. American colonies 
has been since proposed . . August, 1858 
Canada raises a regiment of soldiers (made one 

of the line, and called the looth) . . . ,, 
The prince of Wales presents the coloiirs at 

Shorncliff ..... Jan. 10, 1859 
The prince of Wales, the duke of Newcastle, d'c, 
arrived at St. John's, Newfoundland, July 24 ; 



visit Halifax July 30; Quebec Aug. 18; 
Montreal Au^. 25 ; Ottawa Sept. 1 ; leave 
Canada Sept. 20 ; after visitinsr the United 
States, embark at Portland Oct. 20 ; and 
arrive at Plymouth . . . Nov. 15, i85o 

Lord Monck assumes office as gov. -gen., Nov. z8, 1861 . 

In consequence of the "Trent" aifair (see 
United States, 1861), 3000 British troops were 
sent to Canada ; and warlike preparations 
were made ...... Dec. „ 

Brit. N. American Assoc, founded in London Jan. i S62 

Cartier's ministry defeated on Militia bill ; Mr. 
J. Sandfield Macdonald becomes premier 

May 20-23, » 

The assembly vote onlj' 5000 militia and 5000 re- 
serve towards the defence of the countr}' ; 
this causes discontent in England . July, ,, 

Political changes : Mr. J. Macdonald again pre- 
mier ...... May 20, 1865 

New Militia bill passed . . . Sept. ,, 

Military measures in progress . . Sept. 1864. 

Meeting of about 20,000 vohuiteers ; delegates 
from N. American colonies at Queljec, to der 
liberate on the formation of a confederation, 
Oct. 10 ; agree on the bases . . Oct. 20, „ 

Between 20 and 30 armed confederates quit 
Canada and enter the httle town of St. Al- 
ban's, Vermont ; rob the banks, steal horses 
and stores, tire, and kill one man, and wound 
others, and return to Canada, Oct. 19 ; 13 are 
arrested, Oct. 21 ; but are discharged, on 
account of some legal difficulty by Judge 
Coursol Dec. 14, ,, 

Great excitement in the United States, general 
Dix proclaims reprisals ; volunteers called 
out ill Canada to defend the frontiers ; presi- 
dent Lincoln rescinds Dix's proclamation 

Dec. „ 

Lord Monck opens the last Canadian parlia- 
ment Jan. 19, 1865 

The confederation scheme rejected by New 
Brunswick March 7, 

The British parliament grant 50,000^ for de- 
fence of Canada .... March 23, 

The St. Alban's raiders discharged bj' justice 
Smith ...... March 30, 

Mr. Seward gives up claim for their extradi- 
tion April 

Messrs. Gait and Cartier visit England to advo- 
cate confederation .... April, 

Population in 1857: Lower Canada, 1,220,514 ; 
Upper Canada, 1,350,923. 



CANALS (artificial watercourses). A canal in China, commenced in the loth century, 
is said to pass over 2000 miles, and to 41 cities. 

The canal of Languedoc, which joins the Medi- 
terranean with the Atlantic Ocean, was com- 
pleted in 1681 

That of Orleans from the Loire to the Seine, 
commenced in 1675 

That between the Baltic and North Sea, at 
Kiel, opened ..... . 17S5 

That of Bourbon, between the Seine and Oise, 
commenced 1790 

That from the Cattcgat to the Baltic . 1794-1S00 

The great American Erie canal, 363 miles in 
Jength, was commenced in .... 1S17 

That of Amsterdam to the sea . . . 1819-25 
(See Ganges Canal, the most stupendous mo- 
dem one.) 



BRITISH CANALS. 

The first was by Henry 1. , when the Trent was joined 
to the Witham, 1134. 

Francis Mathew in 1656, and Andrew Yarranton in 
1677, in vain strongly urged improvement in in- 
ternal navigation. 

In England there are 2800 miles of canals, and 2500 
miles of rivers, taking the length of those only 
that are navigable — total, 5300 mOes. (Mr. Porter, 
in 1851. says 4000 miles.) 

In Ireland there are 300 miles of canals ; 150 of navi- 
gable rivers ; and 60 miles of the Shannon, navi- 
gable below Limerick ; in all, 510 miles. Williams. 

The prosperity of canals, for a time largely checked 
by the formation of railways, is now gi'eatly re- 
vived. 



New river canal, commenced 1608 
Brought to London . . 1614 

Thames made navigable to 
Oxford .... 1624 



REMARKABLE CANALS." 
Kennet navigable to Reading 1715 
Lagan navigation commenced 1755 
Caermarthenshire cmial . 1756 
Droitwich to the Severn . ,, 



Duke of Bridgewater's navi- 
gation (first great canal), 
commenced (see Bridge- 
water) 1759 



CAN 



147 



CAN 



CANALS, continued. 

Northampton navigation 

UubUii to the Shannon (the 
Grand) . . . 1765- 

Stutfiird and Worcester, com- 
menced .... 

Ci rand Trunk commenced by 
JJriudley . . . , 

Fortli to Clyde, commenced . 

Birmingham to Bilston 

Oxford to Coventry, com- 
menced .... 

Lea made navigable from 
Hertford to Ware, 1739 ; to 
Ijon'ion . . . 

Leeds to Liverpool . . . 

Monkland (Scotland), com- 
menced 

EUesmere and Chester . 

Basingstoke canal begun 

Liverpool to Wigan . . . 

Stroud to the Severn . 

Staffordshire canal, begun . 

Stourbridge canal, completed 



1 761 I Runcorn to Manchester . 1776 
I Trent and Mersey, opened . 1777 
1788 I Chesterfield to the Trent . „ 
Belfast to Lnngli N"eagh . 1783 
,, Severn to the Thames, com- 
pleted 1789 

1766 j Forth and Clyde, completed. 1790 

1768 , Bradford completed . . „ 
Grand Junction canal . . ,, 
Birmingham and Coventry . „ 

1769 Monastereven to Athy . . 1791 
Worcester and Birmingham . „ 
Manchester, Bolton, and 

1770 Bury ,, 

Warwick and Birmingham . 1793 
Barnsley, cut . . . 1794 

Rochdale, Act passed . . , , 
Hnddersfield, Act passed . ,, 
Derbj', completed . . . ,, 

1774 : Hereford and Gloucester . 1796 

1775 Paddington canal begun . 1798 

1776 Kcnnet and Avon, opened . 1799 
„ 1 Peak-forest canal, completed 1800 



Thames to Fenny Stratford . 1800 
Buckingham canal . . 1801 
Grand Surrej', Act passed . ,, 
Brecknock canal . . . 1802 
Caledonian canal begun . . 1803 
EUesmere aqueduct . . 1805 
A.shby-de-la-Zoueh, opened . 1805 
Aberdeen, completed . . 1807 
Glasgow and Ardrossan, 

opened .... 1811 
Leeds and Liverpool, opened i8i5 
Wye and Avon . . . . ,, 
Edinburgh andGlasgowUnion 181 8 
Sheffield, completed . . . 1819 
Regent's canal . . . 1820 
Caledonian canal, completed 

Oct. 30, 1822 
Birmingham and Liverpool, 

begun . . . . . 1826 
Gloucester andBerkeley,ship- 

canal, completed . . . 1827 
Norwich and Lowestoft navi- 
gation opened . . .1831 



CANARY ISLANDS (N. W. Africa), known to the ancients as the Fortunate Mcs. 
The first meridian was referi'ed to the Canary Isles by Hip])archns, about 140 B.C. They 
were re-discovered by a Norman named Bethencourt, about 1400 ; his descendants sold them 
to the Spaniards, who became masters, 1483. The canary-bird, a native of these isles, 
brought to England about 1500. Teneriffe is the largest island. 

CANCER HOSPITAL, West Brompton, near London, was founded by Miss Burdett 
Coutts, May 30, 1859. A temporary hospital began in 185 1. 

CANDIA, the ancient Ci-ete, an island in the Mediterranean Sea, celebrated for its 100 
cities, its centre Mount Ida ; and the laws of its king Minos, and its labyrinth to secure the 
Minotaur (about 1300 B.C.). It was conquered by the Romans 68 B.C. It was seized by the 
Saracens a.d. 823, when they changed its name ; taken by the Greeks in 960 ; sold to the 
Venetians, 1204, and held by them until the Turks obtained it, after a twenty-four years' 
siege, during v/hich more than 200,000 men perished, 1669. It was ceded to the Egyptian 
pacha in 1830, but was restored to Turkey in 1840. An insurrection, which broke out here in 
May, 1858, when a reduction of taxation was demanded, soon subsided on the adoption of 
conciliatory measures. A persecution of the Christians took place, July 31, 1859. 

CANDLEMAS DAY, Feb. 2, is kept in the church in memory of the purification of the 
Virgin, who presented the infant Jesus in the Temple. From the number of candles lit (it 
is said in memory of Simeon's song, Luke ii. 32, "a Light to lighten the Gentiles," &c.), 
this festival was called Candlemas, as well as the Purification. Its origin is ascribed by Bede 
to pope Gelasius in the 5th century. The practice of lighting the churches was forbidden by 
order of council, 2 Edw. VI. 1548 ; but it is still continued in the church of Rome. 

CANDLES.* The Roman candles were composed of string surrounded by wax, or dipped 
in pitch. Splinters of M'ood fatted were used for light among the lower classes in England, 
about 1300. At this time wax candles were little used, and esteemed a luxury ; dipped 
caudles were usually burnt. The Wax-Chandlers' company was incorporated 1484. Mould 
candles are said to be the invention of the sieurLe Brez, of Paris. Spermaceti candles are 
of modern manufacture. The Chinese make candles from wax obtained from the berries of 
a tree, which wax is fragrant, and yields a Ijright light, t The duty upon candles made in 
England, imposed in 1709, amounted to about"5oo,oooZ. annually, when it was repealed in 
183 1. Very great improvements in the manufacture of candles are due to the researches on 
oils and fats, carried on by "the father of the fatty acids," Chevreul, shice 181 1, and 
published in 1823. At Price's manufactory at Lambeth, the principles involved in many 
patents are carried into execution ; including those of Gwynne (1840), Jones and Price (1842), 

* The custom of selling at public auctions by inrli of candle is said to have been borrowed from the 
church of Rome, where there is an excommunication by inch of candle, and the sinner is allowed to 
come to repentance before final excommunication, while yet the candle burns. _ . .- , , 

t The candlebury myrtle {Myrica cerifern), at Nankin, in China, flourishes with beautiful blossoms and 
fruit The latter, when ripe, is gathered and thrown into boiling water ; the white unctuous substance 
which covers the'kernels is thereby detached, and swims at the top ; it is skimmed oflf and ptirified by a 
second boilino-, when it becomes transparent, of a consistence between tallow and wax, and is converted 
into candl.s. "'it is said that specimens of this tree were Ijrought to England from America in 1699. Its 
cultivation in Ameiica in a commercial point of view has been recommended. 



CAN 



148 



CAN 



and Wilson in 1844, for candles which require no snuffing (termed composite). Pahia and 
cocoa-nut oils are now extensively used. In i860, at the Belnaont works 900 persons were 
employed, and in winter 100 tons (7000?. worth) of candles are manufactured weekly. 
Candles are manufactured at Belmont from the mineral oil or tar brought from Rangoon in 
the Burmese empire and from Trinidad. 

CANDLESTICKS (or lamp-stands) with seven branches were regarded as emblematical 
of the priest's office, and were engraven on their seals, cups, and tombs. Bezaleel made 
"a candlestick of pure gold " for the tabernacle, B.C. 1491 {Exod. xxvii. 17)- Candlesticks 
were used in Britain in the days of king Edgar, 959, (" silver candelabra and gilt candelabra 
well and honourably made ;") but in 1388 they were not common. 

CANDY (Ceylon), was taken by a British detachment, Feb. 20, 1803, who capitulated 
June 23 following, anxious to evacuate the place on account of its unhealthincss : on the 
third day many were treacherously massacred at Columbo. The war was renewed in October, 
1814 ; the king was made prisoner by general Brownrigg, Feb. 19, 1815 ; and the sovereignty 
vested in Great Britain, March 2, 1815. 

CANNiE (Apulia). Here on Aug. 2, 216 B.C., Hannibal with 50,000 Africans, Gauls, 
and Spaniards, defeated Paulus J^lmilius and Terentius Varro, with 88,000 Romans, of whom 
40,000 were slain. The victor sent to Carthage three bushels of rings, taken from the 
Roman knights. The place is now denominated by some "the field of blood." 

CANNIBALISM. See Anthropopliacji. 

CANNING ADMINISTRATION.* The illness of lord Liverpool, led to the formation 
of this Administration, April 24 — 30, 1827. See Goderich. 



George Canning, ./frs< lord of the treasury and chan- 
cellor of the e.ichequer. 

Lord Harrowby, ■president of the council. 

Duke of Portland, lord privy seal. 

Lord Dudley, viscouut Goderich, and Mr. Stiirges 
Bo^irne, secretaries of state. 

Vf . W. Wynn, ^.resident of the India board. 

Wm. Huskisson, board of trade. 



Lord Palmerston, secretary ot war. 

Lord Bexley, chancellor of the duvhy of Lancaster. 

Duke of Clarence, lord high admiral. 

Lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor, Sc. 

Marquess of Lansdowne, without office ; afterwards 
home secretary. 

On Mr. Canning's death (Aug. 8) the cabinet was re- 
constructed. 



CANNON. See Artillery. Gibbon described a cannon employed by Mahomet II. at the 
siege of Adrianople, in 1453 ; the bore was 12 palms wide, and the stone balls weighed each 
600 lb. 



At Ehrenbreitstein castle, one of the strongest 
foi ts in Germany, opposite Coblentz on the 
Rhine, is a prodigious cannon, eighteen feet 
and a half long, a foot and a half in diameter 
in the bore, and three feet four inches in the 
breech. Tiie ball made for it weighs 180 lb., 
and its charge of powder 94 lb. The in- 
scription on it shows that it was made by 
one Simon 1529 

In Dover castle is a brass gun called queen 
Elizabeth's pocket pistol, which was pre- 
sented to her by the states of Holland ; this 
piece is 24 feet long, and is beautifully orna- 
mented, having on it the arms of the states, 
and a motto in Dutch, importing thus — 
" Charge me well, and sponge me clean — I'll 
throw a ball to Calais gi-een." 

Some fine specimens are to be seen in the 
Tower. 

A leathern cannon was fired three times in the 
King's park, Edinbin-gh — Phillips . Oct. 23, 1788 

Tbe Turkish piece now in St. James's park, 
was taken by the French at Alexandria ; but 
was retaken, and placed in the park March, 1803 

Messrs. Horsfall's monster wrought-iron gun 
was completed in May, 1856, at Liveipool. 
Its length is 15 feet 10 inches, and its weight 



21 tons 17 cwt. I qr. 141b. Its cost was 
3,500?. With a charge of 25 lb. it struck a 
target 2000 yards' distance. It has been 
since presented to government. 

Of late years very great improvements have 
been made in the construction of cannon, by 
Mes.srs. Whitworth, Mallet, Arm.strong, and 
others. Mr. Wm. G. Ai-mstrong knighted 

Feb. 18, 1859 

He had been working for four years on gun- 
making, and had succeeded in producing " a 
breech-loading rifled wrought-iron gun of 
great durability and of extreme lightness, 
combining a great extent of range and ex- 
traordinary accuracy." The range of a 32-lb. 
gun, charged with 5 lb. of powder, was a 
little more than 5 miles. The accuracy of 
the Armstrong gun is said at equal distances 
to be fifty-seven times more than that of our 
common artillery, which it greatly exceeded 
also in destructive effects. "The government 
engaged the services of sir W. Armstrong 
for ten years (commencing with 1855) for 
2o,ooo(., as consrdting engineer of rifled ord- 
nance Feb. 22, „ 

A parliamentary committee on ordnance was 
appointed Feb 20, and reported on July 23, i860 



■» George Canning was born April 11, 1770; became foi-eign secretary in the Pitt administration, 1807; 
fought a duel with Castlereagh and resigned in 1809 ; president of the council in 1820 ; disapproved of the 
queen's trial and resigned in 1821 ; appointed governor-general of India in 1822, but became soon after 
foreign secretary, and remained such till 1827, when he became premier. He died Aug. 8, same year. 



CAN 



119 



CAN 



CANNON, continued. 

Sir W.Armstrong resigned the appointmt. Feb. 5, 1863 

The Armstrong gun was said to bo very effec- 
tive in the attack on the Chinese forts at 
Taku Aug. 21, i86o 

Mr. Whitworth's guns and rifles have also been 
greatly commended. 

An American cannon, weighing 35 tons, stated 
to be the largest in the world, cast in . . ,, 

Great endeavours niade to improve the con- 
struction of cannon, to counterbalance the 
strength given to ships of war by iron plates, 
and trials at Shoeburyness, Essex . . . 1862 

Targets of the thickness of the iron sides of 
the Warrior, three 5-inch plates of wrought 
iron bolted together, were pierced three times 
by i56-lb. shot from an Armstrong gun 
smooth bore, 300-lb., muzzle-loaded with 
charges of 40 lb. of i^owder, twice, and once 
of so lb. April 8, ,, 

The Horsfall gun mentioned above, with a 
charge of 75 lb. of powder and a shot of 270 
lb. totally smashed a Warrior target 

Sept. 16, „ 

Mr. Whitworth's shells were sent through 54 

CANON OF SCRIPTURE. See Bible. 



inch iron plates and the wood-work behind 
it ...... . Nov. 12, 

Arm!5trong's gun "Big Will" was tried and 
pronounced to be a perfect specimen of work- 
manship. It weighed 22 tons ; its length, 
IS feet; range with shot weighing 510 lb., 
748 to 4187 yards . . . Nov. 19, 

Clark's tai-gct was destroyed . . July 7, 

Reed's target was tried successfully . Dec. 8, 

The competitive trial between the Armstrong 
and Whitworth gvuis began . . April i, 

The Iron-plate commission experiments closed 
on Aug. 4, 

Capt. Palliser, by experiment, has shown that 
iron shot cast in cold iron moulds instead of 
hot sand, is much harder and equals steel ; 
he also suggested the lining cast iron guns 
with wrought iron exits, which is stated to 
be .successful. 

The competitive trials of Armstrong's and 
Whitworth's cannon upon the Alfred target- 
ship at Portsmouth closed . . Nov. 15, 

" Hercules target," 4 ft. 2 in. thick, iij inches 
of iron, resists 300 pounders . . June, 



1863 



CANONISATION, of pious men and martyr.^ as saints, was instituted by pope Leo III., 
800. Tallent. Every day in the calendar is now a saint's day. Tlie first canonisation was 
of St. Udalricus, in 993. Henault. On June 8, 1862, the pope canonised 27 Japanese, who 
had been put to deatli on Feb. 5, 1597, near Nagasaki. 

CANONS, Apostolical, ascribed by Bellarniin and Baronius to the Apostles ; by others 
to St. Clement, are certainly a forgery of much later date (since 325). The Greek church 
allows 85, the Latin 50 of them. The first Ecclesiastical Canon was promulgated 380. 
Usher. Canon law was introduced into Europe by Gratian, the canon law author, about 
1 140, and into England in 1154. Stoio. See Decretals. The present Canons and Consti- 
tutions of the Church of England, collected from former ordinances, were established in 1603 
by the clergy in convocation, and ratified by king James I. An intermediate class of reli- 
gious, between priests and monks, in the 8tli century, were termed canons, as living by a rule. 

CANOSSA, a castle in Modena, celebrated on account of the degrading penance submitted 
to by the emperor Henry IV. of Germany, in deference to his greatest enemy, pope Gregory 
VII. (Hildebrand), then living at the castle, the residence of the great countess Matilda. 
Hemy was exposed for several days to the inclemency of winter, Jan. 1077, till it pleased 
the pope to admit him. Matilda greatly increased the temporal power of the papacy by 
bequeathing to it her large estates, to the injury of her second husband, Guelph, duke of 
Bavaria. 

CANTERBURY (Kent), the Durovernum of the Romans, and capital of Etlielbert, king 
of Kent, who reigned 560 — 616. He was converted to Christianity by Augustin, 596, upon 
whom he bestowed many favours, giving him land for an abbey and cathedral, which was 
dedicated to Christ, 602.* St. Martin's church was the first Saxon Christian church in 
Britain. The riot at Boughton, near Canterbury, produced by a fanatic called Tom or Thorn, 
Avho assumed the name of sir William Courtenay, occurred May 31, 183S. See Thomites. 
The railway to London was completed in 1846. — The Aechbisuop is primate and metropo- 
litan of all England, and the first peer in the realm, having precedency of all ofticers of state, 
and of all dukes not of the blood royal. Canterbury had formerly jurisdiction over Ireland, 
and the archbishop was styled a patriarch. This see has yielded to the church of Rome 18 
saints and 9 cardinals; and to the civil state of England, 12 lord chancellors and 4 lord 
treasurers. The see was made superior to York, 1073. See York. The revenue is valued 
ill the king's books at 28 16^. 7s. gd Beatson. Present income, 15,000?. 

• The cathedral was sacked by the Danes, loii, and burnt down 1067 ; rebuilt by Lanfrauc and Auselm, 
and the choir completed bv the prior Conrad in 11 30, and in which Becket was murdered, 11 70, was burnt 
1174. It was rebuilt by William of Sens (1174-78) and by " English William," 117S-84. A new nave was 
built and other parts. 1378-1410. The great central tower was erected by prior Goldstone about 1495. The 
gorgeous shrine of Becket was stripped at the reformation, and his bones burnt. Here were interred 
Edward the Black Prince, Henry IV., cardinal Pole, and other distinguished persons. During the civil 
war, Cromwell's dragoons used the cathedral as a stable. 



CAN" 



150 



CAO 



CANTEllBUKY, continued. 



602-605. 


St Augustine, or Aus- 




tin, died May 26. 


605-619. 


St. Lawrence. 


619-624. 


St. Mellitus. 


624-630. 


Justus. 


631-653- 


St. Honorius. 


655-664. 


Deusdedit (Adeodatus). 


668-690. 


Theodore of Tarsu.s. 


693-731- 


Berhtuald. 


731-734- 


Taetwine. 


735-741- 


Nothelm. 


741-758. 


Cuthbert. 


759-762. 


Breogwine. 


763-790. 


Jaenbehrt, or Lambert. 


790-803. 


yEthelheard. 


803-829. 


Wulfred. 


829. 


Fleogild. 


830-870. 


Ceolnoth. 


870-889. 


yEthelred. 


891-923. 


Plegemund. 


923 (?) 


^thelm. 


928-941. 


Wulfelm. 


941-958, 


Odo. 


959-988. 


St. Dun.stan, d. May ig. 


988-989. 


iEthelgar. 


990-995. 


Sigeric. 


995-1006 


^Ifric. 


1006-1011. 


St. .^Elphago, murdered 




by the Danes, April 19. 


1013-1020. 


Lyfing, or iElfstun. 


1020-1038. 


jEthehioth. 


103S-1050. 


St. Eadsige. 


1050-1052 


Robert of Jumi^ges. 


1052-1070. 


Stigand : deprived. 


1070-1089. 


St. Lanfranc, d. May 24. 


1093- H09. 


Anselm. 




[See vacant 5 years.] 


1114-1122. 


Radulphus de Turbine. 


1123-1136. 


WilUam de Curbellio. 


1139-H61. 


Theobald. 



ARCHBISHOPS OF CANTERBURT. 

A.D. 

1162-1170. Thomas Becket : mur- 
dered Dec 29. 
[See vacant. J 

1174-1184. Richard. 

1184-1190. Baldwin. 

1 191. Reginald Fitz-Joceline, 

died Dec. 26. 
[See vacant.] 

1 193-1205. Hubert Walter. [Regi- 
nald the sub-prior, and 
John Grey, bishop of 
Norwich, were succes- 
sively chosen, but set 
aside ] 

1206-1228. Stephen Langton, died 
July 6. 

1229-1231. Richard Weathorshed. 

1233-1240. Edmund dc Abingdon. 

1240-1270. Boniface of Savoy. 

1272-1278. Robert Kilwarby (re- 
signed). 

1279-1292. John Peckh.am. 

1293-1313. Robert Winchelsey. 

1313-1327. Walter Reynolds. 

1327-1333. Simon de Mepham. 

1333-1348. John Stratford. 

1348-1349. John de Ufford. 

1349. Thomas Bradwardin. 

1349-1366. Simon Islip, 

1 366- 1 368. Simon Langham (re- 
signed). 

1368-1374. Wm. Whittlesey. 

1375-1381. Simon Sudbury, be- 
headed by the rebels, 
June 14. 

1381-1396. Wilham Courtenay. 

1397-1398. Thos. Fitzalan or Arun- 
del (attainted). 

1398. Roger Walden (ex- 

l^elled). 



1399-1414. Tho. Arundel (restd). 
1414-1443. Henry Chicheley. 
1443-1452. John Stafford. 
1452-1454. John Kemp. 
1454-1486. Thomas Bouchier. 
1486-1500. John Morton. 
1501-1503. Henry Deane or Denny. 
1503-1532. Wm. Warham. 
1533-1556. Thos. Cranmer (burnt, 

March 21). 
1 556-1558. ReginaldPolejd.Nov. 17. 
1559-1575. Matt. Parker.d. May 17. 
1576-1583. Edm. Grindal, d. July 6. 
1583- 1604. JohnWhitgift,d.Feb.29. 
1604-16:0. Rd. Bancroft, d. Nov. 2. 
161 1-1633. Geo. Abbot, d. Aug. 4. 
1633- 1645. Wm. Laud (beheaded, 

Jan. 10). 

[See vacant 16 years."] 
1660-1663. Wm. Juxou, d. June 4. 
1663-1677. Gilb. Sheldon, d. Nov.9. 
1678-1691. Wm. Sancroft (deprived 

Feb. 1), d. Nov. 24,1693. 
1691-1694. JohnTillotson,d.Nov.22 
1695-1715. Thos.Tenison, d. Dec. 14. 
1715-1737. Wni. Wake, d. Jan. 24. 
1737-1747. John Potter, d. Oct. 10. 
1747-1757. Thos.Herringjd. M;ir.i3. 
1757-1758. Matt.Hutton, dMar.19. 
1758-1768. Thos. Seeker, d. Aug. 3. 
1768-1783. Fred. Comwallis, died 

Mar. 19. 
1783-1805. John Moore, d. Jan. 18. 
1805-182S. Chas. Manners Sutton, 

died Jul}' 21. 
1828-1848. Wm.Howley, d. Feb.ii. 
1848-1862. John Bird Sumner,died 

Sept. 6. 
1862. Chas. Thos. Longley, PRESENT 

abp. 

CANTERBURY TALES, by Geoffrey Chaucer, were written about 1364 ; and first 
printed about 1475 or 1476 (by Caxton). 

CANTHARIDES, venomous green beetles (called Spanish flies), are used to raise blisters. 
This use is ascribed to Aretaeus of Cappadocia, about 50 B.C. 

CANTON, the only city in China with which Europeans were allowed to trade, till the 
treaty of Aug. 29, 1842. Nearly every nation has a factory at Canton, but that of England 
surpasses all others in elegance and extent. Merchants arrived here in 15 17. A fire destroy- 
ing 15,000 houses, 1822. An inundation swept away 10,000 houses and 1000 persons, 
Oct. 1833. Canton was taken by the British in 1857 ; restored, 1861. See China 1835, 
1839, 1856, 1 86 1. Population estimated at 1,000,000. 

CANULEIAN LAW, permitting the patricians and plebeians to intermarry, was passed 
at Rome 445 B.C. 

CAOUTCHOUC, OR India Rubber, an elastic resinous substance that exudes by 
incisions from several trees that grow in Cayenne, Quito, and the Brazils, the Havia caout- 
chouc and Siphonicc clastica (vulgarly called syringe trees). It was first brought to Europe 
from South America, about 1730. 



In 1770, Dr. Priestley said that he had seen "a 

' substance excellently adapted to the pu-rpose 
of wiping from pajser the marks of a black 
lead pencil." It was sold at the rate of 35. 
the cubic half-inch. 

India rublier cloth was made by Samuel Peal 
and ijatented 1791 

Vulcanised rubber formed by combining India 
rubber with sulphur, which process removes 
the susceptibility of the rubber to change 
under atmospheric temperatures, was pa- 
tented in America, by Mr. C. Goodyear . . 1839 

Invented also by Mr. T. Hancock (of the firm 



of Mackintosh and Co.), and patented . 

Mr. Goodyear invented the hard rubber 
(termed Ebonite) as a substitute for horn 
and tortoise-shell, for combs, paper-kni\'es, 
veneer, walking-sticks, &c. .... 

A mode of retaining India rubber in its natu- 
ral fluid state (by applying to it liquid am- 
monia) was patented in England, on behalf 
of the inventor, Mr. Her.ry Lee Norris, of 
New York 

Caoutchouc imported in 1850, 7617 cwts. ; in 
1856, 28,765 cwts. ; in 1864, 71,027 cwts. 



1853 



CAP 



151 



CAP 



CAP. The general use of caps and hats is referred to 1449. See Cups and Hats. 

CAPE BRETO^ST, a large island, "W. coast of N. America, said to have been discovered 
by the English in 1584; taken by the French in 1632, but was afterwards restored ; and 
again taken in 1745, and re-taken in 1748. It was finally captured by the English in 1758, 
when the garrison of 5600 men were made prisoners, and eleven French ships were captured 
or .destroyed. Ceded to England in 1763. 

CAPE-COAST CASTLE (S. W. Africa). Settled by the Portuguese in 1610 ; but it 
soon fell to the Dutch. It was demolished by admiral Holmes in 1661. All the British 
factories and shipping along the coast were destroyed by the Dutch admiral, De Ruyter, in 
1665. It was confirmed to the English by the treaty of Breda, in 1667. See Aslmntees. 

CAPE DE VERDE ISLANDS (N. Atlantic Ocean), were known to the ancients as Gor- 
gades ; but not to the moderns till discovered by Antonio de Noli, a Genoese navigator in the 
service of Portugal, 1446, 1450, or 1460. The Portuguese possess them still. 

CAPEL COURT. See under STOCKS. 

CAPE LA HOGUE. See La Hague. 

CAPE OF GOOD HOPE, a promontory on the S.W. point of Africa, called "Cabo 
Tormentoso " (tlie stormy cape), the " Lion of the Sea, " and the " Head of Africa," dis- 
covered b}'- Bartholomew de Diaz in i486. Its present name was given by John 11. of 
Portugal, who augured favourably of future discoveries from Diaz having reached the 
extremity of Africa, Population in 1856, 267,096. 



The cape was doubled, and the passage to 

India discovered by Vasco de Gama, Nov. 20, 1497 
Cape Town, the capital, planted by the Dutch 1651 
Colony taken by the English, under admiral 
Elphinstone and general Clarke . Sept. 1795 

Restored at the peace in 1802 

Taken by sir D. Baird and sir H. Popham, Jan. 8, 1806 

Finally ceded to England in 1814 

British emigrants arrive in . . March, 1820 
The Kaffres make irrujitions on the British set- 
tlements; and ravage Grahamstown. (See 

Kaffraria) Oct. 1834 

Bishopric of Cape Town founded . . . 1847 
The inhabitants successfully resist the attempt 
to make the cape a penal colony . May 19, 1849 



The constitution granted to the colony promul- 
gated and joyfully received ou . July i, 1853 

General Prsetorius, the chief of the Trans- Vaiil 
republic, died in . , . . Aug. ,, 

The British having given up its jurisdiction 
over the Orange river territory, a free state 
was formed (See OroHf/erirer) . March 29, 1854 

The first parliament meets at Cape-Town July i, ,, 

The Katfres were much excited by a prophet 
named Umhla-kaza. By the exertions of sir 
George Grey, the governor, tranquillity was 
maintained Aug. 1856 

The cape visited by prince Alfred in . July, i860 

The first railway from Cape Town, about 58 
miles long, opened . . about Dec. „ 



CAPE ST. VINCENT (S. W. Portugal). Sir George Rooke, with twenty-three ships of 
•war, and the Turkey fleet, was attacked by Tourville, with 160 ships oif Cape St. Vincent, 
when twelve English and Dutch men of war, and eighty merchantmen, were captured or 
destroyed by the French, June 16, 1693. — Sir John Jervis, with the Mediterranean fleet of 
fifteen sail, defeated the Spanish fleet of twenty-seven ships of the line ofl' this cape, taking 
four ships and destroying others, Feb. 14, 1797. For this victory sir John was raised to the 
peerage, as earl St. Vincent. Nelson was engaged in this battle. 

CAPET (or Capevigians), the third race of the kings of France, named from Hugo Capet, 
count of Pai'is and Orleans, who seized the throne ou the death of Louis V., called the Indo- 
lent, 987. Henault. The first line of the house of Capet expired with Charles IV., in 1328, 
when Philip VI. of Valois ascended the throne. See France. 

CAPILLARITY (the rising of liquids in small tubes, and the ascent of the sap in plants) 
is said to have been first observed by Niccolo Aggiunti of Pisa, 1600 — 35. The theory has 
been examined by Newton, La Place, and others. Dr. T. Young's theory was put forth in 
1805, and Mr. Wertheim's researches in 1857. 

CAPITAL PUNISHMENT. See Death. 

CAPITATION TAX. See Poll-tax. 

CAPITOL, so called from a human head {caput) being found when digging the founda- 
tions of the principal fortress of Rome, on Mons Tarpeius, on which a temple was built to 
Jupiter, thence called Jupiter Ca2ntolimis. The foundation was laid by Tarquinius Priscus, 
616 B.C. The buihling was continued by Servius Tullius, and completed by Tarquinius 
Superbus, but was not dedicated till 507 B.C. by the consul Horatius. It was burnt during 
the civil wars, 83 B.C., rebuilt by Sylla, and dedicated again by Lutatius Catulus, 69 b.c. 
The Roman consuls made large donations to this temple, and the enqjcror Augustus bestowed 
on it 2000 pounds weight of gold, of which metal the roof was composed : its thresliolds were 
of brass, and its interior was decorated with shields of solid silver. It was destroyed by 



CAP 



152 



CAR 



lightning iS8 B.C. ; by fire, a.d. 70, and rebuilt by Domitian. Tlie Capiloline games, insti- 
tuted 387 B.C., were revived by Domitian, a.d. 86. The Campidoglio contains palaces of the 
senators, erected on the site of the Capitol by ]\Iichael Aiigelo soon after 1546. 

CAPITULAEIES, the laws of the Frankish kings, commencing with Charlemagne (801). 
Collections have been published by Baluze (1677) and others. 

CAPPADOCIA, Asia Minor. Its early history is involved in obscurity. 

Roman senate declares the country free, and 
appoints Ariobarzanes I. king . . B.C. 93 
He is several times expelled by Mithridates, 

(fee. , but restored by the Romans ; dies . 64 
Ariobarzanes II. supports Ponipey, and is slain 

by Crassus 

Ariarathes VII. deposed by Antony 
Archelaus is favoured by Augustus, 20 B.C. ; 
but accused by Tiberius, he comes to Rome 
and dies there, oppressed with age and mfir- 
mities . . . . . . . a.d. 17 

Cappadocia becomes a Roman province . . 15 

Invaded by the Huns 515 

And by the Saracens . . . . . . 717 

Recovered by the emperor Basil I. . . . 876 

Conquered by Soliman 1074 

Annexed to Turkish Empire .... 1360 



B.C. 

Phamaces said to have founded the kingdom . 744 
Cappadocia conquered by Perdiccas, regent of 
Macedon ; the king, Ai-iarathes I., aged 82, 
crucified ........ 322 

Recovers its independence . . • • 31S 

Conquered by Mithridates of Pontus . . 291 

Held by Seleucus Nicator 280 

Ariarathes V. , Philopator, reigns, 162; dethroned 
by Holophernes, 130, b>it restored by the 
Romans, 158 ; killed with Cvassus in the war 
against Aristonicus ...... 130 

His queen, Laodice, poisons five of her sons ; 
the sixth (Ariarathes VI.) is saved; she is 

put to death „ 

Ariarathes VI. murdered by Mithridates Eu- 
pator ; who sets up various pretenders. The 



42 
36 



CAPPEL (Switzerland). Here the reformer Zwinglius was slain in a conflict between 
the catholics and the men of Zurich, Oct. 11, 1531. 

CAPRI (Capreae), an island near Naples, the sumptuous I'esidence of Augustus, and par- 
ticularly of Tiberius, memorable for the debaucheries he committed during the se\'en last 
years of his life, 27. Capri was taken by sir Sidney Smith, April 22, 1806. 

CAPS AND Hats.* About 1750 Sweden was much distracted by two factions thus 
named, the former in the interest of the Russians, and the latter in that of the French. 
They were broken up and the names prohibited by Gustavus III. in 1771, who desired to 
exclude foreign influence. His assassination by Ankarstrom, March 16, 1792, set aside all 
his plans for the improvement of Sweden. 

CAPUA (Naples), capital of Campania, took the part of Hannibal when his army 
wintered here after the battle of Cannre, 216 B.C., and it is said became enervated through 
luxury. In 211, when the Romans retook the city, tliey scourged and beheaded all the 
surviving senators ; the others had poisoned themselves after a banquet previous to the 
siu'render of the city. Only two persons escaped degradation, a woman who had prayed for 
the success of the Romans, and another who succoured some prisoners. During the middle 
ages Capua was in turn subjugated by the Greeks, Saracens, ami Normans, and Germans. 
It was restored to Naples in a.d. 1424, and was taken Nov. 2, i860, by Garibaldi. 

CAPUCHIN FRIARS, Franciscans, so named fi'om wearing a Capuclion, or cowl hang- 
ing down upon their backs. The Capuchins were founded by JSIatthew Basclii, about 1525. 

CAR. The invention is ascribed to Erichthonius of Athens, about i486 B.C. Covered 
cars {currus arcuati) Avere used by the Romans. The ledica (a soft cushioned car), next 
invented, gave place to the caiycntum, a two-wheeled car, witli an arched covering, hung 
with costly cloth. Still later were the carrucce, in which the officers of state rode. Tri- 
umphal cars, introduced by Tarquin the Elder, were formed like a throne. 

CARACAS (S. America), part of Venezuela, discovered by Columbus 1498. It was 
reduced by arms, and assigned as property to the Welsers, German merchants, by Charles 
V. ; but from their tyranny, thejMvere dispossessed in 1550, and a crown governor appointed. 
The province declared its independence of Spain, May 9, 1810. The city Leon de Caracas, 
on March 26, 1812, was A'isited by a violent earthquake, and nearl}^ 12,000 persons perished. 
See Vauzucla. 

CARBERRY HILL (S. Scotland). Here on June 15, 1567, lord Ilume and tlie con- 

* None allowed to sell any hat for above 201/. nor cap for above 2s. Sd. 5 Henry VII. 1489. It was 
enacted in 1571 that every person above seven years of age should wear on Sundays and holidays, a cap of 
wool, knit, made, thickened, and dressed in England by some of the trade of cappers, under the forfeiture 
of three farthings for every day's neglect, 1571. Excepted : maids, ladies, and gentlewomen, and every 
lord, knight, and gentleman, of twenty marks of land, and their heirs, and such as had burne office of 
worship, in any city, town, or place, and the wardens of London companies. 



CAR 153 CAR 

federate barons dispersed tlic royal array under Botliwell, and took Mary queeu of Scots 
prisoner. Botliwell fled. 

CARBOLIC ACID (or plienic acid), oljtained by the distillation of pit-coal, is a powerful 
antiseptic. It is largely manufactured for medical purposes, and lias been advantageously 
used at Carlisle and Exeter in the deodorisatiou of sewage (1860-1). 

CARBON was shown to be a distinct element by Lavoisier in 1788. He proved the 
diamond to be its purest form, and converted it into carbonic acid gas by combustion. 
Gmelin. 

CARBONARI (colliers, or charcoal-burners), a powerful secret society in Italy, 'which 
derived its origin, according to some, from the Waldenses, and whicli became prominent 
early in the present century. It aimed at the expulsion of foreigners from Italy, and the 
establishment of civil and religious liberty. In March, 1820, it is said that 650,000 joined 
the society, and an insurrection soon after broke out in Naples, general Pepe taking the com- 
mand. The king Ferdinand made political concessions, but the allied sovereigns at Laybach 
assisted Ferdinand to suppress the liberal party. The Carbonari were henceforth denounced 
as traitors. The society since i8i8 spread in France, and doubtless hastened the fall of the 
Bourbons in 1830 and 1848. It has been frequently but incorrectly confounded with free- 
masonry. 

CARBONIC ACID GAS, a compound of carbon and oxygen, which occurs in the air, 
and is a product of combustion, respiration, and fermentation. The Grotto del Cane yields 
200,000 lbs. per annum. No animal can breathe this gas. The briskness of champagne, 
beer, &c., is due to its presence. It was licpiefied by atmospheric pressure by Faraday in 
1823. On exposing the liquid to the air for a short time it becomes solid, in tlie form of 
snow. 

CARDIFF CASTLE (S. \Yales). Here Robert, duke of Normandy, eldest son of William 
I., was imprisoned from 1106 till his death, 1135. 

CARDINALS, ecclesiastical princes in the church of Rome, the council of the pope, and 
the conclave or sacred college, at first were the principal priests or incumbents of the 
parishes in Rome, and were called curdinales in 853. They began to assume the exclusive 
power of electing the popes in 1181. They first wore the red hat to remind tiiem that 
they ought to shed their blood for religion, if required, and were declared princes of the 
church by Innocent IV., 1243 or 1245. In 1586 Sixtus V. fixed their number at 70; but 
there are generally vacancies. In i860 there were 69 cardinals, in 1861, 63, in 1864, 59. 
Paul II. gave the scarlet habit, 1464 ; and Urban VI II. the title of Eminence in 1623 or 
1630. Ducangc. 

CARDROSS CASE. See Trials, 1861. 

CARDS (referred to the Chinese, Hindoos, and Romans), are said to have been invented 
in France in 1391, to amuse Charles IV. during the intervals of a melancholy disorder. 
Piquet and all the early names are French. — Cards first taxed in England 1710. 428,000 
packs were stamped in 1775, and 986,000 in 1800. In 1825, the duty being then 2s. 6d. 
per pack, less than 150,000 packs were stamped ; but in 1827 the stamp duty was reduced 
to IS., and 310,854 packs jiaid duty in 1830. Duty was paid on 239,200 packs in the year 
ending 5th Jan. 1840; and on near 300,000, year ending 5th Jan. 1850. By an act passed 
in 1862 the duty 011 cards was reduced to ^d. per pack, and the sellers were required to take 
out a licence. 

CARIA, Asia Minor, was conquered by Cyrus, 546 B.C. ; by Dercyllidas, a Lacedse- 
monian, 397; his successor Hecatomnus became king, 385 B.C.; for his son Mausolus the 
Maicsolcum was erected (which sec). Caria was absorbed into the Tui'kish empii'e. 

CARICATURES. Bufalmaco, an Italian painter, about 1330, drew caricatures and put 
labels to the mouths of his figures with sentences. The modern caricatures of Gilray, Row- 
landson, H. B. (John Dojde J^^BB;, Richard Doyle, John Leech, and John Tenniel are 
justly celebrated. The well-known " Puncli " was first published in 1841. The most eminent 
writers of fiction of the day and others ^Douglas Jerrold, Thackeray, A'Becket, Professor E. 
Forbes, &c.) have contributed to this amusing periodical. 

CARINTHIA, a Bavarian duchy, was annexed to Austria, 1363. 



CAR 154 CAR 

CARISBROOKE CASTLE (Isle of Wight), said to have been a Briti.sli and Roman 
fortress, Avas taken 530, by Cerdic, founder of the kingdom of the West Saxons. Its 
jSTornian character has been ascribed to William Fitz-Osborne, earl of Hereford in William 
I.'s time. Here Charles I. was imprisoned in 1647. Here died his daughter Elizabeth, 
aged fifteen, too probably of a broken heart, Sept. 8, 1650. 

CARLAVEROCK CASTLE (S. Scotland), taken by Edward I. July, 1300, the subject of 
a contemporary poem published, with illustrations, by sir Harris Nicolas ill 1828. 

CARLISLE (Cumberland), a frontier town of England, wherein for many ages a strong 
garrison was kept. Just below this town the famous Picts' wall began, which crossed the 
whole island to Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and here also ended the great Roman highway. The 
great church, called St. Mary's, is a venerable old pile ; a great part of it was built by St. 
David, king of Scotland, who held Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Northumberland, in 
vassalage from the crown of England. The castle, restored in 1092 by William II., was the 
prison of Mary queen of Scots in 1568. — Taken by the parliamentary forces in 1645, and by 
the young Pretender, Nov. 15, 1745: retaken by the duke of Cumberland, Dec. 30, same 
year. The see was erected by Henry I. in 1132, and made suffragan to York. The cathe- 
dral had been founded a short time previously, by Walter, deputy in these parts for William 
Rufus. It was almost ruined by Cromwell, and has never recovered its former great beautj', 
although repaired after the Restoration. It has been lately renovated at a cost of 15,000^. 
and was reopened in 1856. The see has given to the civil state one lord chancellor and two 
lord treasurers; it is valued in the king's books at 530Z. 4s. iit^. per annum. Present 
income 4500Z. 

EECENT BISHOPS OF CARLISLE. 



1791. Edward Venables Veauon, trans, to York, 1807. 
1808. Samuel Gcodenough, died Aug. 12, 1827. 
1827. Hugh Percy, died Feb. 1856. 



1856. Hon. H. Montagu Villiers, trans, to Durham 

May, i860. 
i860. Hon. Samuel Waldegrave (present bishop). 



CARLISLE ADMINISTRATION. See Halifax. 

CARLOVINGI ANS, the second dynasty of the French kings. See Francs. 

CARLOW (S. E. Ireland). The castle, erected by king John, surrendered after a 
desperate siege to Rory Oge O'Moore, in 1577 ; again to the parliamentary forces, in 1650. 
Here the royal troops routed the insurgents. May, 1798. 

CARLSBAD (or Charle-s's Bath), in Bohemia, the celebrated springs, discovered by the 
emperor Charles IV. in 1358. — On Aug. i, 1819, a congress was held here, when the great 
powers decreed measures to repress the liberal press, &c. 

CARMAGNOLE, a Piedmontese song and dance, popular in France during the reign of 
terror, 1793-4. The chorus was " Dansons la Carmagnole : vive le son du canon ! " 

CARMATHIANS, a Mahometan sect. Carmath, a Sliiite, about 890, assumed the title 
of "the guide, the director," &c., including that of the representative of Mahomet, 
St. John the Baptist, and the angel Gabriel. His followers subdued Bahrein in 900, and 
overran the east. Dissensions arose amongst themselves, and their power soon passed away. 

CARMELITES, or White Friak.s, of Mount Carmel, one of the four orders of mendi- 
cants with austere rules, founded by Berthold about 1156, and settled in France in 1252. 
HenauU. These rules were moderated about 1540. They claimed descent from Elijah. 
They had numerous monasteries in England, and a precinct in London Avithout the Temple, 
west of Blackfriars, is called Whitefriars to this day, after a community of their order, 
founded there in 1245. 

CARNATIC, a district of Southern Hindostan, extending along the whole coast of Coro- 
mandel. Hyder Ali entered the Carnatic with 80,000 troops, in 1780, and was defeated by 
the British under sir Eyre Coote, July i, and Aug. 27, 1781 ; and decisively overthrowTi, 
June 2, 1782. The Carnatic was overrun by Tippoo in 1790. The British have possessed 
entire authority over the Carnatic since 1801. See India. 

CARNATION, so called from the original species being of a flesh colour {carnis, of 
flesh). Several varieties were first planted in England by the Flemings, about 1567. Stow. 

CARNEIAN GAMES, observed in many Grecian cities, particularly at Sparta (instituted 
about 675 B.C. in honour of Apollo, surnamed Carneus), lasted nine days. 

CARNIVAL (Carni vale, Italian, i.e. Flesh, fareivell .'), a festival time in Italy, parti- 
cularly at Venice, about Shrove-tide, or beginning of Lent. 



CAR 



155 



CAR 



CAROLINA (N. America). Said to have been discovered bj^ Sebastian Cabot in 149S, 
or by De Leon in 1512. A body of English, about 850 persons, landed and settled here 
about 1660 ; and Carolina was granted to lord Berkeley and others a few years afterwards. 
The cultivation of rice was introduced by governor Smith in 1695, and subsequently cotton. 
The ]irovince was divided into North and South in 1719. See America. The Carolinas 
were slave states. Great excitement prevailed in them in Nov. i860, on account of Mr. 
Abraham Lincoln's election to the presidency of the United States, he being strongly 
opposed to slavery. South Carolina began the secession from the United States, Dec. 20, 
i860: North Carolina followed. May 21, 1861. See United States, 1861-5. 

CAROLINE ISLANDS were discovered by the Spaniards in the reign of Charles II. 16S6. 

CARP, a fresh-water or pond fish, was, it is said, first brought to these countries about 
1525. Walton. It is mentioned by Lady Juliana Beruers in 1496. 

CARPETS are of ancient use in the East. The manufacture of woollen carpets was 
introduced into France from Persia, in the reign of Henry IV., between 1589 and 1610. 
Some artizans who had quitted France in disgust established the English carpet manufac- 
ture, about 1750. A cork-carpet company was formed in 1862. 

CARRACK, or Karrack (Italian, Caracca), a large ship in the middle ages. The Santa 
Anna, the projierty of the knights of St. John, of about 1700 tons, sheathed with lead, was 
built at Nice about 1530. It was literally a floating fortress, and aided Charles V. in taking 
Tunis in 1535. It contained a crew of 300 men and 50 pieces of artillery. 

CARRIAGES. Erichthonius of Athens is said to have produced the first chariot about 
i486 B.C. Rude carriages were known in France in the reign of Henry II. a.d. 1547 ; in 
England in 1555 ; Henry IV. of France had one without straps or springs. They were made 
in England in the reign of Elizabeth, and then called whirlicotes. The duke of Bucking- 
ham, in 1619, drove six horses ; and the duke of Northumberland, in rivalry, drove eight. 
Carriages were let for hire in Paris, in 1650, at the Hotel Fiacre ; hence the name, fiacre. 
See Car, Cabriolets, and Coaches. 

CARRICKFERGUS (Antrim, Ireland). Its castle is supposed to have been built by 
Hugh de Lacy, in 11 78. The town surrendered to the duke of Schomberg, Aug. 28, 1689. 
The castle surrendered to the French admiral Tliurot, 1760. See Thurot. 

CARRON IRON-WORKS, on the banks of the Carron, in Stiriingshire, established in 
1760. The works in 1852 employed about 1600 men. Here since 1776 have been made the 
pieces of ordnance called carronadcs. 

CARROTS and other edible roots were imported from HoUaud and Flanders, about 1540. 

CARTESIAN DOCTRINES, promulgated by Rene Des Cartes, the French philosopher, 
in 1637. His metaphysical principle is, "I think, therefore I am ;" his physical principle, 
"Nothing exists but substance." He accounts for all physical phenomena on his theory of 
vortices, motions excited hy God, the source of all motion. He was born 1596, and died at 
Stockholm, the guest of queen Christina, in 1650. 

CARTES DE VISITE. The small photograph portraits thus termed are said to have 
been first taken at Nice, by M. Ferrier in 1857. The duke of Parma had his portrait placed 
upon his visiting cards, and his example was soon followed in Paris and London. 

CARTHAGE (N. coast of Africa, near Tunis), founded by Dido or Elissa, sister of 
Pygmalion, king of Tyre, B.C. 878 (869, Blair; 826, Nicbuhr). She fled from that tyrant, 
who had killed her husband, and took refuge in Africa. Carthage became a great com- 
mercial and warlike republic, and disputed the empire of the world with Rome, which 
occasioned the Punic wars. The Carthaginians bore the character of a faithless people, 
hence the term Punic faith. Cato the censor (about 146 B.C.) ended his speeches in the 
senate with Carthago delenda! "Carthage must be destroyed ! " 

Defeated by Agathocles, they immolate their B.C. 

children on tlie altar to Satum . . . ^jio 
The first Punic war begins (lasts 23 years) . 
The Carthaginians defeated by the Roman con 

sul Duilius in a naval engagement . 
Xantippus defeats Regulus . . ... 
Hasdrubal defeated by Metellua at Panormus 251 

Regulus put to death 250 

Romans defeated before LilybKum . . . 250 
The great Hannibal born 247 



First alliance of C'arthag:inians and Romans 
The Carthaginians in Sicily defeated at Himera 
by Gelo ; the elder Haniilcar perishes . . 
They enlarge their territories .... 
They send 300,000 men into Sicily . . . . 

Take Agilgentum 

The siege of Syi-acuse 

The Carthaginians land in Italy .... 
Their defeat by Timoleon 



B.C. 

509 



264 

260 
255 



CAR 



166 



CAS 



CARTHAGE, couthmcd. 

B.C. 

End of fir.-t Punic war; Sicily lost by Carthage 241 
War between the Carthaginians and African 
mercenaries ....... 241 

Hamilcar Barcas is sent into Spain : he takes 
with him his son, the famous Hannibal, at 
the age of nine years, having first made him 
swear an eternal enmity to the Romans . .■ 237 
Hasdrubal founds New Carthage (Carthagena) . 229 

Hasdrubal is assassinated 220 

Hannibal subjects Spain, as far as the Iberus . 219 
The second Punic war begins (lasts 17 years) . 218 
Hannibal crosses the Alps, and enters Italy with 
100,000 men ....... 218 

He defeats the Roman consuls at the Ticinus and 
Trebia, 218 ; at the lake Thrasymenus, 217, 
and at Cannaj (which see) . . . Aug-. 2, 216 
Pubhus Scipio carries war into Spain and takes 

New Carthage 210 

Hasdrubal, brother of Hannibal, arrives with 
an army, and is defeated and slain at the 



]\[etaurus e.c. 207 

The Carthaginians expelled Spain . . . 206 
Scipio an-ives in Africa, and lays siege to Utica . 204 
Hannibal recalled from Italy .... 203 
Hannibal totally defeated at Zama (which see) , 202 
End of the second Punic war 201 



149 

1 46 
122 
46 



Tlie third Punic war : Scipio invades Africa 
Carthage taken and burned, by order of the 

senate 

Colony settled at Curthage by C. Gracchus 

Its rebuilding planned by Julius Cajsar . . 

And executed by his successors. 
It becomes an important Christian bishop- 
ric A.D. 215 

And Cyprian holds a council here . . . 252 
Taken by Genseric the Vandal . . . . 439 

Retaken by Belisarius 533 

Taken and destroyed by Hassan the Saracenic 

governor of Egypt 6g8 

Carthaginian antiquities brought to the British 
Museum 1861 



CARTHAGENA, or New Carthage (S. E. Spain), built by Hasdrubcal, the Carthaginian 
general 229 B.C. ; was taken by Scipio, 210. The modern Carthagena was taken by a British 
force under sir John Leake in 1706, but was retaken by the duke of Ber\vick, 1707. — 
Carthagena, in Columbia, South America, was taken by sir Francis Drake in 1585 ; was 
pillaged by the French of i,200,oooZ. in 1697 ; and was bombarded by admiral Vernon 
in 1 740- 1. 

CARTHUSIANS, a religious order (springing from the Benedictines) founded by Bruno 
of Cologne, who retired with six companions from the converse of the world about loSo, to 
Chartreuse (which sec), in the mountains of Dauphin^. Their austere rules were formed by 
Basil VII., general of the order. They appeared in England about 1180, and a Carthusian 
monastery, founded bj' sir William Manny, 137 1, was the site of the present Charter-house, 
London. See Charter-house. The Carthusian powder, of father Simon, at Chartreuse, was 
first compounded about 1715. 

CARTOONS. Those of Raphael (twenty-five in number) were designed (for tapestries) 
in the chambers of the Vatican under Julius II. and Leo X. about 1510 to 1516. The seven 
preserved were purchased in Flanders by Rubens for Charles I. of England, for Hampton 
court palace in 1629. They represent — i, the Miraculous draught of Fishes ; 2, the Charge 
to Peter ; 3, Peter and John healing the Lame at the Gate of the Temple ; 4, the Death of 
Ananias ; 5, Elymas the Sorcerer struck with blindness ; 6, the Sacrifice to Paul and 
Barnabas, at Lystra ; 7, Paul preaching at Athens. — The cartoons were removed to 
South Kensington, April 28, 1865. — The tapestries executed at Arras from these designs ai'e 
at Rome. They were twice carried away by invaders, in 1526 and 1798, and were restored 
in 1815. — The Cartoons for the British Houses of Parliament were exhibited in 1843. 

CARVING. &Qe Sculptures. CASH-PAYMENTS. ^&e Bank of Encjland. 

CASHEL (Tipperary, Ireland). Cormack Cuillinan, king and bishop of Cashel, was the 
reputed founder or restorer of the cathedral, 901. In 11 52, bishop Donat O'Danergan was 
invested with the pall. See Pallium. Cashel was valued in the king's books, 29 Henry 
VIII., at 661. 13s. 4c?. Irish money. By the Church Temporalities act, 1833, it ceased to be 
archiepiscopal, and was joined to Waterford and Lismore. 

CASHMERE, in the Himalayas ; was subdued by the Mahometans in the i6th century ; 
by the Affglians in 1754 ; by the Sikhs in 1819 ; and was ceded to the British in 1846 ; who 
gave it to the Maharajah Gholab Singh, with a nominal sovereignty. The true Cashmere 
shawls were first brought to England in 1666 : but are well imitated at Bradford and 
Huddersfield. Shawls of Thibetian wool, for the omrahs, cost 150 rupees each, about 1650. 
Bcrnier. 

CASSATION, Court of, the highest court of appeal in France, was established in 1790 
by the national assembly. 

CASSITERIDES. See Scilly Isles. 

CASTEL FIDARDO, near Ancona, Central Italy. Near here general Lamoriciere and 
the papal army of 11,000 men were totally defeated by the Sardinian general, Cialdini, Sept. 
18, i860. Lamoriciere with a few horsemen fled to Ancona, then besieged. On Sept. 29, 
he and the garrison surrendered, but were shortly after set at liberty. 



CAS 157 CAT 

CASTES, a distinct section of society in India. In the laws of Menu (see Menu), the 
Hindus are divided into the Brahnians, or sacerdotal class ; the Kshatrya or Chuttree, 
military class ; the Vaisya, or commercial class ; and the Sudras, or sooders, servile class. 

CASTIGLIONE (N. Italy). Here the French imder Augereau defeated the Austrians, 
commanded hy AYurmser, with great loss, Aug. 3 — 5, 1796. 

CASTILE (Central Spain). A powerful Gothic government was established here about 
800. — Ferdinand, count of Castile, became king, 1035. Ferdinand of Arragon married 
Isabella of Castile in 1474, and formed one monarchy, 1479. See Simin. 

CASTILLEJOS (N. Africa). Here on Jan. i, i860, was fought the first decisive action 
in the war between Spain and Morocco. General Prim, after a vigorous resistance, repulsed 
the Moors under Muley Abbas, and advanced towards Tetuan. 

CASTILLON, in Guienne. Here the army of Henry VI. of England was defeated by 
that of Charles VII. of France. An end was put to the English dominion in France, Calais 
alone remaining, July 23, 1453. Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury, was killed. 

CASTLEBAR (Ireland). French troops, under Humbert, landed at Killala, and assisted 
by Irish insurgents here, compelled the king's troops to reti'eat, Aug. 28, 1798. 

CASTLEPOLLARD (Ireland). Fatal affray at a fair here between some peasantry and a 
body of police, when thirteen persons lost their lives, and more than twice that number were 
wounded. May 23, 183 1. The chief constable, Blake, and his men, escaped punishment. 

CASTLES. The castle of the Anglo-Saxon was a tower keep, either round or square, 
and ascended by a flight of steps in front. William I. erected 48 strong castles. Several 
hundreds, built by permission of Stephen, between 1135 and 1154, W'ere demolished by 
Henry II., 1154. Many were dismantled in the civil wars. 

CATACOMBS. The early depositories of the dead. The first Christians at Rome met 
for worship in the catacombs ; and here are said to have been the tombs of the apostles 
Peter and Paul. Belzoni in 181 5 and 1818 explored many Egyptian catacombs, built 3000 
years ago. He brought to England the sarcophagus of Psammetichus, formed of oriental 
alabaster, exquisitely sculptured. In the Parisian catacombs (formerly, stone quarries), 
human remains from the cemeterj'' of the Innocents were deposited in 1785 ; and many of 
the victims of the revolution in 1792-4, are interred in them. 

CATALONIA (W. Spain), was settled by the Goths and Alani, about 409 ; conquered by 
the Saracens, 712 ; recovered by Pepin and Charlemagne. It formed part of the Spanish 
marches and the territor}'' of the co\int of Barcelona {which see). The natives were able 
seamen : being frequently unruly, their peculiar privileges were abolished in 17 14. 

CATALYTIC FORCE. The discovery in 1819 by Thenard of the decomposition of 
peroxide of hydrogen by platinum, and by Dobereiner in 1825 of its property to ignite a 
mixture of hydrogen and oxygen, formed the groundwork of the doctrine of Catalytic Force, 
also termed "action of contact or presence," put forth by Berzelius and Mitscherlich, 
Their view has not been adopted by Liebig and other chemists. 

CATAMARANS (or carcases), fire-machines for destroying ships ; tried in vain by sir 
Sidney Smith, Oct. 2, 1804, on the Boulogne flotilla destined by Bonaparte to invade England. 

CATANIA, a town near Etna, Sicil}^, was founded by a colony from Chalcis, about 753 
B.C. Ceres had a temple here, open to none but women. Catania was almost totally over- 
thrown by an eruption of Etna in 1669, and in 1693 was nearly swallowed up by an earth- 
quake : in a moment more than 18,000 of its inhabitants were buried in the ruins. An earth- 
quake did great damage, Feb. 22, 181 7. In Aug. 1862, the town was held by Garibaldi and 
his volunteers, in opposition to the Italian government. He was captured on Aug. 29. 

CATAPHRYGIANS, heretics in the 2nd centuiy, who followed the errors of Mon- 
tanus. They are said to have baptized their dead, forbidden marriage, and mingled the 
bread and wine in the Lord's supper, with the blood of young children. 

CATAPULTiE, militaiy engines of the cross-bow kind, for throwing huge stones as well 
as darts and arrows ; invented by Dionysius, the tyrant of SjTacuse, 399 B.C. Josephus. 

CATEAU CAMBRESIS (N. France), where, on April 2, 3, 1559, ])eace was concluded 
between Henry II. of France, Philip II. of Spain, and Elizabeth of England. France ceded 
to Philip Savoy, Corsica, and nearly 200 forts in Italy and the Low Countries. 

CATECHISMS. The catechism of the church of England in the second book of Edward 



CAT 15S CAU 

"VI., 1552, contained merely the baptismal vow, the creed, the ten commandments, and the 
Lord's prayer, witli an explanation : but James I. ordered the bishops to enlarge it Ijy adding 
an explication of the sacraments, 1612. It was increased subsequently by the doctrinal 
points of the established religion. The catechism of the council of Trent was published ia 
1566 ; that of the Assembly of Divines at Westminster in 1648. 

CATHARI (from the Greek JcatJiaros, pure), a name given to the Novatians (about 251), 
Montanists, and other early Christian sects. 

CATHERINE. The order of knights of St. Catherine was instituted in Palestine, 1063. 
The order of nuns called Catherines was founded in 1373. An order of ladies of the highest 
rank in Russia was founded by Catherine, empress of Peter the Great, 1714. They were to 
be distinguished, as the name implied (from katharos, pure), for inirity of life and manners. 

CATHOLIC MAJESTY. This title was first given by pope Gregory III. to Alphonsus I. 
of Spain, 739. Licenciado. The title was also given to Ferdinand V. and his queen in 1474 
by Innocent VIII. on account of their zeal for the Roman Catholic religion, and their 
establishment of the Inquisition in Spain. 

CAT ISLE. See Salvador. CATHOLICS. See Roman CatlwUcs. 

CATILINE'S CONSPIRACY. L. Sergius Catiline, a Roman of noble family, having 
squandered away his fortune by debauclieries and extravagance, and having been refused the 
consulship (B.C. 65), meditated the ruin of his country, and conspired with many of the 
dissolute aristocracy to extirpate the senate, plunder the treasury, and set Rome on hre. 
This conspiracy was timely discovered and frustrated. A second plot (in 63), was detected 
by the consul Cicero, whom he had resolved to murder. Catiline's daring appearance in the 
senate-house, after his guilt was known, drew forth Cicero's celebrated invective, "Quousque 
tandem, Catilina !" on Nov. 8. On seeing five of his accomplices arrested, Catiline retired 
to Gaul where his partisans were assembling an army. Cicero punished the consjiirators at 
home, and Petreius routed Catiline's ill-disciplined forces ; the conspirator being killed in 
the engagement, December, 62 B.C. 

CATO, Suicide of, termed the "era destructive of the liberties of Rome." This Roman 
philosopher, considering freedom as that which alone ' ' sustains the name and dignity of man, ' ' 
and unable to survive the independence of his country, stabbed himself at Utica, 46 B.C. 

CATO-STREET CONSPIRACY, a gang of desperate politicians, formed by Arthur 
Thistlewood, which assembled in Cato-street, Edgware-road, proposed the assassination of 
the ministers of the crown, at a cabinet dinner, and the overthrow of the government. They 
were betrayed by one of their nnmlier, and arrested Feb. 23, 1820, and the principals, 
Thistlewood, Brunt, Davidson, Ings, and Tidd, were executed with the horrors adjudged to 
the punishment of traitors, on May i, following. 

CATTLE. The importation of horned cattle from Ireland and Scotland into England 
was prohibited by a law, 1663 ; but the export of cattle from Ireland became very extensive. 
In 1842 the im])ortation of cattle into England from foreign countries was .subjected to a 
moderate duty, and in 1846 they were made duty free. — In 1850, were imported of all sorts 
of cattle, 217,247 ; in 1854, 397.430 ; in 1859, 347.341 ; in 1864, 727,977- I" i849> 53)4S<> 
horned cattle were imported; in 1863, 150,898; in 1864, 496,243 from all countries. In 
April, 1857, great disease arose among cattle abroad, but by great care it was almost excluded ■ 
from this country. The cattle-plague now raging in England (Sept., 1865) appeared in 
June. The nature and origin of the disease caused much dispute. It is generally considered 
to be a typhoid fever, and of foreign origin. Active preventive and remedial measures have ■ 
been adopted, under the authority of the privy council. The importation of cattle from 
Entrland into Ireland was prohibited Aug. 25, 1865. See Metropolitan Cattle-viarTcet and 
Smithfield. 

CAUCASUS, a lofty mountain, a continuation of the ridge of Mount Taurus, between the 
Euxine and Caspian seas. Prometheus was said to have been tied on the top of Caucasus by 
Jupiter and continually devoured by vultures, (according to ancient authors, 1548 B.C.). The 
passes near the mountain were called Caucasia; Portx, and it is supj'Josed that through them 
the Sarinatians or Huns invaded the provinces of Rome, A.i). 447. See Circassia. 

CAUDINE FORKS, according to Liv}', the Furmlce Caxtdince (in Samnium, S. Italy), 
were two narrow defiles or gorges, united by a range of mountains on each side. The 
Romans went through the first pass, but found the second blocked np ; on returning they 
found the first similarly obstructed. Being thus hemmed in by the Samnites, under the 
command of C. Pontius, they surrendered at discretion, 321 B.C. (after a fruitless contest, 
according to Cicero). The Roman senate broke the treaty. 



CAU 159 CEL 

CAULIFLOWEE, said to have been first planted in England about 1603 ; it came from 
J Cypnis. 

CAUSTIC IN Painting, a method of burning colours into wood or ivory, invented by 
Gausias of Sicyon. He painted his mistress Glycere sitting on the ground making garlands 
with flowers ; the picture was hence named Stcphanoplocon. It was bought by LucuUus for 
two talents, 335 B.C. Pliny. 

CAUTIONARY TOWNS (Holland), (the Briel, Flushing, Eammekins, and AValcheren), 
A\('re given to queen Elizabeth in 1585 as security for their repaying her for assistance in 
till ir struggle with Spain. They were restored to the Dutch republic by James I. in 1616. 

CAVALIER. The appellation given to the supporters of the king during the civil war, 
from a number of gentlemen forming themselves into a body-guard for the king in 1641. 
They were ojjposed to the Roundheads, or friends of the parliament. Ilume. 

CAVALRY. The Romans were celebrated for the discipline and efficiency of their 
cavalry. Attached to each Roman legion was a body of 300 horse, in ten turmaj ; the com- 
mander always a veteran. The Persians had 10,000 horse at Marathon, 490 B.C. ; and 10,000 
Persian horse were slain at the battle of Issus, 333 B.C. Plutarch. In the wars with 
Napoleon I. the British cavalry i-eached to 31,000 men. Our cavalry force, in 1840, was, 
in household troops, 1209; dragoons, hussars and lancers, 9524; total, 10,733. ^'^ 1S56 
the total was stated to be 21,651 ; in i85i, 23,210. See Horse Giuxrds, d-c. 

CAVENDISH EXPERIMENT. In 1798 the hon. Henry Cavendish described his 
experiment for detei'mining the mean density of the earth, by comparing the force of terres- 
trial attraction with that of the attraction of leaden spheres of known magnitude and 
I density, by means of the torsion balance. Braiidc. 

CAWNPORE, a town in India, on the Doab, a peninsula between the Ganges and 
Jumna. During the mutinj' in 1857 it was garrisoned by native troops under sir Huo-li 
"Wheeler. These broke out into revolt. An adopted son of the old Peishwa Bajee Rao, 
Nana Sahib, who had long lived on friendly terms with the British, came apparently to their 
assistance, but joined the rebels. He took the place after three weeks' siege, June 26 ; and 
in spite of a treaty massacred great numbers of the British, without respect to age or sex, in 
the most cruel manner. General Havelock defeated Nana Sahib, July 16, at Futtehpore, 
and retook Cawnpore, July 17. A column was erected here, in memory of the sufferers, by 
their relatives of the 32nd regiment. In Dec. i860, Nana was said to be living at Tliibet ; 
and in Dec. 1861 was incorrectly said to have been captured at Kurrachee. See India, 1857. 

CAYENNE, French Guiana (S. America), settled by the French 1604-35. It afterwards 
came successively into the hands of the English (1654), French, and Dutch. The last were 
expelled by the French in 1677. Cayenne was taken by the British, Jan. 12, 1809, but was 
restored to the French in 18 14. Here is produced the capsicum haccalum, or cayenne jiepper. 
Many French political prisoners have been sent here since 1848. 

CECILIAN SOCIETY. See under Music. 

CEDAR TREE. The red cedar (Juniperus Virginiana) came from North America 
before 1664 ; the Bermudas cedar from Bermudas before 1683 ; the cedar of Lebanon (Pimis 

' Cedrus) from the Levant before 1683. In 1S50 a grove of venerable cedars, about 40 feet 
high, remained on Lebanon. Tlie cedar of Goa (Ouprcssus Lusitanica) was brought to 

I Europe by the Portuguese about 1683. See Cypress. 

CELERY is said to have been introduced into England by the French marshal, Tallard, 
i during his captivity in England, after his defeat at Blenheim by Marlborough in 1704. 

CELESTIAL GLOBE. See Globes. 

CELIBACY (from co'lebs, unmarried), was preached by St. Anthony "in Egypt about 
305. His early converts lived in .caves, &c., till mona.steries were founded. The doctrine 
was rejected in the council of Nice, 325. Celibacy was enjoined to bisliops only in 692. 
The Romish clergy generally were compelled to a vow of celibacy by pope Gregory VII. iu 
1073-85. The decree was oppo.sed in England, 958-978. Its observance was finally estab- 
lished by the council of Placentia, held in 1095. The privilege of marriage was restored to 
the English clergy in 1547. The marriage of the clergy was proposed, but negatived at the 
council of Trent "(1563). 



CEL 



160 



CER 



CELL THEORY (propounded by Schwann in 1839) supposes that the ultimate particles 
of all animal and vegetable tissiies are small cells. Some of the lowest forms of animal and 
vegetable life are said to be composed of merely a single cell, as the germinal vesicle in 
the egg and the red-snow plant. 

CELTIBERI. See Numantinc War. CELTS, a group of the Aryan family. See Gauls. 

CEMETERIES. The burying-places of the Greeks and Romans were at a distance from 
their towns ; and the Jews had their sepulchres in gardens and in fields. (John xix. 41 ; 
Matthew xxvii. 60.) Public cemeteries planted after the manner of the great cemetery at 
Paris, named Pere La Chaise* have been opened in all parts of the kingdom. See Catacombs. 



1 841 



Nunhead cemetery, about 50 acres ; conse- 
crated ...... July 29, 

City of London and Tower Hamlets cemetery, 
30 acres ; consecrated 

London Necropolis and National Mausoleum, 
at Woking, Surrey, 2000 acres ; the company 
incorporated in July 1852 ; opened . Jan. 1855 

Citj' of London cemetery, Ilford ; opened 

June 24, 1856 



Kensal-green cemetery, 53 acres ; consecrated 

Nov. 2, 1832 

South Metropolitan and Norwood cemetery ; 40 
acres ; consecrated . . . Dec. 6, 1837 

Highgate and Kentish-town cemetery,22 acres ; 
opened and consecrated . . May 20, 1839 

Abney Park cemetery, Stoke Newington, 30 
acres ; ojjened by the lord mayor . May 20, 1840 

Westminster, or West London cemetery, Ken- 
sington-road ; consecrated . . June 15, 1840 

CENTS, Mount. See under J ?2'^. 

CENSORS, Roman magistrates, whose duty was to survey, rate, and correct the manners 
of the people. The two first censors were appointed 443 B.C. Plebeian censors were first 
appointed 131 B.C. The oftice, abolished by the emperors, w^as revived by Decius, 251 a.d. 
See Press. 

CENSUS. The Israelites were numbered byMo.ses, 1490 B.C. ; and by David, 1017 B.C. ; 
and Demetrius Thalereus is said to have taken a census of Attica, 317 B.C. In the Roman 
polity, a general estimate of every man's estate and personal effects, delivered to the govern- 
ment i;pon oath every five years ; established by Servius Tullius, 566 B.C. In England the 
census, formerly not periodical, is now taken at decennial periods, of which the latest were 
in 1801, 1811, 1821, 1831, 1841, 1851 and 1861 (April 7). For the late.st census taken in 
other countries, see Table, p. viii., after the preface. 

CENTRAL AMERICA. See America. A large American steamer of this name was 
wrecked during a gale in the gulf of Mexico, Sept. 12, 1857. Of about 550 persons only 
152 were .'■aved : several of these after drifting on rafts above 600 miles. The loss of about 
2\ million dollars in specie aggravated the commercial panic at New York shortly after. 
The captain and crew behaved heroically. 

CENTRAL CRIMINAL COURT, established in 1834. Commissions are issued to the 
fifteen judges of England (of whom three attend in rotation at the Old Bailey) for the 
periodical delivery of the gaol of Newgate, and the trial of offences of greater degree, 
committed in Middlesex and parts of Essex, Kent, and Surrey ; the new district is considered 
as one county. 

CENTURION, the captain, head, or commander of a subdivision of a Roman legion 
which consisted of 100 men, and was called a ccnturia. By the Roman census each hundred 
of the people was called a centuria, 556 B.C. 

CENTURY. The Greeks computed time by the Olympiads, beginning 776 B.C., and the , 
Roman chuich, by Indictions, the first of which began Sept. 24, a.d. 312. The method of I 
computing time by centuries commenced from the incarnation of Christ, and was adopted in 
chronological history first in France. JDujnn. 

CEPHALONIA, one of the Ionian islands, was taken from the ^Etolians by the Romans, 
189 B.C., and given to the Athenians by Hadrian, a.d. 135. See Ionian Isles. 

CEPHESUS, a river in Attica, near which Walter de Brienne, duke of Athens, was 
defeated and slain by the Catalans, 13 11. 

CERBERE, French brig, mounted nine large guns, had a crew of eighty-seven men, and 
•was lying at Port Louis. The harbour was entered in a ten-oared cutter manned with only 
eiffhteen men, commanded by lieut. Paddon, who cut out and made good their prize, July 
29, i8cx). 

* Pfere La Chaise was the favourite and confessor' of Louis XIV. who made him superior of a great 
establishment of the Jesuits on this spot, then named Mont Louis. The house and grounds were bought 
for a national cemetery, which was laid out by M. Brongniart, and first used on May 21, 1804. 



CER 161 CHA 

CEREMONIES, Master of the, an office instituted for the more lioiiourable reception 
of ambassadors and persons of quality at court, i James I. 1603. The order maintained 
by the master of tlie ceremonies at Bath, "Beau Nash," the "King of Bath," led to the 
adojition of the office in ordinary assemblies : he died in his 88th year, 1761. Ashe. 

CERES, a planet, 160 miles in diameter, was discovered by M. Piazzi, at Palermo, Jan. i, 
1 801 ; he named it after the goddess highly esteemed by the ancient Sicilians. 

CERESUOLA (N. Italy). Here Francis de Bourbon, count d'Eughien, defeated tlie 
imperialists under the marquis de Guasto, April 14, 1544. 

CERIGNOLA (S. Italy). Here the great captain Gonsalvo de Cordova and the Spaniards 
defeated the due de Nemours and the French, April 28, 1503. 

CERINTHIANS, followers of Cerinthus, a Jew, who lived about So, are said to have 
combined Judaism with pagan philosophy. 

CERIUM, a very rare metal, discovered by Klaproth and others in 1S03. 

CEUTA (the ancient Septa), a town on N. coast of Africa, stands on the site of the ancient 
Abyla, the southern pillar of Hercules. It was taken from the Vandals by Belisarius for 
Justinian 534 ; by the Goths 618; by the Moors (about 709), from whom it was taken by 
the Portuguese 141 5. With Portugal, it was annexed in 15S0 to Spain, which power still 
retains it. 

CEYLON (the ancient Taprobaue), an island in the Indian Ocean, called by the natives 
the seat of paradise. It was discovered by the Portuguese Almeyda, 1505 ; but it was known 
to the Romans in the time of Claudius, 41. The Dutch landed in Ceylon in 1602 ; they 
captured the capital, Colombo, in 1603. Frequent conflicts ensued between the Candians 
and the Europeans, and peaceful commercial relations were established only in 1664. Inter- 
course with the British began in 1713. A large portion of the country was taken by them 
in 1782, but was restored in 1783. The Dutch settlements were seized by the British ; 
Trincomalee, Aug. 26, 1795, and Jeffnapatam, in Sept. same year. Ceylon was ceded to 
Great Britain by the peace of Amiens in 1802. The British troops were treacherously 
massacred or imjirisoned by the Adigar of Candy, at Colombo, June 26, 1803. The com- 
plete sovereignty of the island was assumed by England in 181 5. The governor, lord Tor- 
rington, was absolveil from a charge of undue severity in suppressing a rebellion, May -1851. 
The prosperity of Ceylon greatly increased under the administration of sir H. Ward, 
1855-60. Sir J. E. Tennent's work, " Ceylon," appeared in 1859. 

CHiERONEA (Boeotia). Here Greece lost its liberty to Philip ; 32,000 Macedonians 
defeating 30,000 Thebans, Athenians, &c., Aiig. 6 or 7, 338 B.C. Here Archelaus, lieutenant 
of Mithridates, was defeated by Sylla, and 110,000 Cappadocians were slain, 86 B.C. See 
Coronea. 

CHAIN-BRIDGES. The largest and oldest chain-bridge in the M'orld is said to be that 
at Kingtung, in China, where it forms a perfect road from the top of one mountain to the 
top of another. Mr. Telford constructed the first chain-bridge on a grand scale in England, 
over the strait between Anglesey and the coast of Wales, 1818-25. See Menai Straits. 

CHAIN-CABLES, Pumps, and Shot. Iron chain-cables were in use by the Veneti, a 
people intimately connected with the Belgaj of Britain in the time of Caesar, 55 B.C. These 
cables came into modern use, and generally in the royal navy of England, in 181 2. An Act 
for the proving and sale of chain-cables and anchors was passed in 1864. — Chain-shot, to 
destroy the rigging of an enemy's ship, were invented by the Dutch admiral, De Witt, in 
1666.— Chain-Pumps were first" used on board the Flora, British frigate, in 1787. 

CHAINS, Hanging in. By the 25th Geo. II. 1752, it was enacted that the judge shoidd 
direct the bodies of pirates and murderers to be dissected and anatomised, or himg in chains. 
The custom of hanging in chains was abolished in 1834. 

CHALCEDON, Asia Minor, opposite Byzantium, colonised by Megarians, about 684 B.C. 
It was taken by Darius, B.C. 505 ; by the Rom.ans, 74 ; plundered by the Goths, a.d. 259 ; 
taken by Chosroes, the Persian, 609 ; by Orehan, the Turk, 1338. Here was held the 
"Synod of the Oak," 403 ; and the fourth general council, which annulled the act of the 
" Robber Synod," Oct. 8, 451, 

CHALCIS. See EuhaM. 

M 



ClIA 162 CHA 

CHALDMA, the ancient name of Babylonia, but aftenvards restricted to the S. W. portion. 
The Chakkeans were devoted to astronomy and astrok)gy. See Dan. ii. &c. — The Ghald^ak 
Kegisteks of cek;stial observations were commenced 2234 B.C., and were brought down to the 
taking of Babylon by Alexander, 331 B.C. (a period of 1903 years). These registers were 
sent by Callisthenes to Aristotle. — C11ALD.1EAN Chaeacters : the Bible was transcribed from 
the original Hebrew into these characters, now called Hebrew, by Ezra, about 445 B.C. 

CHALGROVE (Oxfordshire). At a skirmish here with prince Rupert, June 18, 1643, 
John Hampden, of the parliament party, was mortally wounded. A column was erected to 
his memory June 18, 1843. 

CHALONS-SUR-MARNE (N. E. France). Here the emperor Aurelian defeated Tetricus, 
the last of the jiretenders to the throne, termed the Thirty Tyrants, 274; and here in 451 
Aetius defeated Attila the Hun, compelling him to retire into Pannonia. 

CHAMBERLAIN, early a high court officer in France, Germany, and England. The office 
of chamberlain of the exchequer was discontinued in 1834. The chamberlain is also a civic 
officer, as in London, of ancient origin. 

Lord Great Chamberlain of England. — The 
sixth great officer of state, whose duties, among 
othors, relate to coronations and public solemnities. 
The rank long appertained to the family of De Vere, 
earls of Oxford, granted to it by Henry I. in iioi. 
On the death of John De Vere, the sixteenth earl, 
Mary, his sole daughter, marrying lord Wil lough by 
d'Eresby, the right was established in that noble- 
man's family by a judgment of the honse of peers, 
2 Charles I. 1625. On the death of his descendant, 
nnniarried, in July 1779, the house of lords and 
twelve judges concurred'that the otiice devolved to 



under the degree of a knight, who, if his majesty 
approved of him, might officiate accordingly. Beat- 
fon. The office is now held by the present lord Wil- 
loughby d'Eresby (1865). 

Lord Chamberlain op the Household. — An 
ancient office. The title is from the French Cham- 
helUin, in Latin Camerarius. He has the over.sight 
of the king's chaplains, the officers of the standing 
and removing wardrobes, beds, tents, revels, music, 
hunting, and of all the physicians, surgeons, apo- 
thecaries, messengers, tradesmen, and artisans re- 
tained in his majesty's service. Sir William Stanley, 
lady Willonghby d'Kresbj% and her sister the lady j knt., afterwards beheaded, was lord chamberl.ain, 
Georgina Charlotta Bertie, as heirs to their brother i Henry VIL 1485. A viee-ch.amberlain acts in the 
Robert, duke of Ancaster, deceased ; and that they absence of the chief ; the offices are co-exi.stent. 
had powers to appoint a deputy to act for them, not i Beatson. 

CHAMBERS. See Commerce, Agriculture. 

CHAMBERS' JOURNAL was first published in Feb,, 1832. 

CHAMBRE ARDENTE (fiery chamber), an extraordinary French tribunal so named 
from the punishment frequently awarded by it. Francis L in 1535 and Henry IL in 1549 
employed it for the extirjiation of heresy, which led to the civil war with the Huguenots in 
1560; and in 1679 Louis XIV. appointed one to investigate the poisoning cases which arose 
after the execution of the mai'chioness BrinviUiers. 

CHAMP DE MARS,* an open square in front of the Military School at Paris, with 
artificial embankments on each side, extending nearly to the river Seine. Here was held, 
July 14, 1790, the "fMdration," or solemnity of swearing fidelity to the "patriot king" 
and new constitution : great rejoicings followed, public balls were given by the municipality 
in the Chamfs Ehjsees, and Paris was illuminated. On July 14, 1791, a second gi'eat meeting 
was held here, directed by the Jacobin clubs, to sign petitions on the "altar of the country," 
praying for the abdication of Louis XVI. A commemoration meeting took place July 14, 
1792. Another constitution was sworn to hei-e, under the eye of Napoleon I., May i, 1815, 
at a ceremony called the Charap de Mai. The prince president (now Napoleon III.) had a 
grand review in the Champ de Mars, and distributed eagles to the army. May 10, 1852. 

CHAMPAGNE, an ancient province, N.E. France, formed part of the kingdom of 
Burgundy, and was governed by counts from the loth century till it was united to Navarre, 
count Thibaut becoming king, in 1234. The countess Joanna married Philip V. of France 
in 1284 ; and in 1361 Champagne was annexed by their descendant king John, 

CHAMPION OF THE King of England, an ancient office, which since 1377 has been 
attached to the manor of Scrivelsby, held by the Marmion family. Their descendant, sir 
Henry Dymoke, tlie seventeenth of liis family who has held the office, died Apr. 28, 1865, 
and was succeeded by his brother John. At the coronation of the English kings, the 
champion used to challenge any one that should deny their title. 

CHAMPLAIN. See Lake Champlain. 

* The ancient assemblies of the Frankish people, the germ of parliaments, held annually in March, 
received this name. In 747, Pepin changed the month to May. 



CUA 



163 



CHA 



CHANCELLOR OF ENGLAND, Loud High, ranks after the princes of the blood royal 
as tlie iirst lay subject. Anciently the office was conferred upon some dignified ecclesiastic 
termed canccUarius, or doorlceeper, who admitted suitors to the sovereign's presence. Arfastus 
or Herefost, chaplain to the king (William tlie Conqueror) and bishop of Elmham, was lord 
chancelloi in 1067. Ilardtj. Thomas ^ Becket was made chancellor in 11 54. The first 
person qualified by education, to decide causes upon his own judgment, was sir Thomas 
More, appointed in 1529, before which time the office was more that of a high state func- 
tionary than tlie president of a court of justice. Sir Christopher Hatton, appointed lord 
chancellor in 15S7, was very ignorant, on which account the first reference was made to a 
master in 1588. In England, the great seal has been frequently put in commission; in 
1813 the office of Vicc-Chaiicellor was established.** See Keeper, and Vice-Chancellor. 



1487. 
1504. 
1515- 
1529- 
1532- 

1533- 
1544- 
1547- 

1551- 
1552- 
1553- 
1556. 
1558. 
1579- 
1587- 
1591- 
1592- 
1596. 
1603. 

1617. 
1618. 
162 1. 
1625. 



1640. 
1641. 

1643. 
1645. 
1646. 
1649. 
1653. 
1654. 

1660. 

1667. 
1672. 

1673. 
1675, 

1682. 
1685. 



1690. 

1693. 
1697. 
1700. 



1705- 
1707. 



LORD HIGH CHANCELLORS 

John Morcton, archbishop of Canterbury. 

WilHam Warham, aft. archbshp. of Canterbury. 

Thomas Wolsoy, cardinal and abp. of York. 

Sir Thomas More. 

Sir Thomas Audley, keeper. 

Sir Thomas Audley, chancellor, aft. Id. Audley. 

Thomas, lord Wriothesley. 

Willi.'im, lord St. John, keeper. 

Richard, lord Rich, lord chancellor. 

Thomas Goodrich, bishop of Ely, keeper. 

Tlie same ; now lord chancellor. 

Stephen Gardiner, bishop of Winchester. 

Nicholas Heath, archbistiop of York. 

Sir Nicholas Bacon, keeper. 

Sir Thomas Bromley, loi'd chancellor. 

Sir Christopher Hatton. 

The great seal in commission. 

Sir John Puckering, lord keeper. 

Sir Thomas Egerton, lord keeper. 

Sir Thomas Egerton, now lord Ellesmerc, lord 

chancellor. 

Sir Francis Bacon, lord keo<f)er. 

SirFraneisBaoon,cr.lordVerulam,ld.chancellor. 

The great seal in commission. 

John, bishop of Lincoln, lord keeper. 

Sir Thomas Coventry, afterwards lord Coven- 
try, lord keeper. 

Sir John Finch, afterwards lord Finch. 

Sir Edward Lyttelton, afterwards lord Lyttel- 
ton, lord keeper. 

The great seal in the hands of commissioners. 

Sir Richard Lane, royal keeper. 

In the hands of commissioners. 

In commission for the commonwealth. 

Sir Edward Herbert, king's lord keeper. 

In commission during the remainder of the 
commonwealth. 

Sir Kdward Hyde, lord chancellor, afterw.ards 
created lord Hyde, and earl of Clarendon. 

Sir Orlando Bridgman, lord keeper. 

Anthony Ashley, earl of Shaftesbury, lord 
chancellor. 

Sir Ueneage Finch, lord keeper. 

Heneage, now lord Finch, lord chancellor, 
afterwards earl of Nottingh.am. 

Sir Francis North, cr. lord Guilford, Id. keeper. 

Francis, lord Guilford ; succeeded by 

George, lord Jeffreys, lord chancellor. 

In commission. 

Sir John Trevor, knt., sir William Rawlinson, 
knt., and sir George Uutchins, knt., commis- 
sioners or keepers. 

Sir John Somers, lord keeper. 

Sir John Somers, cr. lord Somers, chancellor. 

Lord chief justice Holt, sir George Treby, chief 
justice C. P., and chief Jsaron sir Edward 
Ward, lord keepers. 

Sir Nathan Wright, lord keeper. 

Right hoa. William Cowper, lord keeper, after- 
wards lord Cowper. 

William, lord Cowper, lord chancellor. 



1710. 

1713- 
1714. 
1718. 



1725. 

173.3- 
1737- 
1756. 
1757- 

1761. 

1766. 
1770. 



1770. 
1771. 

1778. 
17S3. 



1792. 
1793- 



1827. 



1834. 
1835- 



1S41. 



1S50. 



185S. 
1859. 

1861. 

1865. 



OF ENGLAND. 
In commission. 

Sir Simon Harcourt, er. lord Hareourt, keeper. 
Simon, lord Harcourt, lord chancellor. 
William, lord Cowper, lord chancellor. 
In commission. 

Thomas, lord Parker, lord chancellor ; after- 
wards earl of Macclesfield. 
In commission. 

Sir Peter King, cr. lord King, chancellor. 
Charles Talbot, created lord Talbot, chancellor. 
Philip Yorke, lord Hardwicke, lord chancellor. 
In commission. 
Sir Robert Henlej', afterwards lord Henley, 

last lord keeper. 
Lord Henley, lord chancellor, afterwards earl 

of Northington. 
Charles, lord Camden, lord chancellor. 
Hon. Charles Yorke, lord chancellor. 
[Created lord Mordan ; died within three day.«, 
and before the^scals were put to his patent of 
peerage. ] 
In commission. 
Hon. Henry Bathurst, lord Apsley ; succeeded 

as earl Bathurst. 
Edward Thurlow, created lord Thurlow. 
Alexander, lord Loughborough, and others, 

commissioners. 
Edward, lord Thurlow, again. 
In commission. 
Alexander AVedderburne, lord Loughborough, 

lord chancellor. 
John Scott, lord Eldon. 
Hon, Thomas Erskine, created lord Erskine. 
John, lord Eldon, again. 

John Singleton C'opley,created lord Lyndhurst. 
Henry Brougham, created lord Brougham. 
Lord Lyndhurst, again. 
Sir Charles Christopher Pepys, master of the 

rolls, vice-chancellor Shadwell, and Mr. 

justice Bosanquct, C. P., connnissioners. 
Sir Charles Christopher Pepys, created lord 

Cottenham, lord chancellor. Jan. 16. 
Loi'd Lyndhvn-st, a third time. Sept. 3. 
Lord Cottenham, again lord chancellor. July 6. 
[His lordship on signifying his intention to 
retire, June 19, 1S50, was created earl of 
Cottenham.] 
Lord Langdale, master of the rolls. Sir Laun- 

eelot Shadwell, vice-chancellor of England, 

and sir Robert Mousey Rolfe, B.B., commis- 

.sioners of the great seal. June 19. 
Sir Thomas Wilde, lord Truro. Julj' 15. 
Sir Edward Sugden, lord St. Leonards. Feb. 27. 
Robt. Monsey Rolfe, lord ( 'ranworth. Dec. 28. 
Sir Frederic Thesiger, lord Clielmsford. Feb. 26. 
John, lord Campbell, June 18 ; died June 23, 

i86r. 
Richard Bethell, lord Wcstbury, June 26. 

Resigned July 4, 1S65. 
Thomas, lord Cranworth, again. July 6. 



* In 1863 was passed the Lord Chancellor's Augmentation Act. It enabled him to sell the advowson 
of certain living's" in his gift for the augmentation of poor benefices. 

M 2 



CHA 



164 



CHA 



CHANCELLOR OF IRELAND, Lord High. The earliest nomination was by Richard I., 
1 1 89, when Stephen Ridel was elevated to this rank. The office of vice-chancellor was 
known in Ireland in 1232, Geoffrey Turvillo, archdeacon of Dublin, being so named. 



LORD HIGH CHANCELLORS OF IRELAND. 



1702, 

1705- 
1707. 
1710. 



1711 
1714. 

1726. 
1739- 

1757- 
1763. 



From the 
Patent. 
Dec. 29. Sir Charles Porter. 
Jan. 12. Sir John Jeffreyson, Thomas Coote, 

and Nehemiah Donellan, lords keepers. 
March n. J. Methuen. 
Deo. 21. Edward, earl of Meath, Franois,«earl 

of Longford, and MuiTOugh, viscount Bles- 

sington, lord keepers. 
Aug. 26. Lord Methuen, lord chancellor. 
Aug. 6. Sir Richd, Cox, bart. ; resigned in 1707. 
June. Richard Freeman. 
Nov. 28. Robert, earl of Kildare, archbishop 

(Hoadley) of Dublin, and Thomas Keightley, 

commissioners. 
Jan. 22. Sir Constantino Phipps ; resigned 

Sept. 1 714. 
Oct. II. Alan Brodrick, afterwards viscount 

Middleton ; resigned May, 1725. 
June. Rich.ard We.st. 
Deo. 21. Thomas Wyndham, afterwards lord 

Wyndham of Finglas. 
Sept. 7- Robert Jocelyn, afterwardslord New- 
port and visct. Jocelyn ; died Oct. 25, 1756. 
March 22. John Bowes, afterwards lord Bowes 

of Clonl3'on ; died 1767. 
Jan g. James Hewitt, aftei'wards viscount 

Lifford ; died April 28, 1789. 



Revolution. 

Patent. 
1789. June 20. John, baron Fitzgibbon, afterwards 

earl of Clare ; died Jan. 28, 1802. 
i8o2. March 15. John, baron Redesdale ; resigned 
Feb. 1806. 

1806. Mar. 25. George Ponsonby ; resigned Ap. 1807. 

1807. May. Thomas, lord Manners, previously an 
. . . Englisli baron of the exchequer ; resigned 

Nov. 1827. 
1827. Nov. 5. Sir Anthony Hart, previously vice- 
chancellor of England ; resigned Nov. 1830. 
1830. Dec. 23. Wilham, baron Plunket ; resigned 

Nov. 1834. 
1835. Jan. 13. Sir Edward Burtenshaw Sugden, 
. resigned April 1835. 
,, April 30. William, baron Plunket, a second 
time ; resigned Juno, 1841. 
1 841. June. John, baron Campbell ; resigned Sept. 
1841. 
,, Oct. Sir Edward Sugden, afterwards lord St. 
Leonai-ds, a second time ; resigned July, 1846. 
1846. July 16. Maziere Brady ; resigned Feb. 1852. 

1852. March. Francis Blackburn ; resigned Dec. 

1853. Jan. Maziere Brady, again. 

1858. Feb. Joseph Napier. 

1859. June. Maziere Brady, again. The present 
lord chancellor of Ireland (1865). 



CHANCELLOR OF SCOTLAND, Lord. In the laws of Malcolm II., who reigned 
1004, this officer is thus mentioned : — "The chaucellar sail at al tymes assist the king in 
giving him counsall mair secretly nor the rest of tlie nobility. . . The chancellar sail be 
ludgit neir unto the kingis Grace, for keiping of Ids bdlie, and the seill, and that he may be 
readie, baitli day and nicht, at the kingis command." Sir James Balfour. Evan was lord 
chancellor to Malcolm III., snrnamed Canraore, in 1057 ; and James, earl of Seafield, after- 
wards Findlater, was the last lord chancellor of Scotland, the office liaving been abolished in 
1708, after the union. See Kcc2Jer, Lord. 

CHANCELLOR OF THE EXCHEQUER. See Exchequer. 

CHANCELLORSVILLE, Virginia, U. S., a large brick hotel, once, kept by a Mr. 
Chancellor, was the site of severe sanguinary conflicts, on May 2, 3, and 4, X863, between 
the American federal army of the Potomac under general Hooker, and the confederates 
under general Lee. On Apr. 28, the federal army crossed the Rappahannock ; on May 2, 
general "Stonewall" Jackson furiously attacked and routed the right wing, but was 
unfortunately mortally wounded by his own party firing on him by mistake. Gen. Stuart 
took his command, and after a severe conflict on May 3 and 4, with great loss to both 
parties, the federals were compelled once more to retreat across the Rappahannock. The 
struggle has been compared to that at Hougomont during the battle of Waterloo. Jackson 
died May 9. 

CHANCERY, Court of. According to some, instituted as early as 605, to others, by 
Alfred, in 887 ; settled upon a better footing by William I., in 1067 {Stow) or 1070. This 
court had its origin in the desire to render justice complete, and to moderate the rigour of 
other courts that are bound to the strict letter of the law. It gives relief to or against 
infants, notwithstanding their minority : and to or against married women, notwithstanding 
their coverture ; and all frauds, deceits, breaches of trust and confidence, for which there is 
no redress at common law, are relievable here. lilackstone. See Chancellors of England. 
The delays in chanceiy proceedings having long given dissatisfaction, the subject was brought 
before parliament in 1825, and fre(juently since ; which led to the passing of important acts 
in 1852, 1853, and 1855, to amend the practice in the court of chancery. See County Courts. 

CHANDOS CLAUSE. See Counties. 

CHANTING the psalms was adopted by Ambrose from the pagan ceremonies of the 
Romans, about 350. Lenglet. About 602, Gregory the Great added tones to the Ambrosian 
chant, and established singing schools. Chanting was adopted by some dissenters about 1859. 



CIIA 1(35 CHA 

CHANTRY, a chapel endowed with revenue for priests to sing mass for the souls of the 
donors. See Chanting. Chantries were abolished in England in 1545. 

CHAPEL. There are free chapels, chapels of ease, the chapel royal, *&c. Cowel. The 
gentlemen pensioners (formerly poor knights of Windsor, who were instituted by the direc- 
tijan of Henry Vlll. in his testament, 1546-7) were called knights of the chapel. See Poor 
Knights of W i)ulsor.-^T!\\e. place of conference among printers, and the conference itself, are 
Ly them called a chapel, it is said because the first work printed in England by Caxton was 
executed in a ruined chapel in Westminster-abbey. 

CHAPLAIN, a clergyman who performs divine service in a chapel, or who is retained by 
a prince or nobleman. About seventy chaplains are attached to the chapel royal. The chief 
personages invested with the privilege of retaining chaplains are the following, with the 
number that was originally allotted to each rank, by 21 Hen. VIII. c. 13 (1529) : — 

Archbishop . . .8 Earl 

Duke . . . . 6 Viscount . 

Bishop . . . .6 Bill-on . 

Marquess . . ■ . 5 Chancellor 



• s 


Kniffht of the Garter 


• ? 


■ 4 


Duchess 


. 2 


■ ^ 


Marchioness 


. 2 


• 3 


Countess 


. 2 



Baroness . . .2 

Master of the Rolls . 2 

Almoner . . . . 2 

Chief Justice . . i 



CHAPLETS, the string of beads used by the Roman Catholics in reciting the Lord's 
prayer, Ave Maria, &c. See Beads. 

CHAPTER. Ancientl}' the bishop and clergy lived in the cathedral, the latter to assist 
the former in performing holy offices and governing the church, until the reign of Henry YIII. 
The chapter is now an assembly of the clergy of a collegiate church or cathedral. Cowel. 
The chapter-house of Westminster-abbey was built in 1250. By consent of the abbot, the 
commoners of England held their jjarliameuts there from 1377 until 1547, when Edward VL 
granted them the chapel of St. Stephen. 

CHARCOAL AIR-FILTERS were dcAdsed by Dr. John Stenhouse, F.R.S., in 1853. 
About the end of the last century Lowitz, a German chemist, discovered that charcoal 
(carbon) possessed the property of deodorising putrid substances, by absorbing efHuvia and 
gases. Air-filters, based on this property, have been successfully applied to public build- 
ings, &c. Dr. Stenhouse also invented charcoal respirators. 

CHARING CROSS, so called from one of the crosses which Edward I. erected to tlie 
memory of his queen Eleanor, who died 129 1 ; Charing being the name of the village in which 
it was built. Some contend that it derived its name from being the resting-place of the chere 
reyne, dear queen. It was yet a- small village in 1353, and the cross remained till the civil 
wars in the reign of Charles I., when it was destroyed as a monument of popish superstition. 
A new cross was erected by the South Eastern Railway Company in 1865. — Charing-cross 
was built about 1678, nearly as it appeared before the new buildings were commenced in 
1829. The first stone of Charing-cross hosjiital was laid by the duke of Sussex, Sept. 15, 
1831. Hungerford-bridge (or Charing-cross bridge) was o^iened Ma}^ i, 1845; taken down 
July, 1862, and the materials employed in erecting Clifton suspension bridge, beginning 
March, 1863. See Clifto7i. The Charing-Cross Railway. The first train passed over it 
Dec. 2, 1863, and it was opened to the public on Jan. 11, 1864. The new Hungerford rail- 
way bridge is built of iron with brick piers. It was constructed by Mr. HawkshaAV. 

CHARIOTS. Chariot racing was one of the exercises of Greece. The cliariot of the 
Ethiopian ofiTicer (Acts viii. 27), is supposed to have been in the form of our chaise with four 
wheels. Caisar relates that Cassibelauuus, after dismissing all his other forces, retained no 
fewer than 4000 war-chariots about his person. See Carriages, Coaches, &c. 

CHARITABLE BEQUESTS, &c. Boards for their recovery were constituted in 1764 
and 1800, and a board for Ireland (chiefly prelates of the established church), in 1825. The 
Roman Catliolic Charitable Bequests act passed in 1S44, and an act for the better adminis- 
tration of Charitable Trusts in 1853, when commissioners were appointed, who have from 
time to time published voluminous re])orts. The law relating to the conveyance of land for 
Charitable Uses was amended in 1861. 

CHARITABLE BRETHREN, an order founded by St. John of God, and approved by 
pope Pius V. 1572 ; introduced into France, 1601 ; settled at Paris, 1602. HenauU. 

CHARITIES AND Charity Schools are very numerous in this country. The Charity 
Commission reported to parliament that the endowed charities alone of Great Britain 
amounted to 1,500,000/. annually, in 1840. Pari. Rrp. Charity schools were instituted in 
London to prevent the seduction of the infant poor into Roman Catholic seminaries, 3 James 



CHA 166 CHA 

II., 1687. Rcqnn. See Education. Mr. Low's " Charities of Loudon " (2iid edition) was 
published 1862. 

CHAELEROl' in Belgium. Great battles have been fought near this town in several 
wars ; the principal in 1690 and 1794. See Flcurus. Charleroi was besieged by the prince 
of Orange in 1672, and was again invested by the same prince with 60,000 men, in 1677 ; 
but he was soon obliged to retire. Near here, at Ligny, Napoleon attacked the Prussian 
line, making it fall back upon Wavres, June 16, 1815. 

CHARLES-ET-GEOPiGES. Two French vessels of this name, professedly conveying free 
African emigrants (but really slaves), were seized by the Portuguese, in Conducia Bay, 
Nov. 29, 1857, sent to Lisbon, and condemned as slavers. They were demanded haughtil}'- 
by the French government, who, on the hesitation of the Portuguese, sent two ships of war 
to the Tagus. The cajitured vessels were then surrendered under protest. The conduct of 
the British government (that of Lord Derby), to whom the Portuguese had referred the disr 
pute, was considered more prudeut than dignified. The emperor of France, however, gave 
up the free emigration scheme. 

CHARLESTOWN (Massachusetts) was biunt by the British forces under general Gage, 
June 17, 1775. Charleston taken by the British, May 7, 1779. 

CHARLESTON (South Carolinif). The English fleet here was repulsed with great loss, 
June 28, 1776. It was besieged by the British troops at the latter end of March, 1780, and 
surrendered May 13 following, with 6000 prisoners ; it was evacuated April 14, 1783. Great 
commotion arose here on Nov. i860, tlirough the election of Mr. Lincoln for the presidency, 
he being opposed to slavery. On April 12, 1861, the war began, by the confederates capturing 
Fort Sumter, See United States, 1863. In Dec. 1861, the federals sank a number of vessels 
laden with stone in order to choke up the entrance to Charleston harbour. On Feb. 17, 1865, 
the confederates Avere compelled to retire from Charleston, and the federals replaced their 
standard on Fort Sumter, April 14, the day on which president Lincoln was assassinated. 

"CHARTE," the French political constitution acknowledged by Louis XVIII. in 1814. 
The infraction of this constitution led to the revolution of 1830. The " Charte " was 
sworn to by Louis- Philiiipc, Aug. 29, 1830 ; but set aside by the revolution of 1848. 

CHARTER-HOUSE (a corruption of Chartreuse, which see), London, formerly a Carthu- 
sian monastery, founded in 1371 by sir Walter de Maunj', one of the knights of Edward III., 
now an extensive charitable establishment. The last prior, John Houghton, was executed 
as a traitor, for denying the king's supremacy, in 1535. After the dissolution of monasteries 
in 1539, it passed tlirough various hands till Nov. i, 161 1, wdien it was sold by the earl of 
Suftblk to Mr. Thomas Sutton for 13,000/., who obtained letters patent directing that it 
should be called "the hospital of king James, founded in the Charter-house," and that 
"there should be for cA'er 16 governors," &e. On the foundation are 80 poor brothers, and 
44 poor scholars. Sutton died Dec. 12, 161 1. The exjienditure for 1853-4 was 22,396/. ; 
the receipts 28,908/. 

CHARTER-PARTY, a covenant between merchants and masters of ships relating to the 
ship and cargo, is said to have been first used in England about 1243. 

CHARTERS granted to corporate towns to protect their manufactures by Henry II. iu 
1132 ; called in and modified by Charles II. in 1682 ; the ancient charters restored in 1698. 
Alterations were made by the Municipal Reform Act in 1835. See Magna Charta and 
Boroughs. 

CHARTISTS, the name assumed by large bodies of the workiug people, shortly after the 
passing of the Reform Bill iu 1832, from their demanding the people's Charter, the six 
points of which were Universal Suffrage, Vote by Ballot, Annual Parliaments, Payment of 
the 3f embers, the Abolition of the Property Qualification (wdiich was enacted, June, 1858), 
and Equal Electoral Districts. In 1S38 the Chartists assembled in various parts of the 
country, armed with guns, pikes, and other weapons, and carrying torches and flags. They 
conducted themselves so tumultuously, that a proclamation was issued against them, Dec. 12, 
Their petition (agreed to at Birmingham, Aug. 6, 1838) was presented b}' Mr. T. Attwood, 
June 14, 1839. They committed great outrages at Birmingham, July 15, 1839, and at 
Newport {ivhich sec), Nov. 4, 1839. They held for some time a sort of parliament called 
the " National Convention," the leading men being Feergus O'Connor, Henry Vincent, Mr. 
Stephens, &c. On April 10, 1848, they proposed to hold a meeting of 200,000 men on 
Keunington Common, London, to march thence in procession to Westminster, and present 
a petition to iiarliaineut ; but only about 20,000 came. The bank and other establishments 



CHA 167 CHA 

Aveve Ibi-tificd b}' niilitary ; and the preventive measures adopted by the government proved 
so completely successful, that the rioters dispersed after some slight encounters with the 
police. The monster petition, in detached rolls, -was sent in cabs to the house of commons, 
and not less than 150,000 persons of all ranks (including Louis Napoleon, now emperor) 
were voluntarily sworn to act as special constables. From this time the proceedings of the 
Chartists became insignificant. 

CHAETEEUSE, La Grande, famous as the chief of the monasteries of the Carthusian 
order, is situated among the rugged mountains near Grenoble, in France. It was founded by 
Bruno of Cologne about 1084. At the revolution in 1792, the monks were expelled and 
their valuable library destroyed. They returned to the monastery after the restoration in 
1814. 

CHAETS AND MAPS. Anaximander of Miletus was the inventor of geogi-aphical and 

celestial charts, about 570 B.C. Modern sea-charts were brought to England by Bartholomew 

■ Columbus to illustrate his brother's theory respecting a western continent, 1489. The first 

tolerably accurate map of Enghuid was drawn by George Lilly, who died in 1559. Gerard 

Mercator published an atlas of maps in 1595. See Mercator. 

CHASTITY. The Eoman laws justified homicide iu defence of one's self or relatives ; 
and our laws justify a woman for killing a man in defence of her chastity ; and a husband or 
a father in taking the life of him who attempts to violate his wife or daughter. In 1000 
years from the time of JSTuma, 710 B.C., to the reign of Theodosius the Great, a.d. 394, only 
eighteen Eoman vestals had been condemned for incontinence. See Vestals, Acre, and 
Coldingliam. 

CHATHAM (Kent), a principal station of the royal navy. Its dockyard, commenced by 
queen Elizabeth, contains immense naval magazines. The Chatham Chest, for the relief of 
wounded and decayed seamen, originally established here by the queen and admirals Drake 
and Hawkins, in 15S8, was removed to'Greenwich in 1S03. In 1667, on the loth June, the 
Dutch fleet, under admiral Do Euyter, sailed up to this town and burnt several men-of-war ; 
but the entrance into the Medway is now defended by Shecrness and other forts, and 
additional fortifications were made at Chatham. On Feb. 8, 186 1, a violent outbreak of the 
convicts was suppressed by the military, and many of the rioters severely flogged. About 
1000?. worth of property was destroyed, and many persons were seriously hurt. 

CHATHAM ADMINISTEATIOK* Formed Aug. 1766; terminated Dec. 1767. 

Earl of Chatham, ^i-.sf minister and lord privy seal. 
Duke of Gvaiton, first lord of the treasury. 
Lord Camden, lord chancellor. 
Charles Townshend, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Earl of Xorthington, lord president. 
Earl of Shelbiu-ne and general Conway, secretaries of 
f(ate I \iscownt Howe, treasurer of the navy. 

I Duke of Ancaster, lord le Despenser, (fee. 

CHATILLON (on the Seine, France). Here a congress was held by the four great 
powers allied against France, at which Caulaincourt attended for Napoleon, Feb. 5, 1814 ; 
the negotiations for peace were broken off on March 19, following. 

CHAT MOSS (Lancashire), a peat bog twelve miles square, in most places so soft as to 
be incapable of supporting a man or horse, over which George Stephenson, the railway 
engineer, carried the Liverpool and Manchester railway, after overcoming difficulties con- 
sid"ered invincible. The road (literally a floating one) was completed by Jan. i, 1830, when 
the first experimental train, drawn by the Eocket locomotive, passed over it. 

CHATTANOOGA (Tennessee). Near here the federal generals, Sherman and Thomas, 
defeated the confederate general Bragg, after storming the entrenchments, Nov. 25, 1863. 
The result was very injurious to the confederates. Bragg retreated into Georgia, and Long- 
street into Virginia. 

CHAUMONT (on the Marne, France), Treaty of, entered into between Great Britain, 
Austria, Eussia, and Prussia, and signed by these powers respectively, March i, 1814. This 

• William Pitt, earl of Chatham (called the great commojier), was born Nov. 15, 170S, entered pa.r]iament 
in 17-.5 ; became secretary of state (but virtually tlie premier) in the Devonshn-e administration, IN ov 
1756 and secretary in tlie Newcastle administration, Jan. 1757- Iii 1766 he became P/'^^^^^Vf nTTnf Ihl 
seal, and earl of Cbatham, which lord Chesterfield called a fall upstairs. He opposed the taxation ot the 
American colonics, but protested against the recognition of their independence, April 7, i77»> ana aiea 
May 1 1 following. 



Sir Charles Saunders (succeeded by sir Edward 

Hawke), admiralty. 
Marquess of Granby, ordnance. 
Lord Hillsborough, ./!)•«< lord of trade. 
Lord Barrington, secretary at war. 
Lord North and iOi George Cooke, joint paymasters. 



CHE 168 CHE 

treaty was succeeded by the celebrated treaty of Paris, April ii following, by which 
Napoleon renounced his sovereignty over France. See Paris. 

CHEATS are punishable by pillory (since abolished), iniprisuument, and fine, i Hawk, 
L.C. 1 88. A rigorous statute was enacted against them in 1542. Persons cheating at play, 
or winning at any time more than \ol. or any valuable thing, were deemed infamous, and 
were to suffer punishment as in cases of perjury, 9 Anne, 171 1. Blackstone. 

CHEESE. It is supposed by Camden and others that the English learned cheese- 
making from the Romans about the Christian era. Wilts, Gloucester, and Cheshire make 
vast quantities ; the last alone, annually, about 31,000 tons. In 1840 we imported from 
abroad about 10,000 tons ; and in 1864, 41,742 tons. The duty on foreign cheese, pro- 
ducing annually about 50,000^., was taken off in i860. 

CHELSPIA. On the site of a college founded by James I. in 1609 for theological dispu- 
tations against popery, but converted by Charles II. in 1682 to its present purpose, stands 
Chelsea college, an asjdum for wounded and superannuated soldiers. — The erection was 
carried on by James II., and completed by William III. in 1690. The real projector was sir 
Stephen Fox, gi'andfather of the orator C. J. Fox. The architect was sir Christopher Wren, 
and the cost 150,000^. In 1850 there were 70,000 out- and 539 in-j^ensiouers. — The body of 
the duke of Wellington lay here in state, Nov. 10 — 17, 1852. — The physic garden of sir 
Hans Sloane, at Chelsea, was given to the Apothecaries' company in 1721. The Chelsea 
waterworks were incorporated 1722. The first .stone of the Military Asylum, Chelsea, was 
laid by Frederick, duke of York, June 19, 1801. — The bridge, constructed by Mr. T. Page 
to connect Chelsea with Battersea-park, was opened in the spring of 1858. 

CHELTENHAM (Gloucestershire). Its celebrated mineral spring was discovered in 
1718. The king's-well was sunk in 1778 ; and other wells by Mr. Thompson in 1806. 
Magnesian salt was first found in the waters in 181 1. The theatre was erected in 1804. 

CHEMICAL SOCIETIES. One formed in London in 1780, did not long continue. 
The present chemical society was established in 1841. The Chemical Society at Paris was 
established in 1857. 

CHEMISTRY was introduced into Europe by the Spanish Moors, about 1150 ;■ they had 
learned it from the African Moors, and these from the Egyptians. In Egypt they had, in 
very early ages, extracted salts from their bases, sei^arated oils, and prepared vinegar and wine ; 
and embalming w'as a kind of chemical process. The Chinese also claim an early acquaint- 
ance with chemistry. Tiie first chemical students in Europe were the Alchemists (see 
Alchcmii) ; but chemistry could not be said to exist as a science till the 17th century; 
during which its study was promoted by the writings of Bacon and the researches of Hooke, 
Mayow, and Boyle. In the early part of the i8th century. Dr. Stephen Hales laid the 
foundation 0^ Pneumatic Chemistry, and his contemporary Boerhaave combined the study of 
chemistry with medicine. These were succeeded by Black, Bergman, Stahl, &c. In 1772, 
Priestley published his researches on air, having discovered the gases oxygen, ammonia, &c. ; 
and thus commenced a new era in the history of chemistry. He w-as ably seconded by 
Lavoisier, Cavendish, Scheele, Chaptal, &c. The 19th century opened with the brilliant 
discoveries of Davy, continued by Dalton, Faraday, Thomson, &c. Organic Chemistry has 
been very greatly advanced by the labours of Berzelius, Liebig, Dumas, Laurent, Hofmann, 
Cahours, Frankland,* &c., since 1830. See Pharmacy, Electricity, Galvanis'm. For the 
analytical processes termed ^^ Spectrum analysis," invented by Kirchhoff and Bunsen (1861), 
and "Mabjsis" (1861), and ^' Atmolysis^' (i86t,), invented by Mr. T. Graham, see those 
articles. The Royal College of Cheraistry, Oxford Street, Loudon, was established in 1845. 
The publication of Watt's great " Dictionary of Chemistry" began in April, 1863. 

CHEQUES. See Drafts. 

CHERBOURG, the gi-eat naval fortress and arsenal of France on the coast of Brittany, 
about 60 or 70 miles equi-distant from Portsmouth and Plymouth. It was captured by our 
Henry V. in 141 8, and lost in 1450. Under the direction of Louis XIV., some works were 
erected here by the great Vauban, which with some shipping, &c., were destroyed by the 
British, Aug. 6, 7, 1758. The works were resumed on a stupendous scale by Louis XVL ; 

* In 1828 Wohler succeeded in producing artificially urea, a body hitherto known only as a product of 
the animal organism. Since then, acetic acid, alcohol, gr.ipe sugar, various essential oils, similar to those 
of the pine apple, pear, garlic, &c., have been formed by combinations of the gases, oxygen, hydrogen, and 
carbonic acid. The barrier formed by chemists between organic and inorganic bodies is thus broken down, 
though the names are still retained. 



i 



CHE 169 CHI 

but tlieir progress was interrupted by the revolution. TIic breakwater, commeuced in 1783, 
resumed by Napoleon I. altout 1803, and iinally completed in 18 13, is a magniticcut work, 
forming a secure harbour, capable of affording anchorage for nearly the whole navy of 
France, and protected by strong fortifications, increased by the present emperor. On Aug. 
4, 5, 1858, the railway and the Grand Napoleon docks were opened, the latter in the 
presence of the queen of England and court. The British fleet visited Cherbourg, Aug. 
15-17, 1865, and the officers and men wei'e treated with much hospitality. 

CHERITON DOWN (Hants). Here sir Wm. Waller defeated the royalists under lord 
Hoptou, May 29, 1644. 

CHERRY, the Prunus Ccrasus (so called from Cerasus, a city of Pontus, whence the 
tree was brought by Lucullus to Rome, about 70 B.C.), was first planted in Britain, it is said, 
about 100. Fine kinds were brought from Flanders, in 1540, and planted in Kent, with 
much success. 

CHERSON. See Kherson. CHERSONESUS. See Crimea. 

CHESAPEAKE. At the mouth of this river a contest took place between the British 
admiral Greaves and the French admiral Do Grasse, in the interest of the revolted states of 
America ; the former was obliged to retire, 1781. The Chesapeake and Delaware were 
blockaded by the British fleet in the American war of 1812, and the bay was, at that 
period, the scene of great hostilities of various results. — The Chesapeccke American frigate, 
1,'ommandcd by capt. Lawrence (50 guns, 376 men), struck to the Shannon British frigate 
(49 guns, 330 men), commanded by capt. Philip Vere Broke, after a severe action of eleven 
minutes, June 1, 1813. Capt. Lawrence, who had invited the contest, died of his wounds. 

CHESS, a game invented, according to some authorities, by Palamedes, 680 B.C. ; and 
according to others, in the fifth century of our era. The learned Hyde and sir William Jones 
concur in stating that the origin of chess is to be traced to India. The automaton chess- 
jilayer (a piece of machinery) was exhibited in England in 1769.* A chess congress was 
held at New York in 1857, and an international one in London in June and July, 1862. 

CHESTER (England, N. W.), the British Caerleon and the Roman Deva, the station of 
the twentieth legion, Valeria Victrix, quitted by them about 476. The city wall was 
first built by Edelfleda, 908 ; and Hugh Lupus, the earl, nephew of William I., rebuilt the 
Saxon castle in 1084, and the abbey of St. Werburgh. Chester was incorporated by 
Henry III. and made a distinct county. It %vas ravaged by the Danes, 980 ; and nearly 
destroyed by an accidental fire in 147 1. A fatal gunpowder explosion occurred Nov. 5, 
1772. The exchange and town hall were burnt Dec. 30, 1862. — The see was anciently part 
of Lichfield, one of wliose bishops, Peter, removing the seat hither in 1075, occasioned his 
successors to be stjded bishops of Chester ; but it was not erected into a distinct bishopric 
tmtil the dissolution of monasteries. Henry Vlll. in 1542 raised it to this dignity, and 
allotted the church of the abbey of St. Werburgh for the cathedral. This see is valued in 
the king's books at 420I. is. Scl. per annum. Present income 4500/. 

r>ECENT BISHOPS OF CHESTER. 



1800. Henry Wm. Majendic, trans, to Bangor, i8og. 

1810. Bowyer Edward Sjiarkie, trans, to Ely, 1812. 

1812. George Henry Law, translated to Bath, 1824. 

1824. Chas. J. Blomfield, trans, to Loudon, Aug. 1828. 



1828. John Bird Sumner, trans, to Canterbmy, lE 
1848. John Graham, died June 15, 1865. 
1865. William Jacjbson (present bishop). 



CHEVALIER D'EON. See B'Eon. CHEVY CHASE. See Ottcrlurne. 

CHICAMAUGA ("the stream of death"), near the Chattanooga, Tennesisee, North 
America. Near here the confederates under general Bragg, aided by Longstreet, totally 
defeated the federals under Rosencrans, Sept. 19, 20, 1863. The loss was severe on both 
sides. The credit of the victory is attributed to Longstreet ; its fruitlessness is assigned to 
Bragg. 

CHICHESTER (Su,s.sex), built by Cissa, about 540. The cathedral was completed 
about 1088, burnt with the city in 11 14, and rebuilt by bishop SeflTrid about 1187. The 
present cathedral was erected during the 13th century. The spire fell Feb. 20, 1861, and the 
foundation of a new one was laid May 2, 1865. The bishopric originated thus : AVilfrida, 
archbishop of York, compelled to flee by Egfrid, king of Northumberland, preached the 
gospel in this country, and built a church in the Isle of Selsey, about 673. In 681 Selsey 

* A chcRs-club was formed at Slaughter's coffee house, St. Martin's lane, in 1747. M. F. A. Danican, 
known as Phillidor, jilaycd three matches blindfold at the Salopian ; he died in 1795. The London Chess- 
club was founded in 1807, and St. George's in 1S33. In Dec. 1861 Herr Panlseu played ten games at once, 
of which ho won five, and lost one ; three were drawn, and one not played out. 



CHI 170 CHI 

became a bishopric, and so continued until it was removed to Chichester, then called Cissan- ^ 
Caester, from its buUder, Cissa, by Stigaud, 1070. This see has yielded to the church two 
saints, and to the nation three lord chancellors. It is valued in the king's books at 
677Z. 15. 3^. per annum. Present income, 4200Z. 

EECENT BISHOPS OF CHICHESTEE. 



1798. John Buckner, died May 2, 1824. 

1824. Robert J. Carr, trans, to Worcester, Sept. 1831. 

1831. Edward Maltby, translated to Durham, 1836. 



1836. Ch.irles Otter, died Aug. 20, 1840. 

1840. Philip Nicholas Shuttleworth, died Jan. 7,1842. 

1842. Ashurst Tvu-ner Gilbert (present bishop). 



CHICKAHOMINY BATTLES. See Fairoaks. 

CHICORY, the wild endive, or Cichorium Intybus of Linufeus, gi-ows wild in calcareous 
soils. It has been raised to some extent in England as herbage, its excellence in this respect 
hav ing been much insisted uj)on by Arthur Young.* 

CHILDERMAS DAY, Dec. 28, observed by the Roman church, in memoiy of the 
slaughter of the Holy Innocents. {Matt, ii.) 

CHILDREIT. Many ancient nations exposed their infants, — the Egyptians on the banks 
of rivers, and the Greeks on highways, — when they could not support or educate them ; in 
such cases, they were taken care of, and humanely protected by the state. The custom, 
which long previously existed, of English parents selling their children to the Irish for 
slaves, was prohibited in the reign of Canute, about 1017. Mat. Paris. See Foundling. 

CHILI (S. America), discovered by Diego de Almagro, one of the conr^uerors of Peru, 
1535. When Almagro crossed the Cordilleras, the natives, regarding the Spaniards on 
their first visit as allied to the Divinitj-, collected for them gold and silver amounting to 
290,000 ducats, a present which led to the subsequent cruelties and rapacity of the invaders. 
Chili was subdued, but not wholly, in 1546. Population in 1857, 1,558,319. 



The Chilians declare their independence of 
Spain Sept. 18, iSio 

Fight with varying success ; decisive victory 
gained by San Martin over the royal forces, 
Feb. 12 ; the province was declared inde- 
pendent 1817 

Present constitution established in . . . 1833 



Insurrection headed by Pedro Gallo, Dec. 
1858, siijjpressed .... AprU, 1859 

Jos^ Perez, president . . . Sept. 18, i86i 

Conflagration of the Jesuits' chm-ch at San- 
tiago (see Saniiago), more than 2000 persons 
perished Dec. 8, 1863 

Rupture between Chili and Bolivia respecting 



Manuel Montt elected president . Oct. 18, 1856 | the " Guano " isles . . . March i, 1864 

CHILLIANW ALLAH, Battle of, India, between the Sikh forces in considerable 
strength, and the British commanded by lord (afterwards viscount) Gough, fought Jan. 13, 
1849. The Sikhs were completely roiited, but the loss of the British was very severe : 26 
oiBcers were killed and 66 wounded, and 731 rank and file killed, and 1446 wounded. The 
Sikh loss was 3000 killed and 4000 wounded, t On Feb. 21, lord Gough attacked the Sikh 
anny, under Shere Singh, in its position at Goojerat, with complete success ; and the whole 
of the enemy's camp fell into the hands of the British. 

CHILTERN HUNDREDS (viz. Burnham, Desborough, and Stoke), an estate of the 
crown on the chain of chalk hills that pass from east to west through the middle of 
Buckinghamshii'e, the stewardship whereof is a nominal office, with a salary of 20s., conferred 
on members of parliament when they wish to vacate their seats, as, by accepting an office 
imder the crown, a member becomes disqualified, unless he be again returned by his con- 
stituents. The strict legality of the practice is questioned. 

CHIMNEY-TAX. See Hearth. 

CHIMNEYS. Chafing-dishes were in use previous to the invention of chimneys, which 
were first introduced into these countries, in 1200, when they were confined to the kitchen 
and large hall. The family sat round a stove, the funnel of which passed through the 

* Chicory had been for many years so largely mixed with coffee in England, that it became a matter 
of serious complaint, the loss of revenue being estimated at ioo,oco?. a-year. An excise order was issued, 
Aug. 3, 1852, interdicting the rcixture of chicory with coffee. The admixture, however, has since been 
permitted, provided the word " chicory " he plainly pririicd on each parcel sold. In i860 a duty of 3s. per 
cwt. was put upon English-grown chicory until April i£6i ; after that date to be 5«. 6rf. percvrt. 

t The duke of 'W'elUngton (commander in chief) did not think the victory complete. Gough was 
.superseded, and sir C. Kapier sent out (March 1849), who did not arrive in India till Gough had redeemed 
his reputation. 



CHI 



171 



CHI 



ceiling, in 1300. Chinniej-s were general in domestic arcliitccture in 13 10. Act to regulate 
phiomey-sweejung, 28 Geo. III. 17S9. The chimney-sicccpiiig 'machine was invented 



of age : and since Jul}' i, 1842, no individual under twentj'-one may ascend a chimney.' In 

1864, the enforcement of this law was made more stringent, it having been neglected. At 

the chemical works, Glasgow, is a chimney (there termed a sialk) 420 feet in height ; the 
height of the ilouument in London being 202 feet ; of St. Paul's, 404 feet. 

CHIXA, the "Celestial Empire," in Eastern Asia, for which the Chinese annals claim an 
antiquity of from 80,000 to 100,000 years B.C., is allowed to have commenced about 2500 B.C. ; 
by others to have been foTindcd by Eohi, supposed to be the Noah of the Bible, 2240 e.g.' 
We are told that the Chinese were acute astronomers in the reign of Yao, 2357 b.c. 
Towards the close of the 7th century B.C., the history of China becomes more distinct. 
Twenty-two dynasties have reigned, including the present. In the battle between Phraates 
and the Scythians, 129 B.C., the Chinese aided the latter, and afterwards ravaged the coasts 
of the Caspian, which is their first appearance in history. Lcnglet. The population of 
China was estimated at 190,348,228 in 1757 ; and at 414,607,000 in i860. 



The Chinese state their fli-st cycle to have com- 
menced B.C. 2700 

The first dates fixed to his history, by Se-ma- 

tsien, liegin 651 

Supposed age of Confucius (Kungfutze), the 

Chinese philosopher 550 

Stupendous wall of China completed 298 or 211 
The dynasty- of Han .... 202 or 206 
literature and the art of printing encom-aged(?) 202 
Religion of Tao-tse commenced ... 15 

Religion of Fo commenced . . about a.d. 60 
Pretended embassy from Rome . . . 166 

Xankin becomes the capital 420 

The atheistical philosopher, San-Shin, flourishes 449 
The Xcstorian Christians permitted to preach 635 
They are proscribed and extirpated . . . 845 
China ravaged by Tartars, 9th to nth centuries 
Seat of government transferred to Pekiu . . 1260 
M.arco Polo introduces missionaries . . . 1275 
Canal, called the Yu Ho, completed . about 1400 
Europeans fii-st arrire at Canton . . . . 1517 
Ma&io is granted to the Portuguese . . . 1536 
Jesuit missionaries are sent from Rome . . 1575 
The countiy is conquered by the eastern or 
Mantchou Tartars, who establish the present 

reigning house 1616-47 

Tea brought to England 1660 

An earthquake throughout China,buries 300,000 

persons at Pekin alone ..... 1662 
Commerce with East India Company begins . 16S0 
Jesuit missionaries preach . . ... 1692 
Commercial relations with Russia . . 1719-27 
The Jesuits expelled ..... 1724-32 
Another general earthquake destroys 100,000 

persons at Pekin, and So,ooo in a suburb . 1731 
In a sahite by one of cair India ships in China, 
a loaded gun was inadvertently fired, which 
killed a native ; the government demanded 
the gunner to be given up ; he was soon 
strangled. — Sir George Staunton . July 2, 17S5 
Earl Macartney's embassy* arrives at Pekin ; 

his reception by the emperor . Sept. 14, 1793 
He is ordered to depart . . . Oct. 7, ,, 
And arrives in England . . . Sept 6, 1794 
The affair of the Company's ship Neptune, when 

a Chinese was killed 1807 

Edict against Christianity . . ... 1812 
Lord Amherst's embassy ; t he leaves Engl.and 

Feb. 8, 1816 



Exclusive rights of the E. I. Co. cease April 22, 

Opium dispute begins 

Free-trade ships sail for England . April 25, 
Lord Napier arrives at Macao, to supermtend 
British commerce .... July 15, 
Affair between the natives and two British 
ships of war ; several Chinese killed, Sept. 5, 
Lord Napier dies, and is succeeded by 3Ir. 
(afterwards sir John) Davis . . Oct. n, 
Opium trade interdicted by the Chinese,Xov. 7, 
Chinese seize the Argyle and crew . Jan. 31, 
Opium bui-nt at Cantori by the Chinese, Feb. 23, 
Captain EUiot becomes chief British commis- 
sioner . . *■ . . . Dec. 14, 
Admii-al Maitland amves at Macao . July 12, 
Commissioner Lin orders seizure of opium, 
Jlarch 18 ; British and other residents for- 
bidden to leave Canton, March 19 ; the fac- 
tories sm-rouuded, and outrages committed, 
March 24 ; captain Elliot requires of British 
subjects their sun-ender to him of aU opium, 
promising them on the part of government 
the full value of it, March 27 ; half of it is 
given up as contraband to the Chinese, AprU 
20 ; the remainder (20,283 chests)surrendered. 
May 21 ; captain EUiot and the British mer- 
chants leave Canton, May 24 ; the opium 
destroyed by the Chinese . . June 3, 
Aflair between the British and American sea- 
men ;md the Chinese ; a native killed, Julj- 7, 
Hong-Kong taken .... Aug. 23, 
The British boat Blacl: Joke attacked, and the 
crew murdered, Aug. 24 ; the British mer- 
chants retire from Macao . . Aug. 26, 
Affair at Kow-lung between British boats and 

Chinese junks Sept 4, 

Attack by 28 armed junks on the British 
frigates Volage and Hyachith : several junks 

blown up Nov. 3, 

The British trade with China ceases, by an 
edict of the emperor, and the last sei-vant of 
the company leaves this day . . Dec. 6, 
Edict of the emperor interdicting all trade and 
intercourse with England for ever . Jan. 5, 
The Hellas ship attacked by armed junks, Jtay 
22 ; blockade of Canton by a British fleet, 
by orders from sir Gordon Bremer, June 
28 ; the Blonde with a flag of truce fired on 
at Amoy, July 2 ; Ting-hai, in Chusan, siir- 



1838 



1839 



1840 



* This embassy threw some light on the political circumstances of the empire ; it appeared to be 
divided into 15 provinces, contaipiug 4402 walled cities ; the population ofthe whole was given at 333,000,000: 
its aimual revenues at 66,ooo,oooi : and the army, including the Tartars, 1,000.000 of infantry, :uid Soo.ooo 
cavalry ; the religion Pagan, and the government absolute. Learning, and the arts and sciences, were 
cncour.iged, and ethics studied. 

t His lordship failed in the objects of his mission, having refused to make the prostration of the 
koic-tuu, lest he should thereby compromise the majesty of England. 



CHI 



172 



CHI 



CHINA, continued. 

renders, July 5 ; blockade established along 
the Chinese coast, July 10 ; Mr. Staunton 
carried ofl' to Canton .... Aug, 6, 
Captain Elliot, on board a British steam-ship, 
enters the Pi^iho river, near Pekin, Aug. n. 
The ship Kite lost on a sand-bank, and the cap- 
tain's wife and a part of the crew are captured 
by the natives, and confined in cages Sept. 15, 
Lin finally degraded; Keshin appointed im- 
perial commissioner, Sept. 16 ; capt. Elliot's 

truce with him Nov. 6, 

British plenipotentiaries arrive off Macao, 

Nov. 20, 
Admiral Elliot's resignation announced, Nov. 29, 
Mr. Staunton released . . . Dec. 12, 
Negotiations cease, owing to breaches of faith 
on the part of the Chinese emperor . Jan. 6, 
Chueu-jje and Tae-coc-tow, and 173 guns (some 
sent to England), cai3tured . . Jan. 7, 
Hong-Kong ceded by Keshin to Great Britain, 
and 6,000,000 dollars agreed to be paid within 
ten days to tlie British authorities . Jan. 20, 
Hong-Kong taken possestion of . Jan. 26, 
The emperor rejects Keshin's treaty, Feb. n ; 
hostilities resinned, Feb, 23 ; Chusan evacu- 
ated, Feb. 24 ; rewards proclaimed at Canton 
for the bodies of Englishmen, dead or aUve ; 
50,000 dollars to be given for ringleaders and 

chiefs Feb. 25, 

Bogue forts taken by sir G. Bremer ; admiral 

Kwan killed ; 459 guns captured . Feb. 26, 

The British squadron proceeds to Canton 

March i ; sir H. Gough takes command of the 

army, March 2 : hostilities again suspended, 

March 3 ; and again resumed, March 6 ; 

Keshin degraded by the emperor March 12, 

riotilla of boats destroyed. Canton threatened, 

the foreign factories seized, and 461 guns 

taken by the British forces . March 18, 

New commissioners from Pekin arrive at 

Canton April 14, 

Noini Kong Gazette first published . Jlay i, 

Cai)t. Elliot prepares to attack Canton May 17, 

Heights behind Canton taken . May 25, 

The city ransomed for 6,000,000 dollars ; 

5,000.000 paid down ; hostilitiescca.se May 31, 

British forces withdrawn, June i ; and British 

trade re-opened .... July 16, 

Arrival at Macao of sir Henry Pottinger, who, 

as plenipotentiary, proclaims the objects of 

his mission ; capt, Elliot sujicrseded Aug. 10, 

Amoy taken, and 296 guns destroyed . Aug. 27, 

The Bogue forts destroyed . . Sept. 14, 

Ting-hae taken, 136 guns captured, and Chusan 

re-occupied by the British, Oct. i ; they take 

Chin-hae, Oct. 10; Ning-po, Oct. 13 ; Yu-yaou, 

Tsze-kee, and Fouug-hua . . Dec. 28, 



1841 



Chinese attack Ningpo and Chin-hae, and are 
repulsed with great loss, March 10 ; 8000 
Chinese are routed near Tsze-kee March 15, 1842 

Cha-pou attacked ; its defences destroyed, 

May 18, ,, 

The British squadron enters the river Kiang, 
June 13 ; capture of Woosung, and of 230 
guns and stores, June 16 ; Shang-hae taken, 
June 19 ; the British armament anchors near 
the " Golden Isle," July 20 ; Chin-Keang 
taken ; the Tartar general and many of the 
gan-ison commit suicide, July 21 ; the ad- 
vanced ships reach Nankin, Aug. 4 ; the whole 
fleet arrives, and the disembarkation com- 
mences, Aug. 9 ; Ke3'ing arrives at Nankin, ,, 
with full powers to treat for peace . Aug. 12. ,, 

Treaty of peace signed before Nankin, on board 
the Cornwdllis by sir Henry Pottinger for 
England, and Keying Elepoo* and Neu-Kien 
on the part of the Chinese emperor — [Con- 
ditions : lasting peace and friendship between 
the two empires; China to pay 21,000,000 of 
dollars ; Canton, Amoy, Foochoofoo, Ning- 
po, and Shang-hae to be thrown open to the 
British, and consuls to reside at these cities ; 
Hong-Kong to be ceded in perjietuity to Eng- 
land, (fcc. ; Chusan and Ku-lang-.su to be held 
by the British until the provisions are ful- 
filled] t Aug. 29, ,, 

The ratifications signed by queen Victoria and 
the emperor formally exchanged, July 22 ; 
Canton opened to the British by an im))erial 
edict July 27, 1843 

Appointment of Mr. Davis in the room of sir 
Henry Pottinger .... Feb. 16, 1844 

Bogue forts captured by the British . April 5, 1847 

Hong-Kong and the neighbourhood visited by 
a violent typhoon ; immense damage done to 
the shipping ; ux>wards of 1000 boat-dwellers 
on the Canton river drowned . . Oct. 1848 

H.M. steam-.ship Medea destroys 13 pirate 
junks in the Chinese seas . . March 4, 1S50 

Rebellion breaks out in Quang-si . . Aug. ,, 

Appearance of the i^retender Tien-teh,t March 1851 

Defeat of Len, the imperial commissioner, and 
destruction of half the army . June 19, 1852 

Successful jDrogress of the rebels ; the emperor 
applies to the Euroiseans for help, without 
success .... March and April, 

The rebels take Nankin, March 19, 20 ; Amoy, 
May 19; Shang-hae . . . Sept. 7, ,, 

And besiege Canton without success Aug.-Nov. 1854 

The scanty a"counts are unfavourable to the 
rebels, the impei-ialists having re taken Shaug- . 
hae, Amoy, and nuny important places . . 1S55 

Outrage on the British lorcha Arrow, in Canton 
river § Oct. 8, 1856 



1853 



* He took part (it was said without authority) in arranging the treaty of Tien-sin in June, 1858. He 
was in consequence condemned to death — by suicide. 

f The non-fulfilment of this treaty led gradually to the war of 1S56-7. 

t The emperor Taou-Kwang, who died Feb. 25, 1830, during the latter part of his reign, became liberal 
in his views, and favoured the introduclion of European arts ; but his son, the late emperor, a rash and 
narrow-minded prince, quickly departed from his father's wise policy, and adopted reactionary measures, 
particularly against English influence. An insurrection broke out in consequence, Aug. 1850, and quickly 
became of alarming importance. The insurgents at first proposed only to expel the Tartars ; but in March 
1851, a pretender was announced among them, first by the name of Tien-teh (Celestial Virtue), but after- 
wards assuming other names. He is stated to have been a native of Quang-ti, of obscure origin, but to have 
obtained some literary knowledge at Canton about 1835, and also to have become acquainted at that time 
with the principles of Christianity from a Chinese Christian, named Lcang-afa, and also from the mis- 
sionary Roberts in 1844. He announced himself as the restorer of the worship of the true God, Shang-ti, 
but has derived many of his dogmas from the Bible. He declared himself to be the monarch of all beneath 
the sky, the true lord of China (and thus of all the world), the brother of Jesus, and the second son of God, 
and demanded universal submission. He made overtures for alliance to lord Elgin, in November, 1S60. 
His followers are teimed Taepimjs, " princes of peace," a title utterly belied by their atrocious deeds. 
The rebellion was virtually terminated July 18, 1864, by the capture of Nankin, the suicide of the 
Tien-wang, and the execution of the military leaders. 

§ It was boarded by the Chinese ofiicers, 12 men out of the crew of 14 being carried off, and the national . 
ensign taken down. Sir J. Bowring, governor of Hong-Kong, being comjielled to resort to hostilities. 



CHI 



173 



cm 



CHINA, continued. 

After vain negotiations with commissioner Yeh, 
Canton forts attacked and taken . Oct. 23, 1S56 

A Chinese fleet destroyed and Canton bom- 
barded, by sir M. Seymour . Nov. 3, 4, ,, 

Imperialists defeated, quit Shang-hae Nov. 6, ,, 

The Americans revenge an attack by capturing 
three forts .... Nov. 21 — 23, ,, 

Ecbels take K\n-iking . . . Nov. 25, ,, 

Other forts fallen by the British . . Doc. ,, 

The Chinese burn European factories 1)00,14, ,, 

And murder the crew of the I'/iUfle. . Uec. 30, ,, 

A-lum, a Chinese baker, acquitted of charge of 
poiscjning the bread .... Fob. 2, 1S57 

Troops arrive from Madras, and England ; and 
lord Elgin appointed envoy . . March, ,, 

No change on either side : Yeh said to bo 
straitened for money ; tlie imperialists seem 
to be gaining ground upon the rebels May, ,, 

Total destruction of the Chinese fleet by com- 
modore Elliot, May 25, 27 ; and sir M. Sey- 
mour and commodore Keppel . . June i, ,, 

Blockade of Canton .... Aug. ,, 

Stagnation in the war — lord Elgin dejiarts to 
Calcutta, with assistance to the English 
against the Sepoys, July 16 ; returns to Hong- 
Kong Sept. 25, ,, 

Gen. Ashburnham departs for India, and gen. 
Straubenzee assumes the command Oct. 19, ,, 

Canton bombarded and taken by English and 
French, Dec. 28, 29, 1857 ; vv'ho enter it Jan. 5, 1858 

Y'eh* sent a prisoner to Calcutta . . Jan. ,, 

The allies proceed towards Fekin, and take tiie 
Pei-ho forts , . . . . May 20, ,, 

The expedition arrives at Tien-Sin . May 20, ,, 

Negotiations commence June 5 ; treaty of peace, 
signed at Tun-sin by lord Elgin, baron Gros, 
and Keying(who signed the treaty of 1842) — 
[Ambassadors to be at both courts ; freedom 
of trade; toleration of Christianity ; expenses 
of war to be paid by China ; a revised tarift"; 
term K^harbarian) to be no longer applied to 
Europeans] .... June 26, 28, 29, „ 

Lord Elgin visits Japan, and concludes an im- 
portant treaty with the emperor . Aug 28, ,, 

The Briti.sh destroy about 130 piratical junks 
in the Chinese seas . . Aug. and Sept, ,, 

Lord Elgin proceeds up the Y'ang-tse-Kiang to 
Nankin, Jan. ; returns to England . May, 1859 

Mr. Bruce, the British envoy, on his way to 
Pekin, is stojiped in the river Pei-ho (or Tien- 
sin) ; admiral Hope attempting to force a 
pass-age, is repulsed with the loss of 81 killed, 
and about 390 wounded . . . June 25, ,, 

The American envoy Ward arrives at Pekin, 
and refusing to submit to degrading cere- 
monies, does not see the emperor, Jvfly 29 ; 
the commercial treaty with America is con- 
cluded ...... Nov. 24, „ 

The English and French prepare an expedition 
against China ..... Oct. ,, 

Lord Elgin and baron Gros sail for China, April 
26; wrecked near point de Galle, Ceylon, 
May 23 ; arrive at Shang-hae . June 29, i860 

The war begins : the British commanded by sir 
Hope Grant, the French by general Montau- 
ban. The Chinese defeated in a skirmish 
near the Pei-ho .... Aug. 12, „ 

The allies repulse the Tae-ping rebels attacking 
Shanghae, Aug. 18-20 ; and take the Taku- 
forts, losing 500 killed and wounded ; the Tar- 
tar general San-ko-linsin retreats Aug. 21, „ 

After vain negotiations, the allies advance to- 
wards Pekin ; they defeat the Chinese at 
Chang kia-wan .and Pa-li-chiau Sept. 18 <fc 21, ,, 

Consul Parkes, captams Anderson and Bra- 



bazon, Mr. De Norni.an, Mr. Bowlby (the 
Times' correspondent), and 14 others (Euro- 
l^eans and Sikbs), advance to Tung-chow, to 
arrange conditions for a meeting of the minis- 
ters, and are captured by San-ko-lin-sin ; 
capt. Brabazon and abbtJ de Luc beheaded, 
and said to be thrown into the canal ; others 
carried into Pekin . . . Sept. 21, 

The allies march towards Pekin; the French 
ravage the emperor's summer palace, Oct. 6 ; 
Mr. Parkes, Mr. Loch, and others, restored 
alive, Oct. 8 ; capt. Anderson, Mr. De Nornjan, 
and others die of ill-u.sage . Oct. 8-11, 

Pekin invested ; sin-render.", Oct. 12 ; severe 
proclamation of sir Hope Grant . Oct. 15, 

The bodies of Mr. De Norman and Mr. Bowlby 
buried with great solemnity in the Russian 
cemetery in Pekin, Oct. 17; the summer 
pahice (Yuen-ming-yuon) burnt by the 
British, in memory of the outraged prisoners 
Oct. 18, 

Convention signed in Pekin by lord Elgin and 
the prince of Kung, by wbich the treaty of 
Tien-sin is ratified ; apology made for the 
attack at Pei-ho (June 25, 1859) ; a large in- 
demnity to be paid immediately, and com- 
pensation in money given to the families of 
the murdered prisoners, &c. ; Kow-loon ceded 
in exchange for Chiisan, and the treaty and 
convention to be proclaimed throughout the 
empire Oct. 24, 

Allies quit Pekin .... Nov. 5, 

Treaty between Russia and China— the former 
obtaining free trade, territories, &c. Nov. 14, 

Mr. Loch arrives in England with the treaty 

Dec. 27, 

First instalment of indemnity paid . Nov. 30, 

Part of the allied troops comfortably settled at 
Tien-sin Jan. 5, 

Adm. Hope examines Yang-tse-Kiang, /ic. Feb. 

English and French embassies estalilished .at 
Pekin March, 

The emperor Hienfung dies . . Aug. 24, 

Canton restored to the Chinese . Oct. 21, 

Ministerial crisis ; several ministers put to 
death ; Kung appointed regent . Dec. 13, 

Advance of the rebels ; they seize and desol.ate 
Ning-po and Hang-chow . . . Dec. 

They advance on Shang-hae, which is placed 
under protection of the English and French, 
and fortified ..... Jan. 

Rebels defeated in two engagemenis . April, 

English and French assist the government 
against the rebels — Ning-po retaken May 10, 

French admiral Protet killed in an attack on 
rebels May 17, 

Captain Sherard Osborne permitted by the 
British government to organise a small fleet 
of gun-boats to aid the imperialists to 
establish order July, 

Imperialists gaining ground, take Kah-sing,&c. 

Oct. 

Commercial treaty with Prussia ratified Jan. 14, 

The imperialists under Gordon, defeat the 
Taepings under Burgevine, &c. . Oct. 

Gordon, commanding the imperialists, captures 
Sow-chow (after a severe attack on Nov. 27, 
28) ; the lebel chiefs treacherously butchered 
by the Chinese .... Dec. 4, 5, 

Capt. Osborne came to China ; but retired in 
consequence of the Chinese government de- 
parting from its engagements . Dec. 31, 

Gordon's successes continue . Jan. to April, 

After a severe repulse he takes Chang-cliow-foo, 

Mar. 23, 



1S64 



applied to India and Cejdon for troops. On March 3, 1857, the house of commons, by a majority of 19, 
censured sir John for the " violent measures " lie had pursued. The ministry (who took his part) dissolved 
the parliament ; but obtained a largo majority in the new one. 

* He died peacefully at Calcutta, April 9, 1859. He is said to have beheaded above 100,000 rebels. 



CHI 



174 



CHO 



CHINA, continued. 

He takes Nankin (a heap of ruins) ; the Tien- 
wang, the relicl emperor, commits suicide 
by eating gold leaf. Chang-wang and Kan- 
wang, the rebel generals, are " cut into a 
thousand pieces ;" . . . . July i8, 

The Taepings hold Ming-chow ; the Mahome- 
tan rebellion progressing in Honan March, 

Taepings evacuate Ming-chow . . May 23 

A rebellion in the north, headed by Nien-fei ; 
Pekin in danger .... July 

The Chinese general San-ko-lin-sin defeated 
and slain ; his son more successful . July 



CHINESE EMPERORS. 

1627. Chwang-lci. 

1644. Shun-che (first of the Tsing dynasty). 

i66g. Kang-he. 

1693. Yung-ching. 

1735. Keen-lung. 

1795. Kea-king. 

1820. Taou-Kwang. 

1850. Hieng-fung, Feb. 25. 

1861. Ki-tsiang, Aug. 22 ; born April 5, 1853. 



CHINA PORCELAIN introduced into England about 1531. See Pottery. 

CHINA ROSE, &c. The Rosa indica was brought from China, and successfully planted 
in England, 1786 ; the Chinese apple-tree, or Pyrus spedahilis, about 1780. 

CHIOS (now Scio), an isle in the Greek Archipelago, revolted against Athens, 412 B.C. 
It partook of the fortunes of the Greeks, being conquered by the Venetians, a.d. 1124; by 
the Crusader.s, 1204 ; by the Greek emperor and Romans, 1329 ; by the Genoese, 1329, and 
by the Turks in 1459. A dreadful massacre of the inhabitants by the Turks took place April 
II, 1822, during the Greek insurrection.* 

CHIPPAWA (N. America). Here the British under Riall were defeated by the 
Americans under Browne, July 5, 1814. The Americans were defeated by the British, 
under generals Drummond and Riall, July 25 following, but the latter was wounded and 
taken prisoner. 

CHIVALRY arose out of the feudal system in the latter part of the 8th century 
{chevalier, or knight, being derived from the caballariiis, the equipped feudal tenant on 
horseback). From the 12th to the 15th century it tended to refine manners. The knight 
swore to accomplish the duties of his profession, as the champion of God and the ladies ; 
to speak the truth, to maintain the right, to protect the distressed, to practise courtesy, to 
fulfil obligations, and to vindicate in every perilous adventure his honour and character. 
Chivalry, which owed its origin to the feudal system, expired with it. See Totmianunts. 
By letters patent of James I. the earl-marshal of England had " the like jurisdiction in the 
courts of chivalry, when the office of lord high constable was vacant, as this latter and the 
marshal did jointly exercise," 1623. See Knighthood. 

CHLORINE (Greek chloros, pale green), a gas first obtained by Scheele in 1774, by 
treating manganese with muriatic (hydrochloric) acid. Sir H. Davy, in 1810, proved this 
gas to be an element, and named it chlorine. Combined with sodium it forms common 
salt (chloride of sodium), and combined with lime, the bleaching powder and disinfectant — 
chloride of lime. The bleaching powers of chlorine were made known by Bcrthollet in 1785. 
In 1S23 chlorine was condensed into a liquid by Faraday. 

CHLOROFORM (the ter-chloride of the hypothetical radical formyl) is a compound of 
carbon, hydrogen, and chlorine, and was made from alcohol, water, and bleaching powder. 
It was discovered by Soubeiran in 1831, and its composition was determined by Dumas in 
1834. The term "chloric ether" was applied in 1820 to a mixture of chlorine and olefiant 
gas. Chloroform was first applied as an anaesthetic by Dr. Simpson of Edinburgh ; it was 
first administered in England on Dec. 14, 1848, by Mr. James Robinson, surgeon-dentist. f 

CHOBHAM COMMON, in Surrey. A military camp was formed here on June 14, 1853, 
by a force between 8000 and 10,000 strong. The last field-day took place Aug. 17, i860. 
Only one serious case of misconduct was reported during all the time. 

CHOCOLATE, made of the cocoa berry, introduced into Europe (from Mexico and the 
Brazils) about 1520, was sold in the London coflee-houses soon after their establishment, 1650. 



* The slaughter lasted 10 days : 40,000 of both sexes falling victims to the sword, or to the fire, which 
raged until every house, save those of the foreign consuls, was burned to the ground. 7000 Greeks, who 
had fled to the mountains, were induced to surrender by a promise of amnesty, guaranteed by the consuls 
of England, France, and Austria : yet even they were all butchered ! The only exception made during the 
massacre was in favour of the young and more beautiful women and boys, 30,000 of whom were reserved 
for the markets. 

t A committee of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society in July, 1864, after examining statistics, 
reported that the tise of anajsthetics had in no degree increased the rate of mortahty. 



CHO 



175 



CHR 



CHOIR. This was sejiarated from the nave of the church in the time of Constantine. 
The choral service was first used in Enghiud at Canterbury, 677. See Chanting. 

CHOLERA MORBUS, known in its more malignant form as the Indian cholera, made 
great ravages in the north, east, and south of Euroj^e, and in Asia, where alone it carried olf 
more than 900,000 jjersons, in 1829-30. In England and Wales in 1848-9, 53,293 persons 
died of cholera, and in 1854, 20,097. 



Cholera appears at Sunderland . . Oct. 26, 1831 

And at Edinburgh . . . . Feb. 6, 1832 

First observed at Rotherhithe and Limehouse, 
London, Feb. 13 ; and in Dublin . March 3 ,, 

The mortaUty very pfreat, but more so on the 
Continent; 18,000 deaths at Pari.'?, between 

March and August, 1832 

Cholera rages in Rome, the Two Sicilies, Genoa, 
Berlin, &c., in . . July and August, 1837 

Another visitation of cholera in England : the 
number of deaths in London, for the week 
ending Sept. 15, 1849, '^'^^ S'^-S • ^^^ ordinary 
average 1008 ; and the number of deaths 
by cholera from June 17 to Oct. 2, in London 
alone, 13,161. The mortality lessened and 
the distemper disappeared . . Oct. 13, 1849 

Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Hexham, Tjmemouth, 



and other northern towns, suffer much from 
cholera Sept. 1853 

It rages in Italy and Sicily ; above 10,000 are 
said to have died at Naples ; it was also very 
fatal to the allied troops at Varna, autumn, 1854 

Cholera very severe for a short time in the 
southern parts of London, and in Soho and 
St. James's, Westminster . Aug. and Sept. ,, 

Raging in Alexandria, June ; abated . July, 1865 

Prevailing in Ancona (S43 deaths) Aug., sub- 
siding Sept, „ 

Very severe in Constantinople, nearly 50,000 
deaths, Aug. ; subsides after the great fire, 

Sept. 6 „ 

Cases at Marseilles, Toulon, and Southampton, 
end of Sept. , . 



CHORAGUS, a Greek officer who regulated the chorus in the public fea.sts, worship, 
&c. Stesichorus (or Tysias) received this name, he having first taught the chorus to dance 
to the lyre, 556 B.C. Quint il. 



CHORUS-SINGING was early practised at Athens, 
off the prize for the best voice, 508 b. c. Parian inarbles. 



Hypodicus, of Chalcides, carried 
See 3fusic. 



CHOUANS, a name given to the Bretons during the war of La Vendee in 1792, from 
their chief Jean Cottereau, using the cry of the Chat-haunt, or screech-owl, as a signal. He 
was killed in 1794. Georges Cadoudal, their last chief, was connected with Pichegru in a 
conspiracy against Napoleon when first consul, and was executed in 1804. 

CHRISM, consecrated oil, was used early in the ceremonies of the Roman and Greek 
churches. Musk, saffron, cinnamon, roses, and frankincense, are mentioned as used with the 
oil, in 1 541. It was ordained that chrism should consist of oil and balsam only ; the one 
rejiresenting the human nature of Christ, and the other his divine nature, 1596. 

CHRIST. See Jestis Christ. Christ's Hcspital (the Blue-Coat school) was established 
by Edward VI. 1553, on the site of the Grey Friars monastery. A mathematical ward was 
founded by Charles II. , 1672, and the city of London and the community of England have 
contributed to render it a richly endowed charity. The Times ward was founded in 1841. 
Large portions of the edifice having fallen into decay, it was rebuilt : in 1822 a new infirmary 
was completed, and in 1825 (April 25) the duke of York laid the first stone of the magnificent 
new hall. — On Sept. 24, 1854, the master, Dr. Jacob, in a sermon, in the church of the 
hospital,' censured the system of education and the general administration of the establish- 
ment, and many improvements have since been made. The subordinate school at Llertford, 
for 416 younger boys and 80 girls, was founded in 1683. Christ's-thorn, conjectured to 
be the plant of which our Saviour's crown of thorns was composed, came hither from the 
south of Europe before 1 596. 

CHRISTIAN Era. See Anno Domini. Christian Knowlkdge Society was founded 
in 1698 to promote charity schools, and to disperse bibles and religious tracts. It has an 
annual revenue of about 100,000?. Most Christian King ; Christianissimus Hcj', a title 
conferred by pope Paul II. in 1469 on the crafty Louis XI. of France. 

CHRISTIANIA, the capital of Norway, built in 1624, by Christian IV. of Denmark, to 
replace Opslo (the ancient capital founded by Harold Haardrade, 1058), which had been de- 
stroyed by fire. On April 13, 1858, Christiania suffered by fire, the loss being about 250,000/. 
The university was established in 181 r. New Storthing (parliament house) built 1861-2. 

CHRISTIANITY. The name Christian was fir.st given to the believers and followers of 
Christ's doctrines at Antioch, in Syria, 43 (Acts xi. 26, i Peter iv. 6). Tiie first Christians 
■were divided into episcopoi (bishops or overseers), pi'esbyteroi (elders), diaconoi (ministers or 
deacon-s), and pistoi (believers) ; afterwards were added catechumens, or learners, and ener- 
gumens, who were to be exorcised. See Persecutions. 



CHR 176 CHR 



CHRISTIANITY, contiimcd. 

Cliristianity said to be taught in Britain, about 

64 ; and propagated with some success (iccZc) 156 
Christianity said to lie introduced into Scotland 

in the reign of Donald I, about . . . 212 
Constantino the Great professes the Christian 

religion 312 

Frumentius preaches in Abyssinia . about 346 

Introduced among the Goths by Ulfilas . . 376 
Into Ireland in the second century, but with 

more success after the arrival of St. Patrick in 432 

Christianity established in France by Clovis . 496 

Conversion of the Saxons* by Augustin . . 597 

Introduced into Helvetia, by Irish missionaiies 643 
Into Flanders in the 7th century. 

Into Saxony, by Charlemagne .... 785 

Into Denmark, under Harold . . . . 827 

Into Bohemia, under Borzivoi . . . Sod 



Into Russia, by Swiatoslaf . . . about 940 
Into Poland, under Meicislaiis I. . . . 992 
Into Hungary, under Geisa . . ... 994 
Into Norway and Iceland, imder Olaf I. . . 998 
Into Sweden, betw<)en 10th and nth centuries. 
Into Prussia, by the Teutonic knights, when 

they were retiirning from the holy wars . 1227 
Into Lithuania; paganism was abolished about 1386 
Into Guinea, Angola, and Congo, in the 15th 

century. 
Into China, where it made some progress (Ijut 

was afterwards extirpated, and thousands of 

Chinese Christians were put to death) . . 1575 
Into India and America, in the i6th century. 
Into Japan, by Xavier and the Jesuits, 1549; 

but the Christians were exterminated in . 1638 
Christianity re-established in Greece . . . 1628 



CHRISTMAS-DAY, Doc. 25 (from Christ and the Saxon mccsse, signifying the mass 
and a feast), a festival in commemoration of the nativity of onr Saviour, said to have been 
first kept 98; and ordered to be Iiehl as a solemn feast, by pope Tele.si>lioriis, about 137. f 
In the eastern church, Christmas and the Epiphany {which see) are deemed but one and the 
same feast. The holly and mistletoe used at Cliristmas are said to be the remains of the 
religious observances of the Druids. See Anno Domini. 

CHRISTMAS ISLAND, in the Pacific Ocean, so named by captain Cook, who landed 
here on Christmas-day, 1777. He had passed Christmas-day at Christmas-sound, 1774. On 
the shore of Christmas Harbour, visited by him in 1776, one of his men found a j)iece of 
parchment with this inscription : " Ludovico XV. Galliarmn rege, ct d. Boynesregi a secretis 
ad res maritimas, annis 1772 et 1773." On the other side of it captain Cook wrote: 
"Naves Resolution et Discoverij de rege Magnce Britannia, Dec. 1776," and placed it in a 
bottle safely. 

CHRISTOPHER'S, St. (or St. Kitt's), a West India island, discovered in 1493, by 
Columbus, who gave it his own name. Settled by the English and French 1623 or 1626. 
Ceded to England by the peace of Utrecht, 1713. Taken by the French in 1782, but 
restored the next year. The town of Basseterre suffered from a fire, Sej^t. 3, 1776. 

CHROMIUM (Greek, chrome colour^, a rare metal, discovered by Vauquelin in 1797. It 
is found combined with iron and lead, and forms the colouring matter of the emerald. 

CHROMO-LITHOGRAPHY. See Printing in Colours. 

CHRONICLES. The earliest are those of the Jews, Chinese, and Hindoos. In Scrip- 
ture there are two " Books of Chronicles." Collections of the British chroniclers have been 
published by Camden, Gale, &c. , since 1602 ; in the present century by the English Historical 
Society, &c. In 1858, the publication of " Chronicles and Memorials of Great Britain and 
Ireland during the Middle Ages," commenced under the direction of the Master of the Rolls. 
Macray's " Manual of British Historians" was published 1845. 

CHRONOLOGY (the science of time) has for its object the arrangement and exhibition 
of the various events of the history of the world in the order of their succession, and the 
ascertaining the intervals between them. See Eras and E2')ochs. Valuable works on the 
subject are r^r< cZc Verifier Ics Dates, compiled by the Benedictines (1783 — 1820). Play- 
fair's Chronology, 1784; Blair's Chronology, 1753 ("^w editions by sir H. Ellis, in 1844. 
and by Mr. Rosse, in 1856). The Oxford Chronological Tables, 1838. Sir Harris Nicolas' 
Chronology of History, 1833 ; new edition, 1852. Hales' Chronology, 2nd edition, 1830 ; 
Mr. H. Fyncs-Clinton's Fasti Helleuici and Fasti Romani (1824-50). 

CHRONOMETER. See Clocks and Harrison. 

* It is, traditionally, said that Gregory the Great, shortly before his elevation to the papal chair, 
chanced one day to pass through the slave-market at Rome, and perceiving some children of great beauty 
wh(J were set up for sale, he mquired about their country, and finding they were English pagans, he is said 
to have cried out in the Latin langiiage, " Non Angli sed Aii<jcU forent, si essait Chrisliani ;" that is, "They 
would not be English, but angels, if they were Christians." ' From that time he was ftr\ick with an ardent 
desire to convert that unenlightened nation, and ordered a monk named Austin, or Augustin, and others 
of the same fraternity, to undertake the mission to Britain in the year 596. 

t Diocletian, the Roman emperor, keejiing his court at Nicomedia, being informed that the Christians 
were assembled on this day in great multitudes to celebrate Christ's nativity, ordered the duors to be shut, 
and the church to be set on fire, and 600 perished in the burning pile. This was the commencement of the 
tenth persecution, which lasted ten years, 303. 



CHR 



177 



CHU 



CHROXOSCOPE, an apparatus invented by professor "Wlieatstono in 1840, to measure 
small intervals of time. It has been applied to the velocity of projectiles, and of the electric 
ciu-rent. Clironoscopes were invented by Pouillet, and others in 1844. 

CHUNAR, Treaty of, concluded between the nabob of Oude and governor Hastings, 
by which the nabob Avas relieved of all his debts to the East India Company, on condition of 
his seizing the property of the begums, his mother and grandmother, and delivering it up to 
the English, Sep. 19, 1781. This treaty enabled the nabob to take the lands of Fyzoola 
Khan, a RohiUa chief, who had settled at Rampoor, under guarantee of the English. The 
nabob presented to Mr. Hastings 100,000^. 

CHURCH (probably derived from the Greek hjriakos, pertaining to the Lord, Kyrios), 
signifies a collective body of Christians, and also the place where they meet. In the New 
Testament, it signifies "congregation," in the original ekklcsia. Christian architecture 
commenced with Constantine, who, after he was settled in his government, erected, at Rome, 
churches (called basilicas, from the Greek basileus, a king) ; St. Peter's being erected about 
330. His successors erected others ; and adopted the heathen temples as places of worship. 
Several veiy ancient churches exist in Britain and Ireland. See Architecture ; Choir and 
Chanting ; Rome, Modern : and P(y;c5. 

CHURCH OF ExGLAXD.* The following are important facts in her history : for details, 
refer to separate articles. — See Clergy. 

Britain converted to Christianity ("Christo 

subdita," Tertullian) . . . 2nd century- 

Invasion of the Saxons, 477 ; converted by 
Augustin and his companions . . . 596 

Duustan establishes the supremacy of the mo- 
nastic orders, about g6o 

The aggrandising policy of the Chiu-ch, fostered 
by Edward the Confessor, was checked by 
William I. and his successors . . 1066 et seq. 

Contest between Henry II. and Becket re- 
specting the " Constitutions of Clarendon," 

1164-1170 

John surrenders his crown to the papal legate 1213 

Eise of the Lollards— Wickliffe publishes tracts 
against the errors of the Church of Rome, 
1356 ; and a version of the Bible, about 

The clergy regulated by parliament, 1529 ; they 
lose the first fruits 1534 

The royal supremacy imposed on the clergy by 
Henry VIII., 1531 ; many suffer death for re- 
fusing to acknowledge it 1535 

Coverdale's translation of the Bible commanded 
to be read in churches 

"Six Articles of Religion " promulgated . 

Pirst book of Common Prayer issued . . . 

The clergy permitted to marry 
," Forty-two Articles of Religion " issued . . 

Restoration of the Roman forms, and fierce 
persecution of the Protestants by Mary . 1553-8 

The Protestiint forms restored by Elizabeth ; 
the Puritan dissensions begin . . 1558- 1603 

" Thirty-nine " Articles published . . . 1563 

Hampton Court conference with the Puritans 1604 

New translation of the Bible published . . i6n 

Book of Common Prayer suppressed and Direc- 
tory estaljlished by parliament . . . 

Presbyterians established by the Common- 
wealth 

Act of Uniformity (14 Chas. II. c. 4) passed — 
2000 nonconforming ministers resign their 
livings 1662 

Attempts of James II. to revive Romanism ; 



1383 



1539 
1548 

1549 
1552 



1644 
1649 



16E8 



1704 
1710 



1717 
173S 



" Declaration of Indulgence " published . 16S7 
Acquittal of the seven bishops on a charge of 

" seditious libel " 

The Non-juring bishops and others deprived ; 

(they formed a separate communion) Feb. i, 
" Queen Anne's Bounty," for the augmentation 

of poor livings ...... 

Act for building 50 new churches passed . . 
Fierce disputes between the low church and 

high church ; trial of Sacheverell . . . 
The Bangorian controversy begins 
John Wesley and George Whitetield commence 

preaching 

Rise of the Evangelical party in the church, 

under Newton, Romaine, and others, in the 

latter part of the i8th century. 
Church of England united with that of Ireland 

at the Union ....... 1800 

Clergy Incapacitation Act passed . . . 1801 

Acts for building and enlarging churches 1828, 1838 
200 new churches erected in the diocese of 

London during the episcopate of C. J. Blom- 

field 1828-56 

"Tracts for the Times" (No. 1-90) published 

(much controversy ensued) . . . 1833-41 
Ecclesiastical Commission established . . 1834 
New Church Discipline Act (3 & 4 Vict. c. 86) . 1841 
" Essays and Reviews " published, i860 ; nume- 
rous RepUes issued (see ii'.?s-«^s and Reviews) 1 861-2 

[The Church of England is now said to be 
divided into High, Low (or Evangelical), and 
Broad Church : the last including persons 
who liold the opinions of the late Dr. Arnold, 
the Rev. F. D. JIaurice, and others.] 

Dr. Colenso, bishop of Natal, publishes his work 
on "The Pentateuch," about Oct., 1S62 ; 
great cry against it ; the bishops, in convo- 
cation, declare that it contains "errors of 
the gravest and most dangerous character," 

May 20, 1863 

A Church Congress at Manchester, Oct. 13, 14, 15, ,, 



* The ehurcli of England consists of three orders of clergy — bishops, priests, and deacons; viz., two 
archbishops and twenty-five bishops, exclusive of the see of Sodor and Man. The other dignities are 
chancellors, deans (of cathedrals and collegiate churches), archdeacons, prebendaries, canons, minor canons, 
and i)riest-vicars : those and the incumbents of rectories, vicarages, and chapelrits, make the number 
of preferments of the established church, according to ofBcial returns, 12,327. The number of hemjices in 
England and Wales, according to parliamentary returns, in 1844, was 11,127, and the number of glebe- 
houses 5527. The number of parishes is 11,077, ^^^^ of churches and chapels about 14,100. The number of 
benefices in Ireland was 1495, to which there were not more than about 900 glebe-houses attached, the rest 
having no glebe-houses. An act was passed in 1S60 for the union of contiguous benefices. See Church of 
England. 

N 



CHU 



178 



CIL 



CHURCH OF England, continued. 

Bishop Colenso deposed by his metropolitan, 
Dr. Gray, Ijishop of Capetown . April i6, 

Bishop Colenso's appeal came before the privy 
council, which declared bishop Gray's pro- 
ceedings null and void (since a colonial 
bishop can have no authority except what 
is granted by parliament or by the colonial 
legislature) .... March 21, 

Church congress at Bristol . . . Oct. 

" Oxford Declaration" (authorship ascribed to 
archdeacon Dcnison and Dr. Pusey), respect- 
ing belief in eternal punishment, drawn up 
and signed on Feb. 25, and sent by post to 
the clergy at large for signature : about 3000 



are said to have signed ; it was presented to 
the archbishop of Canterbury , May 12, 1864 

"Bishop of London's Fund," for remedying 
spiritual destitution in London, established ; 
the Queen engages to give (in three years) 
3000?., and prince of Wales 1000/. . March 7, „ 

100,456;. received ; 72,003^ promised, Dec. 31, „ 

The Queen engages to give 15,000!. in 10 years, 

April, 1865 

New form of clerical subscription proposed by 
a commission in 1864 ; adopted by parliament, 

Jwiy. >> 

Church congress met at Norwich . Oct. 3-7 „ 
Congress to be at York in .... 1866 



CHURCH OF IRELAND is now in connection with that of England— the United 
Church of England and Ireland. Previon.sly to the Chnrch Tem23oralities Act of Will. IV. 
in 1833, there were four archbishoprics and eighteen bi.shoprics in Ireland, of which two 
archbishoprics and eight bishoprics have ceased ; that act providing for the union or abolition 
of certahi sees, according as the possessors of them died. See Bishops. 

CHURCH OF North America. The Episcopal chnrch was established in Nov. 1784, 
when bishop Seabury, chosen by the churches in Connecticut, was consecrated in Scotland. 
The first convention was held at Philadelphia in 1780. On Feb. 4, 1787, two more American 
bishops were consecrated at Lambeth. In 185 1 there were 37 bishojis. 

CHURCH OF Scotland. See Bis7io23s in Scotland. On the abolition of Episcopacy in 
Scotland in 1638, Presbyterianisni became the established religion. Its distinguishing tenets 
ivere first embodied in the formulary of faith, said to have been compiled bj- John Knox, in 
1560, which was apin'oved by the parliament and ratified in 1567, finally settled by an act of 
the Scottish senate in 1696, and secured by the treaty of union with England in 1707. The 
chnrch of Scotland is regulated by four courts — the general assembly,* the synod, the presby- 
tery, and kirk sessions. See Presbyterians. A large body seceded from this church in 
1843, and took the name of the "Free Church of Scotland," which see. 

CHURCH-RATES. The maintaining the church {i. e. the 'building) in repair belongs 
to the parishioners, who have the sole power of taxing themselves for the expense when 
assembled in vestry. The enforcement of payment, which is continually disputed by dis- 
senters and others, Ijelongs to the ecclesiastical courts. Many attempts have lieen made to 
abolish church-rates. A bill for this purpose has passed the commons only several tiihes 
since 1855 ; one was thrown out in May, 1861. See Braintree. 

CHURCH-SERVICES were ordered by pope Vitellianus to be read in Latin 66^^ ; by 
queen Elizabeth in 1558 to be read in English. 

CHURC!H-WARDENS, officers of the church, appointed by the first canon of the s}mod 
of London in 1127. Overseers in every parish Avere also appointed by the same body, and 
they continue iiow nearly as then constituted. Johnson's Canons. 

CHURCHING OF "Women is the act of returning thanks in the church by women after 
child-birth. It began about 214. Wheatley. See Purification. 

CHUSAN, a Chinese isle. See China, 1840, 1S41, i860. 

CIDER {Zidcr, German), when first made in England, was called wine, about 1284. The 
earl of ilanchester,. when ambassador in France, is said to have frequently passed off" cider 
for a delicious wine. It was subjected to the excise in 1763 et scq. A powerful spirit is 
drawn from cider by distillation. —Many orchards were planted in Herefordshire by lord 
Scudamore, ambassador from Charles I. to France. John Philips published his poem 
"Cider" in 1706. 

CILICIA, in Asia Minor, partook of the fortunes of that country. It became a Roman 
province 67 B.C., and was conc^uered by the Turks, A.D. 1387. 

• The first general assembly of the church was held Dec. 20, 1560. The general assembly constitutes 
the highest ecclesiastical court in the kingdom ; it meets annually in Edinburgh in May, and sits about 
ten days. It consists of a grand commissioner, appointed by the sovereign, and delegates from presbyteries, 
royal boroughs, and universities, some being laymen. To this court all ai^peals from the inferior ecclosias- 
lical courts lie, and its decision is final. 



cm 



179 



cm 



CIMBEI, a Teutonic race, who came from Jutland, and invaded the Eoman empire about 
I20 B.C. They defeated the Romans, under Cn. Papcrius Carbo, 113 B.C. ; under the consul, 
Marcus SiLanus, 109 B.C., and under Manlius, on the banks of the Rhine, where 80,000 
Romans were slain, 105 B.C. Their allies, the Teutones, were defeated by Marius in two 
battles at Aqure Sextini (Aix) in Gaul ; 200,000 were killed, and 70,000 made prisoner.s, 
102 B. c. The Cimbri were defeated by Marius and Catulus, as they were again endeavouring 
to enter Italy; 120,000 were killed, and 60,000 taken prisoners, loi B.C. They were 
afterwards absorbed into the Teutones or Saxons. 

CIAIENTO (Italian, experiment). The " Accademia del Cimento," at Florence, held its 
lirst meeting for making scientific experiments, June 18, 1657. It was patronised by 
Ferdinand, grand duke of Tuscany. Its establishment was followed by the foundation of 
the Royal Society of London in 1660, and the Academy of Sciences at Paris in 1666. 

CINCINNATI. A society established in the American army soon after the peace of 
1783, " to perpetuate friendship," and to raise a fund for relieving the widows and orphans 
of those who had fallen during the war." On the badge was a figure of Ciucinnatus. The 
people dreading military influence, the officers gave up the society. 

CINNAMON, a species of laurel in Ceylon, is mentioned among the perfumes of the 
sanctnar}'^, Exodus xxx. 23. It was found in the American forests, by Don Ulloa, in 1736, 
and was cultivated in Jamaica and Dominica in 1788. 

CINQUE-CENTO (five hundred) ; tcr-ccnto, &c., see note to article Italy. 

CINQUE PORTS, on the south coast of England, were originally five (hence the name) 
— Dover, Hastings, Hythe, Romney, and Sandwich : \Yinchelsea and Rye were afterwards 
added. Jcalce. Their jurisdiction was vested in barons, called wai-dens, for the better security 
of the coast, these ports being nearest to France, and considered the keys of the kingdom ; 
instituted by William I. in 1078. Rcqnn. The latest lord-wardens were the duke of 
Wellington, 1828-52 ; the marquess of Dalhousie, 1852-60 ; lord Palmerston, appointed 
March, 1861. 

CINTRA (Portugal). The convention of Cintra was concluded between the British army 
under sir Hew Dalrymple, and the French under marshal Junot. By this compact, on Aug. 
30, 1808, shortly after the battle of Vimeira (Aug. 22), the defeated French army was allowed 
to evacuate Portugal in British ships, carrying with them all their spoil. Tlie convention 
was p)ublicly condemned, and in consequence a court of inquiry was held at Chelsea, which 
exonerated the British commanders, who, however, were never again employed, AVellington 
and Napoleon both justified sir Hew Dalrymple. 

CIRCASSIA (Asia, on N. side of the Caucasus). The Circassians are said to be descended 
from the Albanians. They were unsubdued, even by Tiraour. In the i6th century the 
greater part of theiu acknowledged the authority of the czar, Ivan II. of Russia, and about 
1745, the princes of Kabarda took oaths of fealty. Many Circassians became Mahometans in 
the 1 8th century. 

Circassia surrendered to Russia by Turkey by 

the trcfity of Adrianople (but tlie Circassians, 

■under Scbamyl, long resisted) . . . 1S30 
Victories of Orbelliani over tberu 

June, Nov., Dec., 1857 
He subdues mucb of the country, and expels 

the inhabitants .... April, 1858 
Sclianiji, their great leader, captured, and 

treated with much respect . . Sept. 7, 1859 
About 20,000 Circassians emigrate to Coustan- 

CIRCENSIAN GAMES were combats in the Roman circus (at first in honour of Census, 
the god of councUs, but afterwards of Jupiter, Neptune, Juno, and Minerva), instituted by 
Evander, and established at Rome 732 B.C. by Romulus, at the time of the rape of the 
Sabines. They were an imitation of the Olympian games among the Greeks, and, by way 
of eminence, were called the Great games, but Tarquin named them Circensian ; their 
celebration continued from Sept. 4 to 12. 

CIRCLE. The quadrature, or ratio of the diameter of the circle to its circumference, 
has exercised the ingenuity of mathematicians of all ages. Archimedes, about 221 B.C., 
gave it as 7 to 22 ; Abraham Sharp (17 17) as I to 3 and 72 decimals, and Laguy (17 19) as 
I to 3 and 122 decimals. 

N 2 



tinople, and suffer much distress, and are 
relieved i36o 

The last of the Circassian strongholds cap- 
tured, and the grand duke Michael declares 
the war at an end . . . June 8, 

Above a million Circassians emigi-atc into 
Turkey, and suffer many privations, par- 
tially relieved by the sultan's government, 
June, et seq. 



1S64 



ciR 180 cm 

CIRCLES OF Germany (formed about 1500, to distinguish the members of the diet of 
the empire) were, iu 15 12, Franconia, Bavaria, Upper and Lower Rhine, Westphalia, and 
Saxony ; in 1 789, Austria, Burgundy, Westphalia, Palatinate, Upper Rhine, Suabia, Bavaria, 
Franconia, and Upper and Lower Saxony. In 1804 these divisons were annulled by the 
establishment of the Confederation of the Rhine, in 1806 {xvliich see). 

CIRCUITS IN England were divided into three, and three justices were appointed to 
each, 1 1 76. They were afterwards divided into four, with five justices to each division, 
1 180. Rapin. They have been frequently altered. England and Wales are at present 
divided into eight — each travelled in spring and summer for the trial of civil and criminal 
cases ; the larger towns are visited in winter for trials of criminals only : this is called 
"going the circuit." There are monthly sessions for the city of London and county of 
Middlesex. 

CIRCULATING LIBRARY. Stationers lent books on hire in the middle ages. The 
public circulating library in England, opened by Samuel Fancourt, a dissenting minister 
of Salisbury, about 1 740, failed ; but similar institutions at Bath and in London succeeded, 
and others were established throughout the kingdom. There was a circulating library at 
Crane- court, London, in 1748, of which a catalogue in two vols, was published. — No books 
can be taken from the British Museum except for judicial purposes, but the libraries of the 
Royal Society and the principal scientific societies, except that of the Royal Institution, 
London, are circulating. — The Loudon Library (circulating) was founded in 1841, under the 
highest auspices, and is of great value to literary men. — Of the subscription libraries 
belonging to individuals, that of Mr. C. E. Mudie, in New Oxford-street, is the most 
remarkable for the large quantity and good quality of the books : several hundreds, some- 
times thousands, of copies of a new work being in circulation. It was fovinded in 1842, and 
grew into celebrity in Dec. 1848, when the first two volumes of Macaulay's History of 
England were published, for which there was an miprecedented demand, which this library 
supplied. The hall, having tlie walls covered with shelves filled with new books, was 
opened in Dec. i860. The "Circulating Library Company" was founded in Jan. 1862. 

CIRCULATION of the Blood. See Blood. 

CIRCUMCISION (instituted 1897 B.C.) was the seal of the covenant made by God with 
Abraham. It was ])ractised by the ancient Egyptians, and is still by the Cojits and some 
oriental nations. The Festival of the Circumcision (of Christ), originally " the Octave of 
Christmas," is mentioned about 487. It was introduced into the Liturgy in 1550. 

CIRCUMNAVIGATORS. Among the most daring human enterprises at the i3eriod 
when it was first attempted, was the circumnavigation of the earth in 15 19.* 

Magellan first entered the Tasman, Dutch . . . 1642 James Cook .... 1768 

Pacific Ocean , . . 1519 Cowley, British . . . 1683 On his death the voyage was 

Groalva, Spaniard . . . 1537 Dampier, Enghsh . . . 16S9 ' continued by King . . 1779 

Avalradi, Spaniard . . ,, ('ooke, English . . . . 1708 Bougainville, French . . 1776 

Mendana, Spaniard' . . . 1567 Clipperton, British . . 1719 Portlocke, British . . . 1788 

Sir Francis Drake, first Eng- 1 Roggewein, Dutch . . . 1721 King and Fitzroy, British 1826-36 

Ush 1577 Anson (afterwards lord) . 1740 : Belcher, British . . 1836-42 

Cavendish, first voyage . . 1586 Byron, Enghsh . . . . 1764 Wilkes, American . . 1838-42 

Le Maire, Dutch . . . 1615 Wallis, British . . . 1766 I See North-West Passage. 

Quiros, Spaniard . . . 1625 Carteret, English . . . „ 

CIRCUS. There were eight (some say ten) buildings of this kind at Rome ; the largest, 
the Circus Maximus, was built by the elder Tarquin, 605 B.C. It was an oval figure ; length 
three stadia and a half, or more than three English furlongs ; breadth 960 Roman feet. It 
was enlarged by Julius Csesar so as to seat 150,000 persons, and was rebuilt by Augustus, 
Julius Cajsar introduced in it large canals of water, which could be quickly covered with 
vessels, and rei^resent a sea fight. Pliny. See Amjjhitheatres. In the 5th and 6th centuries 
after Christ, Constantinople was greatly disturbed by the white, red, green, and blue factions 
of the circus. In 501, about 3000 persons were killed. In Jan. 532 a fierce conflict between 
the blue and gi'een tactions lasted five days, and was only suppressed by the efforts of 
Belisarius after a frightful slaughter. The watchword was " Nika ! " (conquer). 

CIRRHA, a town of Phocis (N. Greece), razed to the ground in the Sacred War, 5S6 b.c, 
for sacrilege. 

* The first ship that sailed rovmd the earth, and hence determined its being globular, was Magellan's, 
or Magelhaen's ; he was a native of Portugal, in the service of Sixain, and by keeping a westerly course he 
returned to the same jilace he had set out from in 1519. The voyage was completed in 3 years and 29 days; 
but Magellan was killed on his homeward passage, at the Philippines, iu 1521. 



CIS 181 CIV 

_ CISALPINE REPUBLIC (N. Italy) was formed by the French in May, i797, out of the 
Cispadane and Transpadane republics, acknowledged by the emperor of Germany to be 
independent, by the treaty of Campo Formic {ivhich sec), Oct. 17 following. It received 
a new constitution in Sept. 1798 ; but merged into the kingdom of Italy in March, 1805. 
See Italy. 

CISTERCIANS, an order of monks founded by Robert, a Benedictine, abbot of Citeaux 
(the order of Citeaux), in France, near the end of the nth century. For a time it governed 
almost all Europe. The monks observed silence, abstained from flesh, lay on straw, and 
wore neither shoes nor shirts. Dc Yitri. They were reformed by St. Bernard. See 
Bcrnardincs. 

CITATE. The Russian general Gortschakoff", intending to storm Kalafat, threw up 
redoubts at Citate, close to the Danube, which were stormed by the Turks imder Omer 
Pacha, Jan. 6, 1854. The fighting continued on the 7th, 8th, and 9th, when the Russians 
were compelled to retire to their former position at Krajowa, having lost 1 500 killed and 
2000 wounded. The loss of the Turks was estimated at 338 killed and 700 wounded. 

CITY. (French cite, Italian cittd,, Latin eivitas.) The word has been used in England 
only since the conquest, when London M'as called Londonburgh. Cities were first incorporated 
1079. A town corporate is called a city when made the seat of a bishop and having a 
cathedral church. Camden. 

CITIZEN. It is not lawful to scourge a citizen of Rome. Livy. In England a citizen 
is a person who is free of a city, or who doth carry on a trade therein. Canulen. Various 
privileges have been conferred on citizens as freemen in several reigns. — The wives of citizens 
of London (not being aldermen's wives, nor gentlewomen by descent) were obliged to wear 
minever caps, being \vhite woollen knit three-cornered, with the peaks projecting three or 
four inches beyond their foreheads ; aldermen's wives made them of velvet, i Eliz. 1558. 
Stow. On Oct. 10, 1792, the convention decreed that "citoyeu"and "citoyenne" should 
be the only titles in France. 

CIUDAD RODRIGO, a strong fortress of Spain, invested by the French, June n, 1810, 
and surrendered to them July 10. It remained in their possession until it was stormed by 
the British, under Wellington, Jan. 19, 18 12. 

CIVIL ENGINEERS. See Engineers. 

CIVIL LAW. A body of Roman laws, founded upon the laws of nature and of nations, 
was first collected by Alfrenus Varus, the civilian, who flourished about 66 n. c. ; and a 
digest of them was made by Servius Sulpicius, the civilian, 53 B.C. The Gregorian code 
was issued A.D. 290 ; the Theodosian in 438. Many of the former laws having grown out of 
use, the emperor Justinian ordered a revision of them (in 529-534), which was called the 
Justinian code, and constitutes a large part of the present civil law. Civil law was restored 
in Italy, Germany, &c. 1127. Blair. It Avas introduced into England by Theobald, a 
Norman abbot, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury in 1 138. It is now used in the spiritual 
courts only, and in maritime affairs. See Doctors' Commons, and Laws. 

CIVIL LIST. This now comprehends the revenue awarded to the kings of England in 
lieu of their ancient hereditary income. The entire revenue of Elizabeth was not more than 
600,000/., and that of Charles I. was about 8oo,oooZ. After the revolution a civil list 
revenue was settled on the new king and queen of 700,000/., the parliament taking into its 
own hands the support of the forces hoih maritime and military. The civil list of George II. 
was increased to 800,000/. ; and that of George III. in the 55th year of his reigu, was 
1,030,000/. 



In 1831, the civil list of the sovereign was fixed 
at 510,000/., and in Dec., 1837, the civil list 
of tlie queen was fixed at 385,000?. 

Prince Albert obtained an exclusive sum from 
parliament of 30,oooi. per a;i. on . Feb. 7, 1840 



Sir H. Parnell's motion for inquiry into the 
civil list led to the resignation of the Wel- 
lington administration . . Nov. 15, 1830 

A select committee was appointed by the house 
of commons for the purpose . Feb. 2, i86o 



CIVIL SERVICE. Nearly 17,000 persons are employed in tliis service under the 
direction of the treasury, and the home, foreign, colonial, post, and revenue ofticcs_, &c. In 
1855 a commission reported most unfavourably on the existing system of appointments, 
and on May 21 commissioners were appointed to examine into the qualifications of the 
candidates, who report annually. The civil service superannuation act passed in April, 
1859. Civil service for the year (ending March 31) 1S55, cost 7.735)5i5^-; 1865, 10,205,413/. 



CIV 



182 



CLA 



CIVIL WARS. See England, France, &c. 

CLANSHIPS were tribes of the same race, and commonly of the same name, and 
originated in feudal times. See Feudal Laws. They are said to have arisen in Scotland, in 
the reign of Malcolm II., about 1008. The legal power of the chiefs of clans and other 
remains of heritable jurisdiction were aliolished in Scotland, and the liberty of the English 
was granted to clansmen in 1747, in consequence of the rebellion of 1745. The following 
is a list of all the known clans of Scotland, with the badge of distinction anciently worn by 
each. The chief of each respective clan was, and is, entitled to wear two eagle's feathers in 
his bonnet, in addition to the distinguishing badge of his clan. Chambers. A history of the 
clans by Wm. Buchanan was published in r775. 



Name. 


Badr;e. 


Name. 


Badge. 


Name. 


Badfje. 


Buchanan 


Birch. 


Lamont . 


. Crab-apple tree. 


M'Neil . 


Sea-ware. 


Cameron 


Oak. 


M'Alister 


. Five-leaved heath. 


M'Pherson 


"Variegated box-wd 


Campliell 


]\Iyrtle. 


M'Donald 


. Bell-heath. 


M'Quarrie 


Blackthorn. 


Chisbolm 


Alder. 


M'Donnell 


. Mountain heath. 


M'Rae . 


Fir-club moss. 


Colquhoiui 


Hazel. 


M'Dougall 


. Cypress. 


Meuzies 


Ash. 


Cuniming 


Common .sallow. 


M'Farlane 


. Clovid-berry bush. 


Munro 


Eagle's feathers. 


Druramond 


Holly. 


M'Gregor 


. Pine. 


Murray 


Juniper. 


Farquliarson Purple fox;jlove. 


M'Intosh 


. Box-wood. 


Ogilvio . 


Hawthoni. 


FergTison 


Poplar. 


M'Kay . 


. Bull-rush. 


Oliphant 


Great maple. 


Forbes . 


Broom. 


M'Keiizie 


. Deer-gi-ass. 


Robertson 


Fern, orbrechans. 


Frazer . 


Yew. 


M'Kinnon 


. St. John's wort. 


Rose 


Briar-rose. 


Gordnn . 


Ivs^ 


M'Laehlan 


. Mountain-ash. 


Ross 


Bear-berries. 


Graham 


Laurel. 


M'Lean . 


. Blackberry heath. 


Sinclair . 


Clover. 


Grant 


. CranbeiTy heath. 


M'Leod 


. Red whortle-berries. 


Stewart 


. Thistle. 


Gun . 


Rose wort. 


M'Nab . 


. Rose blackberries. 


Sutherland 


Cat's-tail grass. 



CLARE AND Clarence (Suffolk). Richard de Clare, earl of Gloucester, is said to have 
seated here a monastery of the order of Friars Eremites, the first of this kind of mendicants 
Avho came to England, 1248. Tanner. Lionel, third son of Edward III. becoming possessed 
of the honour of Clare, by marriage, was created duke of Clarence. The title has ever since 
belonged to a branch of the royal family.*— Clare was the first place in Ireland for 140 
years that elected a Roman Catholic member of parliament. See Roman CaiJwlics. At the 
election, held at Ennis, the county town, Mr. Daniel O'Connell was returned, July 5, 1828. 
He did not sit till after the passing of the Catholic Emancipation Act, in 1829, being re- 
elected July 30, 1S29. 

CLARE, NuN.s OF St., a sisterhood, called Minoresses, founded in Italy about 1212. 
This order settled in England, in the Minories without Aldgate, London, about 1293. 
hy Blanche, queen of Navarre, wife of Edmund, earl of Lancaster, brother of Edward I, 
At the suppression, the site was granted to the bishopric of Bath and Wells, 1539. Tanner. 

CLAREMONT (Surrey), the residence of the princess Charlotte (daughter of the prince- 
regent, afterwards George IV.), and the scene of her death, Nov. 6, 1817. The house was 
originally built by sir John Vanbrugh, and was the seat .successively of the earl of Clare, 
afterwards duke of Newcastle, of lord Clive, lord GalloAvay, and the carl of TjTconnel. It 
was purchased of Mr. Ellis by -government for 65,000/. for the prince and princess of Saxe- 
Coburg ; and the former, now king of Belgium, assigned it to prince Albert in 1840, Tlie 
exiled royal family of France took up their residence at Claremont, March 4, 1848 ; and the 
king, Louis-Philippe, died there, Aug. 29, 1850. 

CLARENCIEUX, the second king-at-arnis, formerly subject to the duke of Clarence ; 
his duty was to arrange the funerals of all the lower nobility, as baronets, knights, esquires, 
and gentlemen, on the south side of the Trent, from whence he is also called sur-roy or 
south-roy. 

CLARENDON, Constitutiox.s of, were enacted at a council held Jan. 25, 1164, at 
Clarendon, in "Wiltshire, the object of which was to retrench the then enormous power of the 
clergy. They were the ground of Becket's quarrel with Henry II., and were at first con- 
demned by the pope, but afterwards agreed to in 11 73. 



* Dukes of Claeeitce : 1362, Lionel, born 1338, died 1369. See York, dul-esof. — 1411, Thomas (.second 
son of Heniy IV.), bom 1389, killed at Baugg 7421. — 1461, George (bi-other of Edward IV.), murdered 1478. 
—1789, William (third son of George IIL), afterwards William IV. 



CLA 



183 



CLE 



CLARENDON, Constitutions of, continued. 



I. All suits concerning advowsons to be deter- 
mined in civil courts. 

II. The clergy accused of any crime to be tried by 
civil judges. 

III. No pei-son of any rank whatever to be per- 
mitted to leave the realm without the royal licence. 

IV. Laics not to be accused in spiritual courts, 
except by legal and reputable pi-omoters and wit- 
nesses. 

V. No chief tenant of the crown to be excommu- 
nicated, or his lands put under interdict. 

VI. Revenues of vacant sees to belong to the king. 

VII. Goods forfeited to the crown not to be pro- 
tected in churches. 

VIII. Sons of villains not to be ordained clerks 
without the consent of their lord. 

IX. Bishops to be regarded as barons, and be sub- 



jected to the burthens belonging to that rank. 

X. Churches belonging to the king's see not to be 
gi-anted in perpetuity against his will. 

XI. Excommunicated persons not to be bound to 
give security for continuing in their abode. 

XII. No inhabitant in demesne to be excommuni- 
cated for non-appearance in a spiritual court. 

XIII. If anj"- tenant in capite should refuse .sub- 
mission to spiritual courts, the case to be referred 
to the king. 

XIV. The clergy no longer to protend to the right 
of enforcing debts contracted by oath or promise. 

XV. Causes between laymen and ecclesiastics to 
be determined by a jury. 

XVI. Appeals to be ultimately carried to the king, 
and no further without his consent. 



CLARENDON PRINTING-OFFICE, Oxford, erected by sir John Vanlji-ugh, in 1711-13, 
tlie expeu.se being defrayed out of the profits of lord Clarendon's HLstory of the Ilebellioii,- 
tlie copyright of which was given by his son to the university. The original building has 
been converted into a museum, lecture-rooms, &c., and a new printing-office erected by 
Blore and Robertson, 1826-9. Sharp. 

CLARION, it is said by Spani.sh writers, invented by the Moors in Spain, about 800, was 
at fir.st a trumpet, serving as a treble to trumpets sounding tenor and bass. Ashe. Its tube 
is narrower and its tone shriller than the common trumpet. Pardon. 

CLARIONET, a wind instrument of the reed kind, invented by Josejih Denner, in 
Nuremberg, about 1690. 

CLASSIS. The name was first used by Tullius Servius (the sixth king of ancient Rome), 
in making divisions of the Roman people, 573 B.C. The first of the six classes were called 
classici, by way of eminence, and hence authors of the first rank (especially Greek and Latin) 
came to be called classics. 

CLAVICHORD, a musical instrument in the form of a spinnet (called also a manichord) ; 
much in use in France, Si)ain, and Germany, in the 1 7th century. 

CLEARING-HOUSE. In 1775, a building in Lombard-street was set apart for the use 
of bankers, in which they might exchange cheques, bills, and securities, and thereby save 
labour and curtail the amount of floating cash requisite to meet the settlement of the different 
houses, if eftected singly. By means of transfer tickets, transactions to the amount of 
millions daily are settled without the intervention of a bank note. In 1861, the clearing- 
Iioitee was used by 117 companies, and on May, 1864, it was joined by the Bank of England. 
The railwaji clearing-house in SejTuour-street, near Euston-square, is regulated by an act 
passed in 1850. 

CLEMENTINES, apocryphal pieces, attributed to Clemens Romanus, a contemporary of 
St. Paul, and said to have succeeded St. Peter as bishop of Rome. He died 102. Niceron. 
Also tlie decretals of pope Clement V. who died 13 14, published by his successor. Bowycr. 
Also Augustine monks, each of whom having been a su]3erior nine years, then merged into 
a common monk. Clementines were the adherents of Robert, son of the count of Geneva, 
who took the title of Clement VII. on the death of Gregory XL, 1378, and Urbani.sts, 
those of pope Urban VI. All Christendom was divided by the claims of these two pontiff's : 
France, Castile, Scotland, &c., adhering to Clement ; Rome, Italy, and England, declaring 
for Urban. The schism ended in 1409, when Alexander V. was elected pope, and his rivals 
resigned. See Anti-Popes. 

CLEPSYDRA, a water-clock. See Clocks. 

CLERGY (from the Greek kUror,, a lot or inheritance) in the fir!5t century were termed 
presbyters, elders, or bishops, and deacons. The bishops (cpiscopoi or ovosccrs), elected from 
the presbyters, in the second century assumed higher functions (about 330), and, under 
Constantiuc, obtained the recognition and protection of the secular power. Under the Lombard 
and Norman kings in the 7th and 8th centuries, the clergy began to possess temporal power, 
as owners of lauds ; and after the establishment of monachism, a distinction was made 



CLE 184 CLI 

between the regular clergy, who lived apart from the world, in accordance with a rccjula or 
rule, and the secular (worldly) or beneficed clergy. See Church of England.* 

CLERGY CHARITIES. The Clergymen's Widows' and Orphans' Corporation was 
established in England, 1670, and incorporated 1678. William Assheton, an eminent theo- 
logical writer, was the first proposer of a plan to provide for the families of deceased clergy. 
Watts s Life of Assheton. The festival of the "Sons of the Clergy," held annually at St. 
Paul's cathedral, was instituted about 1655 ; the charity called the "Sons of the Clergy" 
was incorporated July i, 1678. There are several other charities for the relatives of the 
clergy. 

CLERICAL SUBSCRIPTION ACT, passed July, 1865. 

CLERK. See Clergy. 

CLERKENWELL, a parish near London, so called from a well (fons clericorum) in Ray- 
street, where the parish-clerks occasionally acted mystery-plays ; once before Richard II. iu 
1390. Hunt's political meetings in 181 7 were held in Spa-fields in this parish. In St. 
John's parish are the remains of the priory of the knights of St. John of Jerusalem. 
Clerkcjiwell prison was built in 1615, in lieu of the noted prison called the Cage, which was 
taken down in 1614 ; the then Bridewell having been found insufficient. The prison called 
the House of Detention, erected in 1775, "^^'^ rebuilt in 1818 ; again 1844. At Clerkenwell- 
close formerly stood the house of Oliver Cromwell, where some suppose tlie death-warrant of 
Charles I. was signed, Jan. 1649. 

CLERMONT (France). Here was held the coimcil under pope Urban II. in 1095, in 
which the first crusade against the infidels was determined upon, and Godfrey of Bouillon 
appointed to command it. In this council the name of pope was first given to the head of 
the Roman Catholic Church, exclusively of the bishops who used previously to assume the 
title. Philip I. of France was (\ second time) excommunicated by this assembly. IlenauU. 

CLEVES (N.E. Germany). Rutger, count of Cleves, lived at the beginning of the nth 
century. Adolphus, count of Mark, was made duke of Cleves by the emperor Sigismiand, 
141 7. John Williana, duke of Cleves, Berg, Juliers, &c., died without issue, March 25, 1609, 
which led to a war of succession. Eventually Cleves was assigned to the elector of Brandenburg 
in i665 ; seized by the French in 1757 ; restored at the peace in 1763, and now forms part of 
the Prussian dominions. 

CLIFTON SUSPENSION-BRIDGE, over the Avon, connecting Gloucestershire and 
Somersetshire, constructed of the removed Hungerford-bridge, was completed in Oct. 1864 ; 
opened Dec. 8, 1864. It is said to have the largest span (702 feet) of any chain bridge in 
the world. In 1753 alderman Vick of Bristol, bequeathed 1000^. to accumulate for the 
erection of a bridge over the Avon. In 1831 Brunei began one which was abandoned, after 
the expenditure of 45,000^. 

CLIMACTERIC, the term applied to certain periods of time in a man's life (multiples of 
7 or 9), in which it is affirmed notable alterations in the health and constitiition of a person 
happen, and expose him to imminent dangers. Cotgrave says, "Every 7th or 9th or 63rd 
year of a man's life, all very dangerous, but the last most." The grand climacteric is 63. 
Hippocrates is said to have referred to these periods iu 383 B.C. Much misemployed 
erudition has been expended on tliis subject. 

* The clergy were first styled clerks, owing to the judges being chosen after the Norman custom from 
the sacred order, and the officers being clergy : this gave them that denomination, which they keep to this 
day. Slack-stone's Comm. " As the Druids," says Pasquier, " kept the keys of their religion and of letters, 
so did the priests keep both these to themselves ; they alone made profession of letters, and a man of letters 
was called a clerk, and hence learning went by the name of clerkship." The English clergy add " clerk"to 
their name in legal documents. — In 992, the distinction began in France. Henault. — The Benefit of Clergy, 
Privilegium Clericale, arose in the regard paid by Christian princes to the church, and consisted of: ist, an 
exemption of places consecrated to religious duties from criminal arrests, which was the foundation of 
sanctuaries ; 2nd, exemption of the persons of clergymen from criminal process before the secular judge, 
in particular cases, which was the original meanmg of the privileffium cUricah. In the course of time, how- 
ever, the benefit of clergy extended to every one who could read, which was thought a great proof of learn- 
ing ; and it was enacted, that there should be a prerogative allowed to the clergy, that if any man who 
could read were to be condemned to death, the bishop of the diocese might, if he would, claim hina as a 
clerk, and dispose of him in some places of the clergy as he might deem meet. The ordinaiy gave the 
prisoner at tlie bar a Latin book, iu a black Gothic character, from which to read a verse or two ; and if the 
ordinary said, " Zegit ut Clericus " (" He reads like a clerk "), the offender was only burnt in the hand; 
otherwise he suffered death, 3 Edw. I. (1274). This privilege was restricted by Henry VII. in 1489, and 
abolished, with respect to murderers and other great criminals, by Henry VIII., 1512. Stnv. The reading 
was discontinued by 5 Anne, c. 6 (1706}. Benefit of clergy was wholly repealed by statute 7 <& 8 Geo. IV. 
c. 28 (1827). 



CLI 



185 



CLO 



CLIO. The initials C. L. I. 0., forming the name of the muse of liistory, were rendered 
famous from the most admired papei-s of Addison, in the Spectator, having been marked by 
one or other of tliem, gigned consecutively, in 17 13. Cibber. 

CLOACA MAXIMA, the chief of the celebrated sewers at Rome, the construction of 
which is attributed to king Tarquinius Priscus (588 b.c.) and his successors. 

CLOCK. The clepsydra, or water-clock, was introduced at Rome about 158 b.c. by 
Scipio Nasica. Toothed wheels were applied to them by Ctesibius, about 140 b.c. Said to 
have been found by Ca?sar on invading Britain, 55 B.C. The only clock supposed to be then 
in the world was sent by pope Paul I. to Pepin, king of France a.d. 760. Pacificus, arch- 
deacon of Genoa, invented one in the 9th century. Originally the wheels were three feet in 
diameter. The earliest complete clock of which there is any certain record was made by 
a Saracen mechanic in the thirteenth century. Alfred is said to have measured time by wax 
tapers, and to have invented lanterns to defend them from the wind about 887. 



The scapemcnt ascribed to Gerbert . . . 1000 
A great clock put up at Canterbury cathedral, 

co.st 3oJ 1292 

A clock constructed by Richard, abbot of St. 

Alban's, about 1326 

John Vi.sconte sets up a clock at Genoa . . 1353 
A striking clock in Westminster . . . 1368 
;V. perfect one made at Paris, by Vick . . . 1370 
The first portable one made .... 1530 
In England no clock went accurately before 
that set uj) at Hampton-court (maker's 

initials, N.O.) 1540 

Bichard Harris (who erected a clock at St. 

Paul's, Covent-gardeii) and the younger 

Galileo constnicted the pendulum . . 1641 

Christian Huygens contested this discovery, 

and made his pendulum clock some time jsre- 

viously to 1658 

FromautU, a Dutchman, improved the pendu- 



lum, abouft 1650 

Repeating clocks and watches invented by 

Barlow, about x6y6 

The dead beat, and horizontal escapements, by 

Graham, about . 1700 

The spiral balance spring suggested, and the 

duplex scapement, invented by Dr. Hooke ; 

pivot holes jewelled by Facio ; the detached 

scapement, invented by Mudge, and improved 

by Berthould, Arnold, Earnshaw, and others 

in the iSth century. 
Harrison's time-piece (which see) constructed . 1735 
Clocks and watches taxed, 17^7 ; tax repealed 1798 
The Horological Institute established . . 1858 
The great Westminster clock set up . May 30, 1859 
266,750 clocks and 88,621 watches imported into 

the United Kingdom in 1857 ; the duty came 

off in 1861. 

(See Electric Clock, under Electricity.) 



CLOGHER (Ireland). _ St. Macartin, a disciple of St. Patrick, fixed a bishopric at 
Cloglier, where he also built an abbey "in the street before the royal seat of the kings of 
Ergal." He died in 506. Clogher takes its name from a golden stone, from which, in times 
of paganism, the devil u.sedto pronounce juggling answers, like the oracles of ^^jo/Zo Pythius. 
Sir James Ware. In 104 1 the cathedral was built anew and dedicated to its founder. 
Clogher merged, on the death of its last prelate (Dr. Tottenham), into the archiepiscopal see 
of Armagh, by the act of 1834. 

CLOXFERT (Ireland). St. Brendan founded an abbey at Clonfert in 558 : his life is 
extant in jingling monkish metre in the Cottonian library at "Westminster. In his time the 
cathedral, flimous in ancient days for its seven altars, was erected ; and Colgan makes St. 
Brendan its founder and the first bishop ; but it is said in the Ulster Annals, under the 
year 571, " Mcena, bishop of Clonfert-Brenaiu, went to rest." Clonfert, in Iri.sh, signifies a 
Avonderful den or retirement. In 1839 the see merged into that of Killaloe. See Bishops. 

CLONTARF (near Dublin), the site of a battle fought on Good Friday, April 23, 1014, 
between the Irish and Danes, the former headed by Bryan Boroimho, monarch of Ireland, 
who signally defeated the invaders, after a long and bloody engagement, but was wounded, 
and soon afterwards died. His son Murchard also fell with man}' of the nobility ; 1 1,000 of 
the Danes are said to have perished in the battle. 

CLOSTERSEVEN (Hanover), Cox^T:NTiQ*r of, was entered into Sept. 8, 1757, between 
the duke of Cumberland, third sou of George II., and the duke of Richelieu, commander of 
the French armies. By its humiliating stipulations, 38,000 Hanoverians laid down their 
arms, and were dispersed. The duke immediately afterwards resigned all his miUtary 
commands. The convention was soon broken by both parties. 

CLOTH. See Woollen Cloth and Calico. 

CLOUD, St., a palace, near Paris, named from prince Clodoald or Cloud, who became a 
monk there in 533, after the murder of his brothers, and died in 560. The palace was built 
in the i6th century, and in it Henry II. was as.sassinated by Clement in 1589. 

CLOUDS consist of minute particles of water, often in a frozen state, floating in the air. 
In 1803 Mr. Luke Howarel published his classification of clouds, now generally adopted, 
consisting of three primary forms— cirrus, cumulus, and stratus ; three compounds of these 



CLO 



186 



COA 



forms ; and the nimbus or black rain-clonds (cumnlo- cirro-stratus). A new edition of 
Howard's Essay on the Clouds appeared in 1865. 

CLOVESHOO (now Clitf ), Kent. Here was held an important council of nobility and 
clergy concerning the government and discipline of the church, Sept. 747 ; and others were 
held here 800, 803, 822, 824. 

CLOYNE (S. Ireland), a bisliopric, founded in the 6th century by St. Coleman, in 
143 1 united to that of Cork, and so continued for 200 years. It was luiited with that of 
Cork and Ross, 1834. See Bishojjs. 

CLUBMEN', associations formed in the southern and western counties of England, to 
restrain the excesses of the armies during the civil wars, 1642-9. They professed neutrality, 
but inclined towards the king, and were considered enemies by his ojiponents. 

CLUBS, originally consisted of a small number of persons of kindred tastes and pursuits, 
who met together at stated times for social intercourse. The club at the ilermaid tavern, 
established about the end of the i6th century, consisted of Ealeigh, Shakspeare, and 
others. Ben Jonson set up a club at the Devil tavern. Addison, Steele, and others, fre- 
quently met at Button's coflee-house, as described in the Sjicdator. The present London 
clubs, some comprising 300, others about 1500 members, possess luxuriously furnished 
edifices, several of great architectural pretensions, in or near Pall Mall. The members 
obtain the choicest viands and wines at very moderate charges. Many of the clubs possess 
excellent libraries, particularly the Athenanmi {which sec). The annual payment varies from 
61. to 11/. IIS. ; the entrance fee from 9?. 9s. to 31Z. lis. The following are the principal 
clubs : — • - 



1703 


United Service 


. 181S 


1735 


Travellers' .... 


. 1819 


1736 


Union .... 


. 1821 


1762 


United University 


. 1822 




Baiinatyne, Edinburgh . 


• 1823 




Atlienfeura (uhkh see) . 


. 1824 


176:) 


Oriental .... 


. 


1764 


United Service (Junior) 


. 1827 


1808 


Wyndham .... 


. 1828 


iSio 


Maitland, Olasgorv . 


5» 


1811 


Oxford and Cambridge . 


. 1829 


1812 


Carlton (Conservative) . 


• 1832 



. 1835 
• 1836 



Abbotsford, EdinburgJi . 
Keform (Liberal) 
Parthenon . . . . ,, 
Army and Navy . . . 1837 

Etching, London . . . 1838 
Spalding, Aberdeen . . . 1839 
Conservative .... 1840 
Whittington (founded by 
Douglas Jerrold and others) 1846 

See Worlcing Men's Clubs. 



Ivit-Cat (whicJi sei) . 

Beef- Steak (which see) . . 

White's (ro)')/), established . 

Boodle's 

Literary Club (uhich see), 

termed also " The Club," 

and Johnson's Club . 
Brooke's (IF/i iff) . . . 

Alfred 

Guards' . . . May i, 

Arthur's 

Roxburghe, London . . . 

CLUBS, French. The first of these arose about 1782. They were essentially political, 
and were greatly concerned in the revolution. The Club Breton became the celebrated Club 
dcs Jacobins, and the Club cles Cordeliers comprised among its members Danton and Camiile 
Desmoulins. From these two clubs came the Mountain partj' which overthrew the Giron- 
dists in 1793, and fell in its turn in 1794. The clubs disappeared with the Directory in 
1799. They were revived in 1848 in considerable numbers, but did not attain to their 
former eminence, and Averc suppressed by decrees, in June 22, 1849, and June 6, 1850. 
Bouillct. 

CLUB-FOOT, a deformity produced by the shortening of one or more of the muscles, 
although attempted to be cured by Lorenz in 1784, by cutting the tendo Achillis, was not 
effectually cured till 1831, when Stromeyer of Erlangen cured Dr. Little by dividing the 
tendons of the contracted muscles with a very thin knife. Judicious after-treatment is 
required. 

CLUGNY, OR Cltjny, Abbey of, in France, formerly most magnificent, founded hj 
Benedictines, under the abbot Bern, about 910, and sustained afterwards by "William, duke 
of Berry and Aquitaine. English foundations for Clmiiac monks were instituted soon after. 

CLYDE AND FORTH Wall was built by Agricola 84. The Forth and Clyde Canal 
was commenced by Mr. Smeaton, July 10, 1768, and was opened July 28, 1790. It forms a 
commtinication between the seas on the ea.stern and western coasts of Scotland. 

CNIDUS, in Caria, Asia Minor ; near here Conon the Athenian defeated the Lacede- 
monian fleet, under Peisander, 394 B. c. 

COACH (from coiichcr, to lie). Beckmanu states that Charles of Anjou's queen entered 
Naples in a carcita (about 1282). Under Francis I. there were but two in Paris, one 
belongiug to the queen, the other to Diana, the natural daughter of Henry II. There were 
lint three in Paris in 1550 ; and Henry IV. had one without straps or springs. John de 
Laval de Bois-Dauphin set up a coach on account of his enormous bulk. The first coach 
seen in England was about 1553. Coaches were introduced by Fitz- Allen, earl of Arundel, 



COA 



187 



COA 



in 1580. Stow. A bill was brought into parliament to prevent the eft'eminacy of men 
riding in coaches, 43 Eliz. 1601.* Carte, llepealed 1625. The coach-tax commenced in 
1747. Horace Walpole says that the present royal state coach (first used Nov. 16, 1762) 
cost 7528?. See Car, Carriages, Chariots, Hackney Coaches, Mail Coaches, &c. 

COAL.t It is contended, with much seeming truth, that coal, although not mentioned 
by the Romans in their- notices of Britain, was yet in use by the ancient firitons. Brandt. 
Henry III. is said to have granted a licence to dig coals near Newcastle-npon-Tyne in 1234; 
some say earlier, and others in 1239. Sea-coal was prohibited from being used in and near 
London, as being "prejudicial to huisan health ; " and even smiths were obliged to burn 
wood, 1273. Stow. In 1306 the gentry petitioned against its use. Coal was first made an 
article of trade from ISTewcastle to London, 4 Rich. II. 138 1. Rymer's Fa:dcra. Notwith- 
standing the many previous com})laints against coal as a public nuisance, it was at length 
generally burned in London in 1400 ; but it was not in common use in England until the 
reign of Charles I. 1625. 

COAL CONSUMED IX LONDON IN THE FOLLOWING YEAIIS. 

1700 . . . 317,000 cliald. 1810 . . . 980,372 chald. I 1S35 . . . 2,299,816 tons. 
1750 . . . . 510,000 ditto. 1S20. . . . 1,171,178 ditto. 1S40 . . . . 2,638,256 ditto. 
iSoo . . . 814,000 ditto. 1830 . . . 1,588,360 ditto. | 1850 . . . 3,638,883 ditto. 

i860. — Coid brought to London, 3,573,377 tons coast ways ; 1,499,899 tons by railways and canals. 
1861. — „ ,, ,, 5,232,082 tons; in 1862, 4,973,823 tons. 



The coal-fields of Great Britain are estimated at 
5400 square miles ; of Durham and Northum- 
berland, 723 square miles. Balcewell. In 

. 1857 about 655 milUons of tons were ex- 
tracted (value about 16,348, 676^) from 2095 
collieries ; about 25 millions are consumed 
annually in Great Britain. 

Coal obtained in Great Britain and Ireland : — 
In 1861, 86.417,941 tons ; in 1862, 81,638,338 
tons ; in 1S63, 86,292,215 tons (valued at 
51,000,000/.); in 1864 (from 3268 collieries), 
92,787,873 tons. 

Mr. Sopwitb, in 1855, computed the annual 
product of the coal-mines of Durham and 
Northumberland at 14 million tons :— 6 mil- 
lions for London, 2j millions exported, 2j 
millions for coke, i million for colliery en- 
gines, &c., and 2 raillions for local consump- 
tion. 

By a stipulation in the commercial treaty ot 
i860, in consequence of the French govern- 
ment greatly reducing the duty on imported 
coal, the Briti.sh government (it is thought 
by many imprudently) engaged to lay no 
duty on exported coal for ten years. In 1859 
about 7,000,000 tons of British coals were 
exported, of which 1,391,009 tons went to 
France. 

The first ship laden with Irish coal arrived in 
Duljlin from Newry 

Sale of Coal Regulation Act 

The duties on the exportation of British coal, 
which had existed since the i6th century, 
were jiractically repealed 

Sir R. Peel imposed a duty of 4s. a ton in 1842 ; 
caused much dissatisfaction ; repealed . 

Women were prohibited from working in Eng- 
lish collieries in 

The consumption of coal in France, in i78oonly 
400,000 tons, rises to 6,000,000 tons in 1S45. 
The United States produced between 8 and 9 
millions of tons : Belgium, 5,000,000 ; and 
France, 4,500,000, in . . . ^ . 



1742 
I S3 1 



1S34 
1845 
1S42 

1S55 



An act for the regulation and inspection of 
mines was passed in iSfo 

Coal-pitmen's strikes frequently occur ; a long 
and severe one arose in Staffordshire in t 1S64 

AcciDKNTS. — About 1000 lives arc lost annually by 
accidents m coal-mines. 

In 1858, by explosions in coal-mines, 52 persons 
perished atBardsley ; 20 .at Duffryn, near Newport; 
52 at Tyldesloy, near Leeds ; and about 36 in different 
parts of the country. 

On Aprils, 1859, 26 lives were lost at the chain 
colliery, near Neath, through the irruption of water. 

In 1S60, 76 hves were lost on March 2, at Bui-ra- 
don, near Killmg worth ; 145 at the Riscamino, near 
Newport, Dec. i ; and 22 at the Hctton mine, North- 
umberland, Dec. 20. 

On June 11, 1861, 21 lives were lost through an 
inundation in the Claycross mines, Derbyshire. 

In 1S62, 47 lives were lost at Cethin mine, Merthyr 
Tydvill, S. Wales, Feb. 19 ; at Walker, near New- 
castle- on-Tyne, 15 lives lo.st, Nov. 22 ; Edmund's 
Main, near Barnsiey, 60 lives lost, Dec, 8. 

In 1S63, 13 lives lo.st at Coxbridge, near Newcastle, 
March 6 ; 39 lives lost at Margam, S. Wales, Oct. 17 ; 
14 lives lost at Moestig, S. Wales, Dec. 26. 

In 1865, 6 lives lost at Claycross, May 3 ; 24 at 
New Bedwelty pit, near Tredegar, June 16. 

(For stiU more fatal accidents, see Lundhill and 
Hartley.) 

85 lives were lost at Lalle coal-mine, in France, in 
Oct. 1861. 

Coal Exchange, London, established by 47 
Geo. III. c. 68 (1807). Ihe present building 
(a most interesting structure) was erected by 
Mr. J. B. Bunning, and oi^ened by prince 
Albert Oct. 30, 1849 

CoAL-WHiPPERs' BoAED, to protect the men 
employed in unloading coal-vessels from pub- 
licans, formed by an act of parliament in 
1843, lasted till 1856, when the coal-owners 
themselves established a whipjDing-office. 



* In the beginning of the year 1619, the carl of Northumberland, who had boon imprisoned ever since 
the giuipowder plot, obtained his liberation. Hearing that Buckingham was drawni about with si.x horses 
in his coach (being the first that was so), the earl put on eight to his, and in that manner passed from the 
Tower through the city. Rapin. 

+ There are five kinds of fossil fuel : anthracite, co.al, lignite, bituminous shale, and bitumen. Nosatis- 
f.octory definition of coal has yet been given. The composition oiwood is 49-1 carbon, 6 '3 hydrogen, 44-6 
oxygen ; oi coal 82 6 carbon, 5 '6 hydrogen, ii'S oxygen. 



COA 



188 



coc 



COALITIONS AGAINST FuANCE generally arose through England subsidising the great 
powers of the continent. They were entered into as follows : — 



Austria, Prussia, and Great Britain . . . 1793 
Great Britain, Geriaany, Russia, Naples, Por- 
tugal, and Turkey, signed . . June 22, 1799 
Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Naples, 

Aug, 5, 1805 



Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Saxony, 

Oct. 6, iSo5 
England and Austria . . . April 6, 1809 

Russia and Prussia ; the treaty ratified at 

KaUsch March 17, 1813 

See Treaties. 



COALITION MINISTRY. See Portland. ' 

COAST GUARD. In 1856, the raising and governing this body was transferred to the 
admiralty. A coast brigade of artillery was established in Nov. 1859. 

COAST VOLUNTEERS. See under Navy of England. 

COBALT, a rare mineral found among the veins of ores, or in the fissures of stone, at an 
early date, in the mines of Cornwall, where the workmen call it mundic. Hill. It was 
distinguished as a metal by Brandt, in 1733. 

COBURG. See Saxc-Coburg. 

COCCEIANS, a small sect founded by John Cocceius, of Bremen, about 1665, who held, 
amongst other opinions, that of a visible reign of Christ in this world, after a general 
conversion of the Jews and all other people to the Christian faith. 

COCHIN (India), held by the Portuguese, 1503; by the Dutch, 1663 ; taken by the 
British, 1735 ; ceded to them 1814. 

COCHIN CHINA or ANAM, wliich see. 

COCHINEAL INSECT (Cocc^is cadi), derives its colour from feeding on the cactus, and 
became known to the Spaniards soon after their conquest of Mexico in 15 18. Cochineal 
was brought to Europe about 1523, but was not known in Italy in 1548, although the art of 
dyeing then flourished there. In 1858 it was cultivated successfully in Teneriffe, the 
vines having failed through disease. 260,000 lbs. of cochineal were imported into England 
in 1830 ; 1,081,776 lbs. in 1845 ; 2,360,000 lbs. in 1850 ; and 3,034,976 lbs. in 1859. Duty 
repealed 1845. 

COCKER'S ARITHMETIC. The work edited by John Hawkins, first appeared in 1677. 

COCK-FIGHTING, practised by the Greeks. It was introduced at Rome after a victory 
over the Persians, 476 B.C. ; and was brought by the Romans into England. William Fitz- 
Stephen, in the reign of Henry II., describes cock-fighting as the sport of school-boys on 
Shrove-Tuesday. It was prohibited by Edward III. 1365; by Henry VIII.; and by 
Cromwell, 1653. Part of the site of Drury-lane theatre was a cock-pit in the reign of James 
I. ; and the cock-pit at Whitehall Avas erected by Charles II. Till within these few years 
there was a Cock-jiit Royal in St. James's Park ; but the governors of Christ's Hospital would 
not renew the lease for a building devoted to cruelty.* Cock-fighting is now forbidden 
by law. 

COCK-LANE GHOST, an imposition practised by William Parsons, his wife, and 
daughter, by means of a female ventriloquist, during 1760 and 1761, carried on at No. 
33, Cock-lane, London, was at length detected, and the parents were condemned to the 
pillory and imprisonment, July 10, 1762. 

COCOA, OR Cacao, the kernel or seed of the tree Theohroma cacao (Linn.), was introduced 
into this coimtry shortly after the discoveiy of Mexico, where it forms an important article 
of diet. From cocoa is produced chocolate. The cocoa imported into the United Kingdom, 
chiefly from the British West Indies and Guiana, was in 1849, 1,989,477^3.; in 1851, 
4,349,051 lbs.; in 1855, 7,343,458 lbs. ; in 1859, 6,006,759 lbs.; in' 1861, 9,080,288 lbs. ; 
in 1864, 7,920,912 lbs., about half for home consumption. 



'■ Mr. Ardesoif, a gentleman of large fortune and great hospitality, who was almost unrivalled in the 
splendour of his equipages, had a favourite cock, upon which he had won many pi-ofitable matches. The 
last wager he laid upon this cock he lost, which so enraged him, that in a fit of passion he thrust the bird 
into the fire. A delirious fever, the result of his rage and inebriety, in three days put an end to his life. 
He died at Tottenham, near Loudon, April 4, 1788. — On Af>ril 22, 1865, 34 persons were fined at Marl- 
borough-street police-office, for being present at a cock-fight. 



coc 



189 



COH 



I 



COCOA-NUT TREE {Cocos nucifcra, Linn.), supplies the Indians with almost all they 
need, as bread, water, wine, vinegar, brandy, milk, oil, honey, sugar, needles, clothes, 
thread, cnps, spoons, basins, baskets, -paper, masts for ships, sails, cordage, nails, covering 
for their houses, &c. Ray. In Sept. 1829, Mr. Soames patented his mode of procuring 
stearine and elaing from cocoa-nut oil. It is said that 32 tons of candles have been made in 
a mouth from these materials at the Belmont works, Lambeth. 

CODES, see Laics. Alfrenus Varus, the civilian, first collected the Eoman laws about 
66 B.C. ; and Servius Sulpicius, the civilian, embodied them about 53 B.C. The Gregorian 
and Hennoginian codes were published a.d. 290 ; the Theodosian code in 438 ; the celebrated 
code of the emjieror Justinian, in 529 — a digest from this last was made in 533. Alfred's 
code of laws is the foundation of the common law of England, 887. The Code Napoleon, 
the civil code of France, was promulgated from 1803 to 1810. The emperor considered it 
his most enduring monument. It was prepared under his supervision by the most eminent 
jurists, from the 400 systems previously existing. It has been adopted by other countries. 

CODFISH. SeeffoUand, 1347. 

COD-LIVER OIL was recommended as a remedy for chronic rheumatism by Dr. Percival 
in 1782, and for diseases of the lungs about 1838. De Jongh's treatise on cod-liver oil was 
published in Latin in 1844 ; in English in 1849. 

C'CEUR DE LION, OR THE Lion-Hearted, a surname given to Richard I. of England, 
on account of his courage about 1192 ; and also to Louis VIII. of France, who signalised 
himself in the crusades, and in his wars against England, about 1223. 

COFFEE. The tree was conveyed from Mocha in Arabia to Holland about 1616 ; and 
carried to the AVest Indies in 1726. First cultivated at Surinam by the Dutch, 17 18. The 
culture was encouraged in the plantations about 1732, and the British and French colonies 
now grow the coffee-tree abundantly. Its use as a beverage is traced to the Persians. It 
came into great repute in Araliia Felix, about 1454 ; and passed thence into Egypt and Syria, 
and thence (in 1511) to Constantinople, where a coflee-house was opened in 1551. M. 
Thevenot, the traveller, was the first who brought it into France, to which country he returned 
after an absence of seven years, in 1662. Chambers. 



Coffee was brought into England by Mr. Natha- 
niel Canopus, a Cretan, who made it his 
common beverage at Balliol college, Oxford, 
in 1641. Anderson. 

The quantity of coffee imported into these 
realms and entered for home consumption in 
1843 was 29,979,404 lbs. ; in 1850, 31,166,358 
lbs. ; in 1857, 34,367,484 lbs. ; in 1859, 
34,492,947 lbs. ; in i860, 35,674,381 lbs. (duty 
3d. per lb. raw coffee; ^d. roasted.) Total 
imported in 1861, 83,532,525 lbs. ; in 1863, 
117, 3=14,217 lbs. ; in 1864, 109,370,213 lbs. 

The first coffee-house in England was kept by 
a Jew, named Jacobs, in Osford . 



1650 



Mr. Edwards, an EngU-sh Turkey merchant, 
brought home with him a Greek servant, 
named P.asquct, who opened the first coffee- 
house in London, in George-yard, Lombard- 
street 1652 

Pasquet afterwards went to Holland, and opened 
the first house in that country. Anderson. 

The Rainbow coffee-house, near Temple-bar, was 
represented as a nuisance to the neighbour- 
hood 1657 

Coffee-houses were suppressed by proclamation 
in 1675 ; but the order was revoked in 1676, 
on the petition of the traders in tea and 
coffee. 



COFFERER of the Household, formerly an officer of state, and a member of the 
privy council, who had special charge of the other officers of the household. Sir Henry 
Cocks was cofferer to queen Elizabeth. Some of the highest statesmen filled the office up to 
1782, when it was sujjprcssed by act of parliament, and the duties of it ordered to be dis- 
charged by the lord steward and the paymaster of the household. Beatson. 

COFFINS. Athenian heroes were buried in coflfins of cedar ; owing to its aromatic and 
incorruptible qualities. Thucydidcs. Coffins of marble and stone were used by the Romans. 
Alexander is said to have been buried in one of gold ; and glass coffins have been found in 
Enrdand. Oough. The earliest record of wooden coffins amongst us is that of the burial of 
kim'' Arthur in an entire trunk of oak hollowed, A.D. 542. Asscr. Patent coffins were 
invented in 1796. Air-tight metallic coffins were advertised at Birmingham in 1S61. 

COHORT. A division of the Roman army consisting of about 600 men. It was the 
sixth part of a legion, and its number, consequently, was under the same fiifctuation as that 
of the legions, btung sometimes more and sometimes less. The cohort was divided into 
centuries? In the time of the empire the cohort often amounted to a thorisand men. 



COI 



190 



COI 



COIF. The Serjeant's coif was originally an iron sknll-cap, worn by knights under their 
helmets. The cnif was inti'oduced before 1259, and was used to hide the tonsure of such 
renegade clergymen as chose to remain advocates in the secular courts, notwithstanding 
their prohibition by canon. Blackstonc. The coif was at first a thin linen cover gatliered 
together in the form of a skull or helmet, the material being afterwards,changed into white 
silk, and the form eventuallj^ into the black patch at the top of the forensic wig, which is 
now the distinguishing mark of the degree of serjeant-at-law. Foss's Lives of the Judges. 

COIMBRA was made the capital of Portugal by Alfonso, the first king, 1139. The only 
Portuguese university was transferred from Lisbon to Coimbra in 1308 ; but only and finally 
settled in 1527. In a convent here, Alfonso IV. caused Iriez de Castro, at first mistress and 
afterwards wife of his son Pedro, to be cruelly murdered in 1355. 

COIN". Homer speaks of brass money as existing 1184 B.C. The invention of coin is 
ascribed to the Lydians, who cherished commerce, and whoso money was of gold and silver. 
Both were coined by Pheidon, t}Tant of Argos, 862 B.C. Money was coined at Rome under 
Ser^'ius Tullius, about 573 B.C. The most ancient known coins are Macedonian of the fifth 
century B.C. ; but others are believed to be more ancient. Brass money only was in use at 
Eome previously to 269 B.C. (when Fabius Pictor coined silver), a proof that little correspon- 
dence was then held with the east, where gold and silver were in use long before. Gold was 
coined 206 B.C. Iron money was used in Sparta, and iron and tin in Britain. Dii/rcsnoy, 
Julius Ca?sar was the first who obtained the express permission of the senate to place his 
portrait on tlie coins, and the example was soon followed. In the earlier da3's of Home the 
heads were those of deities, or of tliose who had received divine honours. The gold and 
silver coinage in the world is about 250,000,000?. silver, and 150,000,000?. gold. Times, 
June 25, 1852. See Gold, Silver, and Co2:)X)er. 



COIN OF ENGLAND. 



The first coinage in England was imder the 
Eomans at Camalodununi, or Colchester. 
English coin was of different shapes, as 
square, oblong, and round, until the middle 
ages, when round coin only was used. 

Coin was made sterling in 12 16, before which 
time rents were mostly paid in kind, and 
money was found only in the coffers of the 
liarons. Stow. 

Queen Elizabeth caused the hase coin to be re- 
caUed and genuine issued in 1560. During 
the reigns of the Stuarts the coinage was 
gi-eatly debased by clipping, kc. 

A commission (lord Somers, sir Isaac Newton, 
and John Locke) was appointed by William 
III. to reform the coinage, an act was 
passed, withdrawing the debased coin from 
circulation, and i, 200,000?. was raised by a 
house duty to defray the expense . . i6g6 

English and Irish money were assimilated 

Jan. I, 1S26 

The coin of the realm was valued at about 
12,000,000^ in 1711. Davenant. At 16,000,000?. 
in 1762. Anderson. It was 20,000,000/. in 
1786. Chalmers. 37,000,000?. in i8oo. Phil- 
lip?. The gold is 28,000,000?., and the rest 
of the metallic currency is 13,000,000?. , while 
paper largely supplies the place of coin. 
Duke of Welliiiglon, 1S30. The metallic cvir- 
rency calculated as reaching 45,000,000?., 
1840 ; and was estimated as approaching 
in gold and silver 60,000,000?. . . . . 1853 

Xapier's coin-weighing machine at the bank of 
England was constructed in . . . . 1844 

The law respecting coinage offences was con- 
sohdated in , 1S61 



The first gold coins on certain record, struck 
42 Hen. Ill 

Gold florin first struck, Edw. III. (Camden) 

He introduced gold 6s. pieces, and nobles of 
6s. 8(?. (hence the lawyer's fee), afterwards 
half and quarter nobles. 

Old sovereigns first minted .... 

Shillings first coined (Dr. Ktlbj) . . . . 

Edw. IV. coined angels with a figure of Michael 
and the dragon, the original of George and 
the dragon. 

Hon. VIII. coined sovereigns and half-sove- 
reigns of the modern value. 

Crowns and half-crowns coined 

Irish shilling struck 

Milled shilling of EUzabeth .... 

First large copper coinage, putting an end to 
the circulation of private leaden jjieces, &c. . 

Modern milling introduced . .... 

Halfpence and farthings coined 

By the government, 23 Car. II 

Guineas first coined, 25 Car. II. ... 

Double guineas 

Five guineas 

Half-gumeas 

Quarter-guineas coined, 3 Geo. I. . . . 

Seven-shilling pieces coined 

Two-penny copper pieces 

Gold 78-pieces authorised . . Nov. 29, 

Sovereigns, new coinage ..... 

Half-farthings 

Silver florin 

Bronze coinage issued .... Dec. i. 



I2S7 
1337 



1494 
1503 



1553 
1560 
1562 

1620 
1631 
1665 
1672 
1673 



1716 
1797 



1817 

1843 



i860 



AMOUNT OF MONET COINED IN THE FOLLOWING KEIGNS 



Elizabeth 
James 1. . 
Charles I. 
Cromwell 



£5,832,000 
2,500,000 

10,500,000 
1,000,000 



Charles II. . 
J.ames II. 
Wilham III. 

Anne 



£7,524,100 
3,740,000 

10,511,900 
2,691,626 



George I. 
George II. 
George III. 
George IV. 



£8,725,920 
11,966,576 
■74,501,586 
41,782,815 



COI 191 COL 



COIN", continued. 

■William IV. . . £10,827,603 
Victoria, from 1837 to 1848, gold, 
29,886, 457?. ; silver, 2,440,614/. ; 
copper, 43,743/. 1848-1852, gold, 
silver, and copper, 19,838,377/. 
Coined in 1859, 1,547,603 sove- 
reigns, and 2,203,813 half sove- 



reigns. I silver, 209,484/.; bronze, 273,578/. 



Value of ten 'years (1849-59) gold 
coinage . . . 54,490,265/. 

Coined- from July i, 1854, to Dec. 
31, 1S60, gold, 27,632,039/. ; sil- 
ver, 2,432, 116/. 

Coined in 1861 : gold, 8,053,069/. ; 



13.'!. 40!. (No crowns, half-crowns, 
or four-penny pieces coined.) 
Coined in 1862 : gold pieces, 
7,836,413; silver pieces, 4,035,412; 
bronze pieces, 4,125,977,600. 



COINING. Originally performed hy the metal being placed between two .steel dies, 
stnick by a hammer. In 1553, a mill^ invented by Antonie Brucher, was introdnced into 
England, 1562. An engine was invented by Balancier, 1617. Great improvements were 
effected by Boultonand Watt, at Soho, 178S. The erection of the Mint machinery, London, 
began 181 1. 

COLCHESTER (Essex), Camahclunum, a Eonian station, supposed to be the birthplace 
of Constantine the Great; obtained its first charter from Richard I. in 1189. Its sixteen 
churches and all its buildings sustained great damage at the ten weeks' siege, 164S. Two of 
its defenders, sir George Li.sle and sir Charles Lisle, were tried and shot after surrendering. 
The baize manufacture was established here, 1660. Anderson. The railway to London was 
opened in 1843. 

COLD. The extremes of heat and cold are found to produce the same perceptions on the 
skin, and when mercury is frozen at forty degrees below zero, the sensation is the same as 
touching red-hot iron. During the hard frost in 1740, a palace of ice was built at St. Peters- 
burg. Grcig. Quicksilver was frozen hard at Moscow, Jan. 13, 1810. Perhaps the coldest 
day ever known in London was Dec. 25, 1796, when the thermometer M'as 16° lielow zero. 
On Jan. 3, 1854, the thermometer marked 4° below zero ; and on Dec. 25, 1S60, it fell in 
some places to 18° and in others to 15° below zero ; at Torquay, Devon, 20° below zero. 
From Dec. 23 to 30 the cold was excessive. See Frosts, Ice, Congelation, and Rcrjdation. 

COLDINGHAM, near Berwick, is celebrated for the heroism of its nuns, who, on the 
attack of the Danes, in order to preserve their chastity, cut off their noses and lips. The 
Danes burnt the whole sisterhood, with the abbess Ebba, in their monastery, 875. 

COLDSTREAM GUARDS. General Monk, before marching from Scotland into England 
to restore Charles II., raised this regiment in the town of Coldstream, 1660. The town is 
situated at the confluence of the Leet with tlie Tweed. 

COLENSO CONTROVERSY. See Church of England, 1862. 

COLIN. SeeA'oZwt. 

COLISEUM, OR Colosseum, at Rome, an elliptical amphitheatre, of which the external 
diameter is 1641 Italian feet, is supposed to have been able to contain 80,000 spectators of 
the fights with wild beasts, and other spoi'ts in the arena. It was ei'ected between 75 (some 
say 77) and 80, by the emperors Vespasian and Titus, at an expense sufhcient to have built 
a metropolis. Its remains are still very imposing. 

COLLAR, generally a gold enamelled chain with ciphers and other devices, having the 
badge of some order suspended at the bottom. The collar of the order of the Garter consists 
of S.S. , with roses enamelled red, within a garter enamelled blue, 1349-50. The fashion of 
Avcaring the collar of SS., in honour of St. Simplicius, began about 1407. One was given to 
the mayor of Dublin, Robert Dccy, by Charles II., 1660. A second was presented as a royal 
donation to the chief magistrate of Dublin, the former one having been lost. 

COLLECTS are short prayers introduced into the Roman mass by pope Gelasius, about 
493, and into the English Liturgy in 1548. The king of England coming into Normandy, 
appointed a collect for the relief of the Holy Land, 1166. Rxpin. 

COLLEGES. University education preceded the erection of colleges, which were muni- 
ficent foundations to relieve the students from tlie expense of living at lodging-houses and 
at inns. Collegiate or academic degrees are said to have been first conferred at the univer- 
.sity of Paris, 1140 ; but some authorities say not before 1215. In England, it is contended 
that the date is much higher, and some hold that Bede obtained a decree formerly at Cam- 
bridge, and John de Beverley at Oxfoi'd, that they were the first doctors of tliese miiversities. 
See Cambridge, Qj^ford, A berdeen, Queens Colleges, Working Men's Colleges, &c. 



COL 



192 



COL 



COLLEGES, coniinucd. 

Founded a.d. 
Addiscombe Military College 1809 
Birmingluim, Queen's College 1853 
Chesbunt College . . . 1792 
Doctors' Commons, civil law 1670 
Dulwich College . . . 1619 
Durham University . . 1837 
Edinburgh University . . 1580 
Eton College .... 1441 
Glasgow University . . . 1451 
Gresham College . . . 1581 



Harrow 

Haleybury, or East India 

College . 1S06; closed, 1 
Highbury College . . . 
Highgate .... 
King's College, London . . 
Maynooth College . 
Military College, Sandhurst . 
Naval College, Portsmouth . 
New College, St. John's Wood 
Physicians, London 



1585 



1564 
1829 
1795 
1799 
1722 



1523 



Physicians, Dublin . 
Physicians, Edinburgh . 
St. Andrew's, Scotland 
Sion College, incorporated 
Surgeons, London . 
Surgeons, re-incorporated 
Surgeons, Dublin . 
Surgeons, Edinbvirgh (new) 
Trinity College, Dublin . 
University, London 
Winchester College . 



1667 
1681 
1410 
1630 
174s 
1800 
1786 



1387 



COLLIERY ACCIDENTS. See under Coal. 



COLLODION, a film obtained from the solution of gun-cotton in ether. The iodised 
collodion extensively employed in photography, was discovered by Mr. F. Scott Archer, and 
announced in the " Chemist," in Marcli, 185 1. On the premature death of himself and wife, 
a pension of 50^. per annum was gi-anted by government to his three orphan children. 

COLOGNE {Colonia Agrippina), on the Ehine, the site of a colony founded by the 
empress Agrippina, about 50 ; became a member of the Hanseatic league, 1260. The Jews 
were expelled from it in 1485, and the Protestants in 1618, and it then fell into decay. 
Cologne was taken by the French, under Jourdan, Oct. 6, 1794. In the cathedral are shown 
the heads of the three Magi ; and in the church of St. Ursula is the tomb of that saint, and 
bones said to be those of 11,000 virgins put to death with her. The archbishopric was 
secularised in 1801, and Cologne Avas made over to Prussia in 1814. The building of the 
cathedral, begun in 1248, and susj^ended in consequence of the Reformation, was vigorously 
continued by king Frederick William IV. since 1842. An international industrial exhibi- 
tion was opened at Cologne by the crown prince, June 2, 1865. 

COLOMBIA, a republic of S. America, formed of states which declared their independence 
of the crown of Spain, Dec. 1819, but its several chiefs afterwards contending against each 
other, the states became a prey to civil war, and the union was dissolved. 



Union of New Grenada and Venezuela, Dec. 17, 
The Royalists defeated at Carabobo . June 24, 
Bolivar named dictator . . . Feb. 10, 
Alliance between Colombia and Mexico 

June 30, 
Alliance with Guatemala . . March, 

Congress at Lima names BoUvar president of 

the republic Aug. 

BoUvar's return to Bogota . . . Nov. 



1825 
1826 



He assumes the dictatorship . . Nov. 23, 1826 

Padilla's insurrection . . . April 9, 1828 

Conspiracy of Santander against the hfe of 

Bolivar Sept. 25, ,, 

Venezuela separates from Grenada . Nov. 1829 
Bolivar resigns the oflBce of president, ApiH 4 ; 

and dies Dec. 17, 1830 

Santander dies May 26, 1840 

(See New Grenada and Venezuela.) 



COLOMBO (Ceylon) was built in 1638, by the Portuguese, who were expelled by the 
Dutch in 1666 ; the latter surrendered it to the Briti.sh, Feb. 15, 1796. The British troops 
were murdered here in cold blood by the adigar of Candy, June 6, 1803. See Ceijlon. 

COLON (:), a point known to the ancients, but not expressed. The colon and period 
were adopted and explained by Thrasymachus about 373 B.C. Suidas. It was known to 
Aristotle. The colon and semicolon (;) were both first used in British literature in the i6th 
century. 

COLONEL (from Italian, colonna, a column), the highest regimental military oflScer. 
The term had become common in England in the i6th century. 

COLONIAL NAVAL DEFENCE. Act to enable the colonies to take effectual measures 
for their defence against attacks by sea was passed in 1865. 

COLONIES. The Phrenician and Greek colonies being frequently founded by political 
exiles, soon became independent of the mother country. The Roman colonies on the contrary 
continued in close connection with Rome itself ; being governed almost entirely by military 
law. — The Colonies of Great Britain partake of both these characters. The N. American 
colonies revolted in ■ consequence of the attempt at taxation without their consent in 1764. 
The loyal condition of the present colonies now is due to the givadual relaxation of the 
jiressure of the home government. The population of the British colonies in all parts of the 
world was estimated, in 1861, at 142,952,243 (of which 135,442,911 belong to the East 
Indies). The revenue of the colonies was estimated in 1865 to be 51,492,000?., the 
expenditure, 59,3S3,oooZ. The act for the abolition of slavery in the British colonies, and 



COL 



193 



COL 



for compensation to the owners of slaves (20,000,000?. sterling), was passed in 1833. All 
the slaves throughout the British colonies were emancipated on Aug. i, 1834. See Separata 
Articles. 



Colony, or Possession. 


Date of Settlement, d-c. 


Colony, or Possession. 


Date of Settlement, 


dec. 


African Forts 


about 


i6i8 


Madras .... 


. See India. 




Anguilla. 


. Settlement 


1666 


Malacca (under Bennal). 






Antigua 


. Settlement . . 


1632 


Malta .... 


. Capitulation, Sept. 


1800 


Australia, South . 


. Settlement 


1834 


Mauritius 


. Capitulation, Dec. 


1810 


Australia, West . 


. Settlement . . 


1829 


Montserrat 


. Settlement, in 


1632 


Bahama Island 


. Settlement 1629, et , 


eq. 


Natal .... 


. Settlement . . 


1823 


Barbadoes . 


. Settlement . . 


1605 


Nevis .... 


. Settlement, in 


1628 


Bengal .... 


. See India. 




New Brunswick 


. Settlement, in . . 


1622 


Berbice 


. Capitulation, Sept. 


1803 


British Columbia 


. Settlement 


18^8 
I sob 


Bermudas 


. Settlements 1609, et 


seq. 


Newfoundland 


. Settlement, about . 


Bombay 


. See India. 




New South Wales 


. Settlement, in . . 


1787 


British Burmah . 


. See Pee/a . 


1862 


Nova Scotia . 


. Settlement, in 


1622 


Canada, Lower . 


. Capitulition, Sept. 


1759 


New Zealand 


. Settlement . . 


1840 


Canada, Upper 


. Capitiilatiuii, Sept. 


1760 


Pegu .... 


. Conquered 


1852 


Cape Breton 


. Settlement, in . . 


1584 


Port Phillip 


. See Victoria. 




Cape Coast Castle' . 


. By cession 


1672 


Prince Edward's Island 


. Capitulated, in . . 


1745 


Cape of Good Hope . 


. Capitulation, Jan. 


1806 


Prince of Wales' Island 


. Settlement, in 


1786 


Ceylon .... 


. Capitulation, Sept. 


1795 


Queensland, N. S. Wales 


. Settlement, in . . 


i860 


Demerara and Essequibo 


. Capitulation, Sept. 


1803 


Sierra Leone 


. Settlement, in 


1787 


Dominica 


. Ceded by France . 


1763 


Singapore 


. Purchased, in . . 


1819 


Falkland Islands 


. See Falkland Islands 


1833 


St. Christopher's 


. Settlement, in 


1623 


Gambia . 


. Settlement in . . 


1631 


St. Helena . 


. Capitulated, in . . 


1600 


Gibraltar . 


. Capitulation, Avig. 


U°i 


St. Lucia . 


. Capitulation, June, 


1803 


Gold Coast 


. Settlement . . 




St. Vincent . 


. Ceded by France . 


1763 


Goza .... 


. Capitulation, Sejjt. 


1800 


Swan River 


. See West Australia. 




Grenada .... 


. Ceded by France . 


1763 


Tobago .... 


. Ceded by France . 


i7<53 


Guiana, British . 


. Capitulation . 


1803 


Tortola 


. Settlement in . . 


1666 


Heligoland 


. Capitulation . . 


1807 


Trinidad 


. Capitulation, Feb. 


1797 


Honduras . 


. By treaty, in . 


1670 


Vau Diemen's Land . 


. Settlement, in . . 


1803 


Hong Kong (Victoria) . 


. Ceded in . . . 


1841 


Vancouver's Island 


. Settlement, in 


1848 


Ionian Islands (imder Br 


tish Protection) . 


1S15 


Victoria (Port Phillip) 


. Settlement, in . . 


1850 


Jamaica 


. Capitulation . . 


1665 


Victoria .... 


. See Honr/ Kong. 




Lagos .... 


. Ceded . 


1861 


Virgin Isles 




1666 


Labuan 


. See Borneo . . 


1846 









COLORADO, a territory of the United States of North America, was organised March 2, 
1 86 1. Capital, Golden City. 

COLOSSEUM, see Coliseum. The building in Eegent's Park, London, was planned hy 
Mr. Hornor, a land surveyor, and commenced in 1824, by Peto and Grissell, from designs by 
Decimus Bixrton. The chief portion is a i^olygon of 16 faces, 126 feet in diameter externally : 
the walls are three feet thick at the ground : the height to the glazed dome 112 feet. On 
the canvas walls of the dome is painted the panoramic view of London, completed in 1829 
from sketches by Mr. Hornor taken from the summit of St. Paul's cathedral in 1821-2. 
The picture covers above 46,000 square feet, more than an acre of canvas. The different 
parts were combined by Mr. E. T. Parris, who in 1845 repainted the whole. In 1848 a 
panorama of Paris was exhibited ; succeeded, in 1850, by the lake of Tliorn in Switzerland ; 
in 1 85 1 the panorama of London was reproduced. In i84S the theatre with the panorama 
of Lisbon was added. In 1831, when Mr. Hornor failed, the establishment was sold for 
40,000/. to Messrs. Braham and Yates. In 1843 it was bought by Mr. D. Montague for 23,000 
guineas. Tinibs. After having been closed for some time, the building was opened to the 
public at Christmas, 1856, all the several charges being reduced to one shilling. Under the 
superintendence of Dr. Bachhoffner it continued open till the spring of 1864, when it was 
again closed. 

COLOSSUS OF PnoDE.s, a brass statue of Apollo, seventy cubits high, esteemed one of 
the wonders of the world, was erected at the port of Rhodes in honour of the sun, by Chares 
of Lindus, disciple of Lysippus, 290 or 288 b.c. It was thrown down by an earthquake 
about 224 B.C. The figure is said to have stood upon two moles, a leg being extended on 
each side of the harbour, so that a vessel in full sail could enter between. A winding 
staircase led to the top, from which could be discerned the shores of Syria, and the ships that 
sailed on the coast of Egj^it. The statue was in ruins for nearly nine centuries, and had 
never been repaired ; when the Saracens taking Rhodes, pulled it to pieces, and sold the 
metal, weighing 720,900 lbs., to a Jew, who is said to have loaded 900 camels in transporting 
it to Alexandria about 653. Dufrcsnoy. 

COLOUR is to light what pitch is to sound, according to tlie undulatory theory of 
Huyghens (about 1678) established by Dr. T. Young, and others. The shade varies accordinir 





COL 



llU 



COM 



to the iiumlier of vibrations. The number of millions of millions of vibrations in a second 
attributed to the red end of the spectrum is 458 ; to the violet, 727. See SjiCdrum.* 

COLUMBIA, a federal district round the city of Washington in IMaryland : estalilished 
1800. In 1862, slavery was abolished therein. It has no political rights. See British 
Columhia. 

COMBAT, Single. Trial by this commenced by the Lombards, 659. Baronius. It 
was introduced into England for accusations of treason, if neither the accuser nor the accused 
could produce good evidence, 9 AVill. II. 1096. The first battle by single combat was that 
fought before the king and the peers between Geofirey Baynard and "William earl of En, who 
was accused by Baynard of high treason ; and Baynard having conquered, Eii was deemed 
c'uvicted. Tlie last combat projiosed was between lord Eeay and David Ivamsay. in 1631, 
but the king prevented it. See High Constable and Appeal of Battle. The same method of 
trial had also existed in Ireland. A trial was appointed between the prior of Kilmaiuham 
and the carl of Ormond, the former having impeached the latter of high treason ; but the 
quarrel liaving been taken up by the king, was decided without iighting, 1446. Kemarkable 
combat in Dublin castle, before the lords justices and council, between Connor MaeCormack 
O'Connor and Teig Mac-Gilpatrick O'Connor, iu which the former had his head cut off, and 
presented to the lords justices, 1553. 

COMBINATION". Laws were enacted from the time of Edward I. downwards, regu- 
lating the price of labour and the relations between masters and workmen, and prohibiting 
the latter from combining for their own protection. All these laws were rejiealed in 1S25, 
due protection being given to both parties. The act was amended in 1859, when the subject 
was much discussed, in consequence of the strike in the building trades. 

COMEDY. Thalia is the muse of comedj' and lyric poetry. Snsarion and Dolon, the 
inventors of theatrical exhibitions, 562 B.C., performed the first comedy at Athens, on a 
waggon or moveable stage, on four wheels, for which they were rewarded with a liasket of 
figs and a cask of wine. Arundelian Marbles. Aristophanes was called the prince of ancient 
comedy, 434 B.C., and Menander that of tlie new, 320 B.C. Of Plautus, 20 comedies ai'e 
extant ; he flourished 220 b. c. Statins Ca?cilius wrote upwards of 30 comedies ; he 
flourished at Eome 180 B.C. The comedies of La.dius and Terence were first acted 154 B.C. 
The first regular comedy was performed in England, about A.D. 1551. It was said of 
Sheridan that he wrote the best comedy (the School for Scandal), the best opera (the Duenna), 
and the best afterpiece (the Critic), in the English language (i 775-1 779). See Drama. 

COilETS (Greek come, a hair). It is recorded that more than 600 have been seen, Mr, 
Hind, in his little work on comets, gives a chronological list of conrets. The first discovered 
and described accurately was by Nicephorus. At the birth of the great Mitliridates two 
large comets appeared, which were seen for seventy-two days together, Avhose sjileudoui- 
eclipsed that of the mid-day sun, and occupied the fourth part of the heavens, about 
135 B.C. Justin. A grand comet was seen in 1264. Its tail is said to have extended 100°. 
It is considered to have re-ajipeared in 1556, with diminished splendour ; and was expected 
to appear again about Aug. 185S or Aug. 1S60. Hind. A remarkable one was seen in 
England, June 1337. Sfou:. Comets were first rationally explained l)y Tycho Bralie, who, 
about 1577, demonstrated that comets are extraneous to our atmosphere. A comet, which 
terrified the people from its near approach to the earth, was visible from Nov. 3, 1679, to 
March 9, 1680. The orbits of comets were proved to be ellipses by Newton, 1704. A most 
brilliant comet appeared in 1769, which passed within two millions of miles of the earth. + 
One still more brilliant appeared in Sept. Oct. and Nov. 181 1, visible all the autumn to the 
naked eye. Another iu 1823. 

Halley's Comet, 1682. Named .after one of the demonstrated that the comet of 1682 was the same 

gi-catest astronomers of England. He first proved with the comet of 1456, 1531, and 1607, deducing- 

that many of tlie appearances of comets were but this fact from a minute observation i>f the first- 

the periodical retiu-ns of the same bodies, and he mentioned comet, and being stniok by its won- 



■* Some persons (about 65 out of 1154") cannot distinguish between colours, .and are termed Colov.ebUnd. 
In 1859, professor J. Clerk Maxwell invented spectacles to remedy this defect, which is also called " Dalton- 
ism," after John Dalton, the chemist, to whom scarlet appeared drab-colo\ired. 

t This beautiful comet, moving with immense swiftness, was seen in London ; its tail stretched across 
the heavens, like a prodigious luminous arch, 36,000,000 miles in length. The computed length of that 
■which appeared in 1811, and which was so remarkably conspicuous, was. on October 15, according to the 
late Dr. Herschel, upwai-ds of 100,000,000 miles, and its apparent greatest breadth, at the same time, 
15,000,000 miles. Fhilos, Trans. Royal. Soc. for 1S12. 



COM 



195 



COM 



COJIETS, continued. 

derful resemblance to the comets described as 
having appeared in those years : Halley, there- 
fore, first tixed the identity of comets, and pre- 
dicted their periodical returns. Vince's Astronomy. 
The revolution of Halley's comet is performed in 
about 75 }-ears; it appeared in 1759, and came to 
its perihelion on March 13; its last appearance 
was 1835. 

Encke's Comet. First discovered by M. Pons, Nov. 
26, i8i8, but justly named by a.stronomers after 
professor Encke, for his success in detecting its 
orbit, motions, and perturbations ; it is, hke the 
preceding, one of the three comets which have 
apjjeared according to prediction, and its revolu- 
tions are made in 3 years and 15 weeks. 

Biela's Comet has been an object of fear to many 
on account of the nearness with which it has ap- 
proached, not the earth, but a point of the earth's 
path ; it was first discovered by M. Biela, an 
Austrian officer, Feb. 28, 1826. It is one of the 
three comets whose re-aijpearance was predicted, 
its revolution being performed in 6 years and 38 
weeks. Its second ajJiiearance was in 1S32, when 
the time of its perihehon jiiassage was Xov. 27 ; its 
third was in 1839 ; its fourth in 1845 ; and its fifth 
in 1S52. 

DoxATi's Comet, so called from its having been first 
observed by Dr. Donati, of Florence, June 2, 1858, 



being then calculated to be 228,000,000 miles from 
our earth. It was very briUiant in England in the 
end of September and October following, when 
the tail was said to be 40,000,000 miles long. On 
the loth of October it was nearest to the earth ; on 
the 1 8th it was near coming into collision with 
Venus. Opinions varied as to this comet's bril- 
liancy compared with that of 1811. 

The Great Comet of 1861 was first seen by Mr. 
Tebbutt, at Sydney, in Australia, May 13 ; by M. 
Goldschmidt and others in France and England 
on June 29, 30. The nucleus was about 400 miles 
in diameter, with a long bush-hke tail, travelling 
at the rate of 10,000,000 miles in 24 hours. On 
June 30 it was suggested that we were in the 
tail, — ^there being "a j^hosphorescent aurored 
glare." * 

A tailless comet was discovered in the constellation 
Cassiopojia, by M. Seeling, at Athens, on July 2, 
and by M. Tempel, at Jlarseilles, Jidy 2 & 3, 1S62. 

M. Rosa (at Rome) discovered a comet on July 25, 
1862. It was visible by the naked eye in August 
and September. 

Six telescopic comets were observed in 1863, and 
several in 1864. 

A fine comet appeared in the southern hemisphere, 
and was visible in South America and Australia, 
in Jan., Feb., 1S65. 

COMMANDEE-IN-CHIEF. This office in the British armj^ has heen very frequently 
vacant, and sometimes for several years consecutively. "When the duke of "Wellington 
resigned the office, on becoming minister, in 1828, his grace's successor, lord Hill, assumed 
the rank of commander of the forces, or general commanding in chief. 



CAPTAINS-GENERAL. 

Duke of Albemarle 1660 

Duke of Monmouth 1678 

Duke of Marlborough 1702 

DukeofOrmoud 1711 

Duke of Marlborough, again .... 1714 

Duke of Cumberland 1744 

Duke of York 1799 

COMMANDEKS-IN CHIEF. 

Duke of Monmouth 1674 

Duke of Marlborough i6go 

Duke of Schomberg 1691 

Duke of Ormond 1711 

Earl of Stair 1744 

Field-Marshal Wade 1745 



Lord Ligonier . 1757 

Marquess of Granby 1766 

Lord Amherst, general on the stafi' . . . 1778 
Gen. Seymour Conway • . . . . 1782 

Lord Amherst, again 1793 

Frederick, duke of York ..... 179s 
Sir David Dundas .... March 25, 1809 
Frederick, duke of York, again . May 29, 1811 

Duke of Welhngton . . . Jan. 22, 1827 

Lord Hill, general commanding in chief, Feb. 25, 182S 
Duke of Wellington, again . . Dec. 28, 1842 

Viscount Hardinge (died Sept. 24, 1856), gene- 
ral commanding in chief . . Sept. 28, 1852 
Duke of Cambridge, commandei'-in-chief ^the 

PRESENT, 1865) ..... July 15, 1856 



COMMEKDAM. By 6 & 7 "Will. IV. c. 77 (1836), future hishops were prohibited from 
holding in coimiundam the livings, &c. they held when consecrated. 

COMMERCE flourished in Arabia, Egypt, and among the Phoenicians in the earliest ages. 
In later times it was spread over Europe by a confederacy of maritime cities, 1241. See 
Hansc Toivns. The discoveries of Columbus, and the enterprises of the Dutch and Por- 
tuguese, enlarged the .sphere of commerce, and led other nations, particularly England, to 
engage extensively in its pursuit. + See the various articles comiectcd with this subject through 
the volume. 



The first treaty of cornmerce made by England 
with any foreign nation was entered into with 
the Flemings, i Edw. I. 1272. The second 
was with Portugal and Spain, 2. Edw. II. 
1308. Ander-mi. See Treaties. Hertslett's 



Collection, in 10 vols. 8vo., published 1827-59, 
has a copious index. 
An important commercial treaty was con- 
cluded with France in 1S60 



• M. Babinet, on May 4, 1857, considered that comets had so little density that the earth might pass 
through the tail of one without our being aware of it. 

t Chambers of Comhterce originated at Marseilles in the 14th century, and similar chambers were insti- 
tuted in all the chief cities in France about 1700. These chambers were suppressed in 1791, but afterwards 
restored, and their great utUity was recognised by a decree of Sept. 3, 1851. The chamber of commerce at 
Glasgow was estabUshed 17S3 ; at Edinburgh, 1785 ; Manchester, 1820 ; Hull, 1837; and at other important 
places. On Feb. 21, 1865, 27 of these chambers of commerce (not including Liverpool, Manchester and 
GLisgow) met at Westminster for interchange of opinions on various questions. 

2 



COM 



196 



COM 



COMMISSION. See High Court of Commission. 

COMMISSIONAIRES. The street messengers tlnis named (pensioners wounded either in 
tlie Crimea or India) were first employed in the west-end of London. They were appointed 
by a societjj, founded in Feb. 1859 by capt. Edward AValter, which is now rinder the 
patronage of the queen and the commander-in-chief. The cliarge^are regulated by a tariif. 
In Jan. 1861 the society commenced the gratuitous issue of a Monthly Advertising Circular. 
In March, 1864, there were 250 commissionaires in London. In June 17, 1865, capt. 
Walter resigned the superintendence, and a permanent system of administration was formed. 
In 1865 commissionaires began to be emploj^ed in Loudon as private night watchmen. Com- 
missionaires have long existed in France. 

COMMON COUNCIL of London. Its organisation began about 1208. The charter 
of Henry I. mentions the folk-mote, this being a Saxon appellation, and which may fairly be 
rendered the court or assembly of the people. The general place of meeting of the folk-moie 
■was in the open air at St. Paul's Cross, St. Paul's churchyard. It was not discontinued till 
after Henry III.'s reign ; when certain representatives were chosen out of each ward, who, 
being added to the lord mayor and aldermen, constituted the court of common council. At 
first only two were returned for each ward ; but the number was enlarged in 1347, and 
since. This council became the parent of similar institutions throughout the realm. It is 
elected annually on Dec. 21, St. Thomas's day. A Common Hall is held occasionally. The 
common council supported the prince of Orange in 1688 ; and queen Caroline in 1820. 

COMMON LAW of England, an ancient collection of unwritten maxims and customs 
(Leges non scriptcc), of British, Saxon, and Danish origin, which has subsisted immemorially 
in this kingdom ; and although somewhat impaired by the rude shock of the Norman con- 
quest, has weathered the violence of the times. This endeared it to the people in general, 
as well because its decisions were universally known, as because it Avas found to be excel- 
lently adapted to the genius of the English nation ; and accordingly, at the famous parlia- 
ment of Merton, 1236, "all the earls and barons," says the parliament roll, "with one voice 
answered, that they would not change the laws of England, which have hitherto been used 
and approved ;" eminently the law of the land. See Bustard. The process, practice, and 
mode of pleading in the superior courts of common laiv, were amended in 1852 and 1854. 

COMMON PLEAS, Court of, in England. This court in ancient times followed the 
king's person, and is distinct from that of the King's Bench ; but on the confirmation of 
Magna Charta by king John, in 12 15, it was fixed at Westminster, where it still continues. 
In 1833 the mode of procedure in all the superior courts was made uniform. In England, 
no barrister under the degree of a serjeant could plead in the court of common pleas ; 
but in 1846 the inivilege was extended to barristers practising in the superior courts at 
Westminster. 

CHIEF JUSTICES OF THE COMMON PLEAS OF ENGLAND [from tllC rcign of EUzabcth). 



155"- 
1559- 

1582. 

1605. 
1606. 

I6I3. 

1626. 
I63I. 

1634. 
1639. 

1640. 

1648. 



1668. 
1675. 



i685. 
1637. 



f-ir Anthony Browne. 

Sir James Dyer. 

Sir Edmund Anderson. 

Sir Francis Gawdy. 

Sir Edward Coke. 

Sir Henry Hobart. 

Sir Thomas Richardson. 

Sir Robert Heath. 

Sir John Finch. 

Sir Edward Lyttleton. 

Sir John Bankes. 

Oliver St. J ohn. 

Sir Orlando Bridgniau, after- 
wards lord keeper. 

Sir John Vauglian. 

Sir Francis North, affcr- 
icariU lord keeper Guilford 

Sir Francis Pembertoijj. 

Sir Thomas Jouks. 

Sir Henry 3e lingfield. 

Sir Robu-rt Wright. 

Sir Edward Herbert. 



1689. Sir Henry PoUcxfeii. 

1692. Sir George Trcby. 

1 701. Sir Thomas Trevor, after- 
wards lord Trevor. 

1714. Sir Peter King, afterwards 
lord chancellor ICing. 

1725. Sir Robert E.vre. 

1736. Sir Thomas Reeve. 

1737. Sir .Tobn Willes. 

1761. Sir Charles Pratt, aftencards 
lord chancellor Camden. 

1766. Sir John Eardley Wilmot. 

1771. Sir Willium de Grey, after- 
wards lord Walsingham. 

1780. Alexander Wedderbiirne, 

afterwards lord chancellor 
Loughborough. 

1793. Sir James Eyre. 

1799. Sir John Scott, afterivards 
lord chancellor Eldon. 

iSoi. Sir Richard Pepper Arden 
(lord Alvanleyj, May 22. 



1814. 
i8i8. 
1824. 



1850. 



1859. 



Sir James Mansfield, Apr. 21. 

Sir Vic.arj' Gibbs, Feb. 24. 

Sir Robert D.allas, Nov. 5. 

Sir Robert Gilford, Jan. g 
(lord GifEord) ; aft. master 
of the Rolls. 

Sir William Dr.aper Best, aft. 
lord Wynford, April 15. 

Sir Nicolas C. Tind,al, 
June 9 ; died July 1846. 

Sir Thomas Wilde, July n ; 
aft. lurd chancellor Truro. 

Sir John Jervis, July 16; 
died November i, 1856. 

Sir Alexander Cockbum, 
Nov. 15 ; made chief jus- 
tice of the Queen's Bench, 
June, 1859. 

Sir WUliam Eile, June. The 
PRESENT (1S65) chief jus- 
tice. 



COM 



197 



COM 



COMMON TLEAS, continued. 

cuiEP JUSTICES OF THE COMMON I'LEAS IX IRELAND {siMC the Revolution). 



1691. Richard Pyne, Jan. 5. 

1695. Sir Jobii Ilely, May 10. 

1701. Sir Richard Cox, May 4. 

1703. Robert Doyiie, Dec. 27. 

1714. John Forstcr, Sept. 30. 

1720. Sir Richard Leviuge, Oct. 13. 

1724. Thomas Wyndhani, Oct. 27. 

1726. William Whitshed, Jan. 23. 



1727. James Reynolds, Nov. 8. 
1740. Henry Singleton, May 11. 
1754. Sir William Yorke, Sept. 4. 
1 761. William Aston, May 5, 
1765. Richard Clayton, P'eb. 21. 
1770. Marcus Patterson, June 18. 
1787. Hugh Carleton, aft. viscount 
Carleton, April 30. 



1800. John Toler, afterwards lord 
Norbury, Oct. 22. 

1827. Lord Phmket, June 18. 

1830. John Doherty, Dec. 23. 

1850. James Henry Monahan, 
Sept. 23. The present 
(1865) chief justice. 



COMMON PRAYER, Book of, was ordered bj' parliament to be printed in the English 
language in April i, 1548. It was voted out of doors by parliament, and the Directory 
{which sec) set up in its room in 1644, and a proclamation was issued against it in 1647'. 
With a few changes the English Common Prayer-book is used by the episcopal churches in 
Scotland and North America. 



The king's primer puljlished . . . . 1545 

First book of Edward VI. printed . . . 1549 

Second book of Edward VI 1552 

First book of Elizabeth 1559 

King James's book 1604 

Scotch book of Charles 1 1637 

Charles II. 's book (Savor/ Conference) ■ . . . 1662 
(The one, with alterations, now in use.) 



The State services (which had never formed part of 
the Pra3xr-book, but were annexed to it at the be- 
ginning of every reign) for November 5 (Giuipowder 
treason), Janu.iry 30 (Charles I.'s execution), and 
May 29 (Charles II. 's restoration), were ordered to 
be discontinued on January 17, 1859. 



COMMONS, HoTr.';E of, the great representative assembly of the people of Great Britain, 
originated with Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, who by the Provisions of Oxford 
ordered returns to be made of two knights from every shire, and deputies from certain 
boroughs to meet such of the barons and clergy as were his friends, with a view thereby to 
strengthen his own power in opposition to that of his sovereign Henry III., 1258. S(ou\ 
See Parliament. The following is the constitution of the house of commons since the 
passing of the Reform Bill in 1832 : — 



English.— County members . . . 144 

Universities 4 

Cities and boi'oughs .... 325 — 473 

Welsh. — County members . . . . 15 

Cities and boroughs .... 14 — 29 



English and W^elsh 



502 



English and Welsh 
Scotch. — County members 

Cities and boroughs 
Irish. — County members 

University 

Cities and boroughs 

Total (see Parliament) 



30 

23— 53 
64 
2 
39—105 

660* 



CONSTITUENCY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM IN 1851. 

[Popidation, 27,452,252.] 



England.— County 

Boroiigh 
Wales. — County 

Borough 



Electors. 
461,463 

378,384-839.847 
36,984 
11,035 — 48,019 



England and Wales 



887,866 



Electors. 



England and Wales . . 887,866 

Scotland. — County . . . . 48,456 

Borough 41,849 — 90,305 

Ireland. — County . . . . 31,832 

Borough 40,234 — 72,066 



Constituency . . . 1,050,237 

In 1859, Mr. Ncwmarch estimated the constituency of England and Wales at 934,000 



COMMONWEALTH of ENGLAND. The terra is applied to the interregnum between 
the death of Charles I. and the restoration of Charles II. The form of the government was 
changed to a republic on the execution of Charles I., Jan 30, 1649, — a new oath called the 
"Engagement" was framed, which the people were obliged to take.t Salmon. Oliver 
CromweU was made Protector, Dec. 16, 1653. Richard Cromwell was made Protector, Sept. 



* In 1848 Sudbury, and in 1852 St. Alban's were disfranchised for bribery and corruption ; each having 
previously returned tw o members ; the aggregate number of the house then became 656. In 1861, the 
forfeited scats were thus distributed by act of p.arliament — two additional to the west riding of York, one 
additional to south Lancashire, .and one to a newly-created borough, Birkenhead. 

t By this oath they swore to be true and faithfid to the commonwealth, without king or house of 
lords. The statues of Charles were next day demolished, particularly that at the Royal Exchange, and one 
at the west end of St. Paul's ; and in their room the following inscription was conspicuously set up : — 
" Exit Ti/ratinus Regwn uUimM, Auuo Libcriatii Aixjlice licslitutic Prinio, Aiiao Dom. 1648, Jan. 30." 



COM 



193 



COM 



3, 1658. Monarchy was restored in the person of Charles II., who entered London, May 
29, 1660. See Rome. 

COMMUNION, one of the names given to the ordinance of the Lord's supper, in the 
jn-imitive churcli. Communicating under the form of bread alone is said to have had its 
rise in the AVest, imder pope Urban II., 1096. The fourth Lateran council, 1215, deci'eed 
that every believer should receive the commiraion at least at Easter. The cup was first 
denied to the laity by the council of Constance, 1414-18. The communion service, as now 
performed in the church of England, was instituted in 1548. 

COMMUNISTS. ^QQ Socialists. COMORN. See A'omoni. 

COMPANIES.* Among the earliest commercial companies in England may be named 
the Steel-yard Society, established 1232. The second company was the merchants of St. 
Thomas a Becket, in 1248. Sknu. The third was the Merchant Adventurers, incorporated 
by Elizabeth, 1564. The following are the city companies of London, in the order of pre- 
cedence ; the first twelve are the chief, and are styled "the Honourable." Several com- 
panies are virtually extinct, and many of the dates are doubtful. 



I. Mercers . 


1393 


25- 


Saddlers . 


1280 


49. 


UiDbolders . . 


1627 


73- 


Wheelwrights . 


1670 


2. Grocers, . , 


134s 


26. 


Carpenters . . 


1344 


5°- 


Musicians . 


1604 


74- 


Distillers . 


* * 


3. Drapers 


1439 


27. 


Cordwaiiiers 


1410 


51- 


Turners . . 


1604 


75- 


Hatband-makrs 


1638 


4. Pislamongers . 


12S4 


28. 


Paper-stainers 


1580 


52. 


Basket-makers . 


* * 


76. 


Pattern-makers 


1670 


5. Goldsmiths . . 


1327 


29. 


Curriers . 


1605 


53- 


Glaziers . . 


1637 


77- 


Glass-sellers 


1664 


6. Skinners . 




3°- 


Masons . . . 


1677 


54- 


Horners . 


1638 


78. 


Tobacco-pipe 




7. MerchantTaylors 1416 


31- 


Plumbers . 


i5ii 


55- 


Farriers . . 


1673 




makers . 


1663 


8. Haberdashers . 


1447 


32- 


Inn-holders . . 


151S 


56. 


Paviors 




79- 


Coach and Har- 




9. Salters 


1558 


33- 


Founders . 


1614 


57- 


Lorimers . 


14S8 




ness makers . 


1677 


10. Ironmongers 


1464 


34- 


Poulterers . . 


1503 


58. 


Apothecaries . 


1617 


80. 


Gunmakers 


1638 


II. Vintners . 


1437 


35- 


Cooks 


1481 


59- 


Shipwrights . . 


1610 


81. 


Gold and silvei 




12. Clothworkers . 


1482 


36. 


Coopers . . 


1501 


60. 


Spectacle-makrs 


1630 




wire drawers 


1623 


13. Dyers . . . 


1469 


37- 


Tilers and Brick- 




61. 


Clock-makers . 


1632 


82. 


Bowsti-ing- 




14. Brewers . 


1438 




layers . 


1568 


62. 


Glovers 


1556 




makers . . 


•» * 


15. Leather-sellers . 


1442 


38. 


Bowyers . . 


1620 


63- 


Comb-makers . 


1650 


83- 


Card-m.akers . 


1629 


1 5. Pewterers. 


1474 


39- 


Fletchers . 


1536 


64. 


Felt-makers 


1604 


84. 


Fan-makers . . 


1709 


17. Barber Surgeons 


1308 


40. 


Blacksmiths. . 


1577 


6s- 


Framework-knit- 


85- 


Wood-mongers . 


* * 


i3. Cutlers. . . 


1417 


41. 


Joiners 


1564 




ters . . . 


1664 


86. 


Starch-makers . 


1632 


19. Bakers 


1307 


42. 


Weavers . . 


1 164 


66. 


Silk-throwsters 


1629 


87. 


Fishermen . . 


1687 


20. Wax-chandlers . 


1484 


43- 


Woolmen . 


» * 


67. 


Silk-men . 


1608 


88. 


Parish clerks . 


1232 


21. Tallow-chandlers 


1463 


44. 


Scriveners . . 


1616 


68. 


Pin-makers . . 


1636 


89. 


Carmen 


^:- * 


22. Armourers and 




45- 


Fruiterers . 


1604 


69. 


Needle-makers . 


1656 


90. 


Porters . . . 


* * 


Braziers . . 


1463 


46. 


Plasterers . . 


1500 


70. 


Gardeners . . 


1616 


91. 


Watermen. 


1556 


23. Girdlers . 


1448 


47- 


Stationers . 


1556 


71- 


Soap-makers . 


1638 








24. Butchers . . 


1604 


48. 


Embroiderers . 


1591 


72. 


Tinplato-workrs 


1670 









COMPASS, MAEINER'S, is said to have been known to the Chinese, 1115 B.C. ; and 
is ascribed to Marco Polo, a Venetian, A.n. 1260 ; and to Flavio Gioja, of Amalfi, a navi- 
gator of Naples, t Until this time the needle was laid upon a couple of pieces of straw, or 
small split sticks, in a vessel of water ; Gioja introduced the suspension of the needle, 
1302. It is also said to have been known to the Swedes in the time of king Jarl Birger, 
1250. Its variation was discovered fir.st by Columbus, 1492 ; afterwards by Sebastian 
CalDot, 1540. The compass-box and hanging compass used by navigators were invented by 
William Barlowe, an English divine and natural jihilosopher, in 1608. See Magnetism. The 
measuring compass was invented by Jost Bing, of Hesse, in 1602. 

COMPIEGNE, a French city north of Paris, the residence of the Carlovin.gian kings. 
During the siege, Joan of Arc was captured by the Englisli, May 24, 1430, The emperor 
Napoleon III. and the king of Prussia met here on Oct. 6, 1861. 

COMPLUTENSIAN BIBLE. See Polyglot. 

COMPOSITE ORDER, principally a mixture of the Corinthian and Ionic, and also called 
the Roman order, is of uncertain date. 

COMTE PHILOSOPHY. See Positive Philosophy. 



* Bubble companies have been formed, commonly by designing persons. Law's bubble, in 1720-r, was 
perhaps the most extraordinary of its kind, and the South Sea Bubble, in the same year, was scarcely less 
memorable for its ruin' of thovisands of families. Many companies were established in these countries in 
1824 and 1825, and turned out to be hidible-^. Immense losses were incurred by individuals, and the families 
of thousands of speculators were totally ruined. Many railway enterprises (1844-5) '^^J be termed 
huhbleft. 'liee Lcno' s Bubble ; South Sea; Railicai/s ; Joint-Stock Companies. 

t The statement that the fleuy-de-lis was made the ornament of the northern point of the compass ia 
comphment to Charles, the king of Naples, at the time of the diooovery, has been contradicted. 



CON ]99 CON 

CONCEPTION, Immaculate. A festival (on Dec. 8) appointed in 1389, is observed 
with great devotion in the Roman Catholic Church in honour of the Virgin Mary's having 
been conceived and born immaculate, or without original sin. Pope Paul V. in 1617 forbade 
any one to stand up against the opinion of the immaculate conception ; this order was 
confirmed by Gregory XV. and by Alexander VII. IlcnauU. On December 8, 1854, the 
pope, Pius IX., promulgated a bull with great solemnity, declaring this dogma to be an 
article of faith, and charging with heresy those who should doubt it or speak against it. — 
The CoXGEi'TiONiSTS were an order of nuns in Italy, established in 1488. See Santiago. 

CONCERTINA, a musical instrument invented by prof. Wlieatstone, about 1825, and 
improved by IVIr. G. Case. The sounds are produced by free vibrating metal springs. 

CONCERTS. The Filarmonia gave concerts at Vicenza in the i6th century. The first 
public subscription concert was performed at Oxford in 1665. Tlie first concert in London 
is said to have been in 1672. Tlie Academy of Ancient Music began in 1710 ; the Concerts 
of Ancient Music in 1776; and the present Philharmonic Society in 1813. See Musw; 
Crystal Palace and Handel. 

CONCHOLOGY, the science of shells, is mentioned by Aristotle and Pliny. It was first 
reduced to a system by John Daniel Major, of Kiel, who published his classification of the 
Tcstaeca in 1675. Lister's system was published in 1685 ; and tliat of Largius in 1722. 
Johnston's Introduction (1850) and Sowerby's Manual of Conchology (1842), are useful. 
Forbes and Hauley's "British Mollusca and their Shells" (1848-53) is a magnificent work. 

CONCLAVE. Tliis term is derived from the conclave, a range of small cells in the hall 
of the Vatican, or palace of the pope of Rome, where the cardinals usually meet to elect a 
pope, and is also used for the assembly of the cardinals shut up for the purpose. The 
conclave had its rise in 1271. Clement IV. having died at Viterbo in 1268, the cardinals 
were nearly three years unable to agree in the choice of a successor, and were on the point 
of breaking up, when the magistrates, by the advice of St. Bonaventure, then at Viterbo, 
shut the gates of their city, and locked up the cardinals in the pontifical palace till they 
agreed. Hence the custom of shutting up the cardinals while thej'' elect a pope. 

CONCORDANCE. An index or alphabetical catalogue of all the words and also a chrono- 
logical account of all the transactions in the Bible. The first concordance was made under the 
direction of Hugo de St. Charo, who employed as many as 500 monks upon it, 1247. AIM 
Lcncflct. Cruden's well-known Concordance was published in London in 1737. The Index 
to tiie Bilde, published by the Queen's printers, was prepared by B. Vincent, editor of this 
volume, and completed in May, 1848.* 

CONCORDAT. The name is given to an instrument of agreement between a prince and 
the pope, usually concerning benefices. The concordat between the emperor Henry V. of 
Germany and pope Calixtus II., in 1122, lias been regarded as the fundamental law of the 
church in Germany. The concordat between Napoleon Bonaparte and Pius VII., signed 
at Pari.s, July 15, iSoi, re-established the Catholic church and the papal authority in 
France. Napoleon was made in effect the head of the Galilean church, as bishops were to 
have their appointments from him and their investiture from the pope. Another concordat 
between the same persons was signed at Fontainebleau, Jan. 25, 1813. These were almost 
nullified in 1817 and 1819. A concordat, signed Aug. 18, 1855, between Austria and Rome, 
by which a great deal of the liberty of the Austrian church was given up to the Papacy, 
caused much dissatisfaction. 

CONCUBINES were tolerated among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans, but strictly 
forbidden by Christ {Mark x. i Cor. vii. 2). They are mentioned as having been allowed 
to the priests, 1132. ^qq Morganitic Marriage. 

CONDOTTIERI, conductors or leaders of mercenaries and their bands, became so 
troublesome in Italy in the middle ages, that the various cities formed a league to suppress 
them in 1342. 

CONDUITS. Two remarkable conduits, among a number of others in London, existed 
early in Cheapside. The Great Conduit was the first cistern of lead erected in the city, and 
was built in 12S5. At the procession of Anna Boloyii, on the occasion of her marriage, it 
ran with white and claret Avine all the afternoon, June i, 1533. Stoiv. 

* Verbal indexes accompany good editions of tlic ancient classics. An index to Shah^-xm-e, by 
Ayscovigh, appeared in 1790: another by Twiss in 1805; and Mrs. Cowden Clarke'.s (late Mary Novello) 
complete concordance to Shakspewe (ou wbicb she spent 16 ye.irs' labour) in 1847. Todd's verbal index to 
MUton was published in i8oq. 



CON 



200 



CON 



CONFEDERATE STATES of America. Tlie efforts of the Southern States for the 
extension of slavery, and the zeal of the Northern States for its abolition, with the conse- 
quent political dissensions, led to the great secession of 1860-I. On Nov. 4, i860, "Abraham 
Lincoln, the Republican or Abolitionist candidate, was elected president of tlie United States. 
Hitherto, a president in the interest of the South had been elected. On Dec. 20, South 
Carolina seceded from the Union ; and Alabama, Florida, ilississippi, Georgia, Louisiana, 
Texas, Virginia (except West Virginia), Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina also 
seceded early in 1861. Jefferson Davis was inaugurated president of the Southern Con- 
federacy at Montgomery in Alabama, Feb. 18, 1861. For the events of the war which 
ensued, and the restoration of the Southern States to the Union, see United States, 1861-5. 

CONFEDERATION AT Parts, July 14, 1790. See Champs de Mars, and Bastile. 

CONFEDERATION of the Rhine, The League of the Germanic States, formed by 
Napoleon Bonaparte, July 12, 1806, when he abolished the Holy Roman Empire, and the 
emperor of Germany became emperor of Austria. It consisted of the kingdoms of Bavaria, 
Wurtemberg, Saxony, and Westphalia ; seven grand duchies ; six duchies ; and twenty 
principalities. The German princes collective!}' engaged to raise 258,000 ti'oops to serve in 
case of war, and established a diet at Frankfort, July 12, 1806. This league terminated 
with the career of Bonaparte in 1814, and was replaced by the Germanic Confederation 
(which see). 

CONFERENCES. One was held at Hampton Court Falace, between the prelates of the 
church of England and the dissenting ministers, in order to effect a general union, at the 
instance of the king, James I. Jan. 14-16, 1604. It led to a new translation of the Bible, 
that now in general use in England ; executed in 1607- 11. Some alterations in the church 
liturgy were agreed upon ; but these not satisfying the dissenters, nothing more was done. — 
Another conference of the bishojis and presbyterian ministers, with the same view, was held 
in the Savoy, April 25 to July 25, 1661. The dissenters' objections were generally disallowed, 
but some alterations were recommended in the Prayer-book. See Wcsleyans. 

CONFESSIONAL. See Auricular Confession. 

CONFESSIONS of Faith, or Creeds. See Ai)ostlcs\ Nicenc (325), and Athanasian 
(about 434) Creeds. 



The confession of faith, of the Greek church was 
presented to Mahommed II. in 1453. This 
gave way in 1643 to one composed by Mogila, 
metropolitan of Kiev, which is the present 
standard of the Russo-Gi-eek church. 

The creed of Pins VI., composed of the Nicene 
creed, with additional articles which embody 
all the peculiar dogmas of the Roman Catho- 
Uc church, published by the council of Trent 1564 

The church of England retains the Apostles', 
Nicene, and Athanasian creeds, with Ar- 



ticles : — 42 in 1552 ; reduced to 39 . . . 1563 
The confession of Augsburg (that of the 
Lutherans) was drawn up piincipally by 
Jlelanchthon, in 1530, and has since under- 
gone modifications, the last of which is called 
the " Form of Concord " .... 1579 
The Westminster confession was agreed to in 
1643 ; and adopted by the presbyterian 
church of Scotland. See Westminster . . 1647 
The congregational dissenters published a de- 
claration of faith 1833 



CONFIRMATION, or Laying on Hands, was practised by the apostles in 34 and 56 
{Acts viii. 17 ; xix. 6), and was general, according to some church authorities, in 190. In 
the church of England it is the public profession of the Christian religion by an adult person, 
who has been bajitized in infancy. It is made a sacrament by the church of Rome. 

CONFLANS (near Paris), Treaty of, between Louis XL of France and the dukes of 
Bourbon, Brittany, and Burgundy, 1465. By its provisions Normandy was ceded to the duke 
of Berry, and an end was put to the "War of the Public Good." It was confirmed by that 
of Peronue in 1468. 

C0NG£ D'£LIRE (permission to elect), the licence of the sovereign as head of the 
church, to chapters and other bodies, to elect dignitaries, particularly bishops, asserted by 
Henry VIII. 1535. After the interdict of the pope upon England had been removed in 1214, 
king John made an arrangement with the clergy for the election of bishops. 

CONGELATION, the act of freezing. Ice was produced in summer by means of chemical 
mixtures, by Mr. AValker, in 1783. The congelation of quick.silver was effected without 
snow or ice, in 1787. In 1810 Leslie froze water in an air-pump by jjlacing a ves.sel of 
sulphuric acid under it. Numerous freezing mixtures have been discovered since. Intense 
cold is pn-oduced by the aerification of liquefied carbonic acid gas. In 1857 Mr. Harrison 
patented a machine for manufacturing ice for commercial jjurposes, by means of ether and 



cojr 



201 



CON 



salt water, and made large blocks. In i860, M. Carrd devised a method of freezing to 60" 
below zero by making water in a close vessel absorb and give off tlie gas ammonia. Siebe's 
ice-making machine, exhibited at the International Exhibition of 1862, excited much 
admiration. 

CONGREGATION of the Lord. A name taken by the Scotch Reformers, headed by 
John Knox, about 1546. Their leaders (the duke of Argyle, &c.) were called Lords of the 
Congregation about 1557. 

CONGREGATIONALISTS. See Independents. 

CONGRESS. An assembly of princes or ministers for the settlement of the affairs of 
nations or of a peoide. * The following are the most remarkable congresses of Europe : — 



JIunster 1648 

Nimeguen 1678 

Ryswick ..... 1697 

Utrecht 1713 

Soissons 1728 

Antwerp . . April 8, 1793 



Rastadt . 
Chatillon . 
Vienna 

Aix-la-Cliipelle 
Carlsbad . 
Troppau 



Dec. 9, 1797 
Feb. 5, 1 8 14 
Nov. 3, ,, 
Oct. 9, 1818 
Aug. I, 1819 
Oct. 20, 1820 



Lay bach . . . May 6, 1821 
Vei-ona . . . Aug. 25, 1822 
Paris . Jan 16— April 22, 1856 
Frankfort (see Germamj) 

Aug. 16-31, 1863 
See Alliances, Conventions, d'c. 



The first general congress of the United States 
of America, preparatory to their declaration 
of independence, when strong resolutions 
■were jiassed, also a petition to the king, and 
an address to the jieople of England, was held 
Sept. 5, 1774. The second was held M.ay 10, 
1775 ; the third, when the independence was 
declared July 4, 1776 

The first federal American congi-ess, under the 



constitution, was held at New York ; G'eorge 
Washington, president . . . March, 1789 
The first congress of the seceding southern 
states was held at Montgomei-y, Alabama, 
Feb. 4 ; it elected Jefferson Davis president 
of the confederate states on Feb. 9. For 
political reasons it adjourned on May 24, to 
meet at Richmond, in Virginia, on . July 20, 1861 



'^CONGREVE ROCKETS. Invented by general sir AYilliam Congreve, in 1803. They 
were used with gi-eat effect in the attack upon Boulogne, Oct. 8, 1806, wlien they set a part 
of the town on tire, which burned for two days : they were employed in various operations 
in the French war with much success, by a corps called rocket-men. 

CONIC SECTIONS. Their more remarkable properties were probably known to the 
Greeks, four or five centuries before the Christian era. The study of them was cultivated in 
the time of Plato, 390 B.C. The earliest treatise on them was written by Aristffius, about 
330 B.C. ApoUonius's eight books were written about 240 B.C. The parabola was applied 
to projectiles by Galileo, who died 1608 ; the ellipse to the orbit of j)lanets by Kepler, 
about 1609. 

CONJURATION. See Witchcraft. 

CONNECTICUT granted to lords Say and Brooke, 1631. See ATnerica, and United States. 

CONNOR, BrsHorrjc of, in Ireland. The see was united to that of Down, 1442. The 
first prelate was iEngus Macnisius, wlio died 507. The united sees were added to Dromore on 
the death of the last bishop of the latter, 1842, in accordance with the jtrovisions of the 
Irish Church Temporalities' Act, passed 1833. 

CONQUEST. The memorable era in Briti.sh history, when "William duke of Normandy 
overcame Harold II. at the battle of Hastings, Oct. 14, 1066, and obtained the crown which 
had been most unfoirly bequeathed to him by Edward the confessor (for Edgar was the 
rightful heir). William has been erroneously styled the Conqueror, for he succeeded to the 
crown of England by comjmct. He defeated Harold, who was himself a usurper, but a large 
portion of the kingdom afterwards held out against him ; and he, unlike a conqueror, took 
an oath to observe the laws and customs of the realm, in order to induce the submission of 
the peo])le. Formerly our judges were accustomed to reprehend any gentleman at the bar 
who said casually William the conqueror instead of William I. Scldcn. Maclise exhibited 
forty-two drawings on the events of the Norman conquest, in May, 1857. 

CONSCIENCE, Courts of, or Request.s, first constituted by a statute of Jlenry VII. 
1493, and re-organised by statute 9 Hen. VIII. 1517. These courts were improved and 
amended by various acts ; their jurisdiction in London reached to 5?. and (until superseded 
by county-courts) to 40s. in other town,s. The practice was by summons, and if the ^larty 
did not ap])ear, the commissioners had power to apprehend and commit. See County Courts. 
— James II. proclaimed Liberty of Conscience in 1687. Conscience Clause, see Education. 



* In 1863, the emperor Napoleon invited the sovereigns of Europe to a congi'css ; which was dcclinei 
by England Nov. 25, and only conditionally acceded to by other powers. 



CON 



202 



CON 



CONSCRIPT FATHERS {-patres conscripti) was the lionourable designation given to the 
Eoman senators, because their names were written in the registers of the senate. 

CONSCRIPTION, a mode (derived from the Romans) adopted for recruiting the French 
and other armies. On Sept. 5, 1798, a military conscription was ordained in France, com- 
prehending all the young men from 20 to 25 years of age : from these selections were 
made. The present law of 1818 (modified in 1824 and 1832) requires a certain annual 
contingent from each department, — for all the country, 80,000 men, — which may be 
increased. The duration of service is seven years. Substitutes and exemptions are permitted. 
A conscription for 350,000 men took place in Jan. 1813, after the disastrous Russian 
campaign, and in Dec. same year, another for 300,000 after the battle of Leipsic. 

CONSECRATION. Aaron and his sons were consecrated priests, 1490 B.C. {Lev. viii.). 
The Jewish Tabernacle was dedicated 1490 B.C., and Solomon's Temple, 1004 B.C. 
(l Kings, viii.). The consecration of churches M-as instituted in the 2nd century, the temple 
of worship being dedicated with pious solemnity to God and a patron saint. Anciently the 
consecration of popes was deferre<l until the emperor had given his assent to their election. 
Gregory IV. desired to have his election confirmed by the emperor Louis, in 828. Henault. 
The consecration of churches, places of burial, &c., is admitted in the reformed religion. 
The consecration of bishops was ordained in the church of England in 1549. Stow. 

CONSERVATION OF FORCE. The philosophical doctrine that no physical force 
can be created or destroyed, but may be transferred, is maintained by Grove, Faraday, 
Hehnholtz, TyndaH, and other philosophers. See Correlation. 

CONSERVATIVES, a name of modern date, is given to, and accejited by a political 
party, whose leading principle is the conservation of our ancient national institutions. It 
sprung up in England at the time when the Orange Societies and lodges were discouraged, 
1836, and was substituted for Orangemen as a less obnoxious term, and as indicative of 
milder, but equally constitutional opinions. Conservative has, however, in some measure, 
changed its signification, and in popular parlance is now opposed to Liberal. Sir Robert 
Peel acknowledged himself a conservative when reproached by the Irish party in parliament 
with being an Orangeman ; but the party that afterwards separated from him called their 
principles conservative in contradistinction to his, — his p)olicy and measures being changed, 
— The Conservative Club was founded in 1840. See Protectionists. 

CONSERVATOIRES, a name given to schools for the cultivation of music on the 
continent. The celebrated Conservatoire de Musique at Paris began in 1793. 

CONSERVATORS of the Public Liberties. Officers chosen in England to inspect 
the treasury and correct abuses in administration, 28 Hen. III. 1244. Rapin. Conservators 
were appointed to see the king's peace kept. Pardon. Conservators were formally 
ajipointed in every sea-port to take cognizance of all offences committed against the peace 
upon the main sea out of the liberty of the Cinque Ports. Bailey. 

CONSISTORIES for regulating ecclesia.stical discipline and divine worship in the 
Lutheran church in Gcnnanj^, were established at the reformation — the first at Wittenberg 
in 1542 ; other consistories were established after the peace of Augsburg in 1555. 

CONSISTORY COURT, anciently joined with the hundred coiu-t ; and its original, as 
divided therefrom, is found in a law of William I., 1079, quoted by lord Coke. The cliiei 
and most ancient consistory court of the kingdom belongs to the see of Canterbury, and is 
called the Court of Arches (u-JiicJi see). 

CONSOLIDATED FUND was formed of the other funds in 1786. On Jan. 5, 181 6, the 
exchequers of Great Britain and Ireland, previously separate, were amalgamated. 

CONSOLS. See Stocks. 

_ CONSPIRACIES AND In.sureections in Great Britain. Among the recorded con- 
spiracies, real or supposed, the following are the most remarkable : — 



Of the Norman barons and Waltbeof against 

William I. the Conqueror .... 1074 
Bishop Odo, (fee, against William II. . . . 1088 
Against Henry II. by hLs queen and children . 1173 
The barons against Henry III. {See Barons' 

War) 1258 

Of barons against Henry IV. . . . . 1400 
Of the earl of Cambridge and others against 
Henry V 1415 



Of Lambert Simnol (14S7) and Perkin Warbock 
against Henry VII. 1492 

Insurrection of the Loudon apprentices. (See 
EpU May-da.y) 1517 

Of Anthony Babington and others against Eliza- 
beth. (See Babivglo))) 15S6 

Of Lopez, a Jew, and others . . . . 1594 

Of Patrick York, an Irish fencing-master, hired 
by the Spaniards to kill the queen . . ,, 



CON 



203 



CON" 



CONSPIRACIES, continued. 

Of Walpolc, a Jesuit, and squire . . . . 1598 
Tyrone's insurrection in Ireland . . . ,, 
The Gunpowder Plot (vjhich see) . . . . 1605 
Tyi'one's conspiracy to surprise the castle of 

Dublin 1607 

Q^indcrcomb and others to assassinate Oliver 

Cromwell 1656 

Insurrection of the Puritans .... 1657 
Insurrection of the Fifth-monarchy men against 

Charles II. 1661 

Of Blood and his associ.ates, who seized the duke 
of Ormond, wounded him, and wo>ild have 
hanged hitn ; and who afterwards attempted 

to steal the regalia 1671 

The pretended con.spiracy of the French, 
Spanish, and English Jesuits to assassinate 
Charles II., revealed Iw the infamous Titus 
Oates, Dr. Tongue, and others . . . 1678 
The Meal-tub plot (which see) . . . . 1679 

The Rye-house plot to assassinate the king on 
his way to Newmarket. (See Rye-house Plot) 16S3 



Of lord Preston, the bishop of Ely, and others 

to restore James II. 1691 

Of Granville, a French chevalier, to murder 

king William in Flanders 1692 

The assassination plot (which see) . . . 1696 
Of Simon Eraser, lord Lovat, against queen 

Anne. (See Rebellions) 1703 

Of the marquess Guiscard lyio 

Of James Sheppard, an enthusiast, to assassi- 
nate George 1 1718 

Of counsellor Layer and others, to bring in the 

Pretender 1722 

Of the Corresponding Society, &c. (which see) 1796-8 

Of colonel Despard 1802 

Of Robert Emmett, in Dublin, when lord Kil- 

warden was killed . . . July 23, 1803 
Of Thistlewood and others, to assassinate the 

king's ministers. (See Cato-street) . . 1820 

Of the Sepoys in India. (See India) . May 10, 1857 
See Rebellions, Chartists, &c. 



CONSTABLE of Engl.vnd, Lokd High. The seventh great officer of the crown, and, 
with the earl marshal, formerly a judge of the court of chivalry, called, in the time of 
Henry IV., curia militaris, and subsequently the court of honour. The power of this officer 
was so great, that in 1389 a statute was passed for abridging it, and also the power of the 
eaii marshal (ivJiich see). The office existed before the conquest, after which it went by 
inheritance to the earls of Hereford and Essex, and next in the line of Stafford. In 1521 it 
became forfeited to the king in the person of Edward Stafford, duke of Buckingham, that 
year attainted for high treason, and has never since been gi'anted to any person, otherwise 
than 2^^o hdc vice (for this occasion), and that to attend at a coronation or trial by combat. 
The only instance of a trial by combat being ordered since this office fell into the hands of 
the crown, was that commanded between lord Eeay and sir David Ramsay, in Nov. 163 1 ; 
but the king prevented it.* 

CONSTABLE or Scotland, Lord High. Tlie office was instituted by David I. about 
1147. The holder had the keeping of the king's sword, which the king, a^^i^is promotion 
delivered to him naked (and hence the badge of the lord high constable is a naked sword) ; 
and the absolute command of the king's armies while in the field, in the absence of the king. 
The jurisdiction of this office came at last to be exercised only in dealing •^^^th crimes during 
the time of parliament, which some extended likewise to all general conventions. The 
office was conferred heritably in 132 1 on sir Gilbert Hay, created earl of Erroll, by Robert 
Bruce, and with fiis descendants it still remains, being expressly reserved by the treaty of 
union in 1707. The present earl of Erroll is the twenty-second lord high constable (1865). 

CONSTABLES of Hundreds and Franchises, instituted in the reign of Edward I., 1285, 
are now called high constables. Tliere are three kinds of constables, high, petty, and special; 
the liigli constable's jurisdiction extends to the whole hundred ; the petty con.stable's to the 
parish or liberty for which he is chosen ; and the special constable is appointed for ijartieular 
occasions and emergencies (as in April, 1848, on account of the Chartists). 

CONSTABULARY FORCE. For that of London, see Police. The Constabulary of 
Ireland act passed in 1823, when this species of force was embodied throughout the couutr}'. 
Several subsequent acts Avere consolidated in 1836. 

CONSTANCE, a city in Baden (S. Germany). Here was held the seventeenth general 
council, 1414, which condemned John Huss ; and here he was burnt, July 6, 1415. See 
Hussites. 

CONSTANTINA, the ancient capital of Numidia, was taken by the French, Oct. 13, 
1837. During the assault on Oct. 12, the French general Damremont was killed. Achmet 
Bey retired with 12,000 men, as the victors entered Constantina. 

CONSTANTINOPLE, formerly Byzantium {which see), derives its name from Constantine 
the Great, wlio removed the seat of the Eastern Empire here in 330. It was continually 

■■ The lord high constable at the coi-onations respectively of — queen Anne, Wriothesley, duke of Bed- 
ford, 1702; — of George I., John, duke of Montagu, 1714 ; — of George II., Charles, duke of Richmond, 
1727 ; — of George III., John, duke of Bedford, 1761 ;— of George IV., 1821, WilUam IV., 1831, and Victoria, 
i8^8, Arthur, duke of Wellington. 



CON 204 CON 

convulsed by foctions and religions dissensions. General Ecclesiastical councils were held 
here in 381, 553, 680, and 869. See JEasieni Empire and Turkey. — The Era of Constan- 
tinople has the creation placed 5508 years B.C. It was used by the Eussians until the time 
of Peter the Great, and is still used in the Greek church. The civil year begins Sept. i, 
and the ecclesiastical year towards the end of March ; the day is not exactly determined. To 
reduce it to our era subtract 5508 years from January to August, and 5509 from Sept. tol^ 
end. Nicolas. 

CONSTELLATIONS. Arcturus, Orion, the Pleiades, and Mazzarolh, are mentioned in 
the book of Job, ix. 9, and xxxviii. 31, about 1520 B.C. Homer and Hesiod notice constel- 
lations ; but though some mode of grouping the visible stars had obtained in very early ages, 
our first direct knowledge was derived from Claudius Ptolem<eus, about A. d. 140. Hipparchus 
(about 147 B.C.) made a catalogue of forty-eight constellations. Others were added by Tycho 
Brahe, Hevclius, Halley, and others. The number at jii'esent acknowledged is 29 northern, 
45 southern, and 12 zodiacal. 

CONSTITUENCIES. See Commons. 

CONSTITUTION of England. It comprehends the whole body of laws by which the 
British pe(jple are governed, and to which it is presumptively held that every individual has 
assented. Lord Somers. This assemblage of laws is distinguished from the term government 
in this respect — that the constitution is the rule by which the sovereign ought to govern at 
all times ; and government is that by which he does govern at any particular time. Lord 
Bolinglrohe. The king of England is not seated ou a solitary eminence of power ; on the 
contrary, he sees his equals in the co-existing branches of the legislature, and he recognises 
his superior in the law. Sluridan. Hallam's "Constitutional History of England " was 
first published in 1827. 

CONSULS. These officers were appointed at Rome, 509 B.C., when the Tarquins were 
expelled. They possessed regal authority for the space of a year ; Lucius Junius Brutus, 
and Lucius Tarquinius CoUatinus, the latter the injured husband of Lucretia, were the first 
consuls. A consular government was established in Erance in 1799, when the directory was 
abolished : on Nov. 10, Bonajiarte, Si(1yes, and Roger Ducos were made provisional consular 
commissioners; and on Dec. 13, Bonaparte, Cambaceres, and Lebrun were made consuls. 
Bonaparte was made first consul for life. May 6, 1802. Commercial agents were first dis- 
tinguished by file name of consuls in Italy in 1485, being appointed by Richard III. A 
British consul was first appointed in Portugal in 1633. 

CONTINENTAL SYSTEM, the name given to Napoleon's plan to exclude the British 
merchandise from the entire continent. It began with his Berlin decree in 1806, and 
occasioned by the Orders in Cmmcil {which see). 

CONTRABAND of War, a term said to have been first employed in the treaty of 
Southampton between England and Spain in 1625. During the struggle between Spain and 
Holland both piowers acted with much rigour towards ships of neutrals conveying goods to 
the belligerents. This provoked the resistance of England. A milder policy was adopted by 
the treaty of Pyrenees, 1650 ; and by the declaration of Paris, April 26, 1856. The subject 
has been much discussed during the North American conflict, 1861-4. 

CONTRACTORS with Government, disqualified from sitting in parliament, 1782. 

CONTRIBUTIONS, Voluntary, to a vast amount have been several times made by 
the British people in aid of the goverament. The most remarkable of these in 1798, to 
support the war against France, amounted to two millions and a half .sterling. Several men 
of wealth, among others Sir Robert Peel, of Bury, Lancashire, subscribed each 10,000?. ; 
and 200,000?. were transmitted from India in 1799. See Patriotic Fund. 

CONTROL, Board of. Mr. Pitt's bill, establishing this board for the purpose of aiding 
and controlling the executive government of India, and of superintending the territorial 
concerns of the company, was passed May 18, 1784. Act amended and the board remodelled, 
1793. The president of the board was a chief minister of the crown, and necessarily one 
of the members of the cabinet. This board was abolished in 185S, when the government of 
India was transferred from the company to the crown. See India Bills, and India. 

CONVENTICLES, private assemblies for religious worship, held by dissenters from the 
cstablislied church ; but first ap^ilied to the schools of Wicklitf. They were strictly forbidden 
by Elizabeth in 1593, and by Charles II., 1664 ; and persons attending them Avore liable to 
severe punishment. Tlie statutes were repealed by "William III. in 1689. 



CON 205 COO 

CONVENTIOISr PARLIAMENTS. Two memorable parliaments (especially distinguished 
by this term), assembled without the king's writ upon extraordinary occasions. The first 
lield on April 25, 1660, voted the restoration of Charles II. ; the second, held Jan. 1689, by 
a raajoritj' of two voices, declared for anew sovereign William III. (and Mary), in preference 
to a regent, which had been proposed. See National Convention. 

CONVENTIONS. The following are the principal conventions between Great Britain 
and foreign powers, and by foreign powers with each other. They are more fully described 
in their respective jilaces through the volume : — 

Of Closterseven Sept. 8, 1757 

Of Armed Neutrality . . . July 9, 1780 

Of Pilnitz July 20, 1791 

Of Paris (French National) institvitcd Sept. 17, 1792 

Of Cintra Aug. 30, 1808 

Of Berlin Nov. 5, ,, 

Of Peterswalden July 8, 1813 

Of Paris April 23, 1814 

Of the Dutch with England . . Aug. 13, ,, 
Of Vienna ; Saxony placed under the control 

of Prussia Sept. 28, ,, 

Of Zurich, signed . . . . May 20, 1815 

Of Capua, with Murat . . . May 20, ,, 
Of St. Cloud, between Davoust, and Wellington, 

and Blucher July 5, „ 

Of Paris, with the allies . . . April 25, 1818 
Of Aix-la-chapelle .... Oct. 9, ,, 
Of Austria, with England : the latter agrees to 

accept 2,500,000/. as a composition for claims 

on Austria, amounting to 30,000,000/. sterhng 1824 
Of England with Russia . . Feb. 28, 1825 



Of England and United States . Nov. 26, 1826 

Of Spain, for satisfying the claims of British 

merchants June 26, 1828 

Ot the Viceroy of Egypt and sir E. Codrington, 

for restoring Greek captives, &c. . Aug. 6, ,, 
Of France with Brazil . . . Aug:. 14, ,, 
Convention between Holland and Belgium, 

signed in London . . . April 19, 1839 
Of England with Austria, Russia, Prussia, and 

Turkey, for the settlement of the Eastern 

question July 15, iSio 

Of France and England, respecting the slave 

trade May 29, 1845 

Of England with the Argentine RepubUc 

Oct. 24, 1849 
Of France and Italy, respecting the occupation 

of Rome Sept. 15, 1864 

Of Austria and Prussia, respecting Holstein, 

Schleswig, and Lauenburg (see Gastein) 

Aug. 14, 1865 
See Treaties. 



CONVENTS were first founded, according to some authorities, 270. The first iu 
England was erected at Folkstone, loy Eadbald, in 630. Camden. The first in Scotland 
was at Coldingham, where Ethelreda took the veil in 670. They were founded earlier than 
this last date in Ireland. They were suppressed in England in various reigns, particularly 
in that of Henry VIII., and few existed in Great Britain till lately.* A very great 
number have been suppressed in Europe in the present century. The emperor of Russia 
abolished 187 convents of monks by an ukase dated July 31, 1832. The king of Prussia 
followed his example, and secularised all the convents in the duchy of Posen. Don Pedro 
put down 300 convents in Portugal in 1834 ; and Spain has abolished 1800 convents. Many 
were abolished in Italy and Sicily in i860 and 1861 ; and in Russia in Nov. 1864. 

CONVICTS. See Transiwrlation. 

CONVOCATION. A general assembly of the clergy in the nation, convened by the 
sovereign's writ, to consult on the afiairs of the churcli, and directed to the archbishop of 
each province, requiring him to summon all the bishops, deacons, archdeacons, &c. The 
convocation is divided into two houses, called the upper, consisting of the bishops ; and 
lower, consisting of the deans, prebendaries, archdeacons, and members elected from the 
lewder clergy. 'The clergy were summoned to meet the king by writ, 23 Edw. I. 1 295. The 
power of the convocation was limited by a statute of Henry VIII., in whose reign the 
convocation was reorganised. The two houses of convocation were deprived of various 
privileges in 1716. Formal meetings of the clergy have been held annually since 1854, and 
attempts have been made to obtain the power of dealing summarily with ecclesiastical affairs, 
but without effect. 

CONVOLVULUS. The Canary Convolvulus {Convolvulus Canariensis) came to England 
from the Canary Isles, 1690. The many-flowered convolvulus in 1779. 

COOKERY, an art connected with civilised life. Animals were granted as food to Noah, 
2348, B.C., the eating blood being expressly forbidden {Gen. ix. 3, 4). In 1898 B.C. a calf was 
cooked by Abraham to entertain his gue.sts {Gen. xviii. 7, 8). "The Forme of Cury " {i.e. 
cookery) is dated 1390. An English cookery-book was printed I498.t See Cottager s Stove. 

* In 1597, lady Mary Percy founded a convent at Brussels, which flourished there till 1794, when the 
nuns were compelled to remove to P^ngland. They were received by bishop Milner, and placed at Winches- 
ter, at which place they remained till their remov.al to East Bergholt, in Suffolk, June, 1S57. This was 
the first Engli.sh conventual establishment founded on the continent after the Reformation. — It is stated 
that there were 16 convents in England in 1841, 53 in i85i, and 189 in 1865. 

t Milit'iry Cootery.— Capt. Grant devised a system of cooking for the camp at Aldershot, which has 
continued in successful operation for the service of between 12,000 and 14,000 men. From .^jjiil to Augu.st, 
in 1857, the plan was subjected to the severe test of cooking for 92.000 men, who marched in and out of the 
encampment duriir,' that period. The consumption of fuel requisite for this system of cooking is one half- 



coo 206 COP 

COOK'S VOYAGES. James Cook, accompanied by sir Joseph Banks, sailed from 
England in the Endeavour on his first voj-age, July 30, 1768;* and returned home after 
having circumnavigated the globe, arriving at Spithead July 13, 1771. Captain Cook sailed 
to explore the southern hemisphere, July, 1772, and returned in July, 1775. In his third 
expedition he was killed by the savages of Owhyhee, Feb. 14, 1779. His ships, the Mcso- 
lution and Discovery, arrived home at Sheeruess, Sept. 22, 1780. 

COOPEEAGE, an ancient art, probably suggested for preserving -wine. The coo^kts of 
London were incorporated in 1501. 

CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES are composed of working men, having for their object 
the sale cf articles of daily consum])tion to the members at low prices. The Rochdale 
Ecpiitable Pioneers Society began in 1844, with a capital of 28Z. In i860, the business done 
amounted to 152, 063^., the profits being 15,906?. These societies (in 1862, 332) are registered 
pursuant to 13 & 14 Vict. c. 115 (1849). 

COORG, a province (S. India). War broke out between the rajah and the East India 
Company, 1832, which ended by col. Lindsay defeating and deposing the rajah, April 10, 
1834 ; his territories were soon after annexed to the British possessions. In 1853 the rajah 
brought his daughter to be educated in England, where she was baptized. 

COPENHAGEN (Denmark), built by Waldemar I., 1157, and made the capital 1443 ; 
university founded 1479. In 1728, more than seventy of its streets and 3785 houses were 
burnt. Its palace, valued at four millions sterling, was wholly burnt, Feb. 1794, when 100 
persons lost their li'^'es. In a fire which lasted forty-eight hours, the arsenal, admiralty, and 
fifty streets were destroyed, 1795. Copenhagen was bombarded by the English mider lord 
Nelson and admiral Parker ; and in their engagement with the Danish fleet of twentj^-three 
ships of the line, eighteen were taken or destroyed by the British, April 2, 1801. Again, 
after a bombardment of three days, the city and Danish fleet surrendered to admiral Gambler 
and lord Cathcart, Sept. 7, 1807. The cajiture consisted of eighteen sail of the line, fifteen 
frigates, six brigs, and twenty-five gun-boats, and immense naval stores. See Denmark. 

COPENHAGEN FIELDS (N. London). Here the Corresponding Society met on 
Oct. 26, 1796 ; and the Trades' Union, April 21, 1834. The fields are now occupied by the 
Metropolitan Cattle-market, opened June 13, 1855. 

COPERNICAN SYSTEM, so called from its author Nicolas Copernicus, born at Thorn, 
Feb. 19, 1473, died May 2, 1543. A few days before his death, the printing of his book on 
the " Revolution of the Celestial Bodies" was completed. The system, which resembles that 
attributed to Pythagoras, Avas condemned by a decree of pope Paul V. in 1616, which was 
not revoked till 1821 by Pius VII. The sun is supposed to be in the centre and immoveable, 
and the earth and the rest of the planets to move round it in elliptical orbits. The heavens 
and stars are imagined to be at rest, and the diurnal motion which they seem to have from 
east to west, is imputed to the earth's motion from west to east. 

COPLEY MEDAL. See Royal Society. 

COPPER. One of the six primitive metals, said to have been first discovered in Cypnis. 
Pliny. We read in the Scriptures of two vessels of fine copper (or brass), "precious as 
gold," 457 B.C. {Ezraviii. 27). The mines of Fahlun, in Sweden, are the most surprising 
artificial excavations in the world. In England, copper-mines were discovered in 1561, and 
copper now forms an immense branch of trade : there are upwards of fifty mines in Cornwall, 
■where mining has been increasing since the reign of William III. In 1857, 75,832 tons of 
copper ore were imported, and 25,241 tons extracted. The Burra-Burra copper-mines, in 
S. Australia, were discovered in 1842. They have brought great prosperity to that colony. The 

pound of coal per man per day, and the official report states the cost to be one halfpenny per man per 
week for the three daily meals. — Self-supporting Cooking Depots for the working classes were set up at 
Glasgow (l3y Mr. Thomas Corbett), Sept. 21, i860; and proved successful in Manchester, London, and other 
places soon after. 

" A memorial was presented to the king by the Royal Society in 1768, setting forth the advantages 
■which would be derived to science if an accurate observation of the then approaching transit of Venus over 
■the sun were taken in the South Sea. The ship Endeavour was, in consequence, prepared for that pur- 
pose, and the command of her given to heutenant James Cook. He saUed in July, 1768, touched at Madeira 
and Eio de Janeiro, doubled Cape Horn, and after a prosperous voyage reached Otabeitc, the place of desti- 
nation, in April, 1769. By a comparison of the observations made on this transit (June 3, 1769) from the 
various parts of the globe on which it was viewed by men of science, the system of the universe has, in some 
particulars, been better understood ; the distance of the s\in from the earth, as calculated by this and 
the transit in 1761, was settled at 108,000,000 miles, instead of the commonly received computation of 
95,000,000. Butler. It is now computed to be 95,298,260 miles (1865). 



COP 



207 



COP 



first sliip to which a sheathin.i; of copper was applied was liis majesty's ship iI7«r«!, at Woolwich, 
ill 1761, "to preserve her from worms in southern climates:" it gave great satisfaction, and 
in 1780 all ships in the British nav}'' were copper-bottomed. — About 1850 the electro-type 
process was first employed to face with copper printing types and casts from woodcuts. 



Copper Money. The Romans, prior to tbc reign of 
Scrvius TuUiiis, used nidc pieces of coi>per for 
money. See Coin. In England, coi^per money 
was made at the instance of sir Roliei't Cotton, 
in 1609 ; but was first reallj' coined (when Miss 
Stewart sat for the figure of Britannia) . . 1665 

Its regular coinage began in 1672, and it was 
largely issued in i68g 

In Ireland, copper was coined as early as 1339; 
in Scotland, in 1406 ; in France, in . . . 1580 

■Wood's coinage (which see) in Ireland com- 
menced in 1723 

The copper coinage was largely manufactiu-ed 
at Birmingham, by Boulton and Watt, in . 1792 



Penny and two-penny pieces were extensively 
issued, 1797. The half-farthing was coined 
in, but disused (see J^ari/iinj?) . . . . 1843 

lo.oooZ. voted towards replacing the copper 

coinage July, 1855 

See Bronze. 

Copper-Plate Printing was first invented in 
Germany, about 1450; and rolling-presses for 
working the plates about .... 1545 

Messrs. Perkins, of Philadelphia, invented a 
mode of engraving on soft steel, which, when 
hardened, will multiply copper-plates and 
fine impressions indefinitely (see Engraving) 1819 



COPPERAS, a mineral composed of copper or iron combined with sulphuric acid (vitriol), 
found in copper-mines, commonly of a green or blue colom- ; first produced in England by 
Cornelius de Vos, a merchant, in 1587. 

COPPERHEADS, a name given about 1S63 to such members of the Democrat party in 
the United States as were in favour of peace with the South on any terms. 

COPTS, ill Egypt, the supposed descendants of the ancient Egyptians, mingled with 
Greeks and Persians. Their religion is a form of Qhristiauity derived from the Eutychiaus. 

COPYHOLDERS, who hold an estate by a copy of the rolls of a manor made by a 
steward of the lord's court. They were enfranchised by 5 Vict. c. 35, 1841. By the Reform 
Act in 1832, copyholders to the amount of 10^. became entitled to a vote for the county. The 
cop3diold acts were amended by 21 & 22 Vict. c. 94 (1858). 

COPYRIGHT. Decree of the Star-chamber regarding it, 1556. Every book and publi- 
cation ordered to be licensed, 1585. 

12 months' copyright granted to designs ap- 
plied to all tis.sues except lace and those 
already provided for ; for the modelling, em- 
bossing, and engi'aving of any manufactm-e 
not being a tissue ; and for the shape or con- 
figuration of any article .... 

By 5 <fc 6 Vict. c. 100, the existing designs acts 
all repealed (except that for sculpture), and 
provision made for including all ornamental 
designs under 13 classes, and conferring upon 
them terms of protection, varying from nine 

months to three years 

[Fees on registration vaiy from is. to i?.] 

The " non-ornamental designs act," securing 
the configuration of articles of utility (fee 
10/.), pa.ssed in 1843 

By the '■ designs act," the Board of Trade is 
empowered to extend the copyright for an 
additional term of three years . . . 1850 

Copyright of photographs secured by the act, 
protecting works of art, passed in . July, 1862 



Ordinance forbidding the printing of any work 
without the consent of the owner . . 1649 

The first copyright act (for 14 years, and for the 
author's life if then living) was that of 8 
Anne *i709 

Protection of copyright in prints and engrav- 
ings, 17 Geo. Ill 1777 

Copyright protection act (for 28 years, and the 
remainder of the author's life if then Hving), 
54 Geo. III. 1814 

Pramatic authors' protection act, 3 WUl. IV. 



c. 15 



• 1833 
Act for preventing the publication of lectures 

without consent, 6 Will. IV. c. 65 . . . 1835 
International copyright bill, i Vict. . . 1838 

5 & 6 Vict. c. 45 (TaUourd's or lord Mahon's 

act), t to amend the cojiy right act passed . 1842 
The colonies' copyright act, 10 cSi 11 Vict., c. g$, 

passed ^1847 

COPYRIGHT FOR DESIGNS. 

Protection gi-anting seciirity for two months to 
new designs applied by printing to linens, 
calicoes, and muslins . . . . . 1787 

Extended to three months 1794 

A copyright of 14 years conferred on sculpture 1798 

and 1814 

The designs act of Geo. III. made to embrace 
printed designs on wool, silk, and hair ; and 



1839 



1842 



INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT. 

In 1838 and 1852 acts were passed to secui-e to 
authors, in certain cases, the benefits of inter* 
national copj^right (i & 2 Vict. c. 59, and 15 
Vict. c. 12), and conventions have, in conse- 
quence, been entered into with France, Pnis- 
sia, &c. 



* This act was confirmed by a memorable decision at the bar of the house of lords, and the claim of 
perpetual copyi-ight was oven-uled, Feb. 22, 1774. The statute declared the author to have an exclusive 
right for 14 years, and if at the end of that ferm he wore living, the right to return to him ag.ain for the 
same term of years. Later acts extended the author's right to 28 years, and if living at the end of that 
time, then to the remainder of his life. 

t By this act, the right is to endure for the life of the author, and for seven years after his death ; but 
if that time expire earlier than 42 years, the right is still to endure for 42 years, for which term also any 
work published after the author's death is to continue the property of the owners of the manuscript. 

X The important question of a foreigner posses&ing a copyright in this country was finally decided in 
the negative by the house of lords, in August, 1854, which reversed the decision of the court of exchequer. 



COR 



208 



COR 



CORBIESDALE, Caithness (N. Scotland). Here, on April 27, 1650, the gallant mar- 
qness of Montrose was defeated by the Covenanters. He was taken soon after, treated with 
great contumely, and hanged at Edinburgh, on May 21. 

CORCYRA (now Corfu, chief of the Ionian Isles), a colony founded by the Corin- 
thians about 734 B.C. It had frequent wars with the mother country, one about the 
possession of Epidamnus (431 B.C.) led to the Peloponnesian war. It was .subdued by the 
Spartans in 373, and by the Romans, 230. At the decline of the eastern empire it fell into 
the hands of the Venetians about a.d. 1149. The Turks attacked Corfu in 1716, but were 
gallantly repulsed. It was subdued by the Russian and Turkish fleets in 1799, and formed 
(with the other isles) into the Ionian republic. See Ionian Isles. 

CORDELIERS, fi'iars of the order of St. Francis d'Assisi (the Minorites) instituted about 
1223. They are clothed in coarse grey cloth, with a small cowl and cloak of the same 
material, having a girdle of cord or rope, tied with three knots, and hence the name, which 
was first given to them by St. Louis of France, about 1227. Several members of the French 
revolutionary party, termed "Cordeliers," established at Paris in 1790, Hebert Cloots, &c., 
were executed March 24, 1794. 

CORDOVA, the ancient Corduba, a Roman city in Spain, taken by the Goths in 572, 
and made the capital of an Arab kingdom by Abderahman in 757. It became eminent 
for its learned men, and was the birthplace of Seneca and Lucan under the Romans, and of 
the great Ai'abian physician Averrhoes. It was rescued from the Arabs by Ferdinand III., 
of Castile, in 1236, and was taken by the French in 1809 ; but abandoned by them in 1813. 

CORFU. See Corcyra. 

CORINTII (Greece), a city, said to have been built, 1520 B.C., on the ruins of Ephyra. 
It was defended by an elevated fortress called Acrocorinth, surrounded with strong walls. 
Its situation was so advantageous, that Cicero named it the Eye of Greece, and declared, that 
of all the cities known to the Romans, Corinth alone was worthy of being the seat of a great 
empire. — Yov Corinth, in North America, see United States, 1862, 1863. 



The Isthmian games instituted, it is stated, by 
Sisyphus, who founded a kingdom . B.C. 1326 

Return of the HeraclidiB 1107 

Their dpiasty established by Aletes . . 1074 

The Corinthians invent ships called triremes, 

with three benches of oars . . 786 or 758 

Eeign of Bacchis, 925 ; oligarchy of the Bacclaidas 

747-657 
Thelestes deposed, and the government of the 

Prytanes instituted : Automenes is the first 

on whom this dignity is confen-ed. about 
A colony goes to Sicily, and founds the colonies 

of Syracuse and Corcyra, about . . . 

Revolt of the Corcyreans : they defeat the 

Corinthians at sea ...... 

Cypselus, a despot, sets aside the Prytanes 
His son Periander rules, and favours genius 

and learning 627-585 

Psammetichus deposed, and a republic formed 580 



745 



734 



664 
655 



The Corinthians engaged in the Persian war b. c. 480 

War with the Corcyreans 435 

The Corinthian war (which see) .... 395 
Acrocorinth (citadel) taken by Aratus, and an- 
nexed to the Achaian League . . . . 243 
The Roman ambassadors first appear at Corinth 228 
Corinth destroyed by Lucius Mummius, who 
sends to Italy the first fine paintings there 
seen, they being part of the spoil {Livy) , 146 

Rebuilt by Julius Caesar 46 

Visited by St. Paul (ylc(« xviii.) . . a.d. 54 
His two epistles to the Corinthians . . 59, 60 
Ravaged by Alario ....... 396 

Phindered by Normans from Sicily . . . 1146 
Taken by Turks, 1446 ; by Venetians, 1687 ; by 
Turks, 1715 ; from whom it was finally taken 

by the Greeks in 1S23 

Corinth nearly destroyed by an earthquake 

Feb. 21, 1858 



CORINTHIAN ORDER, the richest of the orders of ancient architecture, called by 
Scamozzi, the virginal order, is attributed to Callimachus, 540 b. c. See A bacus. 

CORINTHIAN WAR, which began 395 B.C., received this name, because the battles 
were mostlj' fought in the neighbourhood of Corinth, by a confederacy of the Athenians, 
Thebans, Corinthian.s, and Argives, against the Lacedremonians. It was closed by the 
peace of Antalcidas, 387 B.C. The most famous battles were at Coronea and Leuctra 
{ivhicli see). 

CORK, S. Ireland, built in the 6th century. The principality of the M'Cartys was 
converted into a shire by king John, as lord of Ireland. The foundation of the see is 
•ascribed to St. Barr, or Finbarr, early in the 7th century. About 143 1, this see and that of 
Cloyne were canonically united ; Init on the death of bislK>p Synge, in 1678, they were separated, 
the see of Ross having been added to Cork about a century before, 1582. No valuation is 
returned of this see in the king's books ; but in a manuscript in Marsli's library, it is taxed 31 



on an appeal by the defendant in the case of Boosey v. Jeffrey. (In 1S31, Mr. Boosey purchased the copy- 
right of Bellini's opera. La Sonnambula, from which Mr, Jeffrey published a oavatina. Six of the judges 
were for protecting foreign copyrights, and seven of a contrary opinion.) 



COR 



209 



COR 



Eliz. at 40I., sterling ; and in a MS. in the college library at 25?. The sees of Cork and 
Cloyne were again united in 1833. A clia])ter was granted to the city by Henry III. in 
1242 ; its great charter was granted by Charles I. 



A large part of the town was consumed by an 
awful fire in 1621 

Taken by Cromwell in 1649 

The earl of Marlborough besieged and took 
Cork from king James's army, when the 
duke of Grafton, a natural son of Charles II.. 
was slain i6go 

The cathedral was rebuilt by the prodice of a 
coal duty, between the years . . 1725 & 1735 



Explosion of gunpowder here . Nov. 10, i8io 
One of the three colleges, endowed by govern- 
ment pursuant to act 8 & g Vict. c. 66, passed 
July 31, 1845, was inaugurated in this city. 
See Queen's VoUeges. . . . Nov. 7, 1849 
Railway to Dublin finished in . . . . 1850 
Cork industrial exhibition opened, June 10, 
and closed Sept. 11, 1852 



CORK-TREE, Quercus suher, a speciesof the oak ; part of its bark is the cork used for 
stopping bottles. The Egyptians made coffins of cork. The tree grows in great abundance 
on the Pyrenean mountains, and in other parts of Spain, in France, and in the north 
of New England. It was brought to England about 1690. A cork carpet company was 
formed in 1862. 

CORN. The origin of its cultivation is attributed to Ceres, who, having taught the art 
to the Egyptians, was deified by them, 2409 B.C. Arundclian Marbles. The art of 
husbandry, and the method of making bread from wheat, and wine from rice, is attributed 
by the Chinese to Ching Noung, the successor of Fohi, and second monarch of China, 1998 
B.C. Univ. Hist. Corn provided a common article of food from the earliest ages of the 
world, and baking bread was known in the patriarchal ages. See Exodus xii. 15. Wheat 
was introduced into Britain in the 6th century by Coll ap Coll Frewi. Roberts's Hist. Anc. 
Britons. The first importation of corn, of which M-e have a note, was in 1347. A law 
restricting it was made in 136 1. Bounties were granted on its importation into England in 
1686. — The new London Corn Exchange, Mark-lane, London, erected at an expense of 
90,oooZ., replacing one established in 1747, was oj^ened June 24, 1828. 



CORN-LAWS. 

The restrictions on the importation of com are 
felt, in consequence of the increase of manu- 
factures, abniit 1770 ; they were relaxed in . 

Mr. Robin.son's act passed, permitting its im- 
portation when wheat should be 80s. per 
quarter 

Durmg the discussions on this bill, mobs as- 
sembled in Ijondon, and many of the houses 
of its supporters were damaged, Jan. 28 ; and 
a riot in Westminster continued several days 
and occasioned much mischief, March 21, et 
f't'l- ......... 

The corn bill, after passing in the commons, is 



Average per quarter. 
SJiillings. Shillings 

under 51 



defeated in the house of lords by a clause, 
proposed by the duke of Wellington, which is 
carried by a majority of 4 . . June i. 

The act (called the sliding scale) whereby wheit 
was allowed to be imported on payment of a 
duty of I?. 5.S. 8rf. per quarter, whenever the 
average price of all England was under 62.?. ; 
from 62.S. to 63.1., il. 4.«. 8d. ; and so gradually 
reduced to is., when the average price was 
73«. and upwards, passed . . July 15, 

The act 5 Vict. c. 14, passed 29th April, 1842, 
the second " sliding scale act," regulated the 
duty on wheat as follows, with sliding duties, 
also, on other articles of com : — 



1827 



51 and under 52 

52 and under 55 

55 and under 56 

56 and under 57 

57 and under 58 

58 and under 59 



The Corn Importation Bill (introduced by sir 
Robert Peel), 9 & 10 Vict. c. 22 (by which the 
duty on wheat was reduced to 4.5. when im- 
ported at or above 53s., until ist Feb. 1849 ; 
after which day the duty became is. per 



Duly. 


Average per quarter. 


Duty. 


Average per quarter. 


Duty. 


s. d. 


Sliillings. Shillings. 


£ 8. d. 


Shillings. Shillings. 


£ s. d 





c.g and under 60 


13 


66 and under 69 


060 


19 


60 and imder 61 


12 


69 and under 70 


050 


18 


61 and under 62 


II 


70 and under 71 


040 


17 


62 and under 63 


10 


71 and under 72 


030 


16 


63 and vmder 64 


9 


72 and luider 73 


020 


15 


64 and under 65 


080 


j 73 and upwards 


010 


14 


65 and under 66 


070 







quarter only, on all kinds of grain imported 
into the United Kingdom, at any prices), re- 
ceived the royal assent . . June 26, 1846 
t:^eo Anti-Corn-Law League. 



CORNWALL, S.W. extremity of England, originally called Kcrnou, a tcnn connected 
with the Latin cornu, a horn, in allusion to its numerous promontories or projecting points. 
On the retreat of the ancient Britons, Cornwall is said to have been formed into a kingdom, 
and to have existed many years under different princes, among whom were Ambrosius 
Aurelius, and the celebrated Arthur. It was erected into a dukedom by Edward III. March 
17, 1337, and the heir to the crown of England, if a prince, is ])orn duke of Cornwall, but is 
immediately afterwards created prince oi' Wales. The CoruLsh insurgents, under Thomas 
Hammock, "were defeated at Blackheath, June 22, 1497. A powerful insurrection on account 
of the establishing the Protestant liturgy in ])lace of the mass, began in Cornwall and Devon 
in June, and was suppressed, after much bloodshed, in December, 1549. The last person 

V 



COR 210 COR 

■w'ho spoke the Cornish dialect is said to have heen Dolly Pentreath, who died aged 102 at 
Penzance in 1778. The prince and princess of Wales visited Cornwall in July, 1865. See 
Stannary Courts. 

CORONATION. The first coronation by a bishop was that of Majocianus, at Constan- 
tinople, 457. Charlemagne was crowned emperor of the west by the pope, Leo III., Dec. 
25, 800, The ceremony of anointing at coronations was introdnced in England in 872, and 
into Scotland in 1097. The coronation of Henry III. took place, in the first instance, 
without a crown, at Gloucester, Oct. 28, 1216. A plain circle was used on this occasion in 
lieu of the ci'own, wdiich had been lost with the other jewels and baggage of king John, in 
passing the marshes of Lynn, or the Wash, near Wisbeach. At the coronation of William 
and Mary, the bishop of London ]>ut the crown on the king's head, as Dr. Sancroft, arch- 
bishop of Canterbiiry, would not take the oaths to their majesties. George IV. was crowned 
July 19, 1821. William IV. crowned, with his queen, Sept. 8, 1831 ; and Victoria, Juno 
28, 1838. 

Coronation Chair. In the cathedral of Cashel, 
formerly the metropolis of the kings of Munster, 
was deposited the Lia Fail, or Fatal Stone, on 
■which they were crowned. In 513, Fergus, a 
prince of tlae royal line, having obtained the Scot- 
tish throne, procured the uee of this stone for his 
coronation at Dunstaffnage, wlicre it continued 
until tlie time of Kenneth II., who removed it to 



Scone ; and in 1296, it was removed by Edward t. 
from Scone to Westminster. 
The CoBONATioN Oath was first administered to the 
kings of England by Dunstan (ai-chbshop of Can- 
terbury), to Etheh-ed 11., in 978. An oath, nearly 
corresponding with that now in use, was adminis- 
tered in 1377, and was altered in i6Sg. 



CORONEA, Battles of. i. (or Chaeronea). The Athenians were defeated and their 
general Tolmides slain in a battle with the Boeotians at Coronea near Chreronea, 447 B.C. 
2. The Athenians, Thebans, Argives, and Corinthians having entered into a league, offensive 
and defensive, against Sparta, Agesilaus, after diffusing the terror of his arms, from his many 
Tictorie.«, even into Upper Asia, engaged the allies at Coronea, a town of Bccotia, and 
achieved a great victory over them, 394 B.C. 

CORONERS, officers of the realm in 925. Coroners for every county in England were 
first appointed by statute of Westminster, 4 Edw. I. 1276. Stow. They are chosen for life 
by the freeholders, and their duty is to inquire into the cause of violent or unnatural death, 
upon view of the body. Coroners were instituted in Scotland in the reign of Malcolm II., 
about 1004. By an act passed in 1843, coroners are enabled to appoint deputies to act 
for them in case of illness. — 20,531 coroners' inquests Avere held in England and Wales? 
in 1859 ; 21,178 in i860 ; 21,038 in 1S61 ; 50,591 in 1862 ; 22,757 in 1863 ; and 24,787 
in 1864. 

CORONETS, caps or inferior crowns, of various forms, that distinguish the rank of the 
nobility. The coronets for earls were first allowed by Henry III.; for viscounts by Henry 
VIII.; and for barons by Charles II. Baker. But authorities conflict. Sir Robert Cecil, 
earl of Salisbury, was the first of the degree of earl who wore a coronet, 1604. It is uncer- 
tain when the coronets of dukes and marquesses were settled. Bcatson. 

CORPORATIONS are stated by Livy to have been of very high antiquity among the- 
Romans, by whom they were introduced into other countries. They were first planned by 
Numa, in order to break the force of the two rival factions of Sabines and Romans, by insti- 
tuting separate societies of every manual trade and profession. Plutarch. 

CORPORATIONS, Municipal, in England. Bodies politic, authorised by the king's, 
charter to have a common seal, one head ofiicer, or more, and members, who are able, by 
their common consent, to grant or receive in law any matter within the compass of their 
charter. Cowel. Corporations were formed by charters of rights granted by the kings of 
England to various towns, first by Edward the Confessor. Henry I. granted charters, iioo : 
and succeeding monarchs gave corporate power.s, and extended them to numerous large 
communities throughout the realm, subject to tests, oalhs, and conditions. Blacksione. The 
Corporation and Test act, passed in 1661, was repealed in May, 1828. The Corporation 
Reform act, for the regulation of municipal corporations in England and Wales, 5 & 6 Will. 
IV. c. 76 (1835). The Irish Municipal Corporation act, 4 Vict. c. 108, passed in 1840, wasi 
amended in 1861. 

CORPULENCE. In Germany some fat monks have weighed eighteen stone. Render. 
Of modern instiinces known in this country was Mr. Bright, a tallow-chandler and grocer, 
of Maldon, in Essex, wdio died in the 29th year of liis age. Seven persons of the common 
size were witli case enclosed in his wai.st<oat. He was buried at All Saints, Maldon, Nov. 
I2j 1750, Daniel Lambert, supposed to have been the heaviest man that ever lived, died 



COR 211 COR 

in his 4otli year, at Stamford, iu Lincolnshire, Aveighing ten stone more than Mr. Bright, 
June 21, 1809. He is said to have weighed 52 stone, 11 pounds. James Mansfield died at 
Debden, Nov. 9, 1856, aged 82, weighing 34 stone.* 

CORPUS CIIRISTI, a festival in the Roman catholic church, in honour of the doctrine 
of transubstantiation, kept on the Thursday after Trinity Sunday. It was instituted by 
pope Urban ilV. between 1262 and 1264, and confirmed by the council of Vienne in 13 11. 

" CORRELATION of the PHYSICAL FORCES" is the title of a book by Mr. W. R. 
Grove, F.R.S., who in 1842 enunciated the theory of the correlation or mutual dependence 
and convertibility into each other of all the forces of nature (viz. heat, light, electricity, 
magnetism, chemical afRnity, and motion). 

CORRESPONDING SOCIETY of LONDON, was formed about 1791 to spread liberal 
opinions and check tlie tyranny of the British government, then much alarmed by the 
French revolution. Home Tooke and other members were tried and acquitted, Oct. 1794. 
See Trials, 1794. The meetings of the society at Copenhagen-fields and elsewhere, in Oct. 
and Nov. 1796, were termed treasonable. — On April 21, 1798, Messrs. O'Connor, O'Coigley, 
and other.s, Avere tried for corresponding with the French directory ; and James O'Coigley 
was executed as a traitor (protesting his innocence) on June 7th. 

CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE. See Mercury. 

CORRUPT PRACTICES ACT, respecting elections for members of parliament, was 
passed in 1854, and continued in 1861. 

CORSICA, an island in the Mediterranean Sea, called by the Greeks Cyrnos. The 
ancient inhabitants were savage, and bore the character of robbers, liars, and atheists, 
according to Seneca when he lived among them. Corsica was colonised by Phocteans 564 
B.C., and afterwards held by the Carthaginian.?, from whom it was taken by the Romans, 
231 E.G. In modern times, it was nominally dependent upon Genoa, until 1768, when it 
was ceded to France. During a revolt it was erected into a kingdom under Theodore, its 
first and only king, in I736.t The celebrated Pascal Paoli was chosen for their general by 
the Corsicans, in 1753. He was defeated by the count de Vaux, and fled to England, 1769. 
The people acknowledged Geo. III. of England for their king, June 17, 1794, when sir 
Gilbert Elliott was made viceroy, who opened a pnrliament in 1795. A revolt was sup- 
pressed in June, 1796 ; and the island was relinquished by the British, Oct. 22, same year, 
when the people declared for the French, who still retain it. Napoleoii I. was born at 
Ajaccio in Corsica on Aug. 15, 1769. A statue to his memory was inaugurated by j)rince 
Napoleon Jerome, May 15, 1865. 

CORTES, the Spanish parliament, originating in the old Gothic councils. The cortes- 
were assembled after a long interval of years, Sept. 24, 1810 ; and settled the new constitu- 
tion, March 16, 1812. This constitution was set aside by Ferdinand VII., who banished 
many members of the assembly in May, 1814. The cortes were opened by hinr in 1820, and 
dissolved in 1823 ; again assembled in 1834, and liave since been regiUarly convened. The 
cortes of Portugal assembled by virtue of don Pedro's charter, Oct. 30, 1826 ; they were 
suppressed by don Miguel in 1828, and restored in 1833. 

CORUNNA (N.W. Spain). The British arnij', about 15,000 men, under the command 
of sir John Moore, had just accomplished a safe retreat when they were attacked by the 
French, whose force exceeded 20,000 : the enemy were completely repulsed, but the loss of 
the British in the battle was immense, Jan. 16, 1809. Sir John was struck by a cannon- 
ball, which carried away his left shoulder and part of the collar-bone, leaving the arm hang- 
ing by the flesh : he died universally lamented. The remains of the army hastily embarked 
at Corunna, Jan. 17, under sir David Baird. 

* 1111863, Mr. Wm. Banting published a letter on corpulence, recommending, from his own experience, 
as a remedy, great moderation in the use of sugar and starch in diet. 50,000 copies of this letter were 
speedily sold or given away. 

t He came to England, where he was imprisoned in the King's Bench prison for debt, and for many 
years subsisted on the benevolence of private friends. Having been released by an act of insolvency, in 
1756, he gave in his schedule the kingdom of Corsica as an estate to his creditors, and died the same year 
at his lodgings in Soho. The earl of Oxford wrote the following epitaph, on a tablet near his grave in St. 
Anne's church, Dean-street : — 

" The grave, great teacher ! to a level brings 
Heroes and beggars, gaUey-sl.ves and kings. 
But Theo ^ore this moral loam'd ere dead ; 
Fate pour'd its lesson on his living head, 
Bestow'd a kingdom and denied him bread." 

P 2 



COR 212 COT 

CORUS (or Corupediou), a plain in Phrygia, Asia Minor, where the aged Lysimachus 
was defeated by vSeleucns, and slain, 281 B.C. Tliese two were the only survivors of the 
warlike comimnions of Alexander tlie Great. 

CORYPHiEUS, the principal person of the chorus in the ancient tragedy. The name 
was given to Tysias, afterwards named Stesichorus, who first instructed the chorus to dance 
to the lyre, 556 b.c. 

COSMOGRAPHY. See Astrommy and Geography. 

COSSACKS, the warlike people inhabiting the confines of Poland, Russia, Tartary, and 
Turkey. They at first lived by plundering the Turkish galleys and the people of Natolia : 
but were formed into a regular army by Stephen Bathori, in 1576, to defend the frontiers of 
Russia from the incursions of the Tartars. They joined tlie Russians in 1654, and in the 
great war of Europe against France (1813-15), they formed a valuable portion of the Russian 
army. 

COSTA RICA, a republic in Central America, established in 1848. It has been much 
disturbed by the American filibusters. See Nicaragua and America, Central. On Aug. 14, 
1859, the president Juan Mora was suddenly deposed, and Dr. Jose Montealegre made 
president. Population in 1861, 131,000. 

COSTERMONGERS, itinerant dealers in fruit, vegetables, fish, &c., deriving their name, 
it is said, from costard, a favourite apple. The London costermongers are useful frequently 
in relieving the markets when glutted; and it was said, in i860, that 3,000,000?. passed 
through their hands annually. Previous to fasting and thanksgiving days, they sell the 
appointed forms of prayers in great numbers. On Nov. 22, i860, they held a meeting in 
order to represent to the city authorities the hardships they felt by the police restricting 
their means of livelihood. 

COSTUME. See Dress. 

COTTAGE. The term was originally applied to a small house without land, 4 Edw. I. 
1275. "No man may build a cottage, except in towns, unless he lay four acres of land 
thereto," &c., 31 Eliz. 1589. This statute was repealed, 15 Geo. III. 1775. By returns to 
the tax office, in 1786, the number of cottages was 284,459. The number in 1800 was 
428,214 ; the number in 1840 was about 770,000. In i860 the public attention was much 
drawn to the deplorable state of cottages in many parts of the country, and the law of 
settlement was altered in 1865.* 

COTTON, a vegetable wool, the produce of the Gossypium, a shrub indigenous in the 
tropical regions of India and America. Indian cotton cloth is mentioned by Herodotus, was 
known in Arabia in the time of Mahomet, 627, and was brought into Europe by his followers. 
It does not ajipear to have been in use among the Chinese till the I3tli century ; to them we 
are indebted for the cotton fabric termed nankeen. Cotton was the material of the princijial 
articles of clothing among the Americans when visited by Columbus. It was grown and 
manufactured in Spain in the loth century ; and in the 14th century was introduced into 
Italy. Indian muslins, chintzes, and cottons were so largely imported into England in the 
I7tli century, that in 1700 an act of parliament was passed, prohibiting their introduction. 
Cotton became the sta])le commodity of England in the present century. About 1841 the 
"cotton" or " Manchester" interest began to obtain political influence, which led to the 
repeal of the corn laws in 1846. See Calico, Muslin, &c. 



PROGRESS OF THE COTTON MANUFACTURE IN ENGLAND. 

.Fustian and Velveteen made of cotton, about 1641. 
Calico, Sheeting, d-c. The fly-shuttle was invented by- 
John Kay, of Bury, 1738 ; the drop box by Robert 
Kay, 1760; spinning by rollers falso attributed to 
JohnWyatt) patented by Louis Paul, 1738; the 
spinning-jenny, by Hargreaves, 1767 ; the water- 
frame, by Arkwright, 1769 ; the power-loom, by 
Rev. Dr. Edmund Cavtwright, 17S5 ; the dressing 
machine, by Johnson and Radcliffe, 1802-4; another 
pov7er-loom, by Horrocks, 1803-13. A combing ma- 
chine was patented by Joshua Heilmann, in 1845. 



Brithli Mualin (totally superseding that of India) is 
due mainly to the invention of the Mule (jchich 
see) by Samuel Crompton, 1774-9 ; and to the self- 
acting mule of Mr. Roberts, 1S25. 

Calico Printing commenced 1764. 

The Steam- Engine first api)lied to the cotton manu- 
facture (by Boulton and Watt) 1785. 

Bleachinn by means of chloride of lime introduced by 
Mr. Tennant, of Glasgow, 1798. 

Stockings. The stocking-frame was invented by 
William Lee, in 1589. Cotton Stockings were first 



• The Cottager's Stove was designed by captain John Grant, registered Dec, 1849, and presented by him 
to the metropolitan association for improving the dwellings of the industriovis classes. It requires no 
fixing, is extremely simple in its construction, and all the operations of cooking may be carried on with 
any description of fuel. 100 lb. of meat and 115 lb. of vegetables have been cooked in one of these stoves 
with less than 20 lb of coal See Cookery. 



COT 



213 



COU 



COTTON, continued. 

made by hand about 1730; Jedidiah Stnitt ob- 
tained a patent for Derb}' ribbed stockings in 
1759 ; and Horton patented his knotter frame in 
1776 ; Cromptou's mule was eniploj'ed in making 
thread for the stocking manufacture about 1770. 



Cotton Lace — Bobbin-net. The stocking-frame of Lee 
was ajjplied to lace-making by Hammond, about 
1768 ; the process perfected by John Heathcoat, 



COTTOK FIBRE IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM. 





lb. 




/6. 




lb. 




lb. 


1697. 


■ 1.976,359 


1782 


. 11,828,039 


1820 . 


151,500,000 


1 861 . 


. 1,256,984,736 


I7I0 


. . 715,008 


1790. 


. . 31,500,000 


1830 


264,000,000 


1862 


■ 523,973.296 


1730 . 


• i>545>472 


1800 


56,000,000 


1840 . 


592,500,000 


1863 . 


669.583,264 


1764 . 


• • 3.870,392 


i8io. 


. . 132,500,000 


i860 


• 1.390.938.752 


1864 


• 893,304,720 



American Cotton. Previous to 1795, our cotton fibre 
came from the East and West Indies, the Levant, 
and a little from the United States. About 1786, 
the growth of cotton began in Georgia. In 1793, 
Eli Whitney, an American, invented the saw-gin, 
a machine by which cotton wool is separated from 
the pod and cleaned with great ease and expedi- 
tion. This led to such increased cultivation that 
the United States soon exported 1,500,000 lb. of cot- 
ton ; in 179s, 5,250,000 lb. ; in 1820, 89,999,174 lb. ; 
in 1830, 210,885,35816.; in 1840, 487,856,50416.; 
in 1847, 364,599,2911b.; in 1859, 961,707,2641b.; 
in i860, 1,115.890,6081b.; in 1861, 819,500,5281b. 

Cotton imported from other countries : In 1847, 
110,208,3241b.; in 1859, 264,281,8081b.; in i860, 
215,048,144 lb. ; in 1S61, 437,481,208 lb. 



Australian Cotton is said by Manchester manufac- 
turers to be superior to the best xVmerican cotton, 
Jan. , 1861. A company was formed at Manchester 
in Sept., i860, to endeavour to obtain cotton from 
India, Airica, and other places. It arose out of the 
Cotton Sujiply Association, formed in 1857. Since 

1861, the cultivation of cotton in India, Egypt, 
Italy, &c. , has greatly increased. 

Cotton Factories were regulated by acts of parliament 
passed in 1825, 1831, 1833, and 1844. The hours of 
labour were limited, and the employment of chil- 
dren under nine years of age prohibited. In 1846, 
1724 cotton mOls employed 197,500 persons. In 

1862, the persons emiiloyed were stated to bo 
451,000 : 315,000 in Lancashire. 



EXPORTS OF COTTON GOODS, YARN, &C. FROM UNITED KINGDOM. 

Official Value. Official Value. 

. £5,406,501 1861 .... £46,872,489 

. 20,509,926 1862 . . . . 36,750,971 

• • 23,333.225 1863 .... 47,587,188 

. 48,202,225 1S64 . . . . 54,856,289 

. . 52,012,430 



icial Value. 




£5.915 


1800 


23,253 


1820 


45,986 


1847 


355,000 


i8sq 


1,662,369 


i860 



1697 

1701 . 

I75I 
1780 . 
1790 

In i860, 12,419,096 cwt. of raw cotton was imported, 
of which 9,963,309 cwt. came from the United 
States, and 1,822,689 cwt. from India. 

The supply of cotton from North America has nearly 
ceased, in consequence of the secession of the 
southern states from the union in 1860-61. In 
1852, Mr. T. Bazley warned the country on the 
danger of trusting to this source. In May, 1862, 
he stated that through its faihu-e the loss of the 
labouring classes was 12,000.000^ sterling a year, 
and that the loss, including the employing classes, 
might be estimated at nearly 40,000,000^. a year. 

At a meeting of the noblemen and gentlemen con- 
nected with the cotton manufacturing districts at 
Bridgewatcr-house, St. James's, on July 19, 1862, 
the earl of Derby in the chair, io,ooo(. were sub- 
scribed to the Cotton District Belief fund. The 
viceroy of Egypt, in London at the time, gave 
loooi. and the queen gave 12000I on July 24. Libe- 
ral subscriptions flowed in from all parts. On Aug. 
28, the lord mayor had received 41,902?. 

In the Lancashire district (population about 4,000,000) 



there were receiving p.arisli relief, Sept. 1S61, 
43,500 persons; in Sept., 1862, 163,4 jS. JSarl of 
Derby, Dec. 2, 1862. 

In July, 1S63, about the value of 700,000'. remained 
of the donations which had been received in money 
and goods, amounting to about 1,900,000^ 

On Feb. 9, 1863, the "George Griswold" arrived, 
containing contributions of provisions, (fee., from 
North America, for the relief of the sufferers in 
Lancashire. 

The Union Relief Act (passed in 1862. and continued 
in 1863) gave much relief by enabUng overseers to 
borrow money to be expended in public works to 
be executed by the unemployed workmen. 

In Oct. 1864, much tUstress still existed, and fears 
were entertained for the approaching winter — 
90,000 more paupers than ordinary in cotton dis- 
tricts. Times, Jan. 18, 1865. 

In June, 1865, Mr. Farnall, tiie special commissioner, 
was recalled by the poor-law board, and the famine 
was declared to be ended. 1,000,000/. had been 
expended in two years. 

COTTONIAN LIBRARY, formed with great labour and judgment by sir Robert Cotton, 
1600, et scq. It was with difficulty rescued from the fury of the republicans during the pro- 
tectorate, and was secured to the public by a statute in 1700. It was removed to Essex- 
house in 1712 ; and in 1730 to Dcan's-yard, Westminster, where on Oct. 23, 1731, a part 
of the books sustained damage by tire. The library was removed to the British Museum 
in 1757. 

COUNCILS. King Alfred, in about S86, is said to have so arranged the business of the 
nation, that all resolutions passed through three councils. The first was a select council, to 
which those only high in the king's confidence were admitted ; here were debated all affairs 
that were to be laid before the second council, —bishops and nobles appointed by the king 
like the present privy council. The third was a general assembly of the nation, called, in 
Saxon, Wittenagemot, to which quality and offices gave a right to sit, independent of the 
king. In these three councils wc behold the origin of the cabinet and privy councils and 
the anti(iuity of pailiameuts. See Calimt, Cominon and Privy Councils, &c. 



cou 



214 



COU 



COUNCILS OF THE Chukch. The following are among the most memorable. Those 
numbered are the General Councils. Sir Harris Nicolas in his ' ' Chronology of History " 
enumerates 1604 councils, and gives an alphabetical list. 



Of the church at Jerusalem (^ris XV.) . . . 

Of the western bishops at Aries, in France, to 
suppress the Donatists ; three fathers of the 
English church attended .... 

I. First CEcumenical or General, at Nice (Con- 
stantino the Great presided), decreed the con- 
substantiality of the Son of God, condemned 
Arianism, and composed the Nicene creed . 

At Tyre, against Athanasius . . . . 

The fir.st at Constantinople, when the Arian 
heresy gained ground 

At Rome, in favour of Athanasius . . . 

At Sardis : 370 bishops attended ; Arians con- 
demned 

At Rimini : 400 bishops attended ; Constantine 
obliged them to sign a new confession . . 

II. Constantinople : 350 bishops attended, and 
pope Damasus presided . May to 3\i\y, 

III. Ephesus, when pope Celestine presided ; 
Pelagius censured . June 22 to July 31, 

IV. Chalcedon : Marcian and his empress at- 
tended ; Eutychianism censured . Oct. 8, 

v. Constantinople : pope Vigilius presided ; 
against errors of Origen . May 4 to June 2, 

VI. Constantinoiile, when pope Agatho pre- 
sided ; against Monothelites, 

Nov. 7, 680, to Sept. 16, 
Authority of the .six general councils re-estab- 
lished by Theodosius 

VII. Second Nicene council ; 350 bishoj)s at- 
tended ; against Iconoclasts, 

Sept 24 to Oct. 23, 

VIII. Constantinople : the emperor Basil at- 
tended ; against Iconoclasts and various 
heresies . . Oct. 5, 869, to Feb. 28, 

At Clermont, convened by Urban II. to autho- 
rise the crusades : 310 bishops attended 

IX. First Lateran : right of investiture settled 



32s 

335 

337 
342 

347 

359 

381 

431 

451 

553 

681 
715 

787 

870 
1095 



by treaty between pope Calixtus II. and the 
emperor Henry V. . March 18 to April 5, 1123 

X. Second Lateran : Innocent II. presided ; 
preservation of temporalities of ecclesiastics, 
the principal subject ; 1000 fathers of the 
church attended . . . April 20, 1139 

XI. Third Lateran, against schismatics, 

March 5 to 19, 1179 

XII. Fourth Lateran : 400 bishops and 1000 
abbots attended ; Innocent III. presided ; 
against Albigenses, &c. . Nov. 11 to 30, 1215 

XIII. Lyons ; under pope Innocent IV. : em- 
peror Frederick H. deposed, 

June 28 to July 17, 1245 

XIV. Lyons ; under Gregory X. : temporary 
union of Greek and Latin churches. 

May 7 to June 17, 1274 

XV. Vienne in DauphLne : Clement V. pre- 
sided, and the kings of France and Aragou 
attended ; the order of the_ Knights Tem- 
plars suppressed, 

Oct. 16, 1311 ; April 3 and May 6, 1312 
XVL Pisa: Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII. 
deposed, and Alexander elected, 

March 5 to Aug. 7, 1409 

XVII. Constance : Martin V. is elected pope ; 
and John Huss and Jerome of Prague con- 
demned to be burnt .... 1414-1418 

XVIII. Basil 1431-1443 

XIX. Fifth Lateran : begun by Julius II. . 1512 
Continued under Leo X. for the suppression of 

the pragmatic sanction of France, against the 
council of Pisa, &c., till . . . . -1517 

XX. Trent : the last styled fficumenical ; was 
held to condemn the doctrines of the re- 
formers, Luther, Zuinglius, and Calvin. (Sec 
Trent.) . . Dec. 13, 1545, to Dec. 3, 1563 



COUNCILS, French Republican. The council of Ancients was an assemlily of 
revolutionary France, consisting of 250 members, instituted at Paris, Nov. i, 1795, together 
with the council of Five hundred : the executive was a Directory of Five. Bonaparte 
dispersed the coimcil of Five hundred at St. Cloud, Nov. 9, 1799, declaring himself, Iloger 
Ducos, and Si^yes, consuls provisoii'cs. See France, 

COUNSEL are supposed to be coeval with the curia regis. Advocates'are referred to the 
time of Edward I., but earlier mention is made of them. Counsel who were guilty of deceit 
or collusion \\ere punishable by the statute of Westminster, 13 Edw. I. 1284. Counsel were 
allowed to persons charged with treason by act 8 Will. III. 1696,, The act to enable persons 
indicted for felony to make their defence by counsel, passed Aug. 1836. See barristers and 
Kinefs Counsel. 

COUNT, from the Latin comes, a companion, and French comte ; somewhat equivalent 
to the English earl, whose wife is still termed a countess. Count corresponds to the German 
graf. See Chami)agne and Toulouse. 

COUNTERPOINT (in music), writing the chords to a melody. The earliest specimen of 
contrapuntal writing extant is by Adam de la Halle in the 12th century. 

COUNTIES OR Shires. The division of this kingdom into counties began, it is said, 
with king Alfred ; but some counties bore their present names above a century before. The 
division of Ireland into counties took place in 1562. Lord-lieutenants were appointed in 
1549 in England and in 1831 in Ireland. Counties first sent members to parliament, before 
which period knights met in their own counties, 1285. Chandos Clause, Sect. 20 of the 
Reform act, 2 Will. IV. c. 45 (1832), inserted by the motion of the maniuis of Chandos. 
By it occupiers as tenants of land paying an annual rent of 50Z. became entitled to a vote for 
the knight of the shire. It had the effect of increasing the number of tory voters, and 
in consequence several vain attempts have been made to repeal the clause. 

COUNTRY PARTY. See Court Party. 



COU 215 COU 

COUNT V-COURTS* for the recovery of debts under 20I., superseding courts of requests, 
were instituted in 1846 by 9 & 10 Vict. c. 95. Tlie counties of England and Wales are 
divided into sixty districts, each district having a county-court, and a barrister as judge, 
and juries sworn when necessary. These courts having been found to work well, their 
jurisdiction was extended by 13 & 14 Vict. c. 61 (1850), to sums not exceeding 50?., aurl 
their proceedings were facilitated in 1S52 and 1854. There are now (1865) 59 county- 
courts in England and Wales. In 1850 the number of plaints entered at the courts of the 
sixty circuits was 306,793 for 1,265,115/. ; in 1857, 744,652 plaints for 1,937,745/. ; of the 
217,173 causes tried, 4297 were for sums between 20I. and 50/. Official Returns. From 
1847 to 1858 judgment was obtained in these courts for 8,309,236/. An act passed in 1865 
conferred on these courts equity powers, like those of the court of chancery, in cases relating 
to sums under 500/., to begin on Oct. i, 1865. 

COURIERS. Xenophon attributes the fir.st couriers to Cyrus ; and Herodotus says that 
they were common among tlie Persians. The Greeks or Romans had no regular couriers till 
the time of Augustus, when they travelled in cars, about 24 B.C. Couriers or posts are said 
to have been instituted in France by Charlemagne about A.D. 800. The couriers for letters 
were employed in the early part of the reign of Louis XI. of France, owing to this monarch's 
extraordinary eagerness for news. They were the first institution of the kind in Europe, 
1463. Henault. See Post-office. 

COURLAND, a duchy of Livonia, subjected to Poland in 1582, conquered by Charles 
XII. of Sweden in 1701 ; afterwards restored to Sweeden, but annexed to Russia in 1795. 

COURT PARTY— COUNTRY PARTY, classes of politicians of fluctuating numbers and 
varying power in the parliaments of England, beginning about 1620. At the end of the 17th 
century the latter embodied toryisni and high church principles with a strenuous mainten- 
ance of the assumed rights of "the land," as opposed to the innovations of whiggism and 
the corruptions of the trading interests. Its most distinguished statesman was sir Thomas 
Hanmer (the MoiUalto of Pope's Satires), who died in 1746. Ashe. 

COURTRAI (Belgium). Here Robert, count of Artois, who had defeated the Flemings 
in 1297, was defeated and slain by them, July 11, 1302. The conflict was named the 
"Battle of Spurs," from the number of gilt spurs collected. 

COURT BARON, an ancient court which every lord of a manor may hold by prescrip- 
tion in some part of the manor. It is supposed to have originated with the nobility. In it 
<Iuties, heriots, and customs are received, and estates and surrenders are passed. Its 
jurisdiction was restricted in 1747 and 1833. 

COURT LEET, an ancient court of record, belonging to a hundred, instituted for 
punishing encroachments, nuisances, and fraudulent weights and measures, and also offences 
agaiu.st the crown. The steward is the judge, and all persons residing within the hundred 
(peers, clergymen, &c., excepted) are obliged to do suit within this court. 

COURT OF HONOUR. In England the court of chivalry, of which the lord high 
constable was a judge, was called Curia MiUlaris, in the time of Henry IV., and subse- 
^piently tlie Court of Honour. In Bavaria, to prevent duelling, a court of honour was 
instituted in April, 1819. Mr. Joseph Hamilton for many years ardently laboured to 
establish a similar institution in Britain. 

COURT OF SESSION, the highest civil tribunal in Scotland, was instituted by 
James V. by statute. May 17, 1532. It consisted originally of 14 judges and a president, 
and replaced a committee of papliament. In 1830 the number of judges was reduced ; and 
the court now consists of the lord president, the lord justice clerk, and 11 ordinary 
judges (1865). 

COURT OF REQUESTS (also called a Court of Conscience) was first instituted in the 
reign of Henry YII. 1493, and was remodelled by Henry VIII. in 1517. Stow. Established 
for the summary recovery of small debts under forty shillings ; but in the city ot London 
the jurisdiction extends to debts of five pounds. Ashe. The courts of requests in the 
principal towns of the kingdom were superseded in 1847 (those of the city of London only 
excepted) by the County-Courts {which sec). 

* County-courts, or schyromotes, are of such remote antiquity that their origin is lost. In the time 
of the Saxons thev were the most important tribunals in this country Alfred is said to have divided Eng-- 
land into countiei^ and counties into hvindreds ; but the county-courts, the creation of which is generally 
■Utributed to him. in 896, seem to have existed at a period long anterior to his reigu, and to have been au 
essential part of the Saxon judicial system. 



COU 216 CRA 



COUETS OF JUST1CE_ were instituted at Athens, 1507 B.C. (see Areiopagus) ■ by 
V^ft^^' f- (^^^^J;,^^^"- 25V They existed under various denomination^ fn Rome^ 
For these realms, see Chancery, Common Pleas, Exchequer, King's Bench, &c. The citizen; 
of London were privileged to plead their own cause in the courts of udicature! witW 
employing lawyers, except in pleas of the crown, 41 Hen. III. 1257. Stow The rSs of 
the Irish courts were established by the British pLriiament in April, 1783 ° 

COURTS MARTIAL are regulated by the Mutiny act, first passed in 1690 
andTr™1i'stf ol^;r?587. ''""'^ ""^"'^ ^' ^^^^""^ ^^*^^^ ^^^-^^^ «- <i- ^e Joyeuse 

Oh.TJ^^^fl^^^\ ^ ""i™" particularly applied to those persons who in the rei^^n of 
Charles I. took the solemn league and covenant, thereby mutually engaging, to stand bv°each 
other in opposition to the projects of the king ; it was entered into in f638 Tie covenant 
or league between England and Scotland (the preceding one modified) was adopldtnd 
solemnly received by the parliament, Sept. 25, 1643 f and was accepted bvrharTe.TT 
Aug 16, 1650, but repudiated by him on his restoStion in 166 , when i was declared to 
^LSL'I P"-^^'-^"^^'^*' ^''^ -Pi^'^ «f it ordered to be burnt all over EngTand See 

COVENT GARDExN- (London), so called from having been the garden of St Peter's 
convent. The square was built about 1633, and the piazza on the no th side and the 

adjoining it was opened m March 17, i860, with the volunteers' ball 

Monmouth, Dec. 21, 1670. This outrage caused the Covenl/y'et £ ^ ls°L to p^^^^^ 
mahcious maiming and wounding, March 6, 1671 : repealed in 1828 ' ^ 

COVENTRY (Warwickshire). Leofric, earl of Mercia, lord of Coventry, is said to have 
reieved it from heavy taxes, at the intercession of his wife Godiva, on^ condition of her 
ridmg naked through the streets, about 1057. Processions in her nemorfrok place in 
1851, and on June 23, 1862. A parliament was held here in the reign THenry IV called 
2Mrhame>iiu7mndoctum ov the unlearned parliament, because lawyers were excluded and 
m the reign of Henry VI. another met here afterwards called pLlianu^ntt^Jiabolicum 
from the acts of attainder passed against the duke of York and others. The ?own S 
surroundedwith strong walls, three miles in circumference, and twenty-sx towers which 
were demohshed by order of Charles II. in 1662. The ribbon-makers here suffered muc 
from want of work in the winter of 1860-1.— The Bishoprio was fnnnrlprl iw n,^ i • I 
Mercia, 656, and had the double name of Coventry ^nrSchfi'ddwtl'L^T^ersTI by 
later bishops It was so wealthy that king Offa, by the favour of pope Adrian made it 
archiepi^copal ; but this title was laid aside on the death of that king.^ In 1075 theTee was 
removed to Chester; m 1 102 to Coventry ; and afterwards to its original foundat on Lich- 
field, but with great opposition from the monks of Coventry. Coventrv has latelv ,'1.™? 
into the bishopric of Lichfield. Beatson. See LMjielcL . ^ ^ ^^ 

COW-POCK INOCULATION. See Small Pox, and Vaccination. 

CRACOW (a city in Austrian Poland). The Poles elected Cracus for their duke who 
built Cracow with the spoils taken from the Franks, 700 et seq. Cracow was taken by 
Charles XII. in 1702. Taken and retaken several times by the Russians and other confede^ 

"om'the cSrSh^TmT'btt'V'^"'"' r*'V7'4. Kosciusko expelled the Ruiiat 
irom the city, Mai eh 24, 1794; l>ut it surrendered to the Prussians, June 15, same year, 

vation of the libertie/of parhament and the kWsXora&thorit^v^ ^'^) '°h''°'' ^"^ ' 3,' *>>« P'-eser- 
of all maUgnants, &c. ; 5, the preservation of ' ' f blesIIZeace h^f wiln^fVt if- '^^^^^^^''^ ^^^ Punishment 
aU who enter into the'covenant ; " ThU wiUwe doastntkTsTgtto/God^' ^"^S^^"^ >' 6, the assisting 



CRA 217 CRE 

and j in 1795 was awarded to Austria. Cracow was formed into a republic in 1815. 
Occupied by 10,000 Russians, who followed here the defeated Poles, Sept. 183 1. Its inde- 
pendence was extinguished : and it was seized by the emperor of Austria, and incorporated 
with his empire, Nov. 16, 1846, which was protested against by England, France, Sweden, 
and Turkey. See Poland. A dreadful lire laid the greater part of the city in ashes, July 
18, 1850. 

CRANES are of very early date, for the engines of Archimedes maybe so called. In 
1857 a crane had been erected at Glasgow capable of lifting 50 tons. 

CRANIOLOGY (or Phrenology), names given to the study of the external form of the 
human skull, as indicative of mental powers and moral qualities. Dr. Gall, the first pro- 
pounder, was a German physician, born March, 1758. His first observations were among 
his schoolfellows. Afterwards he studied the heads of criminals and others, and eventually 
reduced his ideas to a system, marking out the skull like a map. His first lecture was 
given at Vienna in 1796 ; but in 1802 the Austrian government prohibited his teaching. In 
1800 he was joined by Dr. Spurzheim ; and in 1810-12 they published at Paris their great 
work on the "Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System, and of the Brain in par- 
ticular." Gall died in 1828. Whatever opinion may be entertained of phrenology, there i.s 
no doubt that the researches of Gall and S|)urzheim have contributed gi-eatly to physiological 
science, animal and mental. Combe's " Phrenology," first published in 1819, is the popular 
English work on this subject. Phrenological societies were formed early in London and 
Edinburgh. 

CRANMER, Latimer, and Ridley, Martyrdom of, see Persecutions, note. 

CR^NON, Thessaly, N. Greece. The Macedonians under Antipater and Craterus 
defeated the confederated Greeks, twice by sea, and once by land, near Cranon. The 
Athenians demanded peace, and Antipater put their orators to death, among whom was 
Hyperides, who, that he might not betray the secrets of his country when imder torture, 
cut out his tongue, 322 B.C. Demosthenes is said to have taken poison shortly after. 
Dufresnoy. 

CRAONNE, (N. France)-. Here Victor and Ney defeated the Prussians under Blucher, 
after a severe contest, March 7, 18 14. 

CRAPE, a light kind of stuff like gauze, made of raw silk gummed and twisted on the 
mill. Its manufacture is of very early date, and it is said some crape was made by St. 
Badour, when queen of France, about 680. It was first made at Bologna. 

CRAYFORD (Kent). Hengist the Saxon is said to have defeated the Britons here, 457. 

CRAYONS, coloured substances made into paste, and dried into pencils, were known in 
France about 1422 ; and were improved by L'Oriot, 1748. 

CREASOTE, or Kreasote (discovered by Reichenbach about 1833), a powerful anti- 
septic and coagulator of albuminous tissue, is obtained from the destructive distillation of 
wood and other organic matters. It is successfully applied to the preservation of meat, 
timber, &c. 

CREATINE (from the Greek krcas, flesh), the chemical principle of flesh, was discovered 
in 1835 by E. Chevreul, and has been fully investigated by Liebig and Gregory. 

CREATION OF THE World. The date given by the English bible, and by Usher, Blair, 
and others, is 4004 B.C. There are about 140 different dates assigned to the Creation, vary- 
ing from 3616 years to 6984. Dr. Hales fixes it at 541 1. 

CRECY, or Cressy (N. France), where Edward III. and his son, Edward the Black 
Prince, and an army of about 36,000, obtained a great victory over Philip, king of France, 
with about 130,000, Aug. 26, 1346. John, king of Bohemia (nearly blind) ; James, king 
of Jt[ajorca ; Ralph, duke of Lorraine (sovereign princes) ; and a number of French nobles, 
together with 30,000 private men, were slain, while the loss of the English was very small. 
The crest of the king of Bohemia (three ostrich feathers, with the motto Icli Dien — in Eng- 
lish, " I serve,") has since been adopted by princes of Wales. 

CREDIT FONCIER. A plan of providing loans to landowners was introduced by 
Frederick the Great of Prussia, in 1763, in some of the Prussian provinces, as the best 
method of alleviating the distresses of the landed interest caused by his wars. The system 
consists of lending money to landowners on the security of their estates, and providing the 
loan capital by the issue of debentures charged upon the aggregate mortgaged estates. 



CRE 



218 CEI 



Tliere are two modes of carrying out this scheme : (i) by means of an association of la,,rq 

ifSliSlfllSss 

the states of Europe, m India, and in our colonies and dependencies^ ^c.rS^^^^ 
Nov'^if^i?c3^?fT™-,%r"-tt'^-'°"''^?^r^*^*^^^ "^™« '''' established at Paris, 

and inMaJ/ 1858, no dividend '^t pai^d Tl^ sy?;m^5^^^^^^^^ 

based on its principles were established in London L1T63 ^^ companies 

CREEDS. See Confessmis of Faith. 

CREMERA, Battle of. See FaUi. 

r.^JT'^^^^^t-'^^-- ^^^^y^' ^ ''*y ^°""^^'^'^ ^y «ie Romans, 221 B.C. It became an inde 

CRESCENP, a symbol of sovereignty among the Greeks and Romans and the device of 
Byzantium, now Constantinople, whence the Turks admiforl ./^""""^' '^"'^^ '^^^"^evice ot 
name to three oilers of kniihtiiood ; fouiiL by CharS 'of Van ^S'lv R^S'of 

Anjou, in 1448 ; by the sultan Selim, in 1801 ; the last is stiU in exStence ' " 

CRESTS are ascribed to the Carians. There are several renresentationc! nf P,vi,ov^ t 
(1 189) with a crest on the helmet resembling a plume of lathers^ S^e S^ S had 
generally crowns above their helmets ; that of Richard II. 1377 was surmoun -d W n^ 
on a cap o dignity See Cr.cy. Alexander III. of Scotland, 72^9 Tad a iZe of feath^^^ 
and the helmet Robert I. was surmounted by a crown, 1306 a id tLt S Inies I w .' 
hon, 1424. In the 15th and i6th centuries, the crest was de'scSe I to be a ^e n^^^^^^ 
upon a wreath, coronet, or cap of maintenance. G^villim. ° ^ ^ 

CRETE, now Candia {ivMch sec). 

CREVANT-SUR-YONNE (N. France). John Stuart, eari of Buchan with a French 
army, was besie^mg this place in July, 1423, when it was relieved by te earl of SaH bmv 
detat'ed.'™"^ ^"'"'^^ '^' Burgundians ; after a severe contest, tL French were tSaHy 

CREVELDT near Cleves (W. Prussia). Here, on June 23, 17^8 prince Frederick of 
Brunswick deleated the French under the count of Clermont. ^ -i^iedeiick of 

CRICKET, an ancient Eiiglish national game, said to be identical with "club bill" 
played in the 14th century. The present rules of the game were laid dmvn in .X.f 
committee of noblemen and o-entlemen incln.linc. tliP rlnt! V^ t T^\"i I774bya 
In ,86, the All Eugl.„d Kl„%™ g:3;,St'"|.Lt1n'l»talir' '"' "' ''°""" "'""• 



CONVICTIONS (BY TRIAL) IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 



Persons. Capital Offenc 

1847 . . 21,542 

1849 • • 21,001 66 

1850 . . 20,537 49 

1851 . . 21,579 70 

1852 . . 21,304 61 

1853 • • 20,756 55 



Persons. Capital Offences. 

1854 ■ . 23,047 49 

1853 . . 19,971 so 

1B5& . . 14,734 6g 

1857 . . 15,307 54 

1058 . . 13,246 S3 

1059 • . 12,470 52 



1862 



Persons. Capital Offences. 
. 12068 48" 

• 13.879 50 



1863 . . 15,799 



i5.3^'2 29 

29 



14.726 32 

Convictio^^s, in 1847 : Scotland, 3558 ; Ireland. xs,233. In x86x : Scotland, 2428 ; Ireland, 327X 



OR I 219 CRI 

CRIME, continued. 

The CrimmalJtistice act of 1855 authorises justices, with the consent of the prisoners, to pass sen- 
tence for short periods, instead of committing them to trial. 

In 1S56, the expenses for criminal prosecutions were 194,(312;. 4.9. Zd. 16 persons were executed for 
murder in 1856 (four foreigners), 14 in 1857, 11 in 185S (four foreigners), and q (four for wife-murder) in 1859. 
2,666 persons were liberated on tickets-of-leave in 1856. On Feb. 17, 1857, of 126 persons thus liberated, 58 
were believed to be living honestly. But in 1S61, 1862, and 1863, the system was considered to have failed 
through the numeruus crimes committed by ticket-of -leavers'; it was modified by the Penal Servitude act, 
in 1864. 

"Judicial Statistics" of crime, police, and law, with a report, were first published by government, 
in 1857. 

CRIMEA, or Ckim TaPvTAKY, a peninsula in tlie Euxine or Black Sea, tlie ancient 
Tanrica C'hersoncsus, colonised by the Greeks about 550 B.C. The Milesians founded the 
kingdom of Bo.sporu.s, now Kertch, which about 108 B.C. formed part of the dominions of 
Mitliridates, king of Pontus, whose descendants continued to rule the country under Roman 
protection till the irruption of the Goths, Huns, &c., about a.d. 258. About 1237, it fell 
into the hands of the Mongols under Genghis Khan ; soon after the Venetians established 
commercial stations, with a lucrative trade, but were supplanted bj^ the Genoese, who were 
permitted to rebuild and fortify Katt'a, about 1261. In 1475 Mahomet II. expelled the 
Genoese, and subjected the peninsula to the Ottoman yoke ; permitting the government to 
remain in the hands of the native khan.s, but closing the Black sea to Western Europe. In 
1774, by the intervention of the empress Catherine II., the Crimea recovered its inde- 
pendence : but on the abdication of the khan in 17S3, the Russians took pos.session of the 
country, after a war with Turkey, and retained it by a treaty of peace in 1792. The Crimea 
(now Taurida), was divided into eight governments in 1802. War having been declared 
against Russia by England and France, March 28, 1854, large masses of troops were sent to 
the East, which, after remaining some time at Gallipoli, and other places, sailed for Varna, 
where they disembarked May 29th. An expedition against the Crimea having been deter- 
mined on, the allied British, French, and Turkish force.s, amounting to 58,000 men (25,000 
British), commanded by lord Raglan and marshal St. Arnaud, sailed fron Varna, Sept. 3rd, 
and landed on the 14th, 15th, and i6th, without opposition, at Old Fort, near Eupatoria, 
about 30 miles from Sebastopol. On the 20th they attacked the Russians, between 40,000 
and 50,000 strong (under prince Menschikofl), entrenched on the heights of Alma, supposed 
to be una.ssailable. After a sharp contest the Rus.sians were totally routed. See Alma and 
Jtusso- Turkish War. Peace was proclaimed in April, 1856, and the allies quitted the 
Crimea July 12 following. 

CRIMESUS, a river in Sicily, near which Timoleon defeated the Carthaginian.s, 339 B.C. 

CRIMINAL LAWS of ENGLAND. Their great severity, pointed out by sir Samuel 
Romilly, sir James Mackintosh, and others, about 18 18, was considerably mitigated by su" 
R. Peel's acts, passed 1826-8. The criminal law was consolidated iu six acts passed in 1861. 

CRIMPING-HOUSES were used to entrap persons into the army ; hence the name of 
" crimp sergeant." In a riot in London, some of these receptacles were destroyed by the 
populace, in consequence of a young man who had been enticed into one being killed in 
endeavouring to escape, Sept. 16, 1794. 

CRINOLINE (a French word, meaning stuff made of crin, hair) is the modern name of 
the "fardingale " of the time of queen Elizabeth, hoop-like petticoats made of whalebone, 
<.te., revived in France and England since 1855. They have frequently occa.sioned loss of 
life, by coming in contact with fire and machinery. In No. 116 of the Tatlcr, published 
•Tan. 5, 1710, is an amusing trial of the hoop-petticoat then in fashion. 

CRIPPLEGATE (London), was so-called from the lame beggars who sat there, so earlj- 
as the year loio. The gate was new built by the brewers of London, in 1244 ; and was 
pulled down and sold for 91 Z. in July, 1760. The poet Milton was buried in the church 
near it, Nov. 12, 1674. See London Gates. 

CRISPIN and Crispianus are said to have been two saints, born at Rome, from whence 
they travelled to Soissons, in France, to propagate the Christian religion. Not to be charge- 
able to others, they worked as shoemakers ; but the governor of the town discovering them 
to be Christians, ordered them to be beheaded, about 288. On this account, the shoemakers 
chose them for their tutelar saints. Their day is Oct. 25. 

CRITICS. The first society of them was formed 276 b.c. Blair. Of this class were 



CKO 



220 



CRO 



Varro, Cicero, ApoUouius, and many distinguished men. In modern times, the Journal des 
Sfavans was the earliest work of the system of periodical criticism, as it is now knoAvn. It 
was originated by Denis de Sallo, ecclesiastical counsellor in the parliament of France, and 
was first published at Paris, May 30, 1655, and is still continued. The first work of this 
kind in England was the Rcvieio of Daniel Defoe (the term being invented by himself), 
published in Feb. 1703. The Wales of Literature was commenced in 1714, and was dis- 
continued in 1722. ^Q% Revieivs* 

CROATIA was conriuered by Coloman, king of Hungary, in 1102, and was with that 
country united to Austria in 1526. The Croatian diet was abolished in Nov. 1861. 

CROCKERY- WARE. See Earthemvare. 

CROCODILES were fed well and reverenced as divinities by the Egjq)tians. The 
emperor Augustus is said to have collected twenty-five at one time in his amphitheatre, 
where they were killed by gladiators. A fossil crocodile was found at Doddridge, Gloucester- 
shire, in 1806. 

CROIX, ST., a W. India Island, purchased from the French by Christian VI., king of 
Denmark, in 1733 ; taken by sir Alexander Cochrane, Dec. 22, 1807 ; restored in 1814. 

CROPREDY-BRIDGE, near Banbury, Oxfordshire. Here the royalists defeated sir 
William Waller and the army of the parliament, Jime 29, 1644. 

CROSIER, a staff surmounted by a cross, borne before an archbi.shop. The pastoral staff 
or bishop's staff, with which it is often confounded, was in the form of a shepherd's crook, 
intended to admonish the prelate to be a true spiritual shepherd. The bearing a crosier 
before ecclesiastics is mentioned in the life of St. Ctesarea of Aries, about 500. 

CROSS. That on which the Redeemer suffered on Mount Calvar5% was .said to have 
been found at Jerusalem, deep in the ground with two others, by St. Helena, May 3, 328 ; 
Christ's being distinguished from those of the tliieves by a sick woman being cured by 
touching it. It was carried away by Chosroes, king of Per.sia, on the plundering of Jeru- 
salem ; but was recovered b)' the emperor Heraclius (who defeated him in battle) Sept. 14, 
615, and that day has since been commemorated as "the festival of the Exaltation of the 
Cross," established in 642.— It is asserted by church writers that a shining cross, two miles 
in length, was seen in the heavens by Constantino, and that it led him to adopt it on his 
standards, with the inscription " In hoc signo vinccs " "in this sign thou shalt conquer." 
With these he advanced to Rome, where he vanquished Maxentius, Oct. 27, 312. Lenglet. 



Signing icilh the Cross was first practised by 
Christians to distinguish themselves from 
the Pag^ans, about no; and in the time of 
Tertullian, 260, it was deemed efficacious 
against poison, witchcraft, &c. 

Crosses in churcJies and chambers were intro- 
duced about 431 ; and set up on steeples about 

Maids of the Cross were a community of young 
women ■w-ho made vows of poverty, chastity, 
and obedience, instituted in . . . . 



568 



1265 I 



Crosses in honour of queen Eleanor were set up 
in the places where her hearse rested, be- 
tween 1296 (when she died) and . . . 

Crosses and idolatrous jiictures were removed 
from churches, and crosses in the streets de- 
molished by order of parliament . 

The order of Ladies of the Star of the Cross was 
instituted by the empress Eleonora de Gon- 
zaga, queen of Leopold I., in . . . . 



1641 



CROSSED CHEQUES. See Drafts. 

CROTONA (S. Italy), a city founded by the Achfean Greeks about 710 B.C. Here Pytha- 
goras taught about 520 B.C. 

CROWS. An act passed for their destruction in England (which breeds more of them, 
it is said, than any other country in Europe), 24 Hen. VIII. 1532. Crows were anciently 
employed as letter-bearers, as carrier-pigeons are now. 

CROWN. An Amalekite brought Saul's croAvn to David, 1056 B.C. (2<Sam. i.) The first 
Roman who wore a ci-own was Tarquin the Elder, 616 B.C. The crown was first a fillet tied 
round the head ; afterwards it was formed of leaves and flowers, and also of stufi's adorned 
with jewels. See Tiara. 



* The legality of fair criticism was established in the English courts, in Feb., 1794, when an action that 
excited great attention, brought by an author against a reviewer for a severe critique upon his work, was 
determined in favour of the defendant, on the principle that criticism is allowable, however sharp, if just, 
and not malicious. 



CRO 



221 



CRY 



CROWN, continued. 

The crown of Alfred had two little bella attached 
(872) ; it is said to have been long preserved at 
SVestniinstcr, and may have been that described 
in the parliamentarj- inventoiy taken in 1649. 

Athelstan's crown resembled an earl's coronet, 929. 

William I. wore his crown on a cap, adorned with 
points, 1066. 

Richard III. introduced the crosses, 1483. 

Henry VII. introduced the arches, 1485. 

The crown of Charles II., made in 1660, is the oldest 
existuig in our daj'. See Bloud's Conrtpivacy. 



The crown and regalia of England were pledged to 
the city of London by Richard II. for 2ooo(. in 
1 386. See the king's receipt on redeeming them. 
Rjjmtr. 

The Imperial State Crown of England was made by 
Rundell and Bridges, in 1838, principally with 
jewels taken from old crowns. It contains i large 
ruby, I large sapphire, 16 sapphires, 11 emeralds, 
4 rubies, 1363 lirilliants, 1273 rose diamonds, 147 
table diamonds, 4 drop-shaped pearls, and 273 
pearls. Professor Tennant. 



CROWN LANDS. The revenue arising from those in England is now nearly all subject 
to parliament, which annually provides for the support of the sovereign and government. 
The annual revenue now arising from crown lands is about 284,500?. The revenues of 
the duchies of Cornwall and Lancaster belong to the prince of Wales, and accumulate 
during his minority. Henry VII. (1485) resumed those which had been given to their 
followers by the sovereigns of the house of York. The hereditary estates of the crown were 
largely bestowed on their courtiers by the sovereigns— especially by the Stuarts. 

CROWNS AST) Half-crowns were coined in England by Edward YI. in 1553. None 
were coined in 1861, and they will gradually be withdrawn from circulation. 

CRUCIFIXION. A mode of execution common among the Syi-ians, Egyptians, Persians, 
Carthaginians, Greeks, and Romans, esteemed the most dreadful on account of the shame 
attached to it ; it was usually accompanied by other tortures. Ariarathes of Cappadocia, 
aged So, when vanquished by Perdiccas, was discovered among the prisoners, and by the 
conqueror's orders was flayed alive, and nailed to a cross, with his principal officers, 322 b. c. 
Jesus Christ was crucified April 3, A.D. 33 Bible. (April 15, a.d. 29, Clinton; March 28, 
A.D. 31. Hales). Crucifixion was ordered to be discontinued by Constantine, 330. Lcnglet. 
See Death, Punishment of. 

CRUELTY TO ANIMALS, Royal Society for the Prevention of, was instituted in 
1824. Through its exertion hundreds of cases of cruelty are annually prosecuted. Acts for 
the protection of animals were passed in 1835 and 1839. A similar society exists in Paris. 
In i860 both societies endeavoured to repress vivisection (physiological experiments on 
living animals). 

CRUSADES (French Croisadcs), wars undertaken by the Christian powers to drive the 
infidels from Jerusalem and the adjacent countries, called the Holy Land. They were 
projected by Peter Gautier, or Peter the Hermit, an enthusiastic French officer of Amiens, 
who turned pilgrim. Having travelled in the Holy Land, on his return, he deplored to pope 
Urban II. that infidels should be in possession of the city where Christ had taught. Urban 
convened a council of 310 bishops at Clermont in France, at which the ambassadors of the 
chief Christian potentates assisted, and gave Peter the fatal commission to excite all Europe 
to a general war, 1094. The first crusade was publislied ; an army of 300,000 men was raised, 
Peter had the direction of it, and Godfrey de Bouillon the command, 1095. Voltaire. The 
warriors wore a red cross upon the right shoulder, with the name of Croises, Crossed, or 
Crusaders; their motto was Volonte de Dieu, "God's will." — The French government are 
l)ublishing the Western Historians of the Crusades in a magnificent form (1844-60). 



I. Crusade (1096) ended by Jerusalem being taken by 
assault, July 15, 1099, and in establishing God- 
frey de Bouillon as king. 

II. Preached by St. Bernard in 1146, headed by 
emperor Conrad II., and Louis VII. of France. 
Crusaders defeated ; Jerusalem lost in 1187. 

Ill Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, &e., in 1188, 
joined by Philip II. of France and Richard I. of 
England, in 1190. Glorious, but fruitless. 

IV. 1195, by emperor Henry VI. ; successful till his 
death in 1197. 

V. Proclaimed by Innocent III., 1198. B.aldwin, 
count of Flanders, attacked the Greeks, and took 
ConstantiuoiJle in 1202. Hiscomiianions returned. 



VI. In 1228, by emperor Frederick II., who obtained 
possession of Jerusalem on a truce for ten years. 
In 1240, Richard, earl of Cornwall, arrived at 
Palestine, but soon departed. 

VII. By Louis IX. (St. Louis), who was defeated and 
taken prisoner at Mansoiu-ah, April 5, 1250; re- 
leased by ransom ; truce of ten years. 

VIII. And last, in 1270, by the same prince, who died 
on his way of a contagious disease, at Carthage, in 
Africa. Other princes follovv'cd him, among others 
prince Edward, afterwards our Edward I, In 1291, 
the soldan took Acre, and the Christians were 
driven out of Syria. 



CRYOPHORUS, an instrument (invented by Dr. Wollaston about 1812) to demonstrate 
the relation between evaporation at low temperatures and the production of cold. 



CRY 



222 



cue 



CRYPTOGRAPHIC MACHINE, for carrying on secret correspondence, patented i860. 

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY is the science relating to the symmetrical forms assumed by 
snhstauces passing from the liquid to the solid state. Rome de Lisle published his "Essai 
de Cristallograpliie," in 1772 ; but Rene- Just Haiiy is justly regarded as the founder of the 
modern school of ciystallography (1801). Whewcll. Dana, Dufresnoy, and Miller, are 
eminent modern Avriters on this subject. 

CRYSTAL PALACE, Hyde Park, Londok. See Exhihilion of 1851. 

CRYSTAL PALACE, Sydenham. The Exhibition building of 1851 having been 
surrendered to Messrs. Fox & Henderson on Dec. i, 185 1 ; the materials were sold for 
7o,oooZ. to a company (formed by Mr. Leach), Avho soon after commenced erecting the present 
Crystal Palace on its j»resent site, near Sydenham in Kent (300 acres having been purchased 
for the purpose) under the direction of sir Joseph Paxton, Messrs. Owen Jones, Digby Wyatt, 
and other gentlemen engaged in the erection of the preceding structure. The proposed 
capital of 500,000^. (in 100,000 shares of 5?. each) was increased in Jan. 1853 to a million 
pounds. In addition to the permanent exhibition, there are extensive gardens, with 
magnificent fountains, &c., illustrations of zoology, geology, botany, ethnologj'', &c. 



First column raised by S. Laing. M.P,, Aug. s, 1852 

During the progress of the works as many as 
6400 men were engaged at one time. By the 
fall of scaffolding, 12 men killed . Aug. 15, 1S53 

Dinner given to professor Owen and a party of 
savans in the interior of the model of the 
iguanodon, constructed by Mr. Watei house 
Hawkins Dec. 31, ,, 

The palace opened by the queen . June 10, 1854 

Grand musical fele on behalf of the Patriotic 
Fund Oct. 28, „ 

The palace visited by the emperor and empress 
of the French, &c. . . . April 20, 1855 

Fii'st grand display of the great fountains, in 
presence of the queen and 20,000 spectators, 

June 18, 1856 

The receipts were 115,627?. ; the expenditure, 
87,872<. ; not including payments for pre- 
ference shares, <fec. , in the year ending 

April 30, 1857 

The preliminary Handel festivals, June 15, 17, 
19, 1857 ; and July 2, 1858 (see Handel) ; the 
Handel festival itself took place on 

June 20, 22, and 24, 1859 

On the Fast day (for the Inoian mutiny) rev. 
C. Spurgeon preached here to 23,000 persons; 



476?. were collected, to which the C. P. com- 
pany added 200/ Oct. 7, 1857 

Centenary of the birth of Robert Burns cele- 
brated : the directors awarded 50? to a prize 
poem on the subject, which was obtained by 
Miss Isa Craig .... Jan. 25, 1859 

Festival kept in honour of Schiller, Nov. lo, 
1859 ; of Mendelssohn . . . May 4, i860 

London charity children sing here . June 6, ,, 

3000 Orpheonistes (French musical amateurs) 
pei'form choral music, June 25 ; the imperial 
band of Guides perform, June 26 ; both dine 
in the palace .... June 30, ,, 

About 100 English brass bands perform, July 10, ,, 

North wing injured by a gale of wind, Feb. 21, 1861 

Haydn's "Creation" performed (Costa, con- 
ductor) May I, „ 

Blondin's performances on an elevated rope 
begin here (he plays on violin, cooks, simu- 
lates falling, &c.) .... June i, ,, 

Another successful Handel festival : a new 
arched roof constructed for the orchestra ; 
about 4000 vocal and instrumental performers, 

June 23, 25, 27, 1S62 

Successful Handel festival , June 26, 28, 30, 1865 



CUBA, an i.sland (W. Indies) discovered by Columbus on his first voyage, Oct. 28, 1492, 
conqiiered by Velasquez, 151 1, and settled by the Spaniards. 



The buccaneer Morgan took the Havannah. See 

Buccaneers 1669 

The fort of Havannah erected by admiral Ver- 

1741 



Cuba again invaded by Lopez and his followers, 

Aug. 13, 

They were defeated and taken ; 3° were shot, 
and Lopez garrotted at Havannah. See Lone 
Star Sept. i. 

The president of the United States again issued 
a proclamation against an intended expedi- 
tion against Cuba . . . May 31, 

Messrs. Buchanan, Ma.son, and Soul^, United 
States envoys, met at Ostend and Aix-la- 
Chapelle, and reported, recommending the 
purchase of Cuba .... Oct. 

The Spanish minister in cortes declared that 
the sale of Cuba would be " the sale of Spanish 
honour itself " ,,.■,• Dec. 19, 



1851 



The Havannah taken by admiral Pococke and 

lord Albemarle, in 1762 ; but restored at the 

peace 1763 

" Lone Star " society (trhich see), for the acqui- 
sition of Cuba, &c., formed . . . . 1848 
Expedition, under general Lopez and a large 

body of Americans, with the view of wresting 

this island from the dominion of Spain, 

landed at Cuba (defeated) . . May 17, 1850 
The president of the United States (Taylor) had 

previously pubhshed a strong proclamation, 

denouncing the object of the invaders, 

Aug. II, 1849 

CUBIT, a measure of the ancients, by which the ark of Noah was measured (b.c. 2448). 
Holdcn. The Hebrew sacred cubit was two English feet, and the great cubit eleven English 
feet. Originally, it was the distance from the elbow, bending inwards, to the extremity of 
the middle finger. Cahnet. 

■ CUCUMBERS, noticed by Virgil and other ancient poets, were brought to England 
from the Netherlands about 1538. 



CUD 223 CUN 

CUDDALORE (India), on the coast of tlie Carnatic, was acquired by the English in 
1681. It was reduced by the French in 175S, but v^as recaptured in 1760 by sir Eyre 
Coote. Again lost in 1781, it underwent a destructive siege by the British under general 
Stuart, in 1783, which was continued until peace was signed, when it reverted to them, 1784. 

CUIRASS, a part of armour much in use by the Greeks and Romans. Tacitus. The 
skins of beasts, and afterwards tanned leather, formed the cuirass of the Britons imtil the 
Anglo-Saxon era. It was afterwards made of iron and brass, and covered the warrior from 
neck to waist before and behind. The cuirass Avas worn by the heavy cavalry in the reign of 
Henry III. 1216 ct scq* Napoleon had several regiments of cavalry wearing cuirasses. 

CULDEES (said to derive their name from cuUorcs Dei, worshippers of God,) monks of 
simple and peaceful lives in Scotland and Ireland in early times. They had their principal 
seat at St. Andrew's ; and it is said that in 1185 at Tipperary there was a Culdean abbey 
whose monks were "attached to simple truth and pure Christian worship, and had not yet 
conformed to the reigning superstition." They were eventually subjected to the papal yoke. 

CULLEIST'S-WOOD (Ireland) : a horrible slaughter of the English by the Irish took place 
at a village near Dublin, on Easter or Black Monday, so called from this massacre, March 30, 
1209. The English were a colony from Bristol inhabiting Dublin, whence they went to 
divert themselves at CuUen's-wood, when the O'Byrneg and O'Tooles fell upon them, and 
destroyed 500 men, besides women and children. 

CULLODEN, near Inverness, where the English, under William, duke of Cumberland, 
defeated the Scottish rebels headed by the young Pretender, the last of the Stuarts, April 16, 
1746. The Scots lost 2500 men in killed upon the field, or in the slaughter which occurred 
in the pursuit, while the loss of the English did not far exceed 200. After the battle, the 
duke's army practised great cruelties upon the vanquished and the defenceless country 
people. Smollett. Prince Charles fled, and wandered among the wilds of Scotland for six 
months, while 30,000^. were otfered for taking him, and the troops of the conqueror were 
constantly in search. He at length escaped fi'om Uist to Morlaix, and died at Rome in 
1788. 

CULVERINS, ordnance so called from the French couUvriiic, introduced into England 
from a French model in 1534. It was originally five inches .and a quarter diameter in the 
bore, and carried a ball of eighteen pounds. Bailey. 

CUMBERLAND, a N.W. county of England, was granted to Malcolm I. of Scotland in 
945, by king Edmund, " on condition that he should be his fellow-worker." It was seized 
by William 1., but restored to Malcolm 111., "who became his man," 1072. William the 
Lion, after his defeat at Alnwick, resigned Cumberland to Henry II., and it was finally 
annexed to England in 1237. 

DUKES OF CUMBERLAND. 



1726. William Augustus, second son of George II., 

died Oct. 13, 1765. 
1766. Henry Frederic, son of Frederic, prince of 

Wales, died Sept. 18, 1790. 



1799. Ernest Augustus ; became king of Hanover 
June 20, 1837 ; died Nov. 18, 1851. 

1 85 1. George V., the present king of Hanover 
(1865). 



CUMjE (S. Italy), an old Greek colony, 1050 B.C., said to have been the residence of 
the ancient Sibyl, was taken by the Samnites 420 B.C., and annexed and enfranchised by the 
Romans, 338 b. c. 

CUMBERLAND, The. See Naval Battles, 181 r. 

CUNAXA, in Mesopotamia, near the Euphrates, where Cj'rus the younger was defeated 
and slain by his brother Artaxerxes II., against whom he had conspired (b.o. 401), narrated 
in Xenophon's Anabasis. His Gi'eek auxiliaries in the battle were successful. See Retreat 
of the Greeks. 

CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS (from cuneus, Latin for a wedge), in characters resem- 
bling arrow-heads, found at Babylon, Behistun, &c., have lately been deciphered by English 
and foreign scholars, Avho date some of them as far back as 2000 B.C. This is impugned by 
other scholars. Se^ Assyria, Babylon, Behistun. 

* The use of cnir.aspes and helmets, as well as the u.=:e of bows and arrows, which had been hardly- 
known under the first race of the kings of France, became a military law under the second race. (Caidt. of 
Charl-m.) Chivalry at this time bcgi.n to be introduced ; the knight, who was called Milts, held a rank in 
the army, independently of his military rank. Reign of Louis V., year 987. HinauU. 



CUN 



224 



CUS 



CUNNERSDOEF (in Prussia), Battle of. The king of Prussia, with 50,000 men, 
attacked the Austrian and Russian aj-my of 90,000 in their camp, and at fii'st gained con- 
siderable advantages ; but pursuing them too far, the Austrians and Russians rallied, and 
gained a complete victory. The Prussians lost 200 pieces of cannon and 20,000 men in 
killed and wounded, Aug. 12, 1759. 

CUPOLA SHIPS. ^Q& Navy of England. 

CUPPING, a mode of blood-letting. The skin is scarrified by lancets, and a glass cup in 
which the air has been rarilied by flame, is immediately applied to it, when the blood usually 
flows into the cup. This operation was well known to the ancients, and is described by 
Hippocrates (b.c. 413) and Celsus (b.c. 20), who highly commend it. It was common in- 
England about 1820, but is not much employed in the present day. 

CURACOA, an island in the Caribbean sea, settled by the Spaniards about 1527, was 
seized by Holland in 1634. In 1800, the French having settled on part of this island, 
quarrelled with the Dutch, who surrendered it to a single British frigate. It was restored 
to the Dutch in 1802 ; taken from them by the British in 1807, and again restored in 
1 8 14. 

CURATES were of early appointment as coadjutors in the Romish church, and are men- 
tioned in England in the 7th century. Among the acts passed for the relief of this laborious 
class of the clergy, are the 12th Anne, 1713, and 36th, 53rd, and 58th Geo. III., and 
especially the beneficent act 2 Will. IV. Oct. 1831. It appeared by parliamentaiy reports 
on ecclesiastical revenues, that there were in 1831, 5230 curates in England and Wales, 
who.se stipends amounted to 424,695?. Tlie greatest number of curates in one diocese was 
Lincoln, 629 ; and the smallest that of St. Asaph, 43. 

CURFEW BELL (from the French couvrefcu), was introduced into England by Will. I. 
1068. On the ringing of the curfew at eight o'clock in the evening all fires and candles 
were to be extinguished under a severe penalty. Rapin. The curfew was abolished i Hen. 
I. 1 100. A curfew bell was rung at West Ham so lately as Nov. 1859. 

CURRANTS, from Corinth, whence, probably, the tree was first brought to us about 
1533. The name is also given to a small kind of dried grape, brought from the Levant and 
Zante. The duty on these curmnts (44s. ^d. per cwt. in 1834) has been reduced to 7s. The 
hawthorn currant {Ribcs Oxyacanthoidcs) came from Canada in 1705. 

CURRENCY ACTS. Those of sir Robert Peel were passed in 1819 and in 1844. 

CURT ATONE, near Mantua, N. Italy. Here the Austrians, under Radetzky, crossed the 
Mincio, May 28, 1848, and defeated the Italians after a severe conflict. 

CUSHEE PIECES, invented by Richard Leake, the master-gunner of the Royal Prince 
man-of-war, renowned for bravery shown in the engagement with the Dutch admiral Van 
Tromp, in 1673. 

CUSTOM is a law, not written {lex non scrij^ta), established by long usage and consent, 
and it is distinguislied from lex scripta, or the written law. It is the rule of law when it is 
derived from 1 1 89 downwards. Sixty years' custom is buiding in the civil law, and forty 
years' in ecclesiastical cases. 

CUSTOMS were collected upon merchandise in England, under Ethelred II. in 979. 
The king's claim to them by grant of jiarliament was established 3 Edw. I. 1274. Tlie 
customs were farmed to sir Thomas Smith for annual sums varying from 14,000?. to 50,000?. 
in the reign of Elizabeth. Stovx Thej' were farmed by Charles II. for 390,000?. in 1666. 
Davcnant. In 1671 commissioners were appointed. The customs were consolidated bj'^ Mr. 
Pitt in 1787. Between 1820 and 1830 so many reductions and consolidations were made in 
the customs department, that above a quarter of a million was saved in salaries, though the 
work has enormously increased. — Acts consolidating the customs duties were passed in 1853, 
1854, and i860, whereby the number of articles in the tarifi"aud the amount of the customs 
were greatly reduced. See Revenue. Custom-house officers and officers of excise were dis- 
qualified from voting for the election of members of parliament, in 1782. 



Customs in 




Customs in 




Customs in 


Customs in 




1580 . 


£i4,o(X) 


1684 . . . 


£530,000 


1830 


. £17,540,323 


185s . . • 


£21,630,081 


1592 


50,000 


1720 


1,555,600 


1835 . 


. 18,612,906 


1858 . 


23,109,105 


1614 . 


. 148,000 


1748 . . . 


2,000,000 


1840 


. 19,915,296 


1S60 . . . 


24,460,901 


1622 


168,000 


1808 


9,973,240 


1845 . 


. 20,196,856 


1862 


23,674,000 


1642 . 


. 500,000 


1823 . . . 


11,498,762 


1850 


. 20,442,170 


1864 . . . 


23,232,000 



cus 



CYP 



The custom-house once moi-e burnt down, and 
immense property and vaUiable records des- 
troyed Feb. 12, 1814 

The present edifice opened . . May 12, 1817 

Dublin custom-house commenced in 1781 ; 
opened in 1791. The eastern wing of its 
warehouse was destroyed by fire, with pro- 
perty to the amount of 400,000^ . Aug. 9, 1833 



CUSTOMS, continued. 

The customs in Ireland, m 1224, a sack of wool, 

3(Z. ; a last of hides, 61L ; a barrel of wine, ■2d. 
The customs business of Ireland was transferred 

to the London board . . . Jan. 6, 1830 

Citstom-house. A custom-house was erected in 

London on a large scale, 1304 ; and a yet 

larger in 1559. The last w;vs burnt down in . 1666 
A new one, built by Charles II., was burnt 

down in 1718, and again rebuilt. 

CUTLERY. See Skel. 

CUTTING-OUT MACHINES. Wearing apparel was first cut out by machinery in 
England in the factory of Messrs. Hyanis in 1853. Tlie machine, invented by Mr. Fre- 
derick Osbonrn, consists of a reciprocating vertical knife working through a .slot in the 
table that supports the pile of cloth to be cut. The cloth being pressed up to the edge of 
the knife by the attendant, the knife will sever it in the direction of the lines marked on 
the upper layer. This system of cutting out is now generally adopted in the slop-work 
trade, and, with the aid of the sewing-machine (luhich see), has tended greatly to improve 
the condition of the persons employed in the manufacture of wearing apparel for the home 
and foreign markets. 

CYANOGEN, a colourless gas (composed of nitrogen and carbon), irritating to the nose 
and eyes, derived from Prussian blue, was discovered by Gay Lussac in 18 14. 

CYCLE of the sun is the twenty-eight years before the days of the week return to the 
same days of the month. That of the moon is nineteen lunar years and seven intercalary 
months, or nineteen solar years. The cycle of Jupiter is sixty years, or sexagenary. The 
Paschal cycle, or the time of keeping Easter, was tirst calculated for the period of 532 years 
by Victorius, 463. Blair. See Mctonic Cycle, Calijypic Period. 

CYCLONES, circular whirlwinds, or hurricanes, common in the East and West Indian 
and Chinese seas, varying from 200 to 500 miles in diameter. Many details respecting them 
will be found in Rcid's " Law of Storm.s," first published in 1838. By the great cyclone of 
Oct. 5, 1864, immense damage was done on sea and land. About 100 ships are said to have 
been lost, and about 60,000 persons perished, and whole towns were nearly destroyed. See 
Calcutta. Captain Watson, of the "Clarence," observing the barometer falling, and fore- 
telling the approach of the cyclone, saved his ship by steering out of its range. 

CYCLOPEDIA. See Encyclopcedia. 

CYCLOPEAN MASONRY, a term given to very ancient buildings in Greece, Italy, and 
Asia Minor, probably the work of the Pelasgi, more than 1000 B.C. 

CYMBAL, the oldest known musical instrument, was made of brass, like a kettle-drum. 
Xenophon mentions the cymbal as invented by Cybele, who, we are told, used it in her 
feasts, about 1580 B.C. 

CYMRI or Ktmri (hence Cambria), the name of the ancient Britons who belonged to the 
great Celtic family, which came from Asia and occupied a large part of Europe about 1500 
B.C. About A.D. 640 Uyvnwal Moelmud reigned " King of the Cymry.'''' See Wales. 

CYNICS, a sect of philosophers founded by Antisthenes (about 396 B.C., Diog. Laert., 
Clinton), who professed to contemn all worldly thing.s, even all sciences, except morality ; 
were very free in reprehending vice ; lived in public, and practised great obscenities without 
blushing. Diogenes was one (died 323 B.C.). 

CYNOSCEPHALE {dogs' heads, so named from the shape of the heights), in Thessaly, 
where Pelopidas and the 'Ihebans defeated Alexander tyrant of Pherse and the Thessalians, 
364 B.C. (Pelopidas being slain) ; and whei-e the consul Flaminius totally defeated Philip V. 
of Macedon, 197 B.C., and ended the war. 

CYPRESS, Cupi-cssus ScmjKrvirens, a tree originally found in the isle of Cjqu-us. The 
Athenians buried their heroes in coffins made of this wood, of which many of the Egyptian 
mummy-chests were also fabricated. The ancients planted it in cemeteries. The cypress 
was brought to England about 1441. The deciduous cypress, or Cuprcssus disticha, came 
from North America before the year 1640. 

Q 



CYP 226 DAH 

_ CYPRUS, ill island in the Mediterranean, was divided among several petty kings till the 
time of Cyrus of Persia, who subdued them. It was taken by the Greeks 477 B.C., and 
ranked among the proconsular provinces in the reign of Augustus. Conquered by the Sara- 
cens, A D._648 ; but recovered by the Greeks, in 957. Cyprus was reduced by Eichard I. of 
England, in 1191. He gave it to Guy de Lusignan, who became king in 1192, and whose 
descendants reigned till the last, Catherine de Cornano, sold it to the Venetians, 1489, from 
whom it was taken by the Turks, 1571. They still retain it. 

^7^''' ^^■' ^^^^^ Versailles, where a conventual college for ladies was founded by Madame 
De Maintenon, in 1686. It is now a military college. 

CYRENAIC SECT, founded by Aristippus the Elder, 365 B.C. They maintained the 
doctrme that the supreme good of man in this life is pleasure, particularly that of the 
senses ; and said that even virtue ought to be commended only because it gave pleasure. 

CYRENE (N.W. Africa), a Greek colonj', founded by Battus about 630 B.C. Arista^us, 
who was chief of the colonists here, gave the city his mother's name. It was also called 
1 entapolis, on account of its five towns ; namely, Cyrene, Ptolemais, Berenice, Apollonia, 
and Arsinoe. It was conquered by Ptolemy Soter I., who jjlaced many Jews here (286 B.C.). 
Cyrene_ was left by Ptolemy Apion to the Romans, 97 e.g. It is now a desert. Som& 
Cyrenaic sculptures were placed in the British Museum in July, 1861. 

CYZICUS (Asia Minor). In the Peloponnesian war, the Lacedemonian fleet under the 
command of Mindarus, assisted by Pharnabazus, the Persian, was encountered by the 
Athenians under Alcibiades, and defeated with great slaughter, near Cyzicus. Mindarus 
was slam 410 B.C. Plutarch. 408 B.C. Lcnght. 

CZAR Ivan Basilowitz, having severely defeated the Tartars, took the title of Tzar or 
ivzar about 1462. Ihe eldest son is called Czarowitz, and the empress Czarina. 

D. 

DACIA, a Roman province^ part of Hungarj^ and the adjoining provinces, after many 
contests finally subdued by Trajan, 106, when Decebalus, the [Dacian leader, was killed 
Daciawas abandoned to the Goths by Aurelian, in 270; subdued by the Huns, 576 • bv 
Scythians, 566 ; by Charlemagne, and by the Magyars, in the 9th century. ' ^' > ^ 

DAGHISTAN (S.W. Asia), was conquered by the czar Peter, 1723 ; restored to Persia 
1735 ; but re-annexed to Russia by Alexander I., 1813. ' / -^ ' «^^"rea 10 i eisia, 

DAGUERREOTYPE PROCESS, invented by Daguerre, 1838. See Photography. 

DAHLIA. Tliis beautiful flower was brought from Mexico, of which it is a native, in the 
present century. It was first cultivated by the Swedish botanist, professor Dahl, and soon 
became a favourite m England. In 1815, about two months after the battle of Waterloo it 
was introduced into France, and the celebrated florist Andre Thouine suggested various 
practical improvements m its management. The botanist Georgi shortly before introduced 
It at St. Petersburg ; hence the dahlia is known in Germany as the Gcorgina. 

DAHOMEY a negro kingdom, West Africa, became known to Europeans early in the 
last century, when Trudo Andati or Guadjor Trudo, a man of energj- and talent, was kinc. 
He died m 1732, and was succeeded by a series of cruel tyrants : a large part of whose 
revenue was derived from the slave trade. Abbeokuta, which was a robber's cave in 182 ^ is 
now a strong-walled populous town, inhabited by free blacks ; and is consequently opposed 
by the king of Dahomey. His army has been severely defeated in its attacks on this place 
and in one on March 16 1864, a great number of his Amazons were slain. During the last 
few years this kingdom has been visited by Captain Burton and other travellers, Iho have 
described the sanguinary customs of the royal court. 

DAHRA (Algeria) On June 18 1845, above 500 Kabyles at war with the French were 
sufi-ocated in a cave by smoke the fire having been kindled by order of general Pelissier, 
afterwards duke of Malakolf. They had fired on tlie messenger bearing an off-er of a truce 
The massacre was condemned by marshal Soult, the minister of war, but justified by marshal 



DAK 



227 



DAN 



DAKOTA (North America) was organised as a territory of the Uuited States ou March 2, 
1861. 

DALECARLIANS (Sweden), revolted against Christian of Denmark, 1521, and placed 
Gustavus Vasa on the throne of Sweden. 

DALMATIA, an Austrian province, N.E. of the Adriatic Sea, was finally conquered by 
the Romans, 34 B.C. The emperor Diocletian erected his palace at Spalatro, and retired 
there, a.d. 305. Dalmatia was held in turns by the Goths, Hungarians, and Turks, till its 
cession to Venice in 1699. By the treaty of Campo Formio in 1797 it was given to Austria. 
In 1S05 it was incorporated into the kingdom of Italy, and gave the title of duke to marshal 
Soult, but in 1814 it reverted to Austria. 

DALTONISM. See Colour, note. 
. DAMASCUS (Syria), a gity in the time of Abraham, 1913 B.C. {Gen. xiv.), consequently 
one of the most ancient in the world, now the capital of a Turkish pachalic. 

that people, -which caused remonstrances from 
many states of Europe. 
Damascus was restored to Turkey . . . 1841 
In consequence of a dispute between the Druses 
and Maronites, the Mahonimedans massacred 
above 3000 Christians and destroyed the 
houses, rendering vast numbers of persons 
homeless and destitute ; a large number 
were rescued by Abd-el-Kader,* who held 
the citadel . . . . July 9, 10, 11, i860 
Summary justice executed for these crimes by 
Fuad Pacha : 160 jjerf ons of all classes exe- 
cuted, including the Turkish governor ; and 
11,000 persons made soldiers by conscription, 

Aug. Sept. ,, 



1400 



Taken by David C1040 B.C.), but retaken shortly 

after, and made the capital of Syria under 

Benhadad and his successors . . B.C. 

Taken by Tiglath-Pileser, king of Assyria 
From the Assyrians it passed to the Persians, 

and from them to the Greeks, under Alex- 
ander ; and afterwards to the Romans, about 
Paul, converted, preaches here (Acts ix.) a.d. 
Taken by the Saracens, 633 ; by the Turks in 

107s ; destroyed by Tamerlane . . . . 
Taken by Ibrahim Pacha in ... . 1S32 
The disappearance of a Greek priest, named 

father Tommaso, from here, Feb. i, 1840, led 

to the torture of a number of Jews, suspected 

of his murder, and to a cruel persecution of 

DAMASK LINENS and SILKS, first manufactured at Damascus, have been beauti- 
fully imitated by the Dutch and Flemish. The manufacture was brought to England by 
artisans who fled from the persecutions of the duke of Alva, 157 1-3. The Damask Rose was 
brought here from the south of Europe by Dr. Liuacre, physician to Henry VIII., about 
1540. 

DAMIENS' ATTEMPT. Louis XV. of France was stabbed with a knife in the right 
side by Damiens, a native of Arras, Jan. 5, 1757. The culprit endured the most excruciatmg 
tortures, and was then broken on the wheel, March 28. 

DAMIETTA (Lower Egypt), was built about 1250. Here, it is said, was first manufac- 
tured the cloth termed dimity. 

DAMON AND PYTHIAS (or Phintias), Pythagorean philosophers. AVlien Damon was 
condemned to death by the tyrant Dionysius of Syracuse, about 387 B.C., he obtained leave 
to go and settle some domestic affiiirs, on the promise of returning at the appointed time of 
execution, and Pythias became surety for the performance of his engagement. When the 
fatal hour approached, Damon did not appear, and Pythias surrendered himself, and was led 
away to execution ; but at this critical moment Damon returned to redeem his pledge. 
Dionysius was so struck with their fidelity that he remitted the sentence and entreated them 
to permit him to share their friendship. 

DANAI : an ancient name of the Greeks derived from Danaus king of Argos, 1474 B.C. 

DANCE OF DEATH. The triumph of death over all ranks of men was a favourite 
subject with the artists of the middle ages, and appears in rude carvings and pictures m 
various countries. The Chorea Maehabaorum or Danse Macabre was the first printed repre- 
sentation, published by Guyot Marchand, a bookseller of Paris, m 1485. Holbein s cele- 
brated Dance of Death (concerning the authorship of which there has been much contro- 
versy), was printed at Lyons in 1538, and at Basil, 1594- Since then many editions have 
appeared ; one with an introduction and notes was published by Mr. RusseU Smith m 
1849.— The term Dance of Death was also applied to the frenzied movements ot the J^lagel- 
lants, who had sometimes skeletons depicted ou their clothing, about the end ot the I4tn 
century .+ 

* Abd-el-Kader visited England in August, 1865, 

t The i)f 

lent in Germ 
supposed to be caused by 

still preserved. _ 

Q 2 



DAN 



228 



DAN 



DANCING to the measure of time was invented by the Curetes, 1534 B.C. Eusehius. 
The Greeks were the first who united the dance to their tratjedies and comedies. Pantomimic 
dances were first introduced on the Eoman stage, 22 B.C. Usher. Dancing by cinque paces 
was introduced into England from Italy, a.d. 1541. In modern times the French were the 
first who introduced ballets analogues in their musical dramas. The country dance (contre- 
danse) is of French origin, but its date is not precisely known. SiKhnan. The waltz and 
quadrille were introduced into England about 1813. See Morice Dames. 

DANE-GELD, or Danegelt, a tribute paid to the Danes to stop their ravages in this 
kingdom ; first raised by Ethelred II. in 991, and again in 1003 ; and levied after the 
expulsion of the Danes to pay fleets for clearing the seas of them. The tax M-as suppressed 
by Edward the Confessor in 1051; revived by William the Conqueror, 106S ; and fonned 
part of the revenue of the crown, until abolished by Stephen, 1136. Every hide of land, 
■i.e. as much as one plough could plough, or as £cdc saj^s, maintain a family, was taxed at 
first IS., afterwards as much as ys. Camden says that once 24,360^ was raised. 

DANES. See Denmark. During their attacks upon Briton and Ireland they made a 
descent on France, where, in 895, under Rollo, they received presents under the walls of 
Paris. They returned and ravaged the French territories as far as Ostend in 896. They 
attacked Italy in 903. Neustria was granted by ihe king of France to Rollo and his 
Normans (North-men), hence Normandy, in 911. The invasions of England and Ireland 
were as follows : — 



First hostile appearance of the Danes . . . 783 
They land near Piirbeck, Dorset . . . 7S7 
Dtscend in Northumberland : destroy the 

church at Lindisfarne ; are repelled, and 

perish by shipwTeck 794 

They invade Scotland and Ireland . . 795, 796 
They enter Dublin with a fleet of 60 sail, and 

possess themselves of Dublin, Fingal, and 

other places 798 

They take the Isle of Sheppey .... 832 
Defeated at Hengeston, in Cornwall, by Egbert 835 
They land in Kent from 350 vessels, and take 

Canterbury and London 851 

They descend on Northumberland, and take 

York 867 

They defeat the Saxons at Merton . . . 871 
Thej- take Wareham and Exeter . . . 876 
They take Chippenham : but 120 of their ships 

are wrecked 877 

Defeated : Guthrum, their leader, becomes 

Chi-istian, and many settle in England . 878 

Alfred entsrs into a treaty with them . . . 882 
Their fleet totally destroyed by Alfred at Apple- 

dore 894 

Defeated near Isle of Wight 897 

They invade and waste Wales .... 900 
Defeated by Edward the Elder . . . . 922 
They defeat the people of Leinster, whose king 

is killed 956 



Ravage Cornwall, Devon, and Dorset . . . 982 
And ravage Essex and Suffolk .... 990 
Said to assume the title lord done about . . 991 
Their fleet defeated after a breach of treaty, 

purchased by money ..... 992 
They land in Essex, and in the west, and are 

jiaid a sum of money (i6,ooo?.) to quit the 

kingdom 994 

A general massacre of the Danes, by order of 

Ethelred II Nov. 13, 1002 

Swein revenges the death of his countrymen, 

and receives 36,000/. (which he afterwards 

demands as an annual tribute) to depart . 1003 
Their fleet anchors at Isle of Wight . . . 1006 
They make fresh inroads, and defeat the Saxons 

in Suffolk loio 

They sack Canterbury , imprison the archbishop, 

and kill the inhabitants ion 

They receive 48,000/. as tribute, and murder 

Alphege, archbishop of Canterbury . . 1012 
Vanquished at Clontarf, Ireland (see Clontarf). 1014 
Their conquest of England completed ; Canute 

king 1017 

They settle in Scotland 1020 

They land again at Sandwich, carrying off 

much plunder to Flanders . . . . 1047 

They bum York, and kill 3000 Normans . . 1069 
Once more invade England to aid a conspiracy ; 

but compelled to depart .... 1074 



DANGEROUS ASSOCIATIONS (IRELAND) BILL. See Rovian Catholic Association. 

DANNEWERKE, or Daunawirke, a series of earthworks, con.sidered almost imi^regnable, 
stretching across the long narrow peninsula of Schleswig, Holstein, and Jutland — said to 
have been constructed during the "stone age," long before the art of metal-working. It was 
rebuilt in 937 by Thyra, queen of Gormo the old, for which she was named " Dannabod," 
the pride of the Danes. It was repaired by Olaf Tryggveson between 995 and 1000. The 
retreat of the Danes from it Feb. 5, 1864, occasioned much dissatisfaction in Copenhagen. 

DANTE'S DIVINA COMMEDIA was first printed in 1472. He was born May 14, 
1265, and died at Ravenna, Sept. 14, 132 1. A festival in his honour, at Florence, was 
opened by the king, May 14, 1865, when a large statue of Dante by Pazzi of Ravenna was 
uncovered. 

DANTZIC (N. Germany), a commercial city in 997 ; but according to other authorities, 
built by Waldemar I. in 1165. Poland obtained the sovereignty of it in 1454. It was 
seized by the king of Prussia, and annexed in 1793. It surrendered to the French, May, 
1807 ; and by the treaty of Tilsit was restored to independence, under the protection of 
Prussia and Saxony. Dantzic was besieged by the allies in 1812 ; and surrendered to them. 



DAN 229 UAR 

Jan. I, 1S14. By tlie treaty of Pai-is it again reverted to the king of Prussia. By an inunda- 
tion here, owing to the Yistuha breaking through its dykes, 10,000 head of cattle and 4000 
liouses were destroyed, and a vast number of lives lost, April 9, 1829. 

DANUBE (German, Donau ; anciently Ister, in its lower part). Except the Wolga, the 
largest river in Europe, rising in the Black Forest and falling into the Black Sea. Its 
navigation has been considered an object of great importance, fi-om the time of Trajan to the 
present time. Part of Trajan's bridge at Gladova still remains. It was destroyed by Adrian, 
to prevent the barbarians entering Dacia. Steam navigation was projected on this river by 
count Szenechyi in 1830, and in that year the first steam-boat was launched at Vienna, and 
the Austrian company was formed shortly after. The Bavarian company was formed in 
1836. Charlemagne, in the 8th century, contemplated uniting the Danube and Ehine by a 
canal. At the peace of 1856 the free navigation of the Danube was secured. 

DAXUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES ; Wallachia and Moldavia ; capitals, Bucharest 
and Jass}^ United, as Roumaxia, under the government of prince Alexander Cousa in 1859. 
Population of the two i860, 4,200,000. These provinces formed part of the ancient Dacia, 
which was concpiered by Trajan about 106, and abandoned by Aurelian about 270. For some 
time after they ^vere alternatelj' in the possession of the barbarians and the Greek emperors ; 
and afterwards of the Hungarians. In the 13th century they were subdued by the Tm'ks, 
but permited to retain their religious customs, &c. 



Part of Mold.avia ceded to Russia . . .1812 

The provinces having participated in the Greek 
insurrection in 182 1, were severely treated by 
the Turks ; but by the treaty of Adrianople 
• were pkiced under the protection of Russia . 1S29 

The Porte appointed as hospodars prince Stir- 
be3' for Wallachia, aiid prince Ghika for Jlol- 
davia June, 1S49 

They retire from their govemments when the 
Russians enter Moldavia. See Riasu-Turk■is^ 
Trnr .... ... July 2, 1S53 

The Russians quit the provinces and the Aus 



be preserved) .... Aug. 19, 1858 

Alexander Oousa w;us elected liospodar of Mol- 
davia, Jan. 17 ; of Wallachia . Feb. 5, 1859 

The election acknowledged by the allies as au 
exceptional case .... Sept. 6, „ 

The definitive union of the provinces (under 
the name of Roumania) acknowledged by the 
Porte . . f . . . . Dec. 1861 

M. Catargi, the president of the council of 
ministers, assassinated as he was leaving the 
chamber of deputies . . . June 20, 1S62 

The united chambers of the two principalities 



trians enter Sept. 1854 I meet at Bucharest . . . Feb. 5 



The Austrians retire .... March, 1857 
The government of the principalities finally 
settled at the Paris conference (there were to 
be two hospodars, elected bj- elective assem- 
blages, and the suzerainty of Turkey was to 



Coup d'etat of prince Cousa agauist the aristo- 
crats : a plebiscite for a new constitution. 
May 2 ; which is adopted . . May 2S, 1864 

A law passed enabling the peasants to hold land , 

Aug. ,, 



DARDANELLES, The, are two castles (Sestos, in Romania, and Abydos, in Natolia), 
commanding the entrance of the strait of Gallipoli, built by the sultan Mahomet IV. in 1659, 
and named Dardanelles from the contiguous town Dardanns. — The passage of the Dardanelles 
was achieved by the British squadron under sir John Duckworth, Feb. 19, 1807 ; but the 
admiral was obliged to repass them, which he did with great loss, March 2, following, the 
castles of Sestos and Abydos hurling down stones of many tons weight, upon the Briti.sh 
ships. The allied English and French fleets passed the Dardanelles at the sultan" s request, 
Oct. 1853. See Bellcsponf. 

DARIC, a Persian gold coin, issued by Darius, hence its name, about 538 B.C. About 
556 cents. Kiioifles. It weighed two grains more than the English guinea. Br. Bernard. 

DARIEN, LsTHMUs of, central America, discovered by Columbus, 1494. About 1694, 
AVilliam Paterson, founder of the Bank of England, published his plan for colonising Darien. 
In consequence a company was farmed in 1695 and three ill-fated expeditions sailed there in 
1698 and 1699, from Scotland, where 400,000/. had been raisetk The first consisted of 1200 
young men of all classes, besides women and children. The enterprise not having been 
recognised by the English goveniment, the settlements were threatened by the Spaniards, to 
whom they were linally surrendered, March 30, 1 700. Paterson and a few survivors from 
famine and disease, had set otf shortly before the arrival of the second expedition. Several 
years after, a sum of 398,085/. was voted by parliament to the survivors as "Equivalent 
money." A sum of money was also voted lo Paterson; but the bill was rejected in the 
house of lords. See Panama. 

DARK AGES, a term applied to the period of time called the Middle Ages ; according 
to Hallam, comprising about 1000 years— from the invasion of France by Clovis, 486, to 
that of Naples by Charles VIII. 1495. During this time learning was at a low ebb. 

DARMSTADT. See Hesse BarmstadL 



DAR 230 DAY 

DARTFORD (Kent). Here commenced the insuiTection of Wat Tyler, 1381. A con- 
vent of nuns, of the order of St. Augustin, endowed here by Edward III., 1355, was converted 
by Henry VIII. into a royal palace. The first paper-mill in England was erected at Dartford 
by sir John Spielman, a German, in 1590 (Stmv), and about the same period was erected here 
the first mill for splitting iron bars. The powder-mills here were blown up four times 
between 1730 and 1738. Various explosions have since occurred, in some cases with loss of 
life to many persons : Oct. 12, 1790 ; Jan. i, 1795 ; and more recently. 

DARTMOUTH (Devon). Bm-nt by the French in the reigns of Richard I. and Henry 
IV. In a third attempt (1404), the invaders were defeated by the inhabitants, assisted by 
the valour of the women. The French commander, Du Chastel, three lords, and thirty-two 
knights were made prisoners. In the war of the parliament, Dartmouth was taken after a 
siege of four weeks, by prince Maurice, who garrisoned the place for the king (1643) ; but 
it was retaken by general Fairfax by stonn in 1646. 

DATES were affixed to grants and assignments 18 Edw. I. 1290. Before this time it 
was usual at least to pass lands without dating the deed of conveyance. Lewis. Numerous 
instruments of assignment enrolled among our early records establish this fact. The date is 
determined by the names of the parties, particularly that of the grantor : the possession of 
land was proof of the title to it. Hardie-. A useful glossary of the dates given in old 
charters and chronicles will be found in Nicolas's " Chronology of History," 

DAUPHIN. It is a vulgar error to suppose that, by the treaty of 1343, which gave the 
full sovereignty of Dauphiny to the kings of France, it was stipulated that the eldest son of 
the king should bear the title of dauphin. So far from it, the first dauphin named in that 
treaty was Philip, second son of Philip of Valois. Hinaidt. The late duke of Orleans, 
eldest son of Louis-Philippe, was not called the dauphin. 

DAVID'S, St. (S.W. Wales), the ancient Menapia, now a poor decayed place, but once 
the metropolitan see of Wales, and archiepiscopal. When Christianity was planted in 
Britain, tliere were three archbisliops' seats appointed, viz. London, York, and Caerleon upon 
Usk, in Monmouthshire. That at Caerleon being too near the dominions of the Saxons, was 
removed to Menew, and called St. David's, in honour of the archbishop who removed it, 519. 
St. Sampson was the last archbishop of the Welsh ; for he, withdrawing himself on account 
of a pestilence to Dole, in Brittany, carried the pall with him ; but his successors pi-e- 
served the archiepiscopal power, although they lost the name. In the reign of Henry I. 
these prelates were forced to submit to the see of Canterbury. Beatson. Present income 
4500?. 

RECENT BISHOPS OF ST. DAVID's, 



1800. Lord George Murray, died June 3, 1S03. 
1803. Thomas Burgess, translated to Salisbury, June 
1825. 



1825. John Banks Jenkinson, died July 7, 1840. 
1840. Connop Thirlwall (present bishop, 1865.) 



DAVID'S DAY, St., March i, is annually commemorated by the Welsh, in honour of 
St. David. Tradition states that on St. David's birthday, 540, a great victory was obtained 
by the Welsh over their Saxon invaders ; that the Welsh soldiers were distinguished by order 
of St. David by a leek in their cap. 

'^DAVIS'S STRAIT (N. America), discovered by the English navigator,|John Davis, on 
his voyage to find a N. W. passage, between 1585 and 1587. He made two more voyages 
for the same purpose, and afterwards performed five voyages to the East Indies. In the 
last he was killed by Japanese pirates, in the Indian seas, on the coast of Malacca, Dec. 
27, 1605. 

DAVY LAMP. See Safety Lami^. 

DAY. _ Day began at sunrise among most of the northern nations, and at sunset among 
the Athenians and Jews. Among the Romans, day commenced at midnight, as it now does 
among us. The Italians in many places, at the present time, reckon the day from sunset to 
sunset, making their clocks strike twenty-four hours round, instead of dividing the daj', as 
is done in all other countries, into equal portions of twelve hours. This mode is but partially 
used in the larger towns of Italy ; most public clocks in Florence, Rome, and Milan, being 
set to the hour designated on French or English clocks. The Chinese divide the day into 
twelve parts of two hours each. Our civil day is distinguished from the astronomical day, 
wliich begins at noon, is divided iirto twenty-four hours (instead of two parts of twelve 



DEA 231 DEB 

hours), and is the mode of reckoning used in the Nautical Almanack. At Rome, da}' ami 
uiglit were first divided in time by means of water-clocks, the invention of Scipio Nasica, 
158 B.C. 

DEACONS (literally servants), an order of the Christian priesthood, which took its rise 
from tiie institution of seven deacons by the Apostles, which number was retained a long 
period in many churches, about 53. (Acts vi. ) The original deacons were Stephen, Philip, 
Prochorus, Nicanor, Timon, Parmenas, and Nicolas. The qualifications of a deacon are 
mentioned by St. Paul (65), ist Timothy iii. 8—14. 

DEACONESSES, or ministering widows, are mentioned in early Christian history. Their 
qualifications are given in i Tim. v. 9, 10 (65). Their duties were to visit the poor and sick, 
assist at the agapre or love feasts, admonish the young women, &c. The office was discon- 
tinued in the Western church in the 5th and 6th centuries, and in the Greek church about 
the I2tli, but has been recently revived in Germany. 

DEAD, Prayers for, began about 190. Eusehius, See Prayer. 

DEAD WEIGHT LOAN acquired its name from its locking up the capital of the Bank 
of England, which in 1823 advanced ii,ooo,oooZ. to the government (to construct new 
ordnance, &c.). The latter engaged to give an annuity of 585,740^. for 44 years ; which 
-ceases in 1867, 

DEAF AND DUMB. The first systematic attempt to instruct the deaf and dumb was 
made by Pedro de Ponce, a Benedictine monk of Spain, about 1570. Bonet, also a monk, 
published a system at Madrid in 1620. Dr. Wallis published a work in England on. the 
subject in 1650. The first regular academy for the deaf and dumb in Britain was opened in 
Edinburgh in 1773. In modern times the abbe de I'Epee (1712-89), and his friend and pupO. 
the abbe Sicard of Paris (1742 — 1822) ; tlie rev. Mr. Townsend and Mr. Baker, of Loudon ; 
Mr. Braidwood of Edinburgh ; and surgeon Orpen, of Dublin, have laboured with much, 
success in promoting the instruction of the deaf and dumb. The asylum for deaf and 
dumb children was opened in London through the exertions of Mr. Townsend, in 1792 ; one 
in Edinburgh by Mr. J. Braidwood, in 1810 ; and one in Birmingham by Mr. T. Braidwood, 
in 1815. The asylum at Claremont, Dublin, was opened in 1816. In 185 1, there were in 
Great Britain, 12,553 ^^^^^.f and dumb out of a population of 20,959,477. 

DEAN, Forest of, Gloucestershire. Anciently it was wooded quite through, and of 
great extent ; and in the last century, though much curtailed, was twenty miles in length 
and ten in breadth. It was famous for its oaks, of which most of our former ships of wai* 
were made. The memorable riots in this district, when more than 3000 persons assembled 
in the forest, and demolished upwards of fifty miles of wall and fence, throwing open 10,000 
acres of plantation, took place on June 8, 1 83 1 . 

DEATH, Punishment of. The ancients inflicted death by crucifixion, and even women, 
suff'ered on the cross. Mithridates, a Persian soldier, who boasted that he had killed Cynis 
the Younger, at the battle of Cunaxa, was by order of Artaxerxes Mnemon eighteen days in 
a state of torture exj^osed to the action of the sun. Drowning in a quagmire was a 
punishment among the Britons, about 450 B.C. Stow. Maurice, the son of a nobleman, 
was hanged, drawn, and quartered for piracy, the first execution in that manner in England, 
25 Hen. III. 1241. The punishment of death was abolished in a great number of cases by 
sir R. Peel's acts, 4 to 10 Geo. IV. 1824-9 ; and by the criminal law consolidation acts of 
1861, was confined to ti'eason and wilful murder. See Ravaillac, Boiling, Burning, 
Hanging, Forgery, and Execution. A parliamentary commission resi^ecting capital punish- 
ment was appointed early in 1864. Capital punishment was restricted in Italy in 
April, 1865. 

DEATHS, Registers of. See Bills of Mortality and Registers. 

DEBT. See National Debt, Bankrupts and Insolvents. Debtors have been subjected to 
imprisonment in almost all countries and times ; and until the passing of the later bankrupt 
laws and insolvent acts, the prisons of these countries were crowded with debtors to an extent 
that is now scarcely credible. It appears by parliamentary returns that in the eighteen 
months, subsequent to the panic of Dec. 1825, as many as 101,000 writs for debts were issued 
from the courts in England. In the year ending 5th Jan. 1830, there were 7 114 persons 
.sent to the several prisons of London ; and on that day, 1547 of the number were yet 
confined. On the ist of Jan. 1840, the number of prisoners for debt in England and Wales 
was 1732 ; in'Ireland the number was under 1000 ; and in Scotland under 100. The operation 
of statutes of relief, and other causes, considerably reduced the number of imprisoned 



DEB 232 DEE 

debtors. When the new Bankruptcy Act (aholisliing imprisonment for debt except when 
fraudulently contracted) came into opei'ation, in Nov. 1861, a number of debtors who had been 
confined, were released.* Arrest of Absconding Debtors bill, 14 & 15 Vict. c. 52, 1852. 
See Arrest and King's Bench. 

DEBUSCOPE, an instrument of French origin, somewhat similar to the kaleidoscope, 
said to be useful for devising patterns for calico-printers, &c., made its appearance in i860. 

DECAMEEONE (10 days). See Boccaccio. 

DECAPITATIOK See Bcheccding. 

DECEMBER (from decern, ten), the tenth month of the year of Romulus, commencing 
in March. In 713 B.C. Numa introduced January and February before March, and thence- 
forward December became the twelfth of the year. In the reign of Commodus, A. 11. 181 — 
192, December was called by the way of flattery, Amazonius, in honour of a courtesan whom 
that prince had loved, and had painted like an Amazon. The English commenced their 
year on the 25th Decembei-, until the reign of William the Conqueror. See Year. 

DECEMVIRI, or Ten Men, who were appointed to draw up a code of laws, and to whom 
for a time the whole government of Rome was committed, 451 B.C. The laws they drew 
up were approved by the senate and general assembly of the people, written on ten metallic 
tables, and set up in the place where the people met {comilium), 450 B.C. The Decemviri 
at first ruled M'ell, but the tyranny of Appius Claudius towards Virginia occasioning an 
insurrection, they were forced to resign ; and consuls were again appointed, 449 B.C. 

DECENNALIA, festivals instituted by Augustus, 17 B.C., celebrated by the Roman 
emperors every tenth year of their reign, with sacrifices, games, and largesses. Livy. And 
celebrated by Antoninus Pius, a.d. 148. They do not appear to have been continued after 
the reigns of the Ca\sars. 

DECIMAL SYSTEM of .Coinage, Weights, &c. See Metric System. 

DECLARATION of Rights. See Riglits. 

DECORATIVE ART. The true princijiles of decoration enunciated by A. W. Pugin, 
in his "Designs," published in 1835, have since been greatly advanced by Owen Jones, 
Redgrave, and others. Owen Jones's elaborate "Grammar of Ornament" was published iu 
1856. A Decorative Art society, founded in 1844, existed for a short time only. 

DE COURCY'S PRIVILEGE, that of standing covered before the king, granted by king 
John, to John de Courcy, baron of Kingsale, and his successors, in 1203. He was the first 
nobleman created by an English sovereign, 27 Hen. II. 1181 ; and was entrusted with the 
government of Ireland, 1x85. The privilege has been exercised in most reigns, and was 
allowed to the baron of Kingsale by AVill. III., Geo. III., and by Geo. IV. at his court held 
in Dublin, in Aug. 182 1. The present baron is the 29th in succession. 

DECRETALS. The decretals formed the second part of the canon law, or collection of 
the pope's edicts and decrees and the decrees of councils. The first of these acknowledged 
to be genuine is a letter of Siricius to Himerus, the bishop of Spain, written in the first 
year of his pontificate, 385. Howel. Certain false decretals were used by Gregory IV. in 
837. The decretals of Gratian, a Benedictine (a collection of canons), were comjjiled iu 
1150. IlenauU. Five books were collected by Gregory IX. 1227 ; a sixth by Boniface VIII. 
in 1297 ; the Clementines by Clement V. in 13 13 ; employed by John XXII. in 13 17 ; the 
Extravagantes range from 1422 to 1483. 

DEDICATION of the Jewish tabernacle took place 1490 B.C. ; of the temple, 1004 B.C. ; 
of the second temijle, 515 b.c. The Christians under Constantine built new churches and 
dedicated them with great solemnity, in A.D. 331, et scq. The dedication of books (by 
authors to solicit patronage or testify respect) began in the time of Maecenas, 17 B.C. He 
was the friend and counsellor of Augustus Cresar, and a patron of genius and learning ; 
hence it is customary to style any nobleman, imitating his example, a Maecenas. 

DEED, a written contract or agi-eement. The formula, " I deliver this as my act and 
deed," occurs in a charter of 933. Fosbrookc. Deeds in England were formerly written in 
the Latin and French languages : the earliest known instance of the English tongue having 
been used is the indenture between the abbot of Whitby and Robert Bustard, dated at York 
in 1343. See English. 

* Imprisonment for debt still continues. In 1863 nearly 18,000 persons were imprisoned by order of 
the county courts; average time, 15 days, amount of'^debt, 3?. los. 



DEF 233 DEL 

DEFAMATION. The juvisdietiou of the ecclesiastical courts on tins suliject was 
abolished by i8 & 19 Vict. c. 41 (1855). 

DEFENCE OF the REALM ACT was passed in Ang. i860, in consequence of the 
unsettled state of Europe, aggravated by the doubtful policy of the emperor Napoleon. See 

Fortification. 

DEFENDER of the FAITH {Fidci Defensor), a title of the British sovereign, conferred 
by Leo X. on Henry VIII. of England, for his tract on behalf of the Church of Rome, then 
accounted Domicilium fidci Catholicce, against Luther, in Oct. II, 1521. 

DEFENDERS, a faction in Ireland, which arose out of a quarrel between two residents of 
Market-hill, July 4, 1784. Each was soon aided by a large body of friends, and many battles 
ensued. On Whit-Monday, 1785, an armed assemblage of one of the parties (700 men), 
called the Nappagh Fleet, prepared to encounter the Bawn Fleet, but tlie engagement was 
prevented. They subsequently became religious parties, Catholic and Presbyterian, distin- 
guished a.s Defenders and Pcep-o' -dity-hoys : the latter were so named because they usually 
visited the dwellings of the Defenders at daybreak in search of arms. Sir Richard Musgrave. 

DEGREES. Eratosthenes attempted to determine the length of a geographical degree 
about 250 B. c. Sncllius. See Levtilude and Longitude. Collegiate degrees are coeval with 
universities. Those in medicine are traced up to A.D. 1384 : iu music to 1463. In Oct. 
1863, women were permitted to compete for degi-ees. 

DEI GRATIA. See Grace of God. 

DEIRA, a part of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria. See Britain. 

_ DEISM OR THEISM (Greek, thcos, Latin, deus, God), the belief in a God. About the 
middle of the i6tli century some gentlemen of France and Italy termed themselves 
deists, to disguise their opposition to Christianity by a more honourable appellation than that 
of Atheism {which see). Deists reject revelation, and profess to go by the light of nature, 
believing that there is a God, a providence, vice, and virtue, and an after-state of punishments 
and rewards : they are sometimes called free-thinkers. The most distinguished deists were 
Herbert, baron of Cherbury, in 1624 ; Hobbes, Tindal, Morgan, lord Bolingbroke, Gibbon, 
Hume, Holcroft, Paine and Godwin. 

DELAWARE, one of the United States of North America, named after lord de la Warre, 
governor of Virginia, who entered the bay 1610. It was settled by Swedes, sent there by 
Gustavus in 1627. 

DELEGATES, Court of. Appeals to the pope in ecclesiastical causes having been 
forbidden (see A^ypeals), those causes were for the future to be heard in this court, established 
by Stat. 24 Henry VIII. 1533 ; soon afterwards the pope's authority was susperseded 
altogether in England. Stow. This court was abolished ; and appeals now lie to the Judicial 
Committee of the Privy Council, as fixed by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 41 (1833). See Arches. 

DELFT (S. Holland), a town founded by Godfrey le Bossu, about 1074 ; famous for 
the earthenware known by its name ; first manufactured here about 13 10. The sale of 
Dutch delft greatly declined after the introduction of potteries into Germany and England. 
Delft was an important place during the struggle against Spain. The renowned Grotius was 
born here, April 10, 1583 ; and here the great William prince of Orange was assassinated, 
July 10, 1584, by Gerard. 

DEJjHI, the once great capital of the Mogul empire, and chief seat of the Mahomedan 
power in India ; it was taken by Timour in 1398. Lt is now iu decay, but contained a 
million of inhabitants in 1700. In 1739, yhen Nadir Shah invaded Hindostan, he entered 
Delhi ; 100,000 of the inliabitants perished by the sword, and plunder to the amount of 
62,000,000/. sterling is said to have been collected. Tlie same calamities were endmed in 
1761, on the invasion of Abdalla king of Candahar. In 1803, the Mahrattas, aided by 
the French, took Delhi ; but were afterwards defeated by general Lake, and the aged Shah 
Aulum, emperor of Hindostan, was restored to his throne with a pension. See India, 1803. 
On May 10, 1857, a mutiny arose iu the sepoy regiments at Meerut. It was soon checked ; 
but the fugitives fled to Delhi, and combined with other troops there, seized on the city ; 
proclaimed a descendant of the Mogul as king, and committed the most frightful atrocities. 
The rebels were anxious to possess the chief magazine, but after a gallant defence it was 
exploded by order of lieutenant Willoughby, who diecl of his wounds shortly after. The 
other hei'oes in this exploit were lieutenants Forrest and Rajnier, and the gunners Buckley 
and Scully, Dellii was shortly after besieged by the British, but was not taken till Sept. 20, 



DEL 



234 



DEL 



following. The final struggle began on the i6th ; brigadier (since sir Archdale) Wilson being 
the commander. Much heroism was shown ; the gallant deaths of Salkeld and Home at the 
explosion of the Cashmere gate created much enthusiasm. The old king and his sons were 
captured soon after : the latter were shot, and the former after a trial was sent for life to 
Rangoon. See I^idia, 1857. 

"DELICATE INVESTIGATION," Tue, into the conduct of the princess of Wales 
(afterwards queen of England, as consort of George IV.), was commenced by a committee of 
the pm-y council, under a warrant of inquiry, dated May 29, 1 806. The members were lord 
Grenville, lord Erskine, earl Spencer and lord EUenborough. The inquiry, of which the 
coimtess of Jersey, sir J. and lady Douglas, and other persons of rank were the prompters, 
and in which they conspicuously figured, led to the publication called * ' The Book ; " 
afterwards suppressed. The charges against the princess were dis]>roved in 1807, and again 
in 1813 ; but not being permitted to appear at court, she went on the continent in 1814. 

DELIUM, Bceotia, N. Greece, the site of a celebrated temple of Apollo. Here, in a 
conflict between the Athenians and the Boeotians, in which the former were defeated, 
Socrates the i^hilosoiiher is said to have saved the life of his pupil Xenophon, 424 B.C. 

DELLA CEUSCA ACADEMY of Florence merged into the Florentine in 1582.— The 
Della Crusca School, a term applied to some English persons residing at Florence, who 
wrote and printed a quantity of inferior sentimental poetry and prose in 1785. They came 
to England where their works were popiilar for a short time, but were severely satirised by 
Giff"ord in his "Baviad and Majviad" (1794-5). 

DELOS, a Greek isle in the ^gean sea. Here the Greeks, during the Persian war, 
477 B.C., established their common treasury, which was removed to Athens, 461. 

DELPHI (N. Greece), celebrated for its enigmatical oracles delivered by the Pythia, in the 
temple of ApoUo, which was Ijuilt, some say, by tlie council of the Amphictyons, 1263 B.C. 
The priestess delivered the answer of the god to such as came to considt the oracle, and was 
supposed to be suddenly inspired. The temple was burnt by the Pisistratidse, 548 b.c. A 
new temple was raised by the Alcnifeonidse. The Persians (480 B.C.) and the Gauls (279 B.C.) 
were deterred from plundering the temple by awful portents. It was, however, robbed and 
seized by the Phocians, 357 B.C., whicli led to the sacred war, and Nero carried from it 500 
costly statues, a.d. 67. The Pythian games were first celebrated 586 B.C. The oracle was 
consulted by Julian, but silenced by Theodosius. 

DELPHIN CLASSICS, a collection of thirty-nine of the Latin authors in sixty volumes, 
ttade for the use of the dauphin {in tcsum Delphini) son of Louis XIV., and published in 
1674-91. Ausonius was added in 1730. The due de Moutausier, the young prince's governor, 
proposed the plan to Huet, bishop of Avranches, the dauphin's preceptor ; and he, with 
other learned persons, including Madame Dacier,* edited all the Latin classics except Lucan. 
Each author is illustrated by notes and an index of words. An edition of the Delphin 
Classics, with additional notes, &c., was published by Mr. Valpy of London, early in the 
present century. 

DELUGE. The deluge was threatened in the year of the world 1536 ; and began Dec. 7, 
1656, and continued 377 days. Genesis vi. vii. viii. The ark rested on Mount Ararat, May 
6, 1657 ; and Noah left the ark Dec. 18 following. The year corresponds Avith that of 
2348 B. c. Blair. The following are the epochs of the deluge, according to Dr. Hales : — 

Septuagint . b.o. 3246 

Jackson . . .3170 

Hales . . . 3155 

Josephus . . , 3146 

In the reign of Ogyges, king of Attica, 1764 B.C., a 

deluge so inundated Attica, that it lay waste for 

nearly 200 years. Blair. Buffon thinks that the 

Hebrew and Grecian deluges were the same, and 

arose from the Atlantic and Bosphorus burstmg 

into the valley of the Mediterranean, f 
The deluge of DeucaUon, in Thes.saly, is placed 1503 

B.C. according to Eusehiics. It was often con- 
founded by the ancients with the general flood ; 



Persian . 


. B.C. 3103 


Clinton . .B.C. 2482 


Petavius . .B.C. 2329 


Hindoo 


. . 3102 


Play fair . . .2352 


Strauchius . . 2293 


Samaritan 


. 2998 


Usher &. Eng. Bible 2348 


Hebrew . . . 2288 


Howard 


. . 2698 


Marsham . . . 2344 


Vulgar Jewish . .2104 



but considered to be merely a local inundation, 
occasioned by the overflowing of the river Pineus, 
whose course was stopped by an earthquake be- 
tween the mounts Olympus and Ossa. Deucalion, 
who then reigned in Thessaly, with his wife 
Pyrrha, and some of their subjects, are stated to 
have saved themselves by climbing up moxmt 
Parnassus. 



* This beautiful and gifted woman translated CaUimachus at the age of 23 ; and also Anacreon, Sappho, 
Plautus, Terence, and Homer. She died in 1720. 

t A general deluge was predicted to occur in 1524, and arks were built ; but the season happened to 
bo a fine and dry one. 



DEM 



235 



DEN 



DEMERARA and Essequibo, colonies in Guiana, South America, founded by the 
Dutch, 1580, were taken by the I3ritish, under major-general Whyte, April 22, 1796, but 
■were restored at the peace of 1802. They again surrendered to the British under general 
Grinfield and Commodore Hood, Sept. 1803, and became English colonies in 1814. 

DEMOCRATS, advocates for government by the people themselves {demos, jkojjU, and 
Tcraiein, to govern), a term adopted by the French republicans in 1790 (who termed their 
opponents aristocrats, from aristos, bravest or best). The name Democrats was adopted by 
the pro-slavery party in N. America (the southern states), and the abolitionists were called 
Republicans. Into these two great parties a number of smaller ones were absorbed at 
the presidential election in 1856. In i860, the Republicans formed " Wide-awake " clubs 
for electioneering purposes, and succeeded in getting their candidate, Abraham Lincoln, 
elected pi-esident, Nov. 4. See United States, i860. 

DENAIN (N. France). Here marshal VUlars, by his skill, defeated the Imperialist army, 
July 12, 1712. 

DENARIUS, the chief silver coin among the Romans, weighing the seventh part of a 
Roman ounce, and value 7|fZ. sterling, first coined about 269 B.C., when it exchanged for ten 
ases (see As). In 216 B.C. it exchanged for sixteen ases. A pound weight of silver was 
coined into 100 denarii. Dicjby. A pound weight of gold was coined into twenty denarii 
aurei in 206 b. c. ; and in Nero's time into forty-five denarii aurei. Lcmpriere. 

DENIS, St., an ancient town of France, near Paris, famous for its abbey and church, 
the former abolished at the revolution : the latter the place of sepulture of the French kings, 
from its foundation, by Dagobert, in 613; is a small beautiful Gothic edifice. On the I2tli 
October, 1793, the republicans demolished most of the royal tombs, and emptied the leaden 
coffins into the dunghQls, melting the lead for their own use. By a decree of Bonaparte, 
dated Feb. 20, 1806, the church (which had been turned meanwhile into a cattle-market!) 
W'as ordered to be cleansed out and redecorated as " the future burial place of the emperoi's 
of France." On the return of the Bourbons, more restorations were efl'ected, and when the 
due de Berri and Louis XVIII. died, both wei'e buried there. 

DENMARK (N. Europe). The most ancient inhabitants were Cimbri and Teutones, 
who were driven out by the Jutes or Goths. The Teutones settled in Germany and Gaul ; 
the Cimbriaus invaded Italy, where they were defeated by Marius. The peninsula of Jutland 
obtains its name from the Jutes ; and the name of Denmark is supposed to be derived from 
Ban, the founder of the Danish monarchy, and mark, a German word signifying country. 
For their numerous invasions of Britain, &c., see Danes. Population of the kingdom of Den- 
mark in i860, 1,600,551 ; of the duchies of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg, 1,004,473 '■> 
of the colonies, 120,283. By the treaty of peace, signed Oct 30, 1864, the duchies were 
taken from Denmark. Schleswig and Holstein were to be made independent, and Lauenburg 
was to be incorporated, by its desire, with Prussia. For the result, see Gastcin. 



Reign of Sciold, first king . . . B.C. 60 

The Danish chronicles mention 18 kings to the 
time of Ragnor Lodbrog, a.d. 750, killed in 
an attempt to invade England . . . 794 

Canute the Great conquers Norway . 1016-28 

Denmark, Norway, and Sweden ai-e united into 
one kingdom under Margaret . . . 1397 

Copenhagen made the capital . . . . 1440 

Acces.sion of Christian I. (of Oldenhurg), from 
whom the late royal family sprang . . 1448 

Christian II. is deposed; independence of 
Sweden acknowledged under Gustavus Vasa 1523 

Lutheranism introduced in 1527 ; established 
by Christian III. 1536 

Danish East India Company established by 
Christian IV 1612 

Christian IV. chosen head of the Protestant 
league against the emperor . . . . 1629 

Charles Gustavus of Sweden invades Den- 
mark, besieges Copenhagen, and makes 
conquests 1658 

The crown made hereditary and absolute . . 1665 

Frederick IV. takes Holstein, Schleswig, Ton- 
ningcn, and Stralsund ; reduces Wcismar, 
and drives the Swedes from Norway 1716 et seq. 

Copenhagen nearly destroyed by a fire, which 
consumes 1650 houses, 3 churches, the uni- 
versity, and 4 colleges 1728 

The peaceful reign of Christian VI. . . 1730-46 

Plot of the queen dowager against the ministers 



and Matilda (sister of our George III. and 
queen of Christian VII., a weak monarch). 
Matilda, entrapped into a confession of 
criminality to save the life of her supposed 
lover Struenzee, condemned to imprison- 
ment for Ufe in the castle of Zell . Jan. 18, 1772 
Count Struenzee and Brandt beheaded, Apr. 28, , , 
Queen Matilda dies, aged 24 ... . 1775 
Christian VII. becomes deranged, and prince 

Frederick is appointed regent . . . 1784 
One-fourth of Copenhagen IjuMit . June 9, 1795 
Admirals Nelson and Parker bombard Copen- 
hagen, and engage the Danish fleet, taking or 
destroying 18 ships of the line, of whose crews 
1800 are killed. (Confederacy of the North, 
see Armed Neutrality, dissolved.) . April 2, i8or 
Admiral Gambler and Lord Cathcart bombard 
Copenhagen, Aug. 23 ; the Danish fleet of 18 
ships of the line, 15 frigates, and 37 brigs, 
(fee, surrender .... Sept. 8, 1807 

Peace of Kiel : Pomorania and Rugen are 
annexed to Denmark in exchange for Norway 

Jan. 14, 1814 
Commercial treaty with England . . . 1824 

Frederick VI. grants a new constitution . . 1831 
Christian VIII. declares the right of the crown 

to Schleswig, Holstein, &c. . . July 11, 1846 
Accession of Frederick VII. Jan. 20; he pro- 
claims a new constitution, uniting the 
duchies more closely with Denmark, Jan. 28, 1848 



DEN 



236 



DEN 



DENMARK, contimicd. 

Insurrection in the duchies : a provisional 

government formed . . . March 23, 

T}ie rebels seize the strong fortress of Rends- 

burg March 24, 

They are defeated near Flensburg . April 9, 

The Danes defeated by the Russians (helping 
the duchies) at Schleswig . . April 23, 

The North sea blockaded by Denmark Aug. i, 

Hostihties suspended : the European powers 
recommend peace . . . Aug. 26, 

Hostilities re-commence . . March 25, 

Victory of the Danes over the Holsteiners and 
Germans April 10, 

Several conflicts with varying success, . June, 

Armistice signed at Malmo . . July 10 

Separate peace with Prussia . . July 2, 

Integrity of Denmark guaranteed by England, 
France, Prussia, and Sweden . July 4, 

Battle of Idstedt, and defeat of the Sohleswig- 
Holsteiuers by the Danes . . July 25, 

Protocol signed in London by the ministers of 
all the great jiowers . . . Aug. 23, 

Bombardment of Friedrichstadt by the Hol- 
steiners, and the town almost destroyed, but 
not taken • . . Sept. 29 to Oct. 6, 

Proclamation of the stadtholders of Schleswig- 
Holstein placing the rights of the country 
inider the protection of the Germanic con- 
federation Jan. 10, 

The integrity of the Danish monarchy and the 
independence of Schleswig and its old union 
with Holstein guaranteed by treaty, Feb. 18, 

Austrians evacuate Holstein, &c. . March 2, 

Treaty of European powers settling the suc- 
cession of the Danish crown . May 8, 

[The line of Augustenburg is put aside ; the 
succession in the line of Sonderburg-Glucks- 
burg settled, and the integrity of the Danish 
kingdom guaranteed. ] 

The king promulgates a new constitution, July 
29, 1S54; adopted .... Oct. i. 

The sound dues abolished for a compensation 
(see Sound) .... March 14, 

Fortification of Copenhagen decreed March 27, 

Dissension between the government and the 
duchies Oct. 1857- 

New ministrj' appointed Dec. 3, 1859; resigns, 
Feb. 9 ; Bp. Monrad forms a ministry, Feb. 24, 

The assembly of Schleswig complain that the 
promise of equality of national rights in 1852 
has not been kept, Feb. n ; protest against 
the annexation to Denmark . March i. 

The Prussian chamber of deputies receive a 
petition from Schleswig, and declare that 
they will aid the duchies, May 4 ; at which 
the Danish government protests . May 16, 

Correspondence ensues between the Prussian, 
Danish, and British governments ; the Danish 
government declare for war, if the forces 
of the Germanic confederation enter the 
duchies . " Jan. 

Energetic warlike preparations in Denmark, 

Feb. 

Decimal coinage adopted . . . June, 

Agitation in favour of union of Denmark with 
Sweden, June ; the king of Sweden visits 
Denmark, and is warmly received . July 17, 

Earl Russell recommends the government to 
give to Holstein and Lauenburg all that the 
Germanic confederation desire for them, and 
to give self-government to Schleswig, Sept. 24, 

M. Hall, the Danish minister, declines to ac- 
cede ; stating that to do so would imperil the 
existence of the monarchy itself . Nov. 20, 

Princess Alexandra of Denmark married to the 
Prince of Wales at Windsor . March 10, 

The king grants, by patent, independent rights 
to Holstein, but annexes Schleswig, March 30, 

Austria and Prussia protest against tliis decree, 

April 17, 



1855 
1857 



Further diplomatic correspondence . May, 
The king accepts the crown of Greece for his 
relative, prince William-George, and gives 
him sound pohtical advice . . June 6, 
Death of the crown prince Frederick-Ferdi- 
nand, the king's vmcle . . June 29, 
The German diet demands annulment of the 
patent of March 30, and that Holstein and 
Schleswig should be >inited with the same 
rights ; and threatens an army of occu- 
pation July 9, 

The king replies that he will consider occupa- 
tion to be an act of war . . Aug. 27, 

Vain efforts for a defensive alliance with Sweden 

Aug. 

Extraordinary levy to strengthen the army de- 
creed Aug. I, 

New constitution (uniting Schleswig vrtth Den- 
mark) proposed in the Rigsraad . Sept. 29, 

Death of Frederick VII. and accession of 
Christian IX Nov. 15, 

Prince Frederick of Augustenburg claims the 
duchies of Schleswig and Holstein Nov. 16, 

Great excitement in Holstein ; many officials 
refuse to take oath to Christian, Nov. 21 et seq. 

Saxony, Bavaria, Hesse, and other German 
powers resolve to support the prince of 
Augustenburg .... Nov. 26 et seq. 

New constitution affirmed by the Rigsraad, 

Nov. 13'; signed by king, Nov. 18; pubUshed, 

Dec. I, 2, 

The Austrian and Prussian ministers say that 
they will quit Copenhagen if the constitution 
of Nov. 18 is not annulled . . Dec. 

Great excitement in Norway : proposals to 
support Denmark .... Dec. 

Prince Frederick's letter to the emperor Napo- 
leon, Dec. 2, obtains an ambiguous reply, 

Dec. 10, 

Denmark protests against federal occupation, 

Dec. 19, 

900 representatives of different German states 
meet at Frankfort, and resolve to support 
Prince Frederick as duke of Schleswig and 
Holstein, and the inseparable imion of those 
duchies Dec. 21, 

The federal execution takes place ; a Saxon 
regiment enters Altona, Dec. 24; and the 
federal commissioners assume administrative 
powers ...... Dec. 25, 

Hall's ministry resigp, but soon after reassume 
office Dec. 28, 

The Danes retire from Holstein, to avoid col- 
lision with federal troops . Dec. 24 et seq. 

Prince Frederick enters Kiel, and is pro- 
claimed duke of Schleswig and Holstein, 

Dec. 30, 

The Danes evacuate Rendsburg . Dec. 31, 

Ministerial crisis : Hall retires, and bishop 
Monrad forms a cabinet . . Dec. 31, 

Dissension among the Germans ; the Austro- 
Prussian proposition rejected by the diet ; 
the former declare that they will settle the 
question if the diet exceeds its powers, 

Jan. 14, I 

Austria and Prussia demand the abrogation of 
the constitution (of Nov. 18) within 2 days, 
Jan. 16 ; the Danes require 6 weeks' time, 

Jan. 18, 

The German troops, under marshal Wrangel, 
enter Holstein .... Jan. 21, 

The Prussians enter Schleswig, and take Ecken- 
forde ,. . Feb. i, 

They bombard Missunde, Feb. 2 ; which is 
burnt Feb. 3, 

The Danes defeated by Wrangel, at Over-selk, 

Feb. 3, 

The Danes abandon the Dannewerke to save 
their army, Feb. 5 ; great discontent in Copen- 
hagen Feb. 6, 



DEN 



237 



DEN 



DENMARK, continued. 

SchJeswig taken ; prince Frederick proclaimed, 

Feb. 6, : 

The allies occupy Flensburg, Feb. 7 ; com- 
mence their attack on Diippcl . Feb. 13, 

Tlie federal comnns.sioner.s protest against the 
Prussian occupation of' Altona . . Feb. 13, 

The Prussians enter Jutland, and take Kol- 
ding, Feb. 18; the Danes lortit'y Alsen, 

Feb. 18 etseq. 

A conference on Danish affairs proposed by 
England ; agreed to \>y allies . Feb. 23, 

A subscription for the wounded Danes begun 
in London Feb. 24, 

The Rigsraad vote a firm address to the king, 
Feb. 26 ; adjourned . . . March 22. 

The Prussians bombard and take the village of 
Diippel, or Dybbol, March 16, 17 ; and bom- 
bard Fredericia, March 20 ; repulsed in an 
attack on the fortress, Slarch 28 ; bombard 
Sonderberg : nmch slaughter, April 23 ; which 
causes bishop Monrad to appeal to European 
powers ...... April g, 

The opening of the conference adjourned froni 
Api'il 12 to 20, 

The Prussians take the fortress of Diippel, 

April 18, 

Meetings of the conference at London ; result 
unfavourable to Denmark . April 25 et seq. 

The Danes retreat to Alsen ; and evacuate 
Fredericia and the fortresses of Jutland, 

April 29, 



Agreement for an amiistice for one month from 
May 12 . . - . . . May 9, 

Jutland subjected to pillage for not paying a 
war contribution to Prussians, May 6 et seq. 

The Danes defeat the allies in a naval battle oil' 
Heligoland ..... May 9, 

The armistice prolonged for a fortnight, from 

June 9, 

The conference ends . . . June 22, 

Hostilities resumed, June 26 ; the Pru.ssians 
bombard Alsen ; take the batteries and 2400 
prisoners June 29, 

The Monrad ministry resigns ; count Moltki 
forms an administration . . July 8-10, 

Alsen taken ; — Jutland placed under Prussian 
administration ; — Prince John of Denmark 
sent to negotiate at Berlin . . July 9, 

Formation of the Bluhme administration, 

July II, 

Aiiaistice agreed to . . . July iS, 

Beginning of conference for peace at Vienna, 

July 26, 

Treaty of peace signed at Vienna ; — the king of 
Denmaj'k resigns the duchies to the disposal 
of the allies, and agrees to a rectification of 
his frontier, and to pay a large sum of money 
to defray tlie expenses of the war . Oct. 30. 

Proclamation of the king to the inhabitants of 
the duchies, releasing them from their alle- 
giance ...... Nov. 16, 

Project of a new constitution published, Dec. 30, 



1S64 



SOVEREIGNS OF DENMARK. 



803. 
824. 
855- 
936. 



i<535- 
1042. 
1047. 
1073. 
1076. 
1080. 
1086. 
1095. 
1103. 
1 105. 

II35- 
1137. 

1147. 



1202. 
1241. 
1250. 

1252. 

»259- 
1286. 
1320. 

1334 
1340. 
1375- 
1376. 
1387. 



1397- 
1412. 

1438. 
1440, 



Sigurd Snogoje. 

Hardicanute I. 

Gormo, the Old ; reigned 53 years. 

Harold II., siu-named Blue Tooth. 

Suenon, or Swej'n, the Foi'ked-beard. 

Harold II L 

Canute II. the Great, king of Denmark and 
England. 

Canute III.'s son, Hardicanute of England. 

Magnus, sumamed the Good, of Norway. 

Suenon or Sweyn 11. 

[Interregnum.] 

Harold, called the Simi^lo. 

Canute IV. 

Olaus IV. the Hungry. 

Eric I. styled the Good. 

[Interregnum.] 

Nicholas I. killed at Sleswick. 

Eric II. sumamed Harefoot. 

Eric III. the Lamb. 
( Suenon, or Sweyn III : beheaded. 

'i Canute V. until 11 57. 

Waldemar, styled the Great. 

Canute VI. sumamed the Pious. 

Waldemar II. the Victorious. 

Eric IV. 

Abel : assassinated his elder brother Eric ; 
killed in an expedition against the Prisons. 

Christopher I. : poisoned. 

Eric V. 

Eric VI. 

Christopher II. 

[Interregnum of seven years.] 

Waldemar III. 

[Interregnum.] 

Olaus V. 

Margaret, styled the " Semiramis of the 
North," queen of Sweden, Norway, and Den- 
mark. 

Margaret and Eric VII. (Eric XIII. of Sweden.) 

Eric VII. reigns alone ; obliged to resign both 
crowns. 

[Interregnum.] 

Christopher III. king oi Siceden. 



1448. Christian I. count of Oldenburg ; elected king 
of Deninarh, 1448; ot Sweden, 1457 ; succeeded 
by his son, 

1481. John ; succeeded by his son, 

1513. Christian II. called the Cruel, and the "Nero 
of the North ;" among other enormous crimes 
he caused all the Swedish nobility to be mas- 
sacred : dethroned for his tyranny in 1523 ; 
died in a dungeon in 1559. 

[In this reign Sweden succeeded in separating 
itself from the crown of Denmark.] 

1523. Frederick I. duke of Holstein, sonof Chri-stiaii 

I. ; a liberal ruler ; king of Denmark and Nor- 

wai/. 
1534. Christian III. son of Fredei-ick ; established 

the Lutheran religion ; esteemed the '" Father 

of his People." 
1559. Frederick II. son of Christian III. 
1588. Christian IV. son. 
1648. Frederick III. : changed the constitution from 

an elective to an hereditary monarchy,. 

vested in his own family, 1665. 
1670. Christian V. son of Frederick III. ; succeeded 

by his son, 
1699. Frederick IV. ; leagued with the czar Peter 

and the king of Poland against Charles XII. 

of Sweden. 
1730. Christian VI. his son. 
1746. Frederick V. his son : married the princess 

Louisa of England, daughter of George II. 
1766. Christian VII. his son. Seep. 235 
1784. Prince Frederick declared regent, in con.se- 

qucnce of the mental derangement of his 

father. - 
1808. Frederick VI. previously regent, now king. 
1839. Christian VIII. (son of Frederick, brother of 

Christian VII.) king of Denmark only. 
1848. Frederick VII. son of Christian VHI. : Jan. 20 ; 

born Oct. 6, 1808 ; separattd from his fir.st 

wife, Sept. 1837 ; frona his second wife, Sept. 

1846 ; married morganaticaAly Louisa, coun- 
tess of Danner, Aug. 7, 1850 ; died Nov. 15, 

1863. 



DEN 



238 



DER 



DENMARK, contimied. 

3. Christian IX. son of William, duke of Sleswig- 
Holstein-Sondorburg-Gliicksburg ; Nov. 15 
(succeeded by virtue of the protocol of Lon- 
don, Mays, 1852, and of the law of the Danish 
succession, July 31, 1853). He was born 



April 8, 1818; married princess Louisa of 
Hesse- C'assel, May 26, 1842. [He is descended 
from Christian III. and she from Frederick 
V. ; both from George II. of England.] 



DENNEWITZ (Pnissia), where a remarkable victory was obtained liymarslialBeniadotte 
(afterwards Charles XIV., king of Sweden), over marshal Ney, Sept. 6, 1813. The loss of 
the French exceeded 13,000 men, several eagles, and much cannon, &c. ; of the allies, 6000. 
The defeat of Napoleon at Leipsic, on the iStli of October following, closed his disastrous 
campaign. 

DENOMINATIONS, The Three (presbyterians, congregationalists or independents, 
and baptists), were organised in 1727 as an association, with the privilege of direct appeal to 
the reigning sovereign of Great Britain. 

DEODAND (Latin, " (0 be given to God ") : formerly, anything (such as a horse, carriage, 
&c. ), which had caused the death of a human being became forfeit to the sovereign or lord 
of the manor, and was to be sold for the benefit of the poor. The forfeiture was abolished 
by 9 & 10 Vict. c. 62 (1846). 

D'EON, Chevalier, who had acted in a diplomatic capacity in several countries, and 
been minister plenipotentiary from France in London, was affirmed to be a female, at a trial 
at the King's Bench in 1771, in an action to recover wagers as to his sex. He subsequently 
wore female attire : but at his death it was fully manifested that he was of the male sex. 

DEPARTMENTS. See France. 

DEPTFORD (near London). The hospital here was incorporated by Henry VIII. , and 
called the Trinity-house of Deptford Strond ; the brethren of Trinity -house hold their 
corporate rights by this hospital. Queen Elizabeth dined at Deptford on board the Pelican, 
the ship in which Drake had made his first voyage round the globe, April 4, 1581. The 
Deptford victualling-office was burnt Jan. 16, 1748-9; the store-house, Sept. 2, 1758 ; the 
red-house, Feb. 26, 1761 ; and the king's-mill, Dec. i, 1755. Peter the Great of Russia 
lived at Evelyn's-house, Say's-court, while learning ship-building, &c. in 1698. 

DEPUTIES, Chamber of, the title given to the French legi.slative assembly, from the 
restoration of the Bourbons in 1814 till 1852; when it took the name of Corps Lcgislatif. 

DERBY was made a royal burgh by Egbert (about 828). Alfred expelled the Danes 
from it and planted a colony in 880. His heroic daughter, Ethelfleda, again expelled the 
Danes in 918. William I. gave Derby to his illegitimate son William Peveril. Lombe's 
silk-throwing machine was set up in 17 18 ; and in 1756, Jedediah Strutt invented the Derby 
ribbed stocking- frame. The young Pretender reached Derby Dec. 3, 1745, and retreated 
thence soon after.* — The Derby day (see Races) is the second day (Wednesday) of the Grand 
Spring Meeting at Epsom in the week preceding Whitsunday. 

DERBY ADMINISTRATIONS : the first formed after the resignation of lord John 
Russell, Feb. 21, 1852 : the second after that of lord Palmerston, Feb. 19, 1858. 



FIRST ADMINISTRATION, Feb. 27, 1852. 

First lord of the treasury, earl of Derby, f 

Lord chancellor, lord St. Leonards (previously sir 

Edward Svigden). 
President of the council, earl of Lonsdale. 
lord privy seal, marquess of Salisbury. 
Nome, foreign, and colonial s(cretaries, Mr. Spencer 

Horatio Walpole, earl of Malmesbury, and sir John 

Pakington. 



Chancellor oftJie exchequer, Benjamin Disraeli. 

Board of control, John Charles Herries. 

Board of trade, Joseph Warner Henley. 

Postmaster-general, earl of Hardwicke. 

Secretary-at-icar, William Beresford. 

First commissioner of works and public buildings, lord 

John Manners. 
Robert Adam Christopher, lord Colchester, &c. 



* Derby Trials. Braiidreth, Turner, Ludlam senior, Ludlam junior, Weightman, and others, con- 
rioted at this memorable commission of high treason, Oct. 15, 1817 ; and Brandreth, Turner, and the elder 
Ludlam executed, Nov. 7, following. 23 were tried, and 12 not tried. Phillips. 21 prisoners were indicted 
at Derby for the murder of several miners in the Red-soil mine ; but were acquitted on the ground that 
the mischief was not wilful, March 23, 1834. 

f Bom 1799; M.P. for Stockbridge (as hon. E. G. S. Stanley) in 1820; chief secretary for Ireland 
1830-33 ; secretary for the colonies, 1833-4, ^^^ 1841-5. 



DER 



239 



DIA 



DERBY ADMINISTRATIONS, continued. 



of lord Canning to the Oude insurgents ; the 
government hardly escaped a vote of censure) ; 2, 
in June, 1858, lord Stanley ;—6nar(/ 0/ trade, Mr. 
Joseph W. Henley (resigned in Mai-ch, 1859) ; earl 
of Donoughmore ;— board of uorks, lord John 
Manners. 

Lord 'privy seal, earl of Hardwicke. 

First lord of the admiralty, sir John S. Pakmgton. 

Postmaster, lord Colchester. 

Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, duke of Montrose. 

[This ministry resigned in consequence of a vote of 
want of confidence, June 11, 1859 ; it was succeeded 
by the Palmerston-Russell cabinet (u-hich see}]. 



SECOND ADMINISTRATION, Feb. 2$, 1858. 

First lord of the treasury, earl of Derby. 

Lord chancellor, lord Chelmsford (previously sir P. 

Thesiger). 
Chancellor of the exchequer, B. Disraeli. 
Secretaries— foreign, earl of Malmesbury ; home, 

Spencer II. Walpole (resigned March, 1859), T. 

Sotheron Estcovu-t ; colonies, lord Stanley — in 

June, 1858, sir E. Bulwer Lytton ; war, col. Jona- 
than Peel. 
Presidents — of the council, marquess of Salisbury; of 

board of control {In<lia), 1, earl of Ellenborough 

(who resigned in May, 1858 ; he had sent a letter, 

on his own authority, ceusuring the proclamation 

DERRICKS are lofty, portable, crane-like structures, used on land and -water for liftino- 
enormous loads, and in some cases depositing them at an elevation. They are extensively 
used in the United States, and were introduced into England as floating derricks for raisin"- 
sunken vessels, by their inventor, A. D. Bishop, in 1857. '^ 

DERRY (N. Ireland), a bishopric first planted at Ardfrath ; thence translated to 
Maghera ; and in 1158 to Derry. The cathedral, built in 1164, becoming ruinous was 
rebuilt by a colony of Londoners, who settled here in the reign of James I., The see is 
valued in the king's books at 250Z. sterling ; but it has been one of the richest sees in 
Ireland. Beatson. The see of Raphoe was united to Derry, 1834. See Bishops; 
Londonderry. 

DESIGN, Schools of, established by government, began at Somerset-house, London, 
in 1837. 

DESPARD'S CONSPIRACY. Colonel Edward Marcus Dcspard, a native of Ireland, 
and Broughton, Francis, Graham, Macnamara, Wood, and "VVrattan, conspired to seize the 
king's person on the day of his meeting parliament, Jan. 16, 1803, to destroy him and 
overturn the government. A special commission was issued on Feb. 7, and they suffered 
death on the top of Horsemonger-lane gaol, Southwark, Feb. 21, 1803. Between thirty and 
forty persons of inferior order (some soldiers in the foot-guards) were taken into custody on 
Nov. 16, 1802, for this conspiracy, which caused great consternation at the time. 

DETROIT (N. America), the oldest city in the west, was built by the French about 1670. 

DETTINGEN (Bavaria), Battle of, June 16, 1743, between the British, Hanoverian, 
and Hessian army (52,000), commanded by king George II. of England and the earl of Stau- 
and the French army (60,000), under marshal Noailles and the due de Grammont. The 
French passed a defile, which they should have merely guarded. The due de Grammont 
witli his cavalry charged the British foot with great fury, but was received with such intre- 
pidity, that he was obliged to give way, and to repass the Maine, losing 5000 men. 

DEVONPORT. See Backyards and Plymouth. 

DEVONSHIRE and PITT ADMINISTRATION, foi-med Nov. 16, 1756, and resigned 
April 5, 1757. 



First lord of the treasury, WiUiam, duke of Devon- 
shire. 
Chancellor of the exchequer, hon. Henry Bilson Legge. 
Lord president, earl Granville. 
Privy seal, earl Gower. 



Secretaries of state, earl of Iloldci-nesseandWm. Pitt 
(afterwards earl of Chatham, the virtual premier). 

George Grenville, earl ot Halifax, dukes of Rutland 
and Grafton, carl of Rochfort, viscount Barrington, 
&c. The great seal in commission. 



DEW, the modem theory respecting its formation was put forth by Dr. Wells in his 
treatise published in 18 14. 

DIADEM, the band or fillet worn by the ancients instead of the crown, and consecrated 
to the gods. At first it was made of silk or wool, set witli precious stones, and was tied 
round the temples and forehead, the two ends being knotted beliind, and let fall on the neck. 
Aurelian was the first Roman emjieror who wore a diadem, 272. Tillcmonl. 

DIALS. Invented by Anaximander, 550 B.C. Pliny. The first dial of the sun seen at 
Eome Avas placed on the temple of Quirinus by L. Papirius Cursor, when time was divided 
into hours, 293 B.C. Blair. In the times of the emperors almost every palace and public 
building had a sun-dial. They were first set up in churches in A.D. 613. Lenglet, Dial of 
AIjuz, Isaiah xxxviii. 8, 



DIA 



240 



Die 



DIALYSIS, an important method of chemical analysis, depending on the different 
degi-ees of diflusibility of substances in liquids, was made known in 1861, by its discoverer, 
professor Thomas Graham, the Master of the Mint. 

DIA-MxiGNETISM, the property possessed by certain bodies of behaving diflerently to 
iron, when placed between two magnets. The phenomena, previously little known, were 
reduced to a law by Faraday in 1845. 

DIAMONDS were first brought to Europe from the East, where the mine of Sumbulpoor 
was the first known, and where the mines of Golconda wore discovered in 1534. This 
district may be termed the realm of diamonds. The mines of Brazil were discovered in 1728. 
From these last a diamond, weighing 1680 carats, or fourteen ounces, was sent to the court 
of Portugal, and was valued by Mr. lionieo de I'lsle at the extravagant sum of 224 millions ; 
by others it was valued at 56 millions ; its value was next stated to be 34 millions, but its 
true value (it not being brilliant) was 400,000?. 



The great Russian diamond weighs 193 carats, or 
I oz. 12 dwts. 4gr. troy. The empress Catheriue II. 
offered for it 104,166;. 13s. 4'^. besides an annuity 
for life to the owner of 1041!. 13.S. ^d. which was 
refused ; but it was afterwards sold to Catherine's 
favourite, count Orloff, for the first-mentioned sum, 
■without the annuity, and was by him presented to 
the empress on her birthday, 1772 ; it is now in 
the sceptre of Riissia. 

The Pitt diamond weighed 136 carats, and after 
cutting io5 carats : it was sold to the khig of France 
for i25,oooi. in 1720. 

The PiGOTT diamond was sold for 9500 guinea'=i. May 
10, 1802. 

The diamond called the Mountain of Light, or 
KoHiNOOR, was found in the mines of Golconda, in 
1550, and is said to have belonged in turn to Shah 
Jehan, Aurungzebe, NadirShah, the Afghan rulers, 
and afterwards to the Sikh chief Kunjeet Singh. 
Upon the abdication of Dhuleep Singh, the last 
ruler of the Punjab, and the annexation of his 
dominions to the British empire, in 1849, the 
Kohinoor was surrendered to the queen. It was 
accordingly brought over and presented to her, 
July 3, 1850. It was shown in the Great Exhibi- 
tion, 1851. Its original weight was nearly 800 
carats, but it was reduced by the unskilfulnesa of 
the artist, Hortensio Borghese, a Venetian, to 279 
carats. A general idea may be formed of its shape 
and size by conceiving it as the pointed half (rose 
cut) of a small hen's egg. The value is scarcely 
comi^utable, though two millions sterling have 
been mentioned as a justifiable price, if calculated 
by the scale employed in the trade. 'This diamond 
was re-cut in London in 1852, and now weighs 
i02i carats. 

The Sanci diamond, which belonged to Charles the 
Bold, duke of Burgundy, was bought by sir C. 
Jejeebhoy from the JDemidoff family for 2o,oooL in 
Feb. 1865. 

A diamond, termed the Star of the South, was 
brought from Brazil in 1855, weighing 254I carats, 
half of which was lost by cutting. 



Inflammability of Diamonds. 

Boetius de Boot conjectured that the diamond was 
inflammable, i6og. Boyle. 

Discovered that when exposed to a high temperature 
it gave an acrid vapour, in which a part of it was 
dissipated, 1673. Boyle. 

Sir Isaac Newton concluded from its great refracting 
power, that it must be combustible, 1675. 

Averani demonstiated, by concenti'ating the rays of 
the sun upon it, that the diamond was exhaled in 
vapour, and entirely disappeared, while other 
precious stones merely grow softer, 1695. 

It has been ascertained by Guyton, Davy, and others, 
that although diamonds are the hardest of all 
known bodies, they yet contain nothing more than 
pure charcoal, or carbon. Diamonds were charred 
by the intense heat of the voltaic battery — by M. 
Dumas, in Paris, and by Professor Faraday, in 
London, in 1848. 

Diamond Necklace Affair. — In 1785, Bcehmer, the 
court jeweller of France, offered the queen, Marie 
Antoinette, a diamond necklace, for 64,000^. The 
queen desired the necklace, but feared the ex- 
pense. The countess de la Motte (of the ancient 
Iiouse of Valois) forged the queen's signature, and 
by pretending that the queen had an attachment 
for him, persuaded the cardinal de Rohan, the 
queen's almoner, to conclude a bargain with the 
jeweller for the necklace for 56,000/. De la Motte 
thus obtained the necklace and made away with 
it. For this she was tried in 1786, and sentenced 
to be branded on the shoulders and imprisoned 
for life. She accused in vain the celebrated Italian 
adventurer, Cagliostro, of comijlicity in the affair, 
he being then intimate with the cardinal. She 
made her escape and came to London, where she 
was killed by falling from a window-sill, in at- 
tempting to escape an arrest for debt. — De Ro- 
han was tried and acquitted, April 14, 1786. The 
public in France at that time suspected the queen 
of being a party to the fraud. TallejTand wrote 
at the time, " I shall not be surprised if this miser- 
able affair overturn the throne." 



DIANA, Temple of (at Ephesus), long accounted one of the seven wonders of the 
world, was built at the common charge of all the Asiatic states, 552 B.C. The chief archi- 
tect was Ctesiphon ; and Pliny says that 220 years were employed in completing this rich 
temple. It was 425 feet long, 225 broad, and was su]>ported l)y 127 columns (60 feet high, 
each weighing 150 tons of Parian marble), furnished by so many kings. It was set on 
i\\-e, on the night of Alexander's nativity, by an obscure individual named Eratostratus, 
who confessed on the rack, that the sole motive which had prompted him to destroy so 
jnarniificent an edifice was the desire of transmitting his name to future ages, 356 B.C. The 
temple was rebuilt, but again burnt by the Goths, in their naval invasion, A.D. 256 or 262. 
L'liiv. Hist. 

DICE. The invention of dice is ascribed to Palamedes, of Greece, about 1244 B.C. The 
game of Tali and Tessera among the Eomaus was played with dice. Stow mentions two 



Die 



241 



DIE 



entertainments given by the city of London, at which dice were played.* Act to regulate 
the licences of makers, and the sale of dice, 9 Geo. IV. 1828. 

DICHKOOSCOPE, an optical apparatus, described by the inventor, professor Dov^ of 
Pjtrlin, in i860, who intended it to represent interferences, spectra in different coloured 
lights, polarisation of light, &c. 

DICTATORS were supreme and absolute magistrates of Rome, appointed to act in 
critical times. Titus Lartius Flavu.s, the first dictator, was appointed, 501 B.C. This office 
became odious by the usurpations of Sylla and Julius Caesar ; and after the deatli of the 
latter, the Roman senate, on the motion of the consul Antony, passed a decree, which for 
ever forbad a dictator to exist in Rome, 44 B.C., but Augustus became perpetual dictator, 27 
B.C., as Impcrator. 

DICTIONARY. A standard dictionary of the Chinese language, containing about 40,000 
characters, most of them hierogly])hic, or rude representations, somewhat like our signs of 
the zodiac, was perfected by Pa-out-she, who lived about iioo B.C. Morrisoiv. 



The oldest Greek dictionary is the Onomastikon 
of Julius Pollux, written about 120 B.C.; a 
Latin one was compiled by Varro, born B.C. 116 

The first noted polyglot dictionary, perhaps the 
first, is by Ambrose Calcpini, a Venetian friar, 
in Latin ; he wrote one in eight languages. 
Niceron. about a.d. 1500 

John E. Avenar's Dicllonarinni Hebraicum was 
published at Wittenberg in 1589. Buxtorf's 
great work. Lexicon Ilebraicum, &c., appeared 1621 

The Lexicon HeptagloUon was published by Ed- 
mund Casteli, in 1659 

The great dictionary of the English language, 
by Samuel Johnson, the " Leviathan of Lite- 
rature," appeared in 1755 

Francis Grose's Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue 
was compiled in 1768 

The following academies have published large 
dictionaries of their respective languages: 
the French academy, first in 1694 ; the Spa- 
nish, 1726; the Italian academy (della Crusca), 
1729; and the Russian .... 1789-94 



Schwan's great German-French dictionary ap- 
peared in 1782 

Richardson's English dictionary appeared in . 1836 

Lempricre's Classical dictionary, which first 
appeared in 1788, is now superseded by Dr. 
W. Smith's classical .series . . . . 1S42-57 

The Philological Society of London issued 
" proposals for a new English dictionary" . 1859 

The great German dictionary, by Jacob and 
Wilhelm Grimm .... 1854 et seq. 

Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood's Dictionary of 
English Etymology .... 1859-62 

Smith's Dictionary of the Bible was published 1860-3 

'The earliest known English-Latin dictionary is 
the Promptorium Farvulorum, compiled by 
Galfridus Grammaticus, a preaching friar of 
Norfolk, in 1440 ; and printed by Pynson, as 
Promptorius Puerorvm, in 1499- A new 
edition, carefully edited by Mr. Albert Way, 
from MSS. was published by the Camden So- 
ciety 1843-65 

See Encyclopocdia. 



DIDYMIUM, a rare metal, discovered by Mosander in 1841. 
associated with lanthanum and cerium. 



It appears to be always 



DIEPPE (N. France). This town was bombarded by an English fleet, under admiral 
Russell, and laid in ashes, July 1694. It was again bombarded in 1794; and again, together 
with the town of Granville, by the British, Sept. 14, 1803. 

"DIES IR.^" ("Day of Wrath "), a Latin medieval hymn on the day of judgment, is 
ascribed to various authors, amongst others to pope Gregory the Great (died about 604) ; St. 
Bernard (died 11 53); but is generally considered to have been composed by Thomas of 
Celano (died 1255), and to have been used in the Roman service of the mass before 1385. 

DIET OF THE German Empire (in which the .supreme court of authority of the empire 
may be said to have existed) was composed of three colleges : one of electors, one of princes, 
and one of imperial towns, and commenced with the edict of Charles IV. 1356. See Golden 
Bull. Diets otherwise constituted had long previously been held on important occasions. 
The diet of Wurtzburg, which proscribed Heniy the Lion, was held in 1180 ; that of Worms, 
at which Luther was present, in 1521 ; that of Spires, to condemn the Reformers, in 1529 ; 
and tlie famous diet of Augsburg, in 1530. The league of the German princes, called the 
Confederation of tlie Rhine, fixed the diet at Frankfort, July 12, 1806. Germany was 
governed by a diet of 38 members, having votes varying from four to one each, till 1864, 
when Schle-swig and Holstein were included. Diets were held in 1848 and 1850, at Frank- 
fort {which see). 



* In 1357 the kings of Scotland and France, being prisoners, and the king of Cy])rus on a visit to 
Edward 111 , ' a great tournament was held in Smithfield, and afterwards Henry Picard, mayor of London, 
" kept his hall against all comers that were willing to play at dice and hazard. The Udv Margaret, hia 
wife, did keepe her chamber to the same intent." The mayor restored to tlie king of Cypnis 50 marks 
which he bad won from him, saying, " My lord and king, be not aggrieved ; lor I covet not your gold ; but 
your play," &c. Stow. 



DIE 242 DIP 

'^ DIEU-DONNE,^'' the name given in his infancy to Louis U Grand, king of France, 
because the French considered him as the gift of Heaven ; the queen, his mother, ha\ii]g 
"been barren for 23 years jireviously, 1638. Voltaire. One of the popes of Rome, who 
obtained the tiara in 672, was named Adeodatus or God's gift, and had tlie character of a 
pious and charitable pontiff. 

DIEU ET MON DROIT ("God and my right "), the royal motto of England, was the 
parole of the day, given by Richard I. of England to his army at the battle of Gisors, in 
France, Sept. 20, 1198, when the French army was signally defeated. " Dicit ct man droit" 
aiipears to have been first assumed as a motto l3y Henry VI. (1422 — 1461). 

DIFFERENTIAL ENGINE. See Calculating Macldne. 

DIFFUSION OF Gases. For our present knowledge of the laws regulating this pheno- 
menon, which performs so important a part in respiration and other natural processes, we 
are greatly indebted to the researches of professor T. Graham, published in the Philosophical 
Transactions of the Royal Society for 1850. 

DIFFUSION OF Useful Knowledge Society, which published a number of books 
relating to history, science, and literature, and a useful atlas, ridiculed as the " Sixpenny 
Sciences," in a cheap form, was established in 1827, by Lord Brougham, Mr. William 
Tooke, Mr. Charles Knight, and others. It patronised the publication of the Penny lilagazine 
and the Penny Cycloptedia. The Royal Institution of Great Britain was established in 
1800, for " the Promotion, Diffusion, and Extension of Science ami Useful Knowledge." 

DIGEST. The first collection of Roman laws under this title was prepared by Alfrenus 
Varus, the civilian, of Cremona, 66 B.C. Quintil. The Digest, so called by way of emi- 
nence, was the collection made by order of the emperor Justinian, 529 : it made the first 
part of the Roman law and the first volume of the civil law. Quotations from it are marked 
with a ff. Pardon. A digest of the statute law of England is now strongly recommended 
(1865). 

DIGITS. Any whole number under 10 : i, 2, &c., are the nine digits. Arithmetical 
figures were known to the Arabian Moors about A. d. 900 ; and were introduced by them 
into Spain in I050, and thence into England about 1253. In astronomy,, the digit is a 
measure used in the calculation of eclipses, and is the twelfth part of the luminary eclipsed. 
See Ficfurcs. 

DILETTANTI, Society of, was established in 1734 by several noblemen and gentlemen 
(viscount Harcourt, lord Middlesex, duke of Dorset, &c.), who had travelled and who were 
desirous of encouraging a taste for the fine arts in Great Britain. The society published, or 
aided in publishing, Stuart's Athens (1762 — 1816), Chandler's Travels (1775-6), and several 
other finely illustrated works, having aided the authors in their investigations. The members, 
dine together from time to time at the Thatched-house tavern, St. James's. 

DIMITY. See Damidta. 

DIOCESE. The first division of the Roman empire into dioceses, at that period civil' 
governments, is ascribed to Constantine, 323 ; but Strabo remarks that the Romans had tho 
departments called dioceses long before. In England the principal dioceses are coeval with 
the establishment of Christianity ; of 28 dioceses, 20 are suffragan to the diocese of Canter- 
bury, and six to that of York. See Bishops, and the sees severally. 

DIOCLETIAN ERA (called also the era of MartjTS, on account of the persecution in his 
reign) was used by Christian writers until the introduction of the Christian era in the 6th 
century, and is still employed by the Abyssinians and Copts. It dates from the day on 
which Diocletian was ijroclaimed emperor at Chalcedon, Aug. 29, 284. 

DIOPTRIC SYSTEM. See LigJithouses. 

DIORAMA. This species of exhibition, which had long been admired at Paris, was 
first opened in London by MM. Bouton and Daguerre, Sept. 29, 1823. The diorama differs 
from the panorama in this respect, that, instead of a circular view of the objects repre- 
sented, it exhibits the whole picture at once in perspective. It was not successful com- 
mercially, and was sold in 1848. The building in Regent's Park was purchased by sir S. 
M. Peto, in 1855, to be used as a Baptist chapel. It is the handsomest dissenters' chapel 
in London. 

DIPHTHERIA (from the Greek diphihcra, a membrane), a disease which has the 
essential character of developing a false membrane on any integument, particularly on the 



DIP 243 DIS 

mucous membrane of the throat. It was so named by Bretonneau of Tours in 1820. From 
its prevalence iu l^oulogne, it has been termed the Boulogne sore-throat ; many persons 
were affected with it in England at the beginning of 1858. 

DIPLOMACY, the art of managmg the relations of foreign states by means of ambas- 
sadors, envoys, consuls, &c. See Avibassadors. New regulations for the British diplomatic 
service were issued Sept. 5, 1862. 

DIPLOMATICS, the foreign term for the science of Palaeography or ancient writings. 
Valuable Avorks on this subject have been compiled by Mabillon (1681), De Vaines (1774), 
Astle (1 781), De Wailly (1838), and other antic^uaries. 

"DIRECTOPiY FOR THE Public "Worship of God " was drawn up at the instance of 
the parliament by an assembly of divines at Westminster in 1644, after the suppression of 
the Book of Common Prayer. The general hints given were to be managed with discretion ; 
for the Directory prescribed no form of prayer or manner of external worship, and enjoined 
the people to make no responses except Amen. It was adopted by the parliament of Scotland 
in 1645, and many of its regulations are stiU observed. 

DIEECTOEY, The French, established by the constitution of Aug. 22, 1795, and 
nominated Nov. i, was composed of five members (MM. Lipeaux, Letourneur, Rewbel, 
Barras, and Carnot). It ruled in conjunction with two chambers, the Council of Ancients 
and Council of Five Hundred {which see). It was deposed by Bonaparte, who, with 
Cambacdres and Sieyes, assumed the government as three consuls, the first as chief, Nov. 10, 
1799. See Consuls. 

DIRECTORY, the first London, is said to have been printed in 1677. The " Post-office 
Directory" first appeared in 1800. 

DISCIPLINE, Ecclesiastical, originally conducted according to the divine commands 
in Maff. xviii. 15, i Cor. v., 2 Thess. iii. 6, and other scripture texts, was gradually 
changed to a temporal character, as it now appears in the Roman and Greek churches. The 
" Fu-st Book of Discipline" of the presbyterian church of Scotland was drawn up by John 
Knox and four ministers in Jan. 1560-1. The more important "Second Book" was prepared 
Avith great care in 1578 by Andrew Melville and a committee of the leading members of the 
general assembly. It lays down a thoroughly presbyterian form of government, defines the 
position of the ecclesiastical and civil powers, &c. 

DISCOUNT. See Bank of England. 

DISPENSARIES, to supply the poor Avith medical advice and medicines, began in London 
with the Royal General Dispensary, established in St. BartholomeAv's Close, in 1770. It 
relieved about 20,000 persons in 1861. Lows Charities. 

DISPENSATIONS, Ecclesiastical, were first granted by pope Innocent III. in 1200. 
These exemptions from the discipline of the church, with indulgences, absolutions, &c., led 
eventually to the Reformation in Germany in 1517, and in England in 1534, et seq. 

DISPENSING POWER of the Crown (for setting aside laws), asserted by some of our 
sovereigns, especially by James II. in 1686, Avas abolished by the bill of rights, 1689. 
However it has been on certain occasions exercised, as in the case of embargoes upon ships, 
the Bank Charter act, &c. See Indemnity. 

DISSECTION. See Anatomy. 

DISSENTERS, the modern name of the Puritans and Nonconformists (vjhich see). In 
1 85 1, in London alone, the number of chapels, meeting-houses, &c., for all classes of 
dissenters amounted to more than 554. (The Church of England had 458 ; Roman 
Catholics, 35.) The great act (9 Geo. IV. c. 17) for the relief of dissenters from civil and 
religious disabilities AA-as passed May 9, 1828. By this act, called the Corporation and Test 
Repeal act, so much of the several acts of preceding reigns as imposed the necessity of 
receiving the sacrament of the Lord's Supper as a qualification for certain offices, &c., was 
repealed. By 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 85 (1836), dissenters acquired the right of solemnising 
marriages at their OAvn chapels or at a registry office. See Worshi2}. 

DISTAFF, the staff to which hemp, flax, wool, or other substances to be spun is 
fastened. The art of spinning with it at the small Avhecl, first taught to English Avomen by 
Anthony Bouavisa, au Italian. Utow. The distatf is used as an emblem of the female sex. 

B 2 



DIS 244 DOC 

DISTILLATION, and the various chemical processes dependent on the art, are generally 
believed to have been introduced into Europe by the Moors about 1150 ; their brethren of 
Africa had them from the Egyptians. See AI.coJwl, Brand)/. The distillation of spirituous 
liquors was in practice in Great Britain in the i6th century. Bii/nis. The processes -were 
imjjroved by Adam of Montpellier in 1801. M. Payen's work (1861) contains the most recent 
improvements. 118 licencesto distillers were granted in the year ending March 31, 1858, for 
the United Kingdom. 

DIVINATION. In the Scriptures and ancient authors different kinds of divination are 
mentioned. See A^igury, Delphi, Magi, Witchcraft, <L-c. 

DIVINE EIGHT of Kings, the absolute and unqualified claim of sovereigns to the 
obedience of their subjects, a doctrine which is totally foreign to the genius of the English 
constitution, was defended by many persons of otherwise opposite opinions, e.g., by Hobbes 
the free-thinker (1642), by Salmasius (1640), by sir Robert Filmer, in his Patriarcha in 
1680, and by the High Church party generally about 1714 ; but opposed by Milton (1651), 
Algernon Sydney, and others. 

DIVING-BELL (first mentioned, though obscurely, by Aristotle, about 325 B.C.) was 
used in Europe about a.d. 1509. It is said to have been used on the coast of Mull, in 
searching for the wreck of part of the Spanish Armada, before 1662. Halley (about 1721) 
greatly improved this machine, and was, it is said, the first who, by means of a diving-bell, 
set his foot on the ground at the bottom of the sea. Smeaton made use of the diving-bell in 
improving Ramsgate harbour, 1779-88. Mr. Spalding and his assistants going down in a 
diving-bell in Ireland were drowned, June i, 1783. The Royal (?for(/c man-of-war, which 
was sunk off Portsmouth in 1782, was first surveyed by means of a diving-bell in May, 181 7. 
Latterly it has been emijloyed in submarine surveys. The first diving- ^e^fe was the wife of 
captain Morris, at Plymouth, who descended in one a few years ago. 

DIVINING ROD (virgula divina, baculatorius), formed of wood or metal, was formerly 
believed, even by educated persons, to have the property of indicating the position of 
minerals and springs of water. Instances were alleged in 185 1 by Dr. H. Mays, in his 
work on "Popular Superstitions." 

DIVINITY. See Tluology. 

DIVORCE FOR Adultery (of early institution). It was permitted by the law of Moses 
{Deut. xxiv. i), 1451 B.C., but was forbidden by Christ except for adultery (Matt. v. 31). 
It was put in practice by Spurius Carvilius Ruga at Rome, 234 B.C. At this time morals were 
so debased that 3000 prosecutions for adultery were enrolled. Divorces are of two kinds ; 
one, a vinculo ynatrimoiiii (total divorce) ; the other, a mejisd et thoro (from board and bed). 
Divorces were attemjited to be made of more easy obtainment in England in 1539. The bill 
to prevent women marrying their seducers was brought into parliament in 1801. In April, 
1853, the commissioners on the law of divorce issued their first report.* By 20 & 21 Vict. 
'C. 85 (1857), the jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical courts respecting divorce, &c., was abolished, 
and the Divorce and Matrimonial Causes court was instituted, to consist of three judges, the 
judge of the Probate court to be one (if possible). On May 10, 1858, a full court sat, viz. 
lord Campbell, chief baron Pollock, and sir Cresswell Cresswell, judge of the Probate court, 
when five marriages were dissolved. The above-mentioned act was amended by acts passed in 
.1858-60, in consequence of the increase of the business of the court. See Marriage. An 
act respecting divorces in Scotland was passed in 1861. Sir Cresswell Cresswell died in 
July, 1863, and sir James P. Wilde was appointed his successor in Sept. following. 

DIZIEE, St. (N.E. France). Here a siege was sustained for six weeks against the army 
of the emperor Chaides V., 1544. The allies here defeated the French under Napoleon, Jan. 
27 and March 26, 1814. 

DOBRUDSCHA, the N.E. corner of Bulgaria; in 1854, the scene of the earlier incidents 
of the Russo-Turkish war {which see). 

DOCETiE, a sect of the ist centuiy, said to have held that Jesus Christ was god, but 
that his body was an appearance, not a reality. 

* In 1857, there had been in England, since the Reformation, 317 divorces by act of parliament ; in 
Scotland, by the law, 174 divorces since 1846. From the establishment of the divorce court, to March, 
JS59, 37 divorces had been granted out of 288 petitions ; from Nov. i860 to July, 1861, 164. They are now 
very frequent. 



DOC 



245 



DOG 



DOCKS OF ENGLAND. They are said to be the most extensive and finest in the world. 
The following are the principal commercial docks : — 



Commercial Docks, Rotbeiliitlie, origrinated about 
1660. 

West India Docks were commenced, Feb. 3, 1800; 
and were opened Aug. 27, 1S02, when the " Henry 
Addington," West Iiidiaman, first entered them, 



East India Docks were commenced in 1803 ; and 
opened Aug. 4, 1806. » 

St. Katherine's t)ocks began May 3, 1827 ; and 2500 
men wei-e daily employed on theiu until they were 
opened, Oct. 25, 1S28. 



decorated with the colours of the diffei-ent nations j Victoria Docks (in Plaistow marshes) were completed 
of Europe. I in 1855. 

London Docks were commenced June 26, 1802, and j Magnificent docks at Liverpool and Birkenhead 
oiDcned Jan. 20, 1805. | erected, 1810-57. 

DOCK-YARDS, Royal. There are seven chief dock-yards in England and Wales, and 
others in various of our colonies. 



Woolwich was an extensive one in 1509. 
Deptford dock-yard founded about 1513. 
Chatham dock-yard was founded by queen Elizabeth. 
Portsmouth dock-yard established by Henry VIII. 
Plymouth dock, now Devonport,* about 1689. 
Sheerness dock-yard was built by Charles II. after 
the insult of the Dutch, who burnt our men-of-war 



at Chatham in 1667. A fire occurred at Sheer- 
ness dock-yard, on board the CamperUowii, Oct. 9, 
1840. 

Milford-Haven dock-yard, 1790 ; removed to Pem- 
broke in 1 8 14. 

The Dock-yard battalions have been named since 1847. 



DOCTOR. Doctor of the Church was a title given to Athanasius, Basil, Gregory, 
Nazianzen, and Chrysostom in the Greek cluirch ; and to Jerome, Augustin, Ambrose, and 
Gregory the Great, in the Romish church, 373, et scq. In later times the title has been 
conferred on certain persons with distinguishing epithets : viz. Thomas Aquinas (Angelicus), 
Bonaventura (Seraphicus), Alexander de Hales (Irrefragabilis), Duns Scotus (Subtilis), Roger 
Bacon (Mirabilis), AVilliam Occam (Singularis), Joseph Gerson (ChristiauLssiraus), Thomas 
Bradwardine (Profundus), and so on. Doctor of the law, was a title of honour among tlie 
Jews. The degree of doctor was conferred in England, 8 John, 1207. Spclman. Some give 
it an earlier date, referring it to the time of the Venerable Bede and John de Beverley, the 
former of whom, it is said, was the first that obtained the degree at Cambridge about 725. 

DOCTORS' COMMONS, the college for the professors of civil and canon law residing in 
London ; the name of commons is given to it from the civilians commoning together, as in 
other colleges. It was founded by Dr. Henry Hervie in 1568 ; but the original college was 
destroyed in the great fire of 1666 ; in 1672 it was rebuilt on the old site.t After the 
great fire, and until 1672, the society held its courts at Exeter house in the Strand. It was 
incorporated by charter in June, 1768. Coote. Till 1857 the causes taken cognizance of 
here were blasphemy, divorces, bastardy, adultery, penance, tithes, mortuaries, probate of 
wills, &c. See Ecclesiastical Courts, Civil Laio, &c. 

DOCTRINAIRES, a name given since 1814 to a class of politicians in France (Guizot, 
due de Broglie and others), who upheld the constitutional principles, as opjiosed to arbitrary 
monarchical power. The party came into office in 1830 under Louis Philippe, and fell with 
him in 1848. The term has been applied in this country to the writers in the " Westminster 
Review" (1824, ct scq.), Bentham, Molesworth and others. 

DODONA, Ei'iRUS. The temple of Jupiter here, renowned for its oracle, was destroyed 
by the ^Etolians, 219 B.C. 

DODSON'S ACT (brought forward by Mr. John G. Dodson, and passed Aug. i, 1861) 
provides that votes for electing members of parliament for the universities may be recorded 
by means of polling papers. 

DOG. BufFon considers the shepherd's dog as "the root of the tree," assigning as his 
reason that it possesses from nature the greatest share of instinct. The Irish wolf-dog is 



• Great fire in the dock-yard at Devonport, by which the Talavera, of 74 guns, the Imogene frigate, of 
28 guns, and immense stores, were destroyed ; the relics and figure heads of the favourite ships of Bos- 
cawen, Rodney, Duncan, and other naval heroes, which were preserved in a naval museum, were also 
burnt, Sept. 27, 1840 ; the loss was estimated at 2oo,ooof. 

t In Febru.ary, 1568, Dr. Henry Ilervie, dean of the arches and master of Trinity-hall (a seminary 
founded at Cambridge chiefly for the study of the civil and canon laws) procured from the dean and chapter 
of the diocese of London a lease of Jloatfoy-bou.sc and other buildings in the parish of St. Bene't, Paul's 
wharf, for the accommodation of the society. The courts over which he presided, the prerogative court of 
Canterbury, that of the bishop of London, and .also the court of admiralty (except for criminal cases), were 
thenceforward holden in the buildings thus a.ssigned, and the whole place, for an obvious reason, received 
the appellation of " Doctors' Commons.'' Cvoic's English Civilians. 



DOG 246 DOM 

supposed to be the Ccarliest dog known in Europe, if Irish writers be correct. Dr. Gall 
mentions that a dog was taken from Vienna to England ; that it escaped to Dover, got on 
board a vessel, landed at Calais, and, after accompanying a gentleman to Mentz, returned to 
Yienna. Statute against dog stealing, lo Geo. III. 1770. Dog-tax imposed, 1796, and 
again in 1008 ; now (1865) 12s. a year. The employment of dogs in drawing carts, &c., in 
London was abolished, 1839 ; in the United Kingdom, 1854. Dog slioivs have been held in 
London in 1S61, 1862, 1863, 1864, and 1865, latterly at the Agricultural Hall, Islington. 

DOG-DAYS. The canicular or dog-days, commence on the 3rd of July and end on the 
nth of August. The rising and setting of Sirius or the dog-star* with the sun has been 
erroneously regarded as the cause of excessive heat and of consequent calamities. 

DOGE, the title of the duke of Yenice, which state was first governed by a prince so 
named, Anafesto Paululio, or Paoluccio, 697. See Venice, The Genoese chose their first 
doge, Simone Boccanegra, in 1339. Muratori. 

DOGGERBANK (German Ocean). Here a gallant but indecisive battle was fought 
between the British, under admiral sir Hyde Parker, and the Dutch, Aug. 5, 1781. 

DOGGET'S COAT and BADGE. The annual rowing match upon the Thames, thus 
called, originated in this way : Mr. Thomas Dogget, an eminent actor of Drury-lane, on the 
first anniversary of the accession to the throne of George I., Aug. i, 1715, gave a waterman's 
coat and silver badge to be rowed for by six young watermen in honour of the day, and 
bequeathed at his death a sum of monej'', the interest whereof was to be appropriated 
annually, for ever, to the same pm'pose. The candidates start, at a signal given, at that 
time of the tide when the current is strongest against them, and row from the Old Swan, 
Loudon Bridge, to the White Swan at Chelsea. 

DOIT. A silver Scottish penny, of which twelve were equal to a penny sterling. Some 
of those struck by Charles I. and II. are in the cabinets of the curious. The circulation of 
" doydekyns" (small Dutch coins) was prohibited by statute in 1415. 

DOLLAR, the German thaler (the h not sounded). Stamped Spanish dollars were issued 
from the Mint in March, 1797, but called in Oct. following. The dollar is the principal 
silver coin in the United States of North America. 

DOM-BOC or Doom-Book {Lihcr JudiciaUs), the code of law compiled by king Alfred 
from the AVest-Saxon collection of Ina and other sources. Alfred reigned from 871 to 901. 

DOME'S-DAY BOOK or DOOM'S-DAY {Liher Censualis Anijlicv), a book of the 
general survey of England, commenced in the reign of "William I. loSo (some say 1085),. and 
completed in 1086. It was intended to be a register whereby to determine the right in the 
tenure of estates ; and from it the question whether lands be ancient demesne or not, is some- 
times still decided. The book is still preserved in the Chapter-house, Westminster-abbey, 
fair and legible, consisting of two volumes, a greater and lesser, wherein all the counties of 
England, except Northumberland, Durham, Westmoreland, and Cumberland, are surveyed. 
" This Dome's-day book was the tax-book of Kinge William." Camden. It was printed in 
four vols, folio, with introductions, &c., 1783 — 1816. The taxes were levied according to 
this survey till 13 Hen. YIIL, 1522, when a more accurate survey was taken, called by the 
people the New Doom's-Day Book. Photographic copies of various counties have been 
published since 1861. 

DOMINGO, St., a city in Hayti, the seat of the Dominican republic, independent from 
1844-61. It has been much troubled by the emperors of Hayti, especially by Faustin I., 
dethroned in 1858. Its last president. General Josd Yalverde, was elected in 1858. Popu- 
lation 200,000. See Hayti. In March, 1861, a number of Spanish emigrants landed in St. 
Domingo ; a cry for its annexation to Spain was raised, and St. Domingo was incorporated 
with that monarchy. May 20, 1861. An insurrection against the Spaniards broke out on 
Aug. 18, 1863, and the rebels had gained nearly all the island in Nov. when the Spanish 
government proclaimed it in a state of blockade. A Spanish force was sent and several 
conflicts ensued, in which the insurgents were generally worsted. In Dec. 1864 the British 
government recognised the Haytians as belligerents ; and in 1S65 the Spanish government 
retired from the contest. 

* Mathematicians assert that Sirius, or the dog-star, is the nearest to tis of all the fixed stars ; and 
they compute its distance from our earth at 2,200,000 millions of miles. They maintain that a sound would 
not reach our earth from Sirius in 50,000 years ; and that a cannon-ball, flying with its usual velocity of 
480 miles an hour, would consume 523,211 years in its passage thence to our globe. 



DJM 247 DOU 

DOMINICA (W. Indies), discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, on Sunday, 
Nov. 3, 1493. It was taken by the British in 1761, and was confirmed' to them by the 
peace of 1763. The French took Dominica in 1778, but restored it at the subsequent peace 
in 17S3. It suffered great damage by a tremendous hurricane iu 1806. 

DOMINICAL LETTER, noting the Lord's day, or Sunday. The seven days of the 
week, reckoned as beginning on the ist of Jan. are designated by the first seven letters of the 
alphabet, A, B, C, D, E, F, G ; and the one of these which denotes Sunday is the Dominical 
letter. If the year begin on jSunday, A is the Dominical letter ; if on Monday, G ; on 
Tuesday, F ; and so on. Generally to find the Dominical letter call New Year's day A, the 
next B, and go on thus until you come to the first Sunday, and the letter that answers to it is 
the Dominical letter ; iu leap years count two letters. The letter for 1865 is A, for 1866, G. 

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC. See Domingo. 

DOMINICANS, formerly a powerful religious order (called in France, Jacobins, and in. 
England Black friars), founded iu order to put down the Albigenses and other heretics by 
St. Dominic, approved by Innocent III. in 1215, and confirmed by Honorius III. iu 1216, 
under St. Austin's rules and the founder's particular constitution. In 1276 the corporation, 
of London gave the Dominicans two whole streets near the Thames, where they erected a 
large convent, whence that part is still called Blackfriars. 

DONATISTS, an ancient puritanical sect, formed about 313 — 318, by an African bishop, 
Donatus, who was jealous of Cajciliau, bi.shop of Cartilage : it became extinct in the 7tli 
century. The Donatists held that the Father was above the Son, and the Son above the 
Holy Ghost ; and that there was no virtue in the form of the Church. Their discipline was 
severe, and those who joined their sect were re-baptized. 

DONKEY SHOW. An exhibition of donkeys and mules belonging to the upper aud 
lower classes took place at the Agricultural Hall, Islington, in Aug. 1864. 

DON QUIXOTE, by Saavedra Miguel de Cervantes (born 1547 ; died 1616). The first 
pai't of this woi'k appeared in 1605, aud the second part iu 1608. It is said that upwards 
of 12,000 copies of the first part were circulated before the second could be made ready for 
the press. Watts. 

DOOM'S-DAY BOOK. See Domc's-day Bool: 

DORADO. See El Dorado. 

DjORCHESTER (now a village near Oxford) was once a bishopric, said to have been, 
founded about 636. The first Bishop, Birinus, was called the apostle of the West Saxons. 
In 1070, Remigius, its last jirelate, transferred it to Lincoln (ivhich sec). — Much excitement 
was caused by six labourers of. Dorchester (in Dorsetshire) being sentenced to ti'ansportation, 
I\Iarch 17, 1834, for administering illegal oaths. 

DORIANS, a people of Greece, claimed their descent from Dorus, son of HeUen. See 
Orcecc. Their return to the Peloponnesus took place 1104 B.C. "They sent out many 
colonies. To them we owe the Doric architecture, the second of the five orders. It is lighter 
than the Tuscan. 

DORT, or Dordrecht, an ancient town in Holland, where the indeppndence of the 
thirteen provinces was declared in 1572, when William prince of Orange was made stadt- 
holder. Here happened an awful inundation of the Meuse in 142 1, through the breaking 
down the dykes. In the territory of Dordrecht 10,000 persons perislied ; and more than 
100,000 round DuUart, in Friesland, and iu Zealand. In the last two provinces upwards of 
300 villages were overflowed, and the tops of their towers were long after seen rising out 
of the water. A Protestant synod was held at Dort iu 1618 and 1619; to which deputies 
were sent from England, and the reformed churches in Europe, to settle the diff"erence between 
the doctrines of Luther, Calvin, and Arminius, principally upon points of justification aud 
grace. This synod condemned the tenets of Arminius. 

DOUAY (N. France), the Roman Duacum, was taken from the Flemings by Philip the 
Fair in 1297 ; restored by Charles V. in 1368. It reverted to Spain, from whom it was 
taken by Louis XIV. in 1667. It was captured by the duke of Marlborough in 1710 ; and 
retaken by the French next year. This town gives its name to the Roman Catliolic edition 
of the Bible in use, by the consent of the popes, as the only authorised English version ; 



DOU 



248 



DRA 



its text is explained by the notes of Roman Catholic divines. The Old Testament was first 
published by the English college at Douay in 1609 ; the New had been published at Rheims 
in 1582. The English college for Roman Catholics was founded in 1568 by William Allen, 
afterwards cardinal. Dodd. 

DOURO, a river (separating Spain and Portugal), which, after a desperate struggle 
between Wellington's advanced guard under Hill, and the French under Soult, was success- 
fully crossed by the former on May 12, 1809. So sudden was the movement, that Wellington 
at 4 o'clock sat down to the dinner prepared for the French general. Alison. 

DOVER (Kent), the Roman Dubris. Near here Julius Caesar made his first landing in 
England, Aug. 26, 55 B.C. Its original castle is said to have been built by him soon after ; but 
this is disputed. The works were strengthened by Alfred and succeeding kings, and rebuilt 
by Henry II. The earliest named constable is Leopoldus de Bertie, in the reign of 
Ethelred II., followed by earl Godwin, Odo the brother of William I., &c. In modern 
times, this office, and that of warden of the Cinque Ports, has been frequently confeiTed 
on the prime minister for the time being,- — e.g., lord North, Mr. Pitt, lord Liverpool, and 
the duke of Wellington : the earl of Dalhousie, late governor-general for India, was 
appointed in Jan. 1853, 'and died Dec. 19, i860. Lord Palmerston, appointed constable 
March, 1861, died Oct. 18, 1865. 

The priory was commenced by archbishop Cor- 
boyl, or Corbois, about ..... 1130 

At Dover, king John resigned his kingdom to 
Pandolf, the pope's legate . . May 13, 1213 

The pier was projected l^y Henry VIII. in . 1533 

Charles II. landed here from his exile. May 25, 1660 

The foot barracks were burnt down by an acci- 
dental fire July 30, 1800 



A large part of the chff fell, Nov. 27, 1810 ; and 

Jan. 13, 1853 
Railway to London opened . . Jlay 6, 1854 
A telegraph wire laid down experimentally 
between Dover and Calais (see Submarine 
TeUgvaph), Aug. 28, 1850 ; telegraph opened, 

Nov. 13, 1851 



DOWER, the gifts of a husband for a wife before marriage {Genesis xxxiv. 12), The 
portion of a man's lands or tenements which his wife enjoys fpr life after her husband's 
death. By the law of king Edmund, a widow was entitled to a moiety of her husband's lands 
or tenements for her life, 941. The widows of traitors, but not those of felons, are debarred 
their dower by statute 5 Edw. VI. 1551. The last dower act passed in 1833. 

DOWN (N.E. Ireland), Bishopric of. An ancient .see, whose first bi.shop was St. 
Cailan, in 499. At the instance of John de Courcy, the conqueror of Ulster, the cathedral, 
although previously consecrated to the Trinity, was dedicated to St. Patrick about 1183. 
The sepulchre of St. Patrick (who was buried here iu 493, in the abbey of Saul, founded by 
himself) brought this place iuto great repute. The see was united with that of Connor iu 
1441 (see Connor) ; and the see of Dromore was united to both by the provisions of the Irish 
Church Temporalities act, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 37, Aug. 14, 1833. The cathedral of Down- 
patrick was destroyed by lord Grey, lord dejxity of Ireland ; for this and other crimes he 
was impeached and beheaded in 154 1. Beatson. 

DRACO'S LAWS (enacted by him when archon of Athens, 621 B.C.), on account of 
their severity, were said to be written in blood. Idleness was j)unished with as much 
severity as murder. This code was set aside by Solon's, 594 b.c. 

DRAFTS (or cheques). In 1856, drafts crossed with a bankers name were made 
payable only to or through the same banker. This act was i^assed in consequence of a 
decision to the contrary in the case of Carlon v. Ireland, Dec. 12, 1855. In 1858 the 
crossing was made a material part of a cheque, but bankers are not held responsible when 
the crossing does not plainly appear,* and a penny stamp was ordered to be affixed to drafts 
on bankers, commencing May 25. 

DRAGOONS. The name is supposed to have been derived from dragon, "because 
mounted on horseback with lighted match he seemeth like a fiery drngon. " MeyricTc. The 
Draconarii were horse-soldiers, who bore dragons for ensigns. The first regiment of 
dragoons was raised in England, it is believed, in 168 1. " King Charles II. at the Restora- 
tion established a regiment of Life Guards, to which he added a regiment of Horse Guards, 
and two regiments of Foot Guards ; and a third regiment of Foot Guards was raised at 
Coldstream, on tlie borders of Scotland." Captain Curling. 



* In the case of Simmonds v. Taylor, May, 1858, it was decided, on appeal to the court of exchequer, 
that the crossing formed no part of the draft. The crossing had been erased, and the money paid to the 
holder of the draft who had stolen it. 



DEA 



249 



DRA 



DRAINAGE or Land, in England, is of early date— remains of British works being still 
extant in the Fens district. The truly national works began in 1621, when Cornelius 
Vermuyden, the Dutch engineer, was invited to England. Amidst much opposition, he 
and his successors drained the districts termed the Great Levels. See Levels, In the 
present century great progress has been made in drainage. In i86i was passed "an act 
to amend the laws relative to the di-ainage of land for agricultural purposes." See Sewers. 

DRAKE'S CIRCUMNAVIGATION. Sir Francis Drake sailed from Falmouth Dec. 13, 
1577, and sailing round the globe, returned to England, after many perilous adventures, 
Nov. 3, 1580. He was vice-admiral under lord Howard, high admiral of England, in the 
conflict with the Si>anish Armada, July 19, 1588. 

DRAMA, Ancient. Both tragedy and comedy began with the Greeks. 



Tbo first comedy performed at Athens, by Susa- 
rion and Dolon, on a movable scaffold . b.c. 562 

The chorus introduced 556 

Tragedy first represented at Athens by Thespls, 
on a. waggon (Arund. Marb.) .... 536 

Thespis of Icuria, the inventor of tragedy, per- 
formed at Athens "Alcestis," and was re- 
warded with a goat {Pliny) . . . . „ 

.flischylus introduced suitable dresses and a 
stage 486 

The drama was first introduced into Rome on 
occasion of a plague which raged during the 
consulate uf C. Sulpicius Peticus and C. 
Licinius Stolo : the magistrates, to appease 
the incensed deities, instituted the games 
called the "Scenici," which were amusements 
entii'ely new ; actors from Etruria danced, 
after the Tuscan mamier, to the flute . . 364 



Anaxandrides was the first dramatic poet who 
introduced intrigues upon the stage ; he com- 
posed about 100 plays, of which 10 obtained 
the prize; he died b.c. 

Subsequently came satires, accompanied with 
music set to the flute ; and afterwards plays 
were represented by Livius Andronicus, who, 
abandoning satires, wrote plays with a regular 
and connected plot. He first gave singing and 
dancing to different ijerformers ; he danced 
himself, and gave the singing to a younger 
exhibitor 

The greatest ancient dramatic wi-iters were^- 
Greek; yEschylus, Sophocles, Euripides (tra- 
gedy), and Aristophanes (comedy), 525 — 427 ; 
Latin, Plautus and Terence (comedy), 184 — 
160; Seneca (tragedy) . . 7 b.c. — a.d. 



65 



DRAMA, Modern, arose early in the rude attempts of minstrels and buftbons at fairs in 
France, Italy, and England. Stories from the Bible were represented by the priests, and 
were the origin of sacred comedy. Warton. 



Gregory Nazianzen, an early father of the 
Church, is said to have constructed a di-ama 
on the Passion of Christ, to counteract the 
profanities of the heathen stage, about . . 364 

Fitzstephen, in his ' ' Life of Thomas a Becket, " 
asserts that — " London had for its theatrical 
exhibitions holy plays, and the rejiresenta- 
tion of miracles, wrought by holy confessors ;" 
he died about 1190 

The Chester M3'steries* were performed about 1270 

Plays were perfoi-med at Clerkenwell by the 
parish clerks, and "miracles" were repre- 
sented in the fields, in 1397 

Allegorical characters were introduced in the 
reign of Henry VI. 

Individual characters were introduced in Henry 
VIL's reign. 

Skelton and others wrote "Moralities" about 1500 

The first regular drama acted in Europe was the 
" Sophonisba" of Trissino, at Rome, in the 
presence of pope Leo X. ( Fo;<<(ire) . . 1515 

The first royal licence for the drama in England 
was to m.aster Burljage, .and four others, ser- j 

vants to the earl of Leicester, to act plays at 
the Globe, Bank-side 1574 

Shakespeare began to write about . . . 1590 



A licence granted to Shakespeare and his asso- 
ciates in 1603 

Plays were opiaosed by the Puritans in 1633, 
and were afterwards suspended until the 
Restoration, in 1660 

Two companies of regular performers were 
licensed by Charles II., Killigi-ew's and su- 
William Davenant's. The first was at the 
Bull, Vere-street, Clare-market, which was 
immediately afterwards removed to Drmy- 
lane ; the other in Dorset-gardens, 1662. Till 
this time, boys performed women's parts ; but 
Mrs. Coleman (the first female on the stage) 
had performed laiitke, in Davenant's " Siege 
of Rhodes," in 1656 

Sir William Davenant introduced operas, and 
both companies united, 1684, and continued 
together till 1694, when a schism under Bet- 
terton led to the opening of a theatre in 
Lincohi's-inn-fields, the parent of Covent- 
garden 1695 

Act for the revision of plays and for licensing 
them previously to being performed . . 1737 

Author's Dramatic Copyright Pi'otection act, 3 
Will. IV. c. 15 June, 1833 

See Theatres, Covent-garden, Drwry-lane, and Copyright. 



DRAMATIC COLLEGE, for the benefit of distressed actors and their children, was 
proposed July 21, 1858, at the Princess's theatre, by Messrs. C. Dickens, Thackeray, C. 
Kean, B. Webster, and others. Mr. Henry Dodd's offer of land and money, with certain 
stipulations, was declined. The Queen is the patron. The first stone of the building was 
laid by the Prince Con.sort, June i, i860; and on Sept. 29, 1862, seven annuitants were 
installed. The central hall was ojiened by the Prince of Wales, June 5, 1865. 



The Coventry, Chester, Townley, and other mysteries have been printed during the present century. 



DKA 250 Dili 

DRAPIER'S LETTERS, by deau Swift, published in 1724, against Woods Halfpence 
{which see). 

DREAMS are mentioned in Scripture, e.g., Joseph's and Pharaoh's, 171 5 B.C. {Gen. 
xxxvii. and xli.), and Nebuchadnezzar's, 603 and 570 B.C. {Daniel ii. and iv.). The first 
attempt to interpret dreams and omens is ascribed to Amphictyon of Athens, 1497 B.C. A 
remarkable modern instance is attested in the life of Thomas, lord Lyttelton.* 

DRED SCOTT CASE. See United States, 1857. 

DREPANITM (Sicily). Near this place the Carthaginian admiral AcUierbal totally 
defeated the Roman fleet under P. Claudius, 249 B.C. 

DRESDEN, termed the German Florence, became the capital of Saxony in 1548. Peace 
of Dresden, between Saxony, Prussia, and the queen of Hungary, confirming the treaties of 
Berlin and Breslau, signed Dec. 25, 1745. Dresden was taken by Frederick of Prussia in 
1756 ; by the Austriansin 1759 ; and bombarded in vain by Frederick, in July, 1760. Here 
severe contests took place between the allied army under tlie prince of Schwarzenberg, and 
the French army commanded by Napoleon, Aug. 26 and 27, 1813. The allies, 200,000 
•strong, attacked Napoleon in his position at Dresden, and the event had nearly proved fatal 
to them, but for an error in the conduct of general Vandamme. They were defeated with 
dreadful loss, and were obliged to retreat into Bohemia ; Init Vandamme pursuing them too 
far, his division was cut to pieces, and himself and all his staff made prisoners. In this 
battle, general IMoreau received his mortal wound, while in conversation with the emperor 
of Russia. Marshal St. Cyr, and 25,000 French troops, suirendered Dresden to the allies, 
Nov. II, 1813. During a jiolitical commotion, the king of Saxony resigned the royal 
authority, and prince Frederick, his nephew, was declared regent, Sept. 9, et scq. 1830. See 
Saxony. An insuiTection here on May 3, 1849, was repressed on the 6th. f 

DRESS. The attire of the Hebrew women is censured in Isaiahiii., about 760 B.C. Excess 
in dress among the early Romans was restrained by sumptuary laws ; and also in England by 
numerous statutes, in 1363, 1465, 1570, &c. (see Caj)} ; and in the reign of Elizabeth, 
1574.^ Stow. Fairholt's " Costume in England " contains a history of dress with numei'ous 
illustrations derived from MSS., the works of Strutt, &c. A "Dress-making Company" 
was established in London, Feb. 6, 1865, with the view of improving the condition of the 
workwomen. 

DREUX (N.W. France). Here Montmorenci defeated the Huguenots imder Condd, 
Dec. 19, 1562. 

DRINKING-FOUNTAINS. Many were erected in Liverpool in 1857. An association 
for their erection in London was formed in April, 1859, by lord John Russell, the earl of 
Carlisle, Mr. S. Gnrney, and others. The first of the numerous fountains since erected is 
that near St. Sepulchre's church, Skinner-street, on April 21, 1859. The magnificent for;n- 
taiu in Victoria-paik, London, was inaugurated by the donor, Miss Burdett Coutts, 
June 8, 1862. 

DRILLING-MACHINES, in agriculture. One was invented by Jethro Tull, early in the 
last century. 

* Lord Lyttelton dreamt that a young female, dressed in white, solemnly warned him of his dissolu- 
tion in three days from that time. On the third day his lordshii? had a party to spend the evening with 
him, and about the time predicted, he observed to the company present, that "he believed he should 
jockey the ghost ;" but in a few minutes afterwards he was seized with a sudden faintness, carried to 
bed, and rose no more. He died in 1779, aged 35. Some assert that he committed suicide. 

t The fine j)orcelain ware known as Dresden china was invented by M. Boetichcr, at the time an 
{ipothecary's boy, about 1700. Hard porcelain was made there in 1709. Services of this ware have cost 
many thousands of po\inds each. A costly service, each piece exquisitely painted, with battles, &c., was 
presented to the duke of Wellington by the king of Prussia, in 1816, and was the finest in England. 

t Sir Walter Raleigh, we are told, wore a white satin-pinked vest, close-sleeved to the wrist, and over 
the body a brown doirblet finely flowered, and embroidered with pearls, and in the feather of his hat a large 
ruby and pearl drop at the bottom of the sjirig in place of a button. His breeches, with his stockings and 
ribbon garters, fringed at the end, all white ; and Ijufl shoes, which, on great court daj-s, were so gorgeously 
covered with precious stones as to have exceeded the value of 6600I ; and he had a suit of armour of solid 
silver, with sword and belt blazing with diamonds, rubies, and pearls. King James's favourite, the duke 
of Buckingham, could afford to have his diamonds tacked so loosely on, that when he chose to shake a few 
off on the gi-ound, he obtained all the fame he desired from the pickers-up, who were generally ks Dames 
de la Cour. We may here mention a novel dress, the Bloomer Costume, introduced into America in 1849, 
by Mrs. Ann Bloomer, and worn there by many of the women. It resembled male attire, l)eing an open- 
fronted jacket and loose trousers, the latter wide like those of the Turk, but gathered in at the ankles. The 
Bloomer dress was first adopted by a few females in the western iDarts of London, m August, 1851 ; but 
thoiigh it was recommended by some American ladies in popular lectures, it was soon afterwards totally 
discontinued. 



DKO 2J1 mi\] 

DROGHEDA (Central Ireland, E.), formerly Tredagli, a ]>lace of great importance, 
haviug tlie privilege of coining money. In the reign of Edward VI., an act, yet nnrepealed, 
was passed for tlie fonndation of a university here. The town was besieged several times in 
the contests lietween 1641 and 1691. Cromwell took it by storm, and put the governor, sir 
A. Aston, and the whole of the garrison, to the sword, Sept. 11, 1649. More than 3000 
men, most of them English, perished. It surrendered to William III. in 1690. 

DROMORE, Bishopric of (N.E. Ireland), founded by St. Coleman, first bishop, about 
556. By an extent returned 15 James I., this see was valued in the king's books at 50Z. 
Jeremy Taylor Vv'as bishop of Down and Connor in 1660, and of this see in 1661. Dromore 
has been united to Down through the Irish Church Temporalities act, 1833. 

DROWNING, as a punishment, is very ancient. The Britons inflicted death by drown- 
ing in a quagmire, before 450 B.C. Stow. It is said to have been inflicted on eighty iutrac- 
talile bishops near Nicomedia, a.d. 370; and to have been adopted as a punishment in France 
by Louis XI. The wholesale drownings of tlie royalists in the Loire at Nantes, by command 
of the brutal Carrier, Nov. 1793, were termed Noyadcs. He was condemned to death in 
Dec. 1794. Societies for the recovery of droivning 2)e7'S07is were first instituted in Holland, 
in 1767. The second society is said to have been formed at Milan, in 1768 ; the third in 
Hamburg, in 1771 ; the fourth at Paris, in 1772 ; and the fifth in London, in 1774. The 
motto of the Royal Humane Society in England is : Lateat scintillula forsan — "A small 
spark may perhaps lie hid." 

DRUIDS. Priests, among the ancient Germans, Gauls, and Britons, so named from their 
veneration for the oak (Brit, cleric). They administered sacred things, were the interpreters 
of the gods, and supreme judges. Tliey headed the Britons who opposed Caesar's first lauding, 
55 B.C., and were exterminated by the Roman governor, Suetonius Paulinus, a.d. 61. 

DRUM: the invention is ascrilied to Bacchus, who, according to Polycenus, "gave his 
signals of battle with cymbals and drums." It was brought by the Moors into Spain, 713, 
Le Clerc. The drum, or drum-capstan, for weighing anchors, was invented by sir S. Morland, 
in 1685. Anderson. 

DRUMMOND LIGHT. See Lime-light. 

DRUMCLOG (W. Scotland). Here the Covenanters defeated Graham of Claverhouse, 
on June i, 1679. An account of the conflict is given by Walter Scott, in "Old Mortality." 

DRUNKARDS were to be excommunicated in the early church, 59 (i Cor. vii. ) In 
England, a canon law forbade drunkenness in the clergy, 747. Constantino, king of Scots, 
punished it with death, 870. By 21 James I., c. 7, 1623, a drunkard was liable to a penalty 
of five shillings, or six hours in the stocks. 

DRURY-LANE THEATRE derives its origin from a cock-pit, which was converted into 
a theatre in the reign of James I. It was rebuilt, and called the Phcenix ; and Charles II. 
granted an exclusive patent to Thomas Killigrew, April 25, 1662. The actors were called 
the king's servants, and ten of them, who were called gentlemen of the great chamber, had 
an annual allowance of ten yards of scarlet cloth, with a suitable quantity of lace. The 
theatre, with sixty adjoining houses, was burnt down in 1672 ; and a new edifice was built 
in its room hj sir Christopher Wren, in 1674. The interior was rebuilt by Mr. Adams, and 
was re-opened Sept. 23, 1775. The Drury-lane Theatrical Fund was originated by David 
Garrick in 1777. In 1791, the theatre was pulled down ; it was rebuilt and opened March 
12, 1794. It was totally destroyed by fire, Feb. 24, 1809 ; and was rebuilt and opened 
Oct. 10, 1 8x2. See Theatres a.nd Drama. 

DRUSES, a warlike people dwelling among the mountains of Lel)anon, derive their 
origin from a fanatical Mahometan sect which arose in Egypt about 996, and fled to Palestine, 
to avoid persecution. They now retain hardly any of the religion of their ancestors : they 
do not practise circumcision, pray, or fast, but eat pork and drink wine. In the middle of 
i860, in consequence of disputes (in which doubtless both parties were to blame), the Druses 
attacked their neighbours the Maronites (!chic7i see), whom they massacred, it was said, 
without regard to age or sex. Peace was made in July ; but in the meantime a religious 
fury seized the Mahometan population of the neighbouring cities, and a general massacre of 
Christians ensued. See Damascus and Syria. Fuad Pacha witli Turkisli troops ; and 
general Hautpoul with French auxiliaries, invaded Lebanon in Aug. and Sept. The Druses 
surrendered, giving up their chiefs, several of whom were tried and condemned to die, in 
Jan. 1861. 



DUB 



252 



DUB 



DUBLIN, capital of Ireland, anciently called Aslicled, said to have been built 140. It 
obtained its jn-esent name from Alpinns, a lord or chief among the Irish, whose daughter, 
Auliana, having been drowned at the ford where now Whitworth-bridge is built, he changed 
the name to Auliana, by Ptolemy called Eblaua (afterwards corrupted into Dublaua), that 
she might be had in remembrance. Alpinus is said to have made this place his residence, 
about 155, when he brought "the then rude hill into the form of a town." See Ireland. 



Christianity established here on the arrival of 

St. Patrick, about 432 

[St. Patrick's cathedral founded about this 

time. ] 
DubUn environed with walls by the Banes . 798 
Named by king Edgar in the preface to his 

charter " Noljlixsima Civitas" . . . 964 

Battle of Clontarf {which see) . April 23, 1014 

Dublin taken by Raymond le Gros, for Henry 

II. who .soon after arrives 1171 

Charter granted by this king . . . .1173 
Christ church built, 1038 ; rebuilt . . . 1 190 

Slaughter of 500 British by the Irish citizens 

near Dublin (.see CuUen's ll'ood) . . . 1209 
Assemblage of Irish prmces, who swear alle- 
giance to king John 1210 

Foundation of D\iblin castle laid by Henry de 

Loundres, 1205 ; finished . . . .1213 
John le Decer first provost ; Richard de St. 

Olave and John Stakebold first bailiffs (sec 

Mayor) 1308 

Thomas Cusack, first mayor (idem) . . . 1409 
Besieged by the son of the earl of Kildare, lord 

deputy 1500 

Christ church made a deanery and chapter by 

Henry VIII. (see Christ Church) . . . 1541 
Name of bailiff changed ; John Ryan and Thomas 

Comyn, first sheriffs 1548 

Trinity college founded 1591 

Charter granted by James I. .... 1609 

Convocation which established the Thirty-nine 

articles of religion 1614 

Besieged by the marquis of Ormond, and battle 

of Rathmines (ickich see) 1649 

Cromwell arrives in Dublin with 9000 foot and 

400 horse Aug. ,, 

Chief magistrate honoured with the title of lord 

while holding office 1665 

Blue coat hospital incorporated . . . . 1670 
Essex bridge built by sir H. Jervis . . . 1676 
Royal hospital, Kilmainham, founded . . . 1683 
James II. arrives in Dublin .... 1688 

Great gunpowder explosion 1693 

Lamps first erected in the city .... 1698 
Infirmary, Jervis- street, founded . . . . 1728 

Parliament-house began 1729 

Foundling hospital incorporated . . . . 1739 
St. Patrick's spire erected (see St. Patrick) . 1749 
Royal Dublin Society originated, 1731 ; incor- 
porated . . . . . . . . „ 

Lock hospital opened 1758 

Hibernian society 1765 

Marine society 1766 

Queen's bridge first erected, 1684 ; destroyed 

by a flood, 1763; rebuilt . ._ . . . 1768 
Act for a general pavement of the city . . 1773 
Royal exchange begun, 1769 ; opened . . . 1779 
Order of St. Patrick instituted .... 1783 
Bank of Ireland instituted (see fin ni") . . . ,, 
Police established by statute .... 1786 

Royal academy incorporated , , 

Cu.stom house begun, 1781 ; opened . . . 1791 

Dubin library instituted „ 

Fire at the parUament house .... 1792 

Carlisle bridge erected 1794 

City armed association ..... 1796 

New law courts opened ,, 

The rebellion ; arrest of lord Edward Fitzger.ald, 

in Thomas-street .... Jlay ig, 1798 
Union with England (see Union) . Jan. i, i8oi 
Emmett's insurrection . . . July 23, 1803 
Hibernian Bible society 1806 



Bank transferred to College-gi-een . . . 1808 

Dublin institution founded 1811 

Riot at the theatre .... Dec. 16, 1814 
Visit of George IV. . . . Aug. 12, 1821 

The " Bottle conspiracy " . . . Dec. 14, 1822 
Hibernian academj' . . . Aug. 16, 1823 
Dublin lighted with gas . . . Oct. 5, 1825 
Rd. Whately made archbishop (very active in 

education) 1831 

Great custona-house fire . . Aug. 9, 1833 

Railroad to Kingstown . ■ . . Aug. 17, 1834 
British Association meet here . Aug. 6, 1835 
Dublin new police act . . . July 4, 1836 
Cemetei-y, Mount Jerome, consecrated, Sept. iq, ,, 
Royal arcade burnt . . . April 25, 1837 

Poor-law bill passed .... July 31, 1838 
Awful storm raged .... Jan. 6, 1839 

O'Connell's arrest (see Triah) . . Oct. 14, 1843 
He is found guilty . . . Feb. 12, 1844 

His death at Genoa .... May 15, 1847 
Arrest of Mitchell, of the United Irishiaannews- 

paper May 13, 1848 

State trial of Wm. Smith O'Brien and Meagher 

in Dublin May 15, „ 

FThese persons were afterwards tried at Clon- 

mel, and found guiitt/.] 
Trial of Mitchell ; guMy . . . May 26, ,, 
Irish Felon newspaper first published July i, ,, 
Nation and Irish Felon suppressed . July 29, ,, 
Conviction of O'Doherty . . . Nov. i, ,, 
The queen visits Duljlin . . . Aug. 6, 1849 
Royal exchange opened as a city hall, Sept. 30, 1852 
Dublin industrial exhilsition, which owed its 
existence to Mr. Dargan, who advanced 
80,000?. for the ijurjiose, was erected by Mr. 
(afterwards sir) John Benson, in the Dublin 
society's grounds, near Merrion-square. It 
consisted of one large and two smaller halls, 
lighted from above. It was opened by earl 
St. Germains, the lord-lieutenant. May 12; 
was visited by the queen and j^rince Albert, 
Aug. 30; and closed on . . Nov. i, 1853 

Acts passed to establish a national gallerj', 

museum, &c. . Aug. 10, 1854; and July 2, 1855 
Arrival of lord Eglinton — disgraceful contest 
between the Trinity college students and the 
police ; the latter severely blamed, March 12, 1858 
Demonstration at the funeral of the rebel 

M'Manus Nov. 10-12, i86i 

Fine art exhibition proposed, July 20, i860; 
opened by the lord-lieutenant, the earl of 
Carhsle, May 24, 1861 ; visited by the prince 
of Wales, July i ; and by the queen and 
prince consort .... Aug. 22, ., 
National association for social science met, 

Aug. 14-22, „ 
Lord Rosse installed as chancellor of the uni- 
versity Feb. 17, 1863 

Abp. Whately dies, Oct. 8 ; succeeded hj Rd. 

Chenevix Trench .... Nov. ,, 
Statue of Oliver Goldsmith inaugurated by the 
lord-lieutenant, Jan. 5 ; who opens the 
national gallery of Ireland . . Jan. 30, 1864 
New Richmond hospital, to be called the 
"Carmichael School of Medicine," founded 
(Mr. Carmichael, the surgeon, bequeathed 
10,000/. for the purjjose) . . March 29, „ 
Industrial exhibition opened by the lord chan- 
cellor May 25, ,, 

The O'Connell monument founded . A\ig. 8, 1864 
St. Patrick's cathedral restored by Mr. Guin- 
ness ; re-opened .... Feb. 24, 1865 



DUB 



253 



DUE 



DUBLIN, continued. 

The international exhibition opened by the 

prince of Wales .... May 9, 1865 

The newspaper T)i4 Irish Peo^ile seized, and 



several Fenians taken in custody. (See 
Fenians, and Ireland.) . . . Sept. 15, 1863 
International exhibition to be closed on Nov. 9, ,, 



DUBLIN, ARCHBisnorRic OF. It wasimitedto Glcndalaghin 1214. It is supposed that 
the bishopric of Dublin was founded by St. Patrick, in 448. Gregory, bishop in 1121, 
became archbishop in 1152. George Browne, an Augustine friar of London (deprived by 
queen ilary in 1554), was the first Protestant archprelate of this see. Dublin has two 
cathedrals, Christ Church, and St. Patrick's. The revenue was valued, in the king's books, 
30 Hen. Yin. at 534?. 15s. 2d. Irish. Kildare, on its last avoidance, was annexed to 
Dublin, 1846. See Bishops. 

DUCAT, a coin so called because struck by dukes. Johnson. First coined by Longinus, 
governor of Italy. Procopius. First struck in the duchy of Apulia, 1140. Du Canrjc. 
Coined by Robert, king of Sicily, in 1240. 

DUELLING took its rise from the judicial combats of the Celtic nations. The first duel 
in England, William count of Eu and Godfrey Baynard, took place 1096. Duelling in civil 
matters was forbidden in France, 1305. The present practice of duelling arose in the chal- 
lenge of Francis I. to the emperor Charles V. 1528. The fight with small sAvords was intro- 
duced into England, 29 Eliz. 1587. Proclamation that no person should be pardoned who 
killed another in a duel, 30 Charles II. 1679.* Duelling was checked in the army, 1792 ; 
and has been almost abolished in England, by the influence of public opinion aided by the 
prince consort. A society " for the discouraging of duelling " was established in 1845. See 
Battel, Wa(jcr of, and Combat. 



MEMORABLE DUELS. 

Between the duke of Hamilton and lord 

Mohun, fought .... Nov. 15, 1712 
[This duel was fought with small swords, in 

Hyde-park. Lord Mohun was killed upon 

the spot, and the duke expired of his wounds 

as he was being carried to his coach.] 
Capt. Pejipard and Mr. Hayes ; latter killed . 1728 
Messrs. Hamilton and Morgan; former killed . 1748 
Mr. S. Martin and Mr. Wilkes, M.P. . . 1763 

Lord Townshend and lord I5ellamont ; lord 

Bellamont wounded . . Feb. i, 1773 

The count d'Ailois and the duke of Bourbon, 

March 21, 1778 
Mr. Donovan and capt. Hanson ; the latter 

killed ...... Nov. 13, 1779 

Charles James Fox and Mr. Adam ; Mr. Fo.x 

wounded ..... Nov. 30, ,, 

Colonel FuUerton and lord Shelburne : the 

latter wounded . . . March 22, 1780 

Bev. Mr. Allen and Lloyd Dulanj' ; the latter 

killed Tune 18, 1782 

Colonel Thomas, of the Guards, and colonel 

Gordon ; colonel Thomas killed . Scj^t. 4, 1783 
Lord Macartney and major-gen. Stuart ; the 

former wounded .... Jmie 8, 1786 

Mr. BaiTJngton and Mr. M'Kenzie ; the former 

killed on the ground by general Gillespie, the 

second of the latter 1788 

Mr. M'Keon and George Nugent Reynolds ; the 

latter murdered by the former Jan. 31, ,, 

Mr. Purefoy and col. Roper ; the latter killed, 

Deo. 17, ,, 
Duke of York and col. Lenox, afterwards duke 

of l{iclimond (for an insignificant cause), 

May 27, 1789 
Sir George Ramsay and captain Macrea ; sir 

George killed . '79° 

Mr. Curran and major Hobart . . April i, „ 
Mr. Macdufif and Mr. Prince; latter killed, 

June 4, ,, 



Mr. Harvey Aston and lieut. Fitzgerald ; the 

former severely wounded . . June 25, 
Mr. Stevens and Mr. Anderson ; the former 

killed Sept. 20, 

Mr. Graham and Mr. Julius ; the former killed, 

July 19, 
5Ir. John Kemble and Mr. Aiken ; no fatality, 

March i. 
Earl of Lonsdale and captain Cuthbert ; no 

fatality Juno 9, 

M. de Chauvigny and Mr. Lameth ; the latter 

wounded Nov. 8, 

Mr. Carpenter and Mr. Pride ; the former killed, 

Aug. 20, 
Lord Norbury and Mr. Napper Tandy ; an affair, 

no meeting Aug. 21, 

Lord Yalentia and Mr. Gawler ; the former 

wounded June 28, 

Wm. Pitt and George Tierney . . May 27, 
Isaac Corry and Henry Grattan . Jan. 15, 
Lieut. Willis and major Imijey ; the major 

killed Aug. 26, 

Rt. lion. George Ogle and Bernard Coyle, 8 

shots ; no fatality 

Sir Richard Musgrave and Mr. Todd Jones ; sir 

Richard wounded .... June 8, 
Colonel Montgomery and captain Mac Namara ; 

the former killed .... April 6, 
General Hamilton and colonel Aaron Burr ; 

the general killed, greatly lamented (in 

America) ......... 

Lord Camelford and captain Best ; lord Camel- 
ford killed .... March 10, 

Surgeon Fisher and lieut. Torrens ; the latter 

killed March 22, 

Baron Hompesch and Mr. Richardson ; the 

latter severely wounded . . Sept. 21, 

Sir Francis Burdett and Mr. PauU ; the former 

wounded May 5, 

Mr. Mcock and Mr. Colclough; the latter killed; 

the survivor lost his reason . Jime 8, 



1 791 
1792 



1796 

1798 
1800 
1 801 



1807 



• "As many as 227 official and memorable duels were fought during my grand clim.acteric. " Sir J. 
Barrmgton. A single writer enumerates 172 duels, in which 63 individuals were killed and 96 wounded ; 
in three of these cases both the combatants were killed, and 18 of the survivors suffered the sentence of 
the law. Jlamilton. 



DUE 



254 



DUM 



DUELLING, continued. 

M. de Granpree and M. Le Pique, in balloons 

near Paris, and the latter killed . Mav 3' 

Major Campbell and captain Boyd ; latter 

murdered (former hanged, Oct. 2, 1808), 
T J T. i , June 23, 

■ Liord Paget and captain Cadogan ; neither 

wounded May 30 

Lord Castlereagh and Mr. George Canning ; the 

latter wounded .... Sei^t 22 

Mr. George Payne and Mr. Clarke ; the former 

^ H^l?d Sept. 6, 

Captam Boardman and ensign de Balton ; the 

former killed .... March 4 

Lieut. Stewart and lieut. Bagnal ;' the latter 

mortally wounded .... Oct 7 

Mr. Edward Maguire and lieut. Blundell ; the 

latter killed July q 

Mr. Hatchell and Mr, Morlev . . 'peb 12' 
Captain Stackpole (of " Statira " frigate) and 
lieut. Cecil ; the captain kiUed (arose on ac- 
count of words spoken four years previously), 
ir 1^ -^ April, 

Mr. D. O'Connell and Mr. D'Esterre ; Mr. D'Es- 

terre killed Feb. i 

Colonel Quentin and colonel Palmer ' Feb! 7' 
Mr. O'Connell and Mr. Peel ; an affair, no meet- 

„ing Aug. 3,, 

Major Greene and Mr. Price, in America ; the 

latter killed, greatly lamented 
Captain Fottrell and colonel Ross ; 5 shots each' 
but no fatality .... Dec 

Lieut. Hindes and lieut. Gilbert Conroy ; the 

former killed March 6, 

Mr. John Sutton and major Lockyer ; the 

former killed .... Dec. 10 

Mr. O'Callaghan and lieut. Bayley ; the latter 

^^'^illed ^ Jan. 12, 

Jlr. Grattan and the earl of Clare . June 7 

Mr. Heushaw and Mr. Hartinger ; both despe- 

rately wounded .... Sept. 18, 

Mr. Scott and Mr. Christie ; the former killed, 

•»r ,r , Feb. 16,' 

M. Manuel and Mr. Beaumont ' . . April g, 

Sir Alexander BosweU and Mr. James Stuart • 

the former killed . . . March 26, 

The duke of Buckingham and the duke of 

Bedford ; no fatality . . . May 2, 

General P6p6 and general Carascosa ; the latter 

wounded Feb. 28, 



1810 

1811 

1812 

1813 
181 



i8i6 
1817 



1818 
1820 



1822 



1823' 



Mr. Westall and captain Gourlay ; the latter 

kiUed 

Mr. Beamont and Mr. Lambton ' . ' July i' 
Mr. Brie, barrister, and Mr. Hayes ; the former 

T> ^''H^ r.\ Dec. 26, 

Rev. Mr. Hodson and Mr. Grady ; the latter 

wounded Aug 

Major Edge worth and Mr. Henry Gra'ttan ; an 
affair, and no meeting .... Sept. 

Mr. Long Wellesley and Mr. Crespigny ; neither 
wounded ....... 

Duke of Wellington and the earl of Winchilsea '; 

no mjury March 21, 

Lieut. Crowther and captain Helsham ; the 

former killed April i 

Mr. William Lambrecht and Mr. Oliver Clayton '• 

the latter kiUed .... Jan s' 

Captain Smith and Mr. O'Grady ; the latter 

..^"^illed March 18, 

Mr. Storey and Mr. Mathias ; the latterwouaded 
-.r ,, , Jan. 22, 

Mr. Maher and Mr. Colles . . Jan 22 
Sir John W. Jeffcott and Dr. Hennis ; the latter 

mortally wounded, and died on the i8th, 
™ May 10 

Charles Wellesley Ashe and sir Charles Hamp- 

^ ton Sept. II, 

Lord Alvanley and Mr. Morgan O'Connell ; 2 

shots each May 4 

Sir Colquhoun Grant and lord Seymour ; no 

fatality May 29, 

Mr. Roebuck, M.P., and Mr. Black, editor 5f 

the Morning Chronicle : 2 shots each Nov. iq, 

Mr. Ruthven and Mr. Scott ; and Mr. Ruthven 

and Mr. Close (Mr. Scott's second) ; the latter 

wounded jyj^y 23 

The earl of Cardigan and captain Tuckett, nth 

regt. ; 2 shots each ; the latter wounded (for 

this the earl was tried in the house of lords 

and acquitted, Feb. 16, 1841) . Sept. 12, 

Captain Boldero and hon. Craven Berkeley- no 

fatality J"ly 15, 

Colonel Fawcett and captain Muuroe ; former 

^ killed July j^ J84- 

Lieut. Seton and lieut. Hawkey : the former 

^killed May 20, i84r 

Due de Grammont Caderousse kills Mr. Dil- 
lon at Paris, for a newspaper attack . Oct. 1862 



1S24 
1826 



182S 
1829 



1833 



1834 
183s 



1836 

1840 
1842 



DUKE, Latm dux, a title first given to generals of armies. In England, clurinf^ Saxon 
times, the commanders of armies ^vere called dukes, duces. Camden In G enesi° ^^xyi 
some of _ Esau s descendants are termed dukes. Btihe-duke Avas a title given to the house of 
bylvia, m bpam, on account of its possessing many duchies. 



Edward the Black Prince made duke of Corn- 
•waU J337 

Robert de Vere was created marquess of Dub- 
lin and duke of Ireland, 9 Rich. II. . . . 1385 

Robert III. created David, prince of Scotland, 



duke of Rothesay, a title which afterwards 
belonged to the king's eldest son, 1398, and 
IS now borne by the prince of Wales. 
Cosmo de Medici created grand-duke of Tus- 
cany, the first of the rank, by pope Pius V. 



1569 



DULWICH COLLEGE (Surrey), called God's-gift College, founded by Edward Alleyn 
an eminent comedian, was completed and solemnly opened Sept. 13, 1619. Alleyn was" its 
first master, and diexl m 1 626. A fine gallery to contain the Bourgeois collection oif pictures 
bequeathed by sir Francis Bourgeois, was annexed in 18 13. In 1857, an act was passed bv 
which the CO lege was reconstituted. Two schools were established ; and the number of 
the almspeople increased. In i860 the annual income was 11,482^. 

DUMB. See Deaf and Dumb. 

P S^^^^^^v .^"^ Dunblane (Perth), near which took place a conflict caUed the battle 
of Shenfl-muir, between the royalist army and the Scots rebels, the former commanded bv 
the duke of Argyle, and the latter by the earl of Mar, Nov. 13, 1715. Both sides claimed 
LLLc victory* 



DUN 255 DUR 

DUX BAR (Hadiliiiston). Here the Scottish army and John Baliol were defeated by the 
carl of AVarrennc, and Scotland was subdued, April 27, 1296. Here also Cromwell obtained 
a signal victory over the Scots, in arms for Cliarles II., Sept. 3, 1650. 

DUNCIAD, the celebrated satirical poem by Alexander Pope, was published in 1728. 

DUNDALK (Loutli, Ireland). In 13 18, at Foughard near this place, was defeated and 
slain Edward Bruce, who had invaded Ireland in 13 15. The walls and fortifications of 
Dundalk were destroyed in 1641. It was taken by Cromwell in 1649. The first cambric 
manufacture in Ireland was established in this town by artisans from France in 1727. 

DUNDEPj (E. Scotland), on the Tay. The site was given by "William the Lion (reigned 
1 165 — 12 14), to his brother David, earl of Huntingdon, who built or strengthened the 
castle, and erected a large church, the tower of which, 156 feet high, still remains. The 
town was taken by the English in 1385 ; pillaged by Montrose, 1645 ; stormed by Monk in 
1651 ; and was visited by queen Victoxia in 1844. It has thriven since 1815, through its 
extensive linen manufactories ; at one of these (Edwards's) a steam explosion took place on 
April 15, 1859, when twenty persons were killed. Claverhouse, viscount Dundee (killed 
1689), had a house here. .The Baxter park, the gift of sir David Baxter, was opened by 
earl Russell, Sept. 9, 1863. Population in i86i, 90,425. 

DUNGAN-HILL (Ireland). 'Here the English army, commanded by colonel Jones, 
signally defeated the Irish, of whom 6000 are said to have been slain, while the loss on the 
side of the English was inconsiderable, July 10, 1647, 

DUNKELD (Perthshire) was made a bishopric by David I. in 1127 ; the ancient Culdee 
church, founded by king Constantine III., becoming the cathedral. The beautiful bridge 
over the Tay, erected by Thos. Telford, was opened in 1809. 

DUNKIRK (N. France), founded in the 7th century, was taken from the Spaniards by 
the English and French, and put into the hands of the English, June 1658. It was sold by 
Charles II. for 500,000/. to Louis XIV., Oct. 17, 1662. Dunkirk was one of the best 
fortified ports in the kingdom ; but aU the works were demolished in conformity with the 
treaty of Utrecht in 17 13. The French resumed the works, but they were ordered to be 
demolished at the peace of 1 763 ; in 1 783 they were again resumed. The English attempted 
to besiege this place ; but the duke of York, wlio commanded, was defeated by Hoche, and 
forced to retire with loss, Sept. 7, 1793. It was made a free port in i8i6. 

DUNMOW (Essex), famous for the tenure of the manor (made by Robert Fitz-Walter, 
1244), "that whatever married couple will go to the priory, and kneeling on two sharp- 
pointed stones, will swear that they have not quarrelled nor repented of their mai'riage 
■within a year and a day after its celebration, shall receive a flitch of bacon." * 

DUNSINANE (Perthshire). On the hill was fought the battle between Macbeth the 
thane of Glammis, and Siward, earl of Northumberland, 1054. Edward the Confessor had 
sent Siward on behalf of Malcolm III., whose father Duncan, the thane and usurper had 
murdered. Macbeth was defeated, and it was said was pursued to Lumphanan, in Aberdeen- 
shire, and there slain, 1056. 

DtJPPEL or Dybbol. See under I>c?i??ia?-A-, 1864. 

DUPPLIN (Perthshire). Here Edward Baliol and his English allies totally defeated the 
Scots under the earl of Mar, Aug. 11, ''1332, and obtained the crown for three months. 

DURBAR, an East Indian term for an audience-chamber or reception. On Oct. 18, 
1864, a most remarkable durbar Avas held at Lahore by the viceroy of India, sir John Law- 
rence, at which 604 of the most illustrious princes and chieftains of the north-west province, 
were present, magnificently clothed. 

DURHAM, an ancient city, the Dunlwlmf, of the Saxons, and Durcmc of the Nonnans. 
The BisTiorRic was removed to Durham from Chester-le-street in 995 ; whither it had been 
transferred from Lindisfarne or Holy Island, on the coast of Northumberland, in 634, in 

* The earliest recorded claim for the bacon was in 1445, since \vhen to 1855 it had only been demanded 
five times. The last claimants previous to 1855 were John Shakeshanks and his wife, who established their 
right to it, June 20, 1751 ; thej' made a large sum by selling slices of the flitch to those who were witnesses 
of the ceremony, there lieing 5000 persons present. The claim was revived on July 19, 1855, when flitches 
were awarded to Mr. andlilr.'s. Barlow, of Chippiny-Ongar, and the Chevalier Chatelaine and his lady. The 
lord of the manor opposed the revival, but Mr. W. Harrison Ainsworth, the novelist, and some friends, 
defrayed the expense, and superintended the ceremonials. Endeavours have been made to perpetuate the 
custom. A flitch was awarded in i860. 



DUR 



256 



DYE 



conseqiience of the invasion of tlie Danes. The bones of St. Cuthbert, the sixth bishop, 
were brought from Limlisfarne, and interred in Durham cathedral. The palatine privileges, 
granted to the bishoi) by the Danish Northumbrian prince Guthrum, were taken by the 
crown in June 1836. Durham was ravaged by Malcolm of Scotland in 1070, and was occu- 
pied by the Northumbrian rebels in 1569 ; and by the Scots in 1640. In 1650 Cromwell 
quartered his Scotch prisoners in the cathedral. Near Durham on Oct. 17, 1346, was 
fought the decisive battle of Neville's cross {which scr). This see, deemed the richest in 
England, was valued in the king's books at 2821?. Present income, 8000Z. The college, 
founded in 1290, was abolished at the Reformation. In 1657 Cromwell established a college, 
which was supjire.ssed at the Restoration. The present University was established in 1831, 
opened in 1833, and chartered in 1837. Certain reformed ordinances, recommended by a 
commission, were set aside in 1S63. 



EECENT BfSHOPS OF DURHAM. 



1791. Hon. Shute Bairington, died in 1826. 

1826. Wm. Vac Mildeit (the last prince-bishop), died 

Feb. 21, 1836. 
1836. Edward Maltby, re.signed in 1856; died July 3, 

1859, aged 90. 



1856. Charles Thomas Longley, became abp. of York, 

May, i860 
i860. Hon. H. Monta^i Villiers (trans, from Carlisle), 

died Aug. 10, 1861. 
1 861. Charles Baring (present bishop). 



DURHAM LETTER. See Papal Aggression. 

DUTCH REPUBLIC. See Holland. 

DUUMVIRI, two Roman patricians appointed by Tarquiu the Proud 520 B.C. to take 
care of the books of the Sibyls, which were sujiposed to contain the fate of the Roman empire. 
The books were placed in the Capitol, and secured in a chest under the ground. The number 
of keepers was increased to ten (the Decemviri) 365 B.C., afterwards to fifteen ; the added 
five called quinque viri. 

DWARFS : Ancient. Philetas of Cos, distinguished about 330 B.C., as a poet and 
gramrnarian, was so diminutive that he always carried leaden weights in his pockets, to 
prevent his being blown away by the wind. He was preceptor to Ptolemy Philadelphus. 
^lian. Julia, niece of Augustus, had a dwarf named Coropas, two feet and a hand's breadth 
high ; and Andromeda, a freed-maid of Julia's, was of the same height. Pliny. Aug. 
Caesar exhibited in his plays a man not two feet in stature. Sueton. Alypius of Alexandria, 
a logician and philosopher, was but one foot live inches and a half high ; "he seemed to be 
consumed into a kind of divine nature." Vos. Instil. 



Modern Dwarfs. — John d'Estrix, of Mechlin, was 
brought to the duke of Parma, in 1592, when he 
was 35 years of age, having a long beard. He was 
skilled in languages, and not more than three feet 
high. 

Jeffrey Hudson, an English dwarf, when a youth of 
18 inches high, was served up to table in a cold 
pie, before the king and queen, by the duchess of 
Buckingham, in 1626. He challenged Mr. Crofts, 
who had offended him, to fight a duel, but the 
latter came to the groimd armed only with a squirt , 
This led to another meeting, when the dwarf shot 
his antagonist dead, 1653. 

Count Borowlaski, a Polish gentleman, of great ac- 
complishments and elegant manners, well known 



in England, where he resided many years, was 
born in Nov. 1739. His growth was at one year 
of age, 14 inches ; at six, 17 inches ; at twenty, 33 
inches ; and at thirty, 39. He had a sister, named 
Auastasia, seven years younger th,an himself, and 
so much shorter that she could stand under his 
arm. He visited many of the courts of Europe, 
and died in England, at the great age of 98, in 1837. 
Charles Stratton (termed general Tom Thumb), an 
American, was exhibited in England, 1846. In 
Feb. 1863, in New York, when 25 years old and 31 
inches high, he married Lavinia Warren, aged 21, 
32 inches high. He, his wife, and child, and com- 
modore Nutt, another dwarf, came to England in 
Dec. 1864, and remained ttiere some time. 



DYEING is attributed to the Tyrians, about 1500 B.C. The English sent their goods to 
be dyed in Holland, till the art was brought to them in 1608. " Two dyers of Exeter were 
flogged for teaching their art in the iwrth " (of England), 1628. A statute against abuses in 
dyeing passed in 1783. The art has been greatly improved by chemical research. A dis- 
covery of Dr. Steniiouse in 1848, led to M. Marnas procuring mauve from lichens ; and Dr. 
Hofmann's production of aniline from coal-tar, has led to the invention of a number of 
iDeautiful dyes (mauve, magenta red, «S:c.). See Aniline. 



EAG 



257 



EAR 



E. 

EAGLE, an ancient coin of Ireland, made of a base metal, and current in tlie first years 
of Edward I. about 1272 ; was so named from the figure impressed uj^on it. The American 
gold coinage of eagles, half eagles, and quarter eagles, began Dec. 6, 1792 ; an eagle is of the 
value of 10 dollars, or about two guineas. — The standard of the eagle was borne by the Per- 
sians, at Cunaxa, 401 B.C. The Romans carried gold and silver eagles as en.signs, and some- 
times represented them with a thunderbolt in their talons, on the point of a spear, 102 
B.C. Charlemagne added the second liead to the eagle for his arms, to denote that the 
empires of Rome and Germany were united in him, a.d. 802. The eagle was the standard 
of Napoleon I., and is that of Napoleon III. ; as well as of Austria, Russia, and Prussia. — 
The AVhite Eagle, an order of knighthood, was instituted in 1325, by Uladislaus, king of 
Poland ; that of the Black Eagle in 1701, by the elector of Brandenburg, Frederick I., on 
his being crowned king of Prussia; and that of the Red Eagle in 1705 and 1712 by George, 
prince of Brandenburg- Anspach. 

EARL, or comes, introduced at the conquest, superseded the Saxon earldorman, and con- 
tinued the highest rank in England, until Edward III. created dukes in 1337 and 1351, and 
Richard II. created marquesses (1385), both above earls. Alfred used the title of earl as a 
substitute for king. William Fitz-Osborn was made earl of Hereford by "William the 
Conqueror, 1066. Gilchrist was created earl of Angus, in Scotland, by king Malcolm III. 
in 1037. Sir John de Courcy created baron of Kinsale and earl of Ulster in Ireland, by 
Henry II. 1181. 

Earl Marischal of Scotland waa an oflBcer who 
commanded the cavalry, whereas the constable 
comnaanded the whole army ; but they seem to 
have had a jomt command, as all orders were ad- 
dressed to "our constable and marischal." The 
office was never out of the Keith family. It was 
reserved at the Union, and when the heritable 
jurisdictions were bought, it reverted to the 
crown, being forfeited by the rebellion of George 
Keith, earl marischal, in 1715. 



Earl Marshal of England, the eighth great officer 
of state. This office, until it was made hereditary, 
always passed by grant from the kinfc. Gilbert de 
Clare was created lord marshal by king Stephen, 
1135. The last lord marshal was John Fitz-Allan, 
lord Maltravers. Camden. Richard II. in 1397 
granted letters patent to the earl of Nottingham 
by the style of carl marshal. In 1672, Charles II. 
granted to Henry lord Howard the dignity of 
hereditary earl marshal. The earl marshal's court 
was abolished in 1641. (See Hoicard.) 



EARRINGS were worn by Jacob's children, 1732 B.C. (Gen. xxxv. 4). 

EARTH. See Glohe. EARTHENWARE. See Pottery. 

EARTHQUAKES. Anaxagoras supposed that earthquakes were produced by subter- 
raneous clouds bursting out into lightning, which shook the vaults that confined them, 435 
B.C. Diog. Lacrt. Kircher, Des Cartes, and others, supposed that there were many vast 
cavities under ground which have a communication with each other, some of which abound 
with waters, others with exhalations, arising from inflammable substances, as nitre, bitumen, 
sulphur, &c. Dr. Stukeley and Dr. Priestley atti-ibuted earthquakes to electricity. It 
appears probable that steam generated by subterraneous heat contributes to occasion them. 
An elaborate Catalogue of Earthquakes, with commentaries on the jihenomena, by R. and J. 
W. Mallet, was published by the Briti.sh Association in 1858-9. In i860 the velocity of 
tlieir propagation was estimated by Mr. J. Brown at between 470 and 530 feet per second. 
The following are quoted from the best sources :* 



One which made Euboea an island . .B.C. 

EUice and Bula in Peloponnesus swallowed up 

One at Rome, when, in obedience to an oracle, 
M. Curtius, armed and mounted on a stately 
horse, leaped into the dreadful chasm it oc- 
casioned (Livy) , • .. 

Duras, in Greece, buried, with all its inhabi- 
tants ; and 12 cities in Campania also buried 345 



358 



Lysimachia and its inhabitants totally buried B.C.2S3 
Ephesus and other cities overtvirned . a.d. 17 
One accompanied by the eruption of Vesuvius ; 
the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum 
buried ........ 79 

Four cities in Asia, two in Greece, and two in 

Galatia overturned 107 

Antioch destroyed 115 



* Mrs Somci-villo states that about 255 earthquakes have occurred in the British isles ; all slight. To 
avoid the effects of a shock predicted by a madman, for the 8th of April, 1750, thousands of persons, 
particularly those of rank and fortune, passed the night on the 7th in theii- carriages and in tents in 
Uydc-park. 



EAR 



258 



EAR 



EARTHQUAKES, continued. 

Nioomedia, Cwsarea, and Nicea overturned a.d. 126 
In Asia, Pontus, and Macedonia, 150 cities and 

towns damaged 357 

Nicomedia again demolished, and its inhabi- 
tants buried in its ruins 358 

One felt by nearly the whole world . . . 543 
At Constantinople ; its edi0ces destroyed, and 

thousands perished 557 

In Africa ; many cities overturned . . . 560 
Awful one in Syi'ia, Palestine, and Asia ; more 
than 500 towns were destroyed, and the loss 
of life sm-passed all calculation . . . . 742 
In Fiance, GeiTuany, and Italy .... 801 
Constantinople overturned ; all Greece shaken 936 
One felt throughout England . . . . 1089 
One at Antioch ; many towns destroyed, among 

them Mariseum and Mamistria . . . 1114 
Catania, in Sicily, overturned, and 15,000 per- 
sons buried in the ruins U37 

One severely felt at Lincoln .... 1142 
At Calabria ; one of its cities and all its inhabi- 
tants overwhelmed in the Adriatic sea . . 1186 
One again felt throughout England ; Glaston- 
bury destroyed 1274 

In England; the greatest known there, 

Nov. 14, 1318 
At Naples ; 40,000 persons peiished . . . 1456 
At Lisbon ; 1500 houses and 30,000 persons 
biu-ied in the ruins ; several neighbouring 
towns engulfed with their inhabitants Feb. 1531 
One felt in London ; part of St. Paul's and the 

Temple churches fell 1580 

In Japan ; several cities made ruins, and thou- 
sands perish 1596 

Awful one at Calabria 1638 

One in China, when 300,000 ]Dersons were bui-ied 

in Pekin alone 1662 

One severely felt in Ireland .... 1690 
One at Jamaica, which totally destroyed Port 
Royal, whose houses were engulfed 40 fathoms 
deep, and 300 persons perished . . . . v 
One in Sicily, which overturned 54 cities and 
towns, and 300 villages. Of Catania and its 
18,000 inhabitants, not a trace remained ; 
more than 100,000 lives were lost . Sept. 1693 

Palermo nearly destroyed ; 6000 lives lost . 1726 
Again in China ; and 100,000 iseoi^le swallowed 

up at Pekin 173 

In Hungary ; a mountain turned round . . 1736 
One at Palermo, which swallowed up a con- 
vent ; but the monks escaped . . . . 1740 
Lima and Callao demolished ; 18,000 persons 

buried in the ruins . . . Oct. 28, 1746 
In London, a slight shock, Feb. 8 ; but severer 

shock March 8, 1750 

Adiianople nearly overwhelmed . . . . 1752 
At Grand Cairo ; half of the houses and 40,000 

persons swallowed up 1754 

Quito destroyed April, 1755 

Great earthquake at Lisbon. In about eight 
minutes most of the houses and upwards of 
50,000 inhabitants were swallowed up, and 
whole streets buried. The cities of Coimbra, 
Oporto, and Braga, suffered dreadfully, and 
St. Ubes was wholly overturned. In Spain, 
a large part of Malaga became ruins. One 
half of Fez, in Morocco, was destroyed, and 
more than 12,000 Arabs perished there. 
Above half of the island of Jladeira became 
waste ; and 2000 houses in the island of Mete- 
line, in the Archipelago, were overthrown. 
This awful earthquake extended 5000 miles ; 
even to Scotland .... Nov. i. 
In Syria, extended over 10,000 square miles ; 

Balbec destroyed i75g 

At Martinico ; 1600 persons lost their lives, 

Aug. 1767 
At Guatemala, which, with 8000 inhabitants, 

was swallowed up .... July 7, 1773 
A destructive one at Smyrna . . '. . 1778 



At Tauris ; 15,000 houses thrown down, and 
multitudes buried . . . . a.d. 1780 

Messina and other towns in Italy and Sicily 
overthrovvTi ; 40,000 persons perished Feb. 5, 1783 

Archindschan wholly destroyed, and 12,000 per- 
sons buried in its ruins 17S4 

At Borgo di San Sepolcro ; many houses and 
1000 persons swallowed up . . Sept. 30, 1789 

Another fatal one in Sicily . .... 1791 

In Naples ; Vesuvius overwhelmed the city of 
Torre del Greco .... Jane, 1794 

In Turkey, where, in thi-ee towns, 10,000 per- 
sons lost their lives . . . . . . ,, 

The whole country between Santa Ft? and 
Panama destroyed, including Cusco and 
Quito ; 40,000 people buried in one second, 

Feb. 4 to 20, 1797 

At Constantinople, which destroyed the royal 
palace and an immensity of buildings, and 
extended into Romania and Wallachia, 

Sept. 26, 1800 

A violent one felt in Holland . . . Jan. 1804 

At Frosolone, Naples ; 6000 lives lost July 26, 1S05 

At the Azores ; a village of St. Michael's sunk, 
and a lake of boiling water appeared in its 
place Aug. 11, 1810 

Awful one at Caracas (w/ii'c/j see) . March 26, 1812- 

Several throughout India ; district of Kutch 
sunk ; 2000 persons buried . . June, 1819 

Genoa, Palermo, Rome, and many other towns 
greatly damaged ; thousands j^erish . . . ,, 

One in Calabria and Sicily . . . .Oct. 1826 

In Spain ; Mercia and numerous villages devas- 
tated ; 6000 persons perish . March 21, 1829 

In the duchy of Parma ; no less than 40 shocks 
were experienced at Borgotaro ; and at 
Pontremoli many houses were thrown down, 
and not a chimney was left standing, 

Feb. 14, 1834 

In Calabria, Cosenza and villages destroyed ; 
1000 persons buried . . . April 29, 1835 

In Calabria; 1000 buried at Rossano, <Sio., Oct. 12, 1836 

In many cities of Southern Syria, by which 
hundreds of houses were thi-own down, and 
thousands of lives lost .... Dec. „ 

At Martinique ; nearly half of Port Royal de- 
stroyed ; nearly 700 persons killed, and the 
whole Lsland damaged . . Jan. 11, 1839 

At Ternate ; the island made a waste, and 
thousands of lives lost . . . Feb. 14, 1840 

Awful and destructive earthquake at mount 
Ararat, in one of the districts of Armenia ; 
3137 houses were overthrown, and several 
hundred persons perished . . July 2, ,, 

Great earthquake at Zante, where many per- 
sons perished .... Oct. 30, ,, 

At Cape Haytien, St. Domingo, which destroyed 
nearly two-thirds of the town ; between 4000 
and 5000 lives were lost . . . May 7, 1842 

At Point a Pitre, Guadaloupe, which was en- 
tirely destroyed .... Feb. 8, 1843 

At Rhodes and Maori, when a mountain fell in 
at the latter jilace, crushing a village, and 
destroying 600 persons . . . March, 1851 

At Valparaiso, where more than 400 houses 
were destroyed .... April 2, ,, 

In South Italy ; Melfl almost laid in i-uins ; 
14,000 lives lost .... Aug. 14, ,, 

At Philippine isles ; Manilla nearly destroyed, 

Sept. and Oct. 1852 

In N.W. of England, slight . . Nov. 9, ,, 

Thebes, in Greece, nearly destroyed . Sept. 1853 

St. !-'alvador, S. America, destroyed April 16, 1854 

Anasaca, in Japan, and Simoda, in Niphon, 
destroyed; Jeddo much injured . Dec. 23, ,, 

Broussa, in 'Turkey, nearly destroyed Feb. 28, 1855 

Several villages in Central Europe destroyed, 

July 25, 26, ,, 
Jeddo nearly destroyed . . . Nov. u, ,, 

At the island of Great Sanger, one of the 



EAR 



259 



EAS 



EARTHQUAKES, continued. 

Moluccas, volcanic eruption and earthquake ; 

nearly 3000 lives lost . . . March 12, 1856 
In the Mediterranean : at Candia, 500 lives lost ; 

Rhodes, 100 ; and other islands, 150 Oct. 12, ,, 
In Calabria,* Montemin-ro and many other 

towns destroyed, and about 22,000 lives lost 

in a few seconds .... Dec. 16, 1857 
Corinth nearly destroyed . . . Feb. 21, 1858 
At Quito ; about 5000 persons killed, and an 

immense amount of property destroyed, 

March 21, 1859 
At Erzeroum, Asia Minor ; above 1000 persons 

.said to have perished . . . June 2, ,, 
At San Salvador; many buildings destroyed, 

no lives lost Dec. 8, ,, 

In Cornwall, slight, . Oct. 21, 1859 ; Jan. 13, i860 
At Perugia, Italy ; several lives lost . May 8, 1861 



At Mcndoza, South America : about two-thirds 
of the city and 7000 lives lost . March 20, 1861 

In Greece ; N. Morca, Corinth, and other places 
injured Dec. 26, „ 

Guatemala ; 150 buildings and 14 churches de- 
stroyed . " Dec. ig, 1862 

Rhodes ; 13 villages destroyed, about 300 per- 
sons perished, and much cattle and property 
lo.st April 22, 1863 

Manilla, Philippine isles ; immense destruction 
of property ; about 10,000 persons perish, 

Jivne 3, ,, 

Central, west, and north-west of England, at 

3/4. 22 )?l. A.M. Oct. 6, ,, 

At Macchia, Bendinella, <&c., Sicily; 200 
bouses destroyed, 64 persons killed July 18, 1865 



EAST ANGLES. This kingdom (the sixth of the Heptarchy) was commenced by Uffa, 
575, and ended with Ethelbcrt in 792. See Britain, The ancient see founded by St. Felix, 
who converted the East Angles in 630, was removed to Norwich {ivhich see). 



EAST INDIES, &c. See Lidia. 



EAST SAXONS. See Britain. 



EASTER, the festival observed by the church in commemoration of Our Saviour's restir- 
rectiou, so called in England from the Saxon goddess Eostrc. It was instituted about 68, 
and the day for its observance in England was fixed by St. Austin, in 597. After much 
contention between the eastern and western churches it was ordained by the council of Nice, 
325, to be observed on the same day throughout the Avhole Christian world. " Easter-day 
is the Sunday following that fourteenth day of the calendar moou which happens upon or 
next after the 21st March : so that, if the said fourteenth day be a Sunday, Easter-day is 
not that Sunday but the next." Easter-day may be any day of the five weeks which com- 
mence with March 22 and end with April 25. The dispute between the old British church 
and the new Anglo-Saxon church respecting Easter was settled about 664. — Easter Sunday,, 
in 1866, April i ; in 1867, April 21 ; in 1868, April 12. 

EASTER ISLAND, in the Pacific Ocean, was discovered by Davis in 1686 ; it was visited 
by Roggewein, in 1722, and from him obtained the name it now bears ; it was visited by 
captain Cook, in 1774. At the south-ea.st extremity is the crater of an extinguished volcano, 
about two miles in circuit and 800 feet deep. 

EASTERN (or GREEK) Church, See Qreeh Church. 

EASTERN EMPIRE. After the death of the emperor Jovian, in Feb. 364, the generals 
at Nice elected Valentinian as his successor : in June, he made his brother Valens emperor 
of the West. The eastern empire ended with the capture of Constantinople, and death of 
Constantine XIII., May 29, 1453. See Turkey. 



Theodosius X. the Great, succours Valentinian 
II., the western emperor, and defeats the ty- 
rant Maximus, at Aquileia . . . . . 

Valentinian II. slain by Arbogastes the Frank, 
who makes Eugenius emperor 

Eugenius defeated and slain by Theodosius, 
who re-unites the two empires . Sept. 6, 

Death of Theodosius ; the empire finally divided 
between his son.s — Arcadius receives the east, 
Hononus the west . . . Jan. 17, 

Alaric the Goth begins to ravage the empire . 

Violent religious dissensions ; Theodosius II. 
estiiblishes schools, and endeavoiu-s to revive 
learning . . 

The Theodosian code promulgated 

The covmcils of Ephesus, 431, 449 ; of Chalcedon, 

Frequent sanguinary conflicts between the 
Blues and Greens, circvis factions, at Constan- 
tinople 49^ 

The Justinian code published . . ' . 

War with Persia ; beginning of the victorious 



career of Belisarius, the imperial general . 529-531 
He suppre.sses the " Nika " (" conquer ") insur- 
rection of the circus factions ; 30,000 Greens 

slain 532 

His victories in Africa, Italy, and the East . 533-541 
Recalled through Justinian's jealousy, 542 ; 

again, 548 ; again, 549 : disgraced . . . 562 
Beginning of the Turkish ijowcr in Asia . . 545 
The Slavonians ravage Illyria . . . . 551 

Narses defeats Totila and the Goths near Rome 552 
Death of Belisarius, aged 84 ; of Justinian, aged 

83 565 

Victories of Maurice and Narses in the East, 

579 et seq. 

Disaffection of Narses 591 

Severe contests with the Avars . . 594-620 
Nurses burnt at Constantinople . . . . 606 
The flight (Hejra) of Mahomet from Mecca to 
Medina, where he establishes himself as a 
prophet and prince . . . July 16, 622 
Victorious career of Heraclius II. . 622 ei seq. 



• In the co\irse of 75 years, from 17S3 to 1857, the kingdom of Naples lost, at lea.st, 111,000 inhabitants 
by the effects of earthquakes, or more than 1500 per year, out of an average population of 6,000,000 ! 

s 2 



EAS 



260 



EAS 



EASTERN EMPIRE, continued. 

He recovers his lost territories . . .627 

The Saracens invade the empire, 632 ; defeat 
Heraclius at Aiznadin, 633 ; take Alexandria, 
640 ; and the Greek provinces in Africa, 648 ; 
Constans purchases peace with them . . 660 

They besiege Constantinople seven times . 672-677 

The Bulgarians establish a kingdom in Mcesia 
(now Bulgaria), 678 ; they ravage the country 
up to Constantinople 711 

The Saracens vainly invest Constantinople, 716, 
718 ; defeated 720 

Leo III. the Jsaurian, forbids the worship of 
images : (this leads to the Iconoclast contro- 
versy, and eventually to the separation of the 
eastern and western churches) . . . . 726 

A great invading Ai'ab force (90,000) defeated 
by Acronius 739 



The monasteries dissolved 

Destruction of images throughout the empire 

decreed, 754 ; image-worship restored by the 

empress Irene (for which she was canonized) 
The empire loses the exarchate of Italy, 752 ; 

Dalmatia, 825 ; Sicily and Crete 
Image-worship persecuted, 830 ; restored, 842 ; 

forbidden at Constantinople by one council, 

869 ; restored by another 

South Italy annexed to the empire . 

Five emperors reigning at one time . . . 

Naples added to the empire .... 

Basil subdues the Bulgarians . . . 987, 

Bulgaria annexed to the empire 

The Turks invade Asia Minor . . . . 

The Normans conquer South Italy . 

The first crusade ; Alexis I. lecovers Asia 

Minor 1097 

The Venetians victorious over the Greeks . 1125 

The Hungarians repelled, 11 52; peace made 

with the Normans in Sicily . . . . 1156 
Wars with the Turks and the Venetians . .1172 

Cyprus lost to the empire 1190 

The fourth crusade begins 1202 

Revolt of Alexis against his brother Isaac ; the 



770 

787 
827 

879 
890 
942 



1080 



1203 



crusaders take Constantinople, and restore 
Isaac and his son iVlexis IV. 

Alexis Ducas murders Alexis IV. and usurps the 
throne ; the crusaders take Constantinople, 
kill Alexis, and establish the Latin enipire, 
under Baldwin, count of Flanders . . 1204 

Kingdom of Epirus and jEtolia established . 1208 

The Greek empire re established by Michael 
Palwologus 1 261 

Establishment of the Turkish empire in Asia, 
under Othman I. ..... . 1299 

The Genoese trade in the Black sea . . . 1303 

The Turks ravage Mysia, &c., 1340 and 1345; 
and settle in the coast of Thrace 

The sultan Amurath takes Adrianople, and 
makes it his capital, 1362 ; and, by treaty, 
gi-eatly reduces the emperor's territories 

All the Greek possessions in Asia lost . . . 

The sultan Bajazet defeats the Christian army, 
under Sigismund of Hungai-y, at Nicopolis, 

Sept. 28, 1396 

The emperor Manuel vainly solicits help from 
the western sovereigns 

A Turkish pacha established at Athens . 

The Greek empire made tributary to Timour, 
1402 ; who subjugates the Turkish sultan, 
and dismembers his empire, 1403 ; death of 
Timour, on his way to China .... 

Dissension amongst the Turks defers the fall 
of Constantinople, 1403-12 ; Mahomet I. aided 
by the emperor Manuel, becomes sultan 

Amurath II. in vain besieges Constantinople, 
1422 ; peace made 

John Palajologus visits Rome and other places, 
soliciting help in vain .... 1437-40 

Accession of Constantine XIII. the last em- 
peror 1448 

Accession of Mahomet II. 1451 ; he begins the 
siege of Constantinople, Apiil 6, and takes it. 

May 29, 1453 

(He granted to the Christians personal security 
and the free exercise of their religion.) See 
Tarkei/. 



I3S3 



1373 
1390 



1400 
1 401 



1405 



1413 
1425 



EMPERORS OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE. 



364' 
379- 
395- 
408. 
450. 
457- 
474- 

491. 
51S. 
527- 
565- 
578. 
582 



610 
641. 



668 
685. 

69s, 

698, 

705' 



Valens. 

Theodosius I. the Great. 

Arcadius, the son of Theodosius. 

Theodosius II. succeeded his father. 

Marcian, a Thracian of obscure family. 

Leo I. the Thracian. 

Leo the Younger, died the same year. 

Zeno, called the I^aurian. 

Anastasius I. an Illyrian, of mean birth. 

Justin I. originally a private soldier. 

Justinian, founder of the Digest. 

Justin II. nejjhew of Justinian. 

Tiberius II. renowned for his virtues. 

Maurice, the Cappadooian : murdered with all 

his children, by his successor, 
Phocas, the Usurper, a centurion, whose 

crimes and cruelties led to his own assas- 
sination in 610. 
Heraclius, by whom Phocas was dethroned. 
Heracleonas-Constantme, reigned a few 

months ; poisoned by his step-mother 

Martina. 
Constans II. ; assassinated in a bath. 
Constantine III. Pogonatus. 
Justinian II. son of the preceding ; abhorred for 

his exactions, debaucheries, and cruelties : 

dethroned and mutilated by his successor, 
' Leontius ; dethroned and mutilated by Tiberius 

Aspimar. 
Tiberius III. Aspimar. 
Justinian II. restored. Leontius and Tiberius 

degi-aded in the Hippodrome, and put to 

death. Jiistinian slain in 711. 
Philippii-Us-Bardanes : assa.ssina'ed. 



713. Anastasius II. : fled on the election of Theo- 
dosius in 716; afterwards dehvered up to 
Leo III. and put to death. 

716. Theodosius III. 

718. Leo III. the Isaurian. 

[In this reign (726) commences the great 
Iconoclastic controver.'sy ; the alternate pro- 
hibition and restoration of unages involves 
the peace of several reigns.] 

741. Constantine IV. Coi^ronymus, son of the pre- 
ceding ; succeeded by his son, 

775. Leo IV. 

780. Constantine V. and his mother Irene. 

790. Constantine, alone, by the desire of the people, 
Irene having become unpopular. 

792. Irene again, jointly with her son, and after- 
wards alone, 797 ; deposed for her cruelties 
and murders, and exiled. 

802. Nicephorus I. surnamed Logothetes : slain. 

811. Staiirachius : reigns a few days only. 
,, Michael I. : defeated in battle, abdicates the 
throne, and retires to a monastery. 

813. Leo V. the Armenian : killed in the temple at 
Constantinoiile on Christmas-day, 820, by 
conspirators in the interest of his successor, 

820. Michael II. the Stammerer. 

829. Theophilus, son of Michael. 

842. Michael III. surnamed Porphyrogenitus, and 
the Sot, son of the preceding ; murdered by 
his suc.essor, 

867. Basilius I the Macedonian. 

885. Leo VI. styled the Philosojiher. 

911. Alexander and Constantine VI. Porphyroge- 
nitus, brother and sou of Leo, the latter 



EAS 



261 



ECC 



EASTERN EMPIEE, continued. 

only six years of age ; the former dying in 
912, Zoe, mother of Constantlne, assumes 
the regency. 

919. Romanus Lecapcnus usurps the imperial 

power, and associates with him his sons : 

920. Christopher, and 

928. Stephen and Coustantine VII. 

[Five emperors now reign : of these, Chri.s- 
topher dies in 931 ; Romanus is exiled by his 
sons, Constantino and Stephen, who are 
themselves banished the next year.] 

943. Constantine VII. now reigns alone: poi.soned 
by his daughter-in-law, Theophania, 959. 

959. Romanus II. son of the pi-ecediiig : this mon- 
ster, who had contrived his father's death, 
banishes his mother, Helena. 

963. Nicephorus II. Phocas : marries Theophania, 
his predecessor's consort, who has him as- 
sassinated. 

969. John I. Zemisoes, celebrated general ; takes 
Basilius II. and Constantine VIII. sons of 
Romanus II. as colleagues ; John dies, sup- 
posed by poison, and 

976. Basilius II. and Constantine VIII. reign alone : 

the former dies in 1025 ; the latter in 1028. 
1028. Romanus III. Argyropulus ; poisoned by his 

profligate consort Zoe, who raises 
1034. Micliael IV. the Paphlagonian, to the throne : 
on his death Zoii places 

1041. Michael V. surnamed Calaphates, as his suc- 

cessor : Zoe dethrones him, has his eyes x)ut 
out, and man-ies 

1042. Constantine IX. Monomachus ; he and Zoe 

reigfu jointly : Zoe dies in 1050. 
1054. Theodora, widow of Constantine. 

1056. Michael VI. Stratiotes, or Strato : deposed. 

1057. Lsaac I. Comnenus : abdicates. 
1059. Constantine X. surnamed Ducas. 

1067. Eudocia, consort of the preceding, and Ro- 
manus IV. surnamed Diogenes, whom she 
marries, reign to the prejudice of Michael, 
Constantino's son. 

1071. Michael VII. Parapinaccs, recovers his throne, 
and reigns jointly with Constantine XI. 

1078. Niceijhorus III. ; dethroned by 

io8r. Alexis or Alexius I. Comnenus, succeeded by 

1 1 18. John Comnonvis, his son, surnamed Kalos : 
died of a wound from a poisoned arrow. 

1 143. Manuel I. Comnenus, son of John. 

1 180. Alexis II. Comnenus, son of the preceding, 
under the regency of the empress Maria, his 
mother. 

11S3. Andronicus I. 'Comnenus, causes Alexis to 



be strangled, and seizes the throne : put to 

death by 
1185. I.s;iac II. Angelus-Comnenus, who is deposed, 

imprisoned, and deprived of his eyes by his 

brother, 
1195. Alexis III. Angehis, called the Tyrant: this 

last deposed in his turn, and his eyes put 

out ; died in a monastery. 

1203. Isaac II. again, associated with his son, Alexis 

IV. : deprived. 

LATIN EMPERORS. 

1204. Baldwin I. earl of Flanders, on the capture of 

Constantinople by the Latins, elected em- 
peror : made a prisoner by the king of 
Bulgaria, and never heard of afterwards. 

1206. Henry I. his brother : dies in 1217. 

1216. Peter de Courtenay, his brother-in-law. 

1221. Robert de Courtenay, his son. 

1228. Baldwin II. his brother, a minor, and John da 
Brienne, of Jerusalem, regent and associate 
emperor. 

1 26 1. [Constantinople recovered, and the empire of 
the Franks or Latins terminates.] 

GREEK EMPERORS AT NICE. 

1204. Theodore Lascaris. 

1222. John Ducas, Vataces. 

1255. Theodore Lascaris II., his son, 

1259. John Lascaris, and 

1260. Michael VIII. Palseologus. 

EMPERORS AT CONSTANTINOPLE. 

1261. Michael VIII. now at Constantinople : he puts 

out the eyes of John, and reigns alone. 
1282. Andronicus II. Palteologus the Elder, son of 

the preceding : deposed by 
1328. Andronicus the Younger, his grandson. 
1332. Andronicus III. the Younger. 
1 341. John Paheologus, under the guardianship of 

John Cantacuzenus : the latter proclaimed 

emperor at Adrianople. 
1347. John Cantacuzenus abdicates. 
1355. John Pal;eologus, restored, 
1 391. Manuel Palseologus, his son : succeeded by his 

son and colleague, 
1425. John Patoologus II.* The throne claimed by 

his three brothers. 
1448. Constantine Palaeologus XII. (XIII. or XIV 

some of th» other cmjierors being called 

Constantine by some wi-iters) killed, when 

Constantinople is taken, May 29, 1453. 



EBIONITES, heretics, in the 2ncl century, who seem to have been a branch of the 
Nazareues, were of two kinds : one believed that our Saviour was born of a virgin, observed 
all the precepts of the Christian religion, but added the ceremonies of the Jews ; tlie o,tlier 
believed that Christ was born after the manner of all mankind, and denied his divinity. 
Pardon. Photinus revived the sect in 342. 

EBONITE (vulcanised india-rubber). See Caoutchouc. 

EBRO, a river in Spain — the scene of a signal defeat of the Spaniards by the French, 
under Lannes, near Tudela, Nov. 23, 1808 ; and also of several important movements of the 
allied British and Spanish armies during the Peninsular war (1809 and 1813). 

ECCLESIASTICAL COMMISSIONS. One was appointed by queen Elizabeth, 1584 ; 
by James I. in Scotland, 1617 ; by the English parliament in 1641 ; and by James II. to 
coerce the universities in 1687. The present Ecclesiastical Commissioners (bisho])s, deans, 
and laymen) were appointed in 1835, and incorporated in 1836. 

ECCLESIASTICAL COURTS. There existed no distinction between lay and ecclesias- 
tical courts in England until after the Norman conquest, 1066. See Arches ami Consistory 
Courts. Till the establishment of the Divorce and Probate courts (which sec) in 18157, the 
following were the causes cognisable in ecclesiastical courts : blasphemy, apostasy from 



ECC 



262 



EDD 



Christianity, heresy, schism, ordinations, institutions to benefices, matrimony, divorces, 
bastardy, tithes, incests, fornication, adultery, probate of wills, administi'ations, &c. 

ECCLESIASTICAL STATE, or States of the Chitrch. See Rome, Modern. 

ECCLESIASTICAL TITLES BILL. See Papal Aggression. 

ECHOES. The time which elapses between the utterance of a sound and its return must 
be more than one-twelfth of a second, to form an echo. The whispering gallery of St. Paul's 
is a well-known example. 

ECKMUHL (Bavaria), the site of a battle between the main armies of France (75,000) 
and Austria (40,000) ; Napoleon and marshal Davoust (hence prince d'Eckmiihl) defeated 
the archduke Charles, April 22, 1809. 

ECLECTICS (from Greek, cklego, I choose), ancient philosophers (called Analogetici, 
and also Philalethes, or the lovers of truth), who, without attaching themselves to any sect, 
chose what they judged good from each : of tliem was Potanion of Alexandria, about 
A.D. I. Drydcn. Also a Christian sect, who considered the doctrine of Plato conformable to 
the spirit of Christianity. 

ECLIPSE (the race-horse). See Races. 

ECLIPSES. Their revolution was first calculated by Calippus, the Athenian, 336 B.C. 
The Egyptians said they had accurately observed 373 eclipses of the sun, and 832 of the 
moon, in the period from Vulcan to Alexander, who died 323 B.C. The theory of eclipses 
is said to have been known to the Chinese before 120 b.c. The first eclipse recorded hap- 
pened March 19, 721 B.C., at 8/i. 40HI. p.m., according to Ptolemy ; it was lunar, and was 
observed with accuracy at Babylon. A list of eclipses to the year a.d. 2000 is given in 
'■'■ LArtde Verifier Ics Dates." 



eemarkable eclipses : — 



OF THE SUN. 

That predicted by Thales * See Hah/s (Plmy, B.C. 

lib. ii. 9), believed to have occurred May 28, 585 
One at Athens (Thuc;/dkles, lih. iv.) . . . 424 
Totol one : three days' supplication decreed at 

Rome {Limj) 188 

One general at the death of Jesus Christ a.d. 

(Josephus) . . . . . . . . ?3 

One observed at Constantinople . . . . 968 

In France, when it was dark at noon-day (Sii 

Fresnoy) June 29, 1033 

In England; a total darkness ( fFm. Mabnsb.) 

March 20, 11 40 
Again ; the stars visible at ten in the morning 

(Camden) June 23, 1191 

The true sun, and the appoaraflce of another, 

so that a.stronomers alone could distinguish 

the difference by their glasses . . . ,, 
Again ; total darkness ensued . . . . 1331 
A total one ; the darkness so great that the 

stars shone, and the birds went to roost 

at noon {Oldmixon's Annals of George I.) 

April 22, 1 71 5 



A.D. 

1802 



Remarkable one, central and annular in the 

interior of Europe .... Sept. 7, 
Total eclipses of the sun — July 17, 1833 ; 

July 8, 1842 ; July 28, 1851. 
An annular eclipse ; it was seen and photo- 

gi-aphed at Oundle ; but not seen well at 

other places .... March 35, 1S58 
Total eclipse of the sun ; well seen by Mr. G. B. 

Airy, astronomer royal, and others in Spain ; 

Mr. Warren de la Rue took photogi-aphs, 

July 18, i860 

[The same eclipses (about 70) recur in a pe- 
riod of 18 years 10.J days.] 

OF THE MOON. 

The first, observed by the Chaldeans at Babylon "b.c. 

{Ptolemy iv.) 721 

A total one observed at Sardis (Thucydides vii.) 413 

Again, m Asia Minor (/"o^j/Snts) . . . . 219 
One at Rome, predicted by Q. Sulpitius Gallus 

{Liry xliv.) 168 

One terrified the Roman troops and quelled a.d. 

their revolt (Tacit Ms) 14 



ECONOMIC MUSEUM (or Museum of Domestic and Sanitary Economy), at Twicken- 
ham, open free, was established chiefly by the agency of Mr. Thos. Twining, in i860. It 
originated from the Paris exhibition of 1855. 

ECUADOR. See Equator. 

EDDAS, two books containing the Scandinavian mythology (or history of Odin, Thor, 
Frea, &c.), written about the nth and 12th centuries. 'Translations have been made into 
French, English, &c. MSS. of the Eddas exist at Copenhagen and Upsal. 

EDDYSTONE LIGHT-HOUSE, ofiF the port of Plymouth, erected by the Trinity-house 
to enable ships to avoid the Eddystone rock. It was commenced under Mr. Winstanley, in 
1696 ; was finished in 1699 ; and was destroyed in the dreadful tempest of Nov. 27, 1703, 
when ]\Ir. Winstanley and others perished. It M-as rebuilt by act of parliament, 4 Anne, 
1 706, and all ships were ordered to pay one penny per ton inwards and outwards towards 



* Mr, Airy thinks the date should be 610 ; others say 603 or 584, B.C. 
Herodotus .-.s interrupting a battle between the Medes and Lydians. 



It is the one recorded by 



EDE 



2C3 



EDI 



supporting it. Tliis liglit-liouse. was burnt in 1755 ; and one on a better plan, erected by 
Mr. Snieaton, was tinished Oct. 9, 1759. The woodwoi-k of this, burut in 1770, was replaced 
by stone. 

EDESSA (now Orfat), a town in ]\resopotamia, said by some to have been built by 
Nimrod ; by Ajipian, to have been built by Seleucus. It became famous for its schools of 
theology in the 5th century, and in 1184, when it was taken by the Saracens, it contained 
fifteen large churches. Its kings or rulers were named Abgarus and Mannus. 

EDGEHILL FIGHT (Oct. 23, 1642), AVarwickshire, between the royalists and the 
]iarl lament army, was the first engagement of importance in tlie ci^dl war. Charles I. was 
present. Prince Rupert commanded the royalists, and the earl of Essex the parliamentarians. 
The earl of Lindsay, who headed the royal foot, was mortally wounded, and taken prisonei*. 
The king lost 5000 dead. Owing to the great loss on both sides the action proved indecisive, 
though the parliament claimed the victory. 

EDICTS, public ordinances and decrees, usually set forth by sovereigns ; the name origi- 
nated with tlie Romans. The Perpetual Edict : Salvius Julianus, of Milan, a civilian at 
Rome (the author of several treatises on public right), was employed by the emperor Adrian 
to draw up this body of laws for the Priietors, promulgated 132. 

EDICT OF Nantes, by which Henry IV. of France granted toleration to his Protestant 
subjects, April 13, 1598, was confirmed by Louis XIII. in 1610, and by Louis XIV. in 
1652. It was revoked by Louis XIV. Oct 22, 1685. This unjust and impolitic act cost 
France 50,000 Protestant families, and gave to England and Germany thousands of indus- 
trious artisans who carried with them the art of manufacturing silks, settled in Spitalfields, 
wliere tlieir descendants yet remain ; others planted themselves in Soho and St. Giles's and 
jnirsued the art of making crj'stal glasses and various fine works in which they excelled ; 
among these, jewellery, then little understood in England. 

EDINBURGH, the metropolis of Scotland, derives its name — in ancient records Dun 
Edin, "the hill of Edin" — from its castle, founded or rebuilt by Edwin, king of Northum- 
liria, who having greatly extended his dominions, erected it for the pi'otection of his newly 
acquired territories from the incursions of the Scots and Picts, 626. But it is said the castle 
was first built by Camelon, king of the Picts, 330 B.C. It makes a conspicuous appearance, 
standing at the west end of the town, on a rock 300 feet high, and, before the use of great 
guns, was a fortification of considerable strength. 



Christianity introduced (reitjii of Donald I.) . 201 
Edinburgli taken by the Anglo-Saxons . . 4S2 

Retaken by the Picts 695 

City fortified, and castle rebuilt by Malcolm 

Canmore 1074 

Besieged by Donald Bain 1093 

Holyrood abbey founded by David I. . . . 1128 
Edinburgh constituted a burgh . . . * * 

Castle sun-endered to Henry II. of England . 1174 
A parhament held here under Alexander II. . 1215 

City taken by the English 1296 

Grant of the town of Leith to Edinburgh . . 1329 

Surrenders to Edward III 1356 

St. Giles's cathedral built 1359 

Burnt by Richard II 1385 

Andbj^ Henrj- IV 1401 

James II. first king crowned here . . . 1437 
Execvition of the earl of Athol . . . . ,, 
Annual fair granted by James II. . . . 1447 

Citj' strengthened by a wall 1450 

Charter of James III i477 

Edinburgh made the metropolis by James III. 1482 
Royal College of Surgeons incorporated . . 1505 

Charter of James IV 1508 

[The palace of Holyrood is built in the reign 
of James IV.] 

nigh school founded 151S 

A British force, landing from a fleet of 200 

ships, bums both Edinburgh and Leith, May, 1544 
Leith is again burnt, but Edmburf^h is spared . 1547 

Tolbooth built 1561 

Marriage of queen Mary and lord Damley . 1565 

David Rizzio murdered 1566 

Lord Darnley blown up in a private house by 
gunpowder Feb. 10, 1567 



Mary marries Jaraes, earl of Both well. May 15, 1567 
Civil war on account of Mary's forced resigna- 
tion 1570 

Death of John Knox 1572 

University chartered. See Edinburgh University 

April 24, 1582 
Bothwell's attempt on Holyrood-house Dec. 27, 1591 
Riot in the city ; the mob attacks the king . 1596 
James VI . leaves Edinburgh as king of England, 

April 5, 1603 ; he revisits it . May 16, 1617 

George Heriot's Hospital founded by bis will . 1624 
Charles I. visits Edinburgh .... 1633 

Parliament house finished 1640 

Charles again visits the city .... 1641 
The castle is surrendered to Cromwell by 

Dundas 1650 

Coffee-houses first opened 1677 

Merchants' Company incorporated . . . 16S1 
College of Physicians incorporated . . . ,. 
Earl of Argyll beheaded . . . June 30, 1&85 
African and East India Company incorporated 1695 

Bank of Scotland founded ,, 

Union of the kingdoms 1707 

Royal bank founded . . . . . . 1727 

Board of trustees of trade and manufactures 

appointed ,, 

Roj'al Infirmary incorporated . . . . 1736 
Affair of captain Poi-teous (see Port t'oa.s) Sept. 7, ,, 

Medical Society instituted 1737 

The yomig Pretender occupies Holyrood . . 1745 
Modem improvements commenced . . . 1753 
Magistrates assigned gold chains . . . . 1754 
Royal Exchange completed .... 1761 
Foundation of the Xorth Bridge . Oct. 21, 1763 
Theatre Royal erected 176.J 



EDI 



264 



EDU 



EDINBUKGH, continued. 

Great fire in the Lawii-markot . . . . 1771 
Register-office, Princes-street, commenced . 1774 
Calton-hill observatory founded . July 25, 1776 
Great commotion against popery . . . 1779 

Society of Antiquaries 1780 

Royal Society of Edinburgh instituted . . 1783 

South Bridge commenced 1785 

Royal College of Surgeons incorporated . . 1788 
Fii-st stone of the presentj university laid, 

Nov. 16, 1789 
Robertson, the historian, dies here . June 11, 1793 
Bridewell, Calton-hill, erected . . . . 1796 
Holyrood, an asylum to Louis XVIII. and his 

brother, afterwards Charles X. . . 1795 to 1799 
New Bank commenced . . . June 3, 1801 
Edinburgh Review (by Fi-ancis Jeffrey, Rev. 
Sidney Smith, Henry Brougham, and others) 

published Oct 10, 1802 

New system of police established . . . . 1805 
Alarroing riots here .... Dec. 31, i8ii 
Nelson's monument completed . . . .1815 
Gas company incorporated . . . .1818 

Water company incoriDorated . " . . . 1819 
Professor Playfair dies . . . July 20, ,, 

Society of Arts instituted 1821 

Union Canal completed 1822 

George IV. 's visit; foundation of the national 
monument .... Aug. 14-29, ,, 

Royal Institution erected 1823 

Destructive fires . . . June and Nov. 1824 
Scottish Academy founded .... 1826 
Lord Melville's monument erected . . . 1828 
Edinburgh and Dalkeith Railway opened, July, 1831 
Statue of George IV. erected . . . . 1832 

Death of sir Walter Scott . . . Sept. 21, „ 
Chambers's Edinburgh Journal published . ,, 

Association of the Fine Arts 1833 

The British Association meets here . Sept. 8, 1834 
Edinburgh, Leith, and Granton Railway com- 
menced 1836 

Art-union of Scotland 1837 

Monunaent to sir Walter Scott commenced . 1840 
Society of Arts, founded 1821 ; incorporated .' 1842 
Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway opened, 

Feb. 21, ,, 



Queen Victoria visits Edinburgh, &c. Aug. 31- 

Sept. 15, 1842 
Secession, and formation of the Free Church, 

May 18, 1843 

New College instituted ,, 

North British Railway commenced . . . 1844 
The monument to the political martyrs of 

1793-4, laid by Mr. Hume . . Aug. 21, ,, 
Walter Scott's monument completed . . 1845 
British Association meets again . July 31, 1850 
The Queen again visits Edinburgh (one of her 
many visits to Scotland), and holds her court 
at the ancient Holyrood-house . Aug. 30, ,, 
Prince Albert lays the foundation-stone of the 

Scotch national gallery . . . Aug. 31, ,, 
Meeting for vindication of Scottish rights, &c. 

Nov. 2, 1S53 
Old buildings in Lawn market burnt . Aug. 5, 1857 
Act passed for building new Post-office July, 1858 
National Gallery opened . . March 21, 1859 
Agitation against Ministers' Annuity tax Sejit. ,, 
Lord Brougham elected chancellor of the uni- 
versity, Edinburgh . . . Nov. i, ,, 
Ministers' tax abolished, and other arrange- 
ments made which did not give satisfaction : 
riots were renewed .... Nov. 1S60 
20,000 Volunteers reviewed by the Queen in 

Queen's Park .... Aug. 7, ,, 

Industrial Museum Act passed . . Aug. 28, „ 
Edinburgh visited by empress Eug&iie Nov. 20, ,, 
The Prince Consort lays the foundation of the 
new Post Office and the Industrial JIuseum, 

Oct. 23, i86r 
Fall of a house in High-sti-cet, 35 persons killed 

Nov. 24, „ 
Accident on Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway — 

17 killed ; above 100 womided . Oct. 13, 18621 
Lord Palmerston's visit . JIarch 31-April 4, 1864 
Theatre Royal burnt : George Lorimer, dean of 
guild, and seven other persons, killed by fall 
of wall, while endeavuuring to extricate 

others Jan. 13, 1865 

Statues of Allan Ramsay and John Wilson in- 
augurated March 23, ,, 



EDINBURGH, Bishopric of, was created by Charles I. when tliat monarch was in 
Scotland in 1633 ; and William Forbe.s, one of the ministers of Edinburgh, was made first 
bi.shop. The king allotted the parishes of the shires of Edinburgh, Linlithgow, Haddington, 
and a part of Berwick and of Stirlingshire, to compose the see. The sixth and last prelate 
was Alexander Koss, who was ejected on the abolition of episcopacy, at the period of the 
revolution, in 1689. Edinburgh became a post-revolution bishopric in 1720. See Bishops. 

EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY. A college was commenced by the town council of 
Edinburgh, in 1581, for which queen Mary had given the site of ancient religious houses, 
and Robert Reid, bi.shop of Orkney, the funds in 1558. In 1582 the university was chartered 
by James VI. afterwards James I. of England. The first principal was appointed in 1585. 
The foundation-stone of the new buildings was laid by Francis, lord Napier, grand-ma.ster 
of the masons of Scotland, Nov. 16, 1789. In 1845, the library contained upwards of 80,000 
volumes, besides numerous curioits and rare JISS. and documents. 

EDOM. See Idiimcea. 

EDUCATION, the art of developing the ph3'sical, intellectual, and moral faculties of 
man, has occupied the greatest minds in all ages, such as Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Quintilian, 
Bacon, Milton, Locke, Rous.seau, &c. In England the earliest schools for the lower classes 
were those attached to the monasteries ; for the higher classes halls and colleges were 
gradually founded (see Oxford and Cambridge). 



William of Wykeham planted the School at I education was greatly prom oted, and many 

Winchester, whence arose his colleges at that gi-ammar schools were erected and endowed 

place and Oxford 1373 by Edward VI. and Elizabeth . . . 153S-65 

Eton College was founded by Henry VI. . . 1440 Westminster school founded by Elizabeth . 1560 
In the thirty years following the reformation | Foundation of Rugby school by Lawrence 



EDU 



26i 



EGY 



EDUCATION, continued. 

Shevitf, 1567; of Harrow school, by Juliu 
Lyon ......... 1571 

Qvieen Anne was the zealous friend of educa- 
tion. While princes."^, she founded the Grey- 
coat school, Westminster, in 1698, and cor- 
dially supported the setting up parochial 
charity schools (one of which had been esta- 
blished in i688 at St. Margaret's, West- 
minster). 

Nearly 2000 of these schools were established 
in Great Britain and Ireland, princip.ally liy 
the instrumentality of the Society for the 
Promotion of Christian Knowledge . . 1741 

Mr. Robert Raikes originated Sundai/ Schools 

about 17S1 

In 1833 there were 16,828 of these schools, with 
1,548,890 scholars. 

Sunda}' School Union was formed in . . . 1802 

Joseph Lancaster, a young Quaker, began to 
instruct the children of the poor . , . 1796 

He had go pupils before he was 18 years old, 
and 1000 pupils in . ..... 179S 

To priivide teachers he invented the monitoi'ial 
system. In consequence of his exertions the 
present British and Foreign School Society 
was founded with the name of the " Royal 
Lancasterian Institution," &c. . . . 1805 

This being unexclusivc, was followed by the in- 
stitution of the Church of England ' ' National 
Society for Educating the Poor," on Dr. Bell's 
system 1811 

Infant Schools hega,n .... about 1815 

The Charity Comir,ission, appointed at the 
instance of Mr. (now lord) Brougham, pub- 
lished their reports on Education, in 37 
volumes folio ...... 1819-40 

Irish National School System (to accommodate 
both Roman Catholics and Protestants) oi-- 
ganised mainly by archbishop Whately and 
the Roman Catholic archbishojj Murray . 1S31 

In 1834, the government began annual grants 
(the first 20,000?. ),' which continued till 1839, 
when the Committee of the Privy Council on 
Ediication was constituted for the distribu- 
tion of the money. The gi-ant for Public 
Education in Great Britain, in 1852, was 
i5o,oooi ; 1856-7, 451,213?. ; i860, 798,951?. ; 
1861, 803,794/. ; 1864, 705,404?. For Ireland, 
i860, 270,722?.; 1861, 285,377/.; 1863, 316,770?. 
From 1839 to i860, 3,655,067?. were granted 



for education. The grant for education, 
science, and art, in i86i, was 1,358,996?. 
In 1836, the Home and Colonial School Society 
was instituted, and about 1843 wore formed 
the Voluntary School Society and the Con- 
gregational Board of Education. In 1851, 
out of a population of 17,927,609, there were 
2,466,481 day scholars. Primary schools in 
Great Britain, 1854, 3825 ; 1863, 7739. 
Ragged School Union established . . . 1844 
A great educational conference took place at 
Willis's Rooms, the Prince Consort in the 
chair . . . . . June 22-24, 1857 
The Industrial Schools act passed in . . . ,, 
Middle Class E.xaminafiuns from the University 
of Oxford began, June, 1858. The examiners 
gi'anted the degree of A. A. to many persons 
at Liverpool, Leeds, &c. ; similar examina- 
tions from Cambridge took place in the 
autumn, and are to be continued . . . 1858 
Report of commissioners on popular education 
(appointed 1858), published March i8, 1861, 
led to the Minute of the Committee of the 
Privy Council on Education, establishing a 
Revised Code of Regulations, adi ipted July 2 1 , 

1861, to come into operation, after March fi, 

1862. It decreed- regular examinations of tbe 
pupils, paj'ment by resiilts, evening schools 
for adults, and other changes, which ^aised 
a storm of opposition from the clergy and 
schoolmasters. The subject was much agi- 
tated in parliament (March 25, 28, 1862) ; but 
eventually a compromise was effected May 5, 1862 

Official instructions for the administration of 
the Revised Code issued . . . Sept. ,, 

College and Public School Commission Report, 
signed Feb. 16, 1864 

Royal Commission appointed, to inquire uito 
the state of Education in Scotland. First 
meeting at Edinburgh . . . Nov. 14, ,, 

" Conscience-clause," introduced by Committee 
of Council on Education, freeing children of 
Dissenters from being taught Church Cate- 
chism, or being sent to church, early in „ 

Miss Burdett Coutts proposes the establish- 
ment of small village schools, to be taught 
by " ambulatory " teachers . . Jan 1865 

Parliamentary Committee appointed to inquire 
into the best mode of benefiting schools un- 
assisted by the state . . . Feb. 28, ,, 



EGALITE {Eqiialitij). See Orleans. 

EGGS. The duty on imjiorted eggs was repealed iu 1S60, whereby the revenue lost about 
20,000?. a year. 

EGLINTOUN TOURNAMENT. See Tournatmnt. 

EGYPT.* The early seat of political civilisation. First epoch ; the dynasty of its 
Pharaohs, or "great kings," commenced with ]\IizVaim, the son of Ham, second sou of Noah, 
2188 B.C. to the conquest by Cambyses, 525 B.C. 2nd epoch, to the death of Alexander the 
Great, and establishment of the Ptolemies, 323 B.C. 3rd epoch, to the death of Cleopatra 
and the subjugation of the Romans, 30 B.C. 



Dynasty of Mcnes (conjectural) B.C. 2717 or 2412 
Mizraim builds ^Memphis {Blair) . . . . 2188 
Ep3T)t made foiu-kingdom.s, viz.. Upper Egypt, 
Lower Egj'pt, This, and Memphis (Abbd 

Lenglet, BUtir) 2126 

Athotes invents hieroglj-phics . . . . 2122 j 



Busiris builds Thebes (tWier) . , . B.C. 21 11 
Osymandyas, the first wai-like king, passes into 
Asia, conquers Bactria, and causes his exploits 
to be represented in sculpture and painting 

(Usher, Lenglet) 2100 

The Phosuicians invade Lower Egypt, and hold 



* Three most m.agnificent works on Egypt have been published : in Franco (commenced by Napoleon, 
and the savans who accomiianied him to Egypt), Defcription tie I'Eyijpte, 1809-22 ; in Italy, Roscllini'.s 
JMonx'.menUi dell' Eyitto, 1832-44 ; and in Prussia, Lepsius' Dcnkmitlcr aus 2Egyiiten, 1848-56. All these are in 
the Library of the linyal Institution of Great Britain, Loudon. 



EGY 



266 



EGY 



EGYPT, continued. 

it 260 years ( Usher) ; the dynasty of Shepherd 

kinw.s begins B.C. 2080 

The Lake of Moeris constructed by him . . 1938 
The patriarch Abraham visits Egypt . . 1920 
Syphoas introduces the use of the common let- 
ters (Usher) i8gi 

Memnon invents the Egyptian letters {Blair, 

Lenglet) 1822 

Amenophis I. is acknowledged the king of all 

Egypt (ifHo/rf) 1821 

Joseph is sold into Egypt as a slave . . . 172S 
He interprets the king's dreams . . . 1715 
His father and brethren settle here . . . 1706 
Eameses III., or Sesostris, reigns : he extends 
his dominion by conquest over Arabia, Per- 
sia, India, and Asia Minor (Z«i£rZrf) * . . 161 8 
Settlement of the Ethiopians (Blair) . . . 1615 
Rameses, who imjoosed on his subjects the 
building of walls and pyramids, and other 
labours, dies (Lenglet) ..... 1492 
Amenophis II. is overwhelmed in the Red Sea, 

with all his army (Lenglet, Blair) . . . ,, 
Reign of iEgyptus, from whom the country, 
hitherto called Alizraim, is now called Egypt 

(Blair) 148s 

Reign of Thiioris (the Proteus of, the Greeks), 
who had the faculty of assuming whatever 
form he pleased, as of a hon, a dragon, a tree, 
water, fire ....... 1189 

[These fictions were probably intended to mark 
the profoimd policy of this king, who was 
eminent for his wisdom, by which his do- 
minion flourished. Blair. '\ 

Pseusennes (Shishak) enters Palestine, ravages 
Judea, and carries off the sacred vessels of 
the temjile 971 

The dynasty of kings called Tanites begins with 
Petubastes (Blair) 825 

The dynasty of S«i<es (iJtair) 781 

Sebacon (the Ethiopian) invades Egypt, sub- 
dues the king, Bocchoris, whom he orders 
to be roasted aUve (t^.</ipr) 737 

The Dodckarchy (12 rulers) expelled by Psam- 
metichus the Powerful . ... 650 

He invests Azoth, which holds out for 19 years, 
the longest siege in the annals of antiquity 
(Usher) 647 

Necho begins the famous canal between the 
Arabic gulf and the Mediterranean sea (Blair) 610 

This canal abandoned, after costing the lives of 
120,000 men (Herodotus) ..... 609 

Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon dej^oses Apries . 581 

Apries taken prisoner and strangled in his 
palace (Diod. Siculus) ..... 571 

The philosopher Pythagoras comes from Samos 
into Egypt, and is instructed in the mysteries 
of Egyptian theology (t^s/tc)') .... 535 

The line of the Pharaohs ends in the murder 
of Psammenitus by Cambyses (Blair) . . 526 

Dreadful excesses of Cambyses ; he puts the 
children of the grandees, male and female, 
to death, and makes the country a waste 
(Herodotus) 524 

He sends an army of 50,000 men across the 
desert to" destroy the temple of Jupiter 
Ammon, but they all i^erished in the burning 
sands (Justin) ,, 

Egypt revolts from the Persians ; again sub- 
dued by Xerxes (iJtaii-) 487 

A revolt under Inarus (Blair) .... 463 

Successful revolt under Amyrtasus, who is pro- 
claimed king (Lenglet) 414 



Egypt again reduced by Ochus, king of Persia, 
and its temples pillaged (Usher) . . b.c. 350 

Alexander the Great enters Egypt, wrests it 
from the Persians, and builds Alexandria 

(£l»i>-) 332 

Ptolemy I. Lagus, or Soter 323 

Philadelphus, Ptolemy II. reigns (under whom 
Egypt flourishes) : he completes the Pharos 

of Alexandria (.Btoir) , 

The Septuagint version of the Old Testament 

made about this time „ 

The famous library of Alexandria also dates 

about this jieriod (Blair) 2S3 

Ambassadors first sent to Rome . . . . 269 

Ptolemy III. Euergetes, reigns, 247 ; oven-uns 

Syria, and returns laden with rich spoils and 

2500 statues and vessels of gold and silver, 

which Cambyses had takenfromthe Egyptian 

temples (Blair) 246 

Ptolemy IV. Philopator 222 

Ptolemy V. Epiphanes 205 

Ptolemy VI. Philometor . . . . .181 

At the death of Philometor, his brother Phys- 
con (Ptolemy VII.) marries his queen, and on 
the day of his nuptials murders the infant 
son of Philometor in its mother's arms . . 146 
He repudiates his wife, and marries her 
daui<hter by his brother (B^air) . . . . 130 

His subjects, wearied by his cruelties and 
crimes, demolish his statues, set fire to his 
palace, and he flies from their fury (Blair) . 129 
He murders his son by his new queen ; also his 
son by her mother, sending the head and 
limbs of the latter as a present to the parents 
on a feast-day . . .... . ,, 

Yet, defeating the Egyptian army, he recovers 

his throne ; and dies 128 

Pestilence from the putrefaction of vast swai-ms 
of locusts ; 800,000 pei'ish in Egypt . . ,, 

Ptolemy VIII. Soter II 117 

Alexander I. 107 

Ptolemy VIII. restored 89 

Revolt in Upper Egypt ; Thebes destroyed 
after a siege of three years (Z)iocZ. (Sic )(?««) . 82 

Alexander II. and Cleopatra 1 81 

Ptolemy IX. Aulotes '.So 

Berenice and Tryphsena 58 

Auletes restored, 55 : leaves his kingdom to 

Ptolemy and Cleopatra (SJfTic) ... 51 
During a civil war between Ptolemy and Cleo- 
patra II., Alexandria is besieged by Ctesar, 
and the hbrary nearly destroyed by fire 

(Blair) 47 

Caisar defeats the king, who, in crossing the 
Nile, is drowned ; and the younger Ptolemy 

and Cleopatra reign 46 

Cleopatra poisons her brother, and reigns alone 43 
She appears before Marc Antony, to answer 
for this crime. Fascinated by her beauty, 

he follows her into Egypt 40 

Antony defeated by Octavius Caesar at the 

battle of Actium (Blair) 31 

Octavius enters Egypt ; Antony and Cleopatra 
kill themselves ; and the kingdom becomes 

a Roman province 30 

Egyist wrested from the eastern emperor Hera- a.d. 
cUus, by Omar, caliph of the Saracens . . 639 
Saladin establishes the dominion of the Mame- 
lukes 1171 

Selim I. emperor of the Turks, takes Egypt . 1517 
It is governed by beys till a great part of the 
country is conquered by the French, under 
Bonaparte 1799 



* The epoch of the reign of Sesostris is very uncertain : Blair makes it fall 133 years later. As to the 
achievements of this monarch, they are supposed to have lieen the labours of severalkings attributed by 
the Egyptian priests to Sesostris alone, whose very existence, indeed, is doubted. 



EGY 



2(37 



ELE 



EGYPT, contiimcd. 

The invaders dispossessed by tlie British, and 
tlie Turkish government restored . 

Jlehcmct Ah massacres the Mamelukes, and 
obtains the snjireme power . . March, 

Arrival of Belzoni, 1815; he removes young 
Memnou, 1816 ; explores the ancient temples, 
&c 

Formation of the Mahmoud canal, connecting 
Alexandria with the Nile .... 

Mehemct Pacha revolts and invades Syria . . 

His sou Ibrahim takes Acre, May 27 ; over-runs 
Syria, and defeats the Turks at Konieh, 

Dec. 21, 

He advances on Constantinople, which is en- 
tered by Russian auxiliaries, April 3 ; the 
war ends with the convention of Kutayah, 

May 4, 

Mehemet again revolts, claiming hereditary 
power ; Ibrahim defeats the Turks at Nezib, 

June 24, 

England, Austria, Russia, and Prussia under- 
take to expel Ibrahim from Syria ; Najjier 
bombards Beyrout, Sept. 10 ; Acre taken by 
the British and Austrian fleets, under sh- R. 



1 801 
1811 



1820 
1831 



Stopford, Nov. 3 ; the Egj^itians quit Syi'ia, 

Nov. 21 el scq. 1840 
Peace restored by treaty ; Mehemet is made 
hereditary viceroy of Egypt, but is deprived 

of Syria July 15, 1841 

Ibrahim Pacha dies (see Suez) . Nov. 10, 1848 

The Suez canal begim 1858 

Malta and Alexandria telegi-aphjopened Nov. i, 1861 
The viceroy Said visits Italy, France, and Eng- 
land, May to Sept. ; returns to Alexandria,- 

Oct. I, 1862 
Sultan of Turkey visits Egypt . April 7-17, 1863 
Greatly increased cultivation of cotton in Egypt, 

1863-64 
At the demand of the sultan, the viceroy sends 
troops to repress the insurgents in Arabia, 

May, 1864 
HEREDITARY VICEROYS (nearly independent). 
1806. Mehemet Ali Pacha ; abdicated Sept. 1848 ; dies 

Aug. 2, 1849 
1848. Ibrahim (adopted son), Sept. ; dies Nov. 10, 1848. 

,, Abbas (his son), Nov. 10 ; dies July 14, 1854. 
1S54. Said (brotlier), July 14 ; dies Jan. 18, 1S63. 
1863. Ismail (brother), Jan. 18. 



EGYPTIAN ERA. The old Egyptian year was identical with the era of ISTahonassar, 
beginning Feb. 26, 747 B.C., and consisted of 365 da}'s only. It was refonned 30 B. c. , at 
which period the commencement of the year had arrived, by continnally receding to the 
29th of Aug. , which was determined to be in future the first day of the year. To reduce to 
the Christian era, subtract 746 years 125 days. 

EHBENBREITSTEIN (Honour's broadstone), a strong Prussian fortress on the Ehin«, 
formerly belonged to the electors of Treves. It was often besieged. It surrendered to the 
French general Jourdaiu, Jan. 24, 1799. The fortifications were destroyed on its evacuation, 
Feb. 9, 1801, at the peace of Luneville. The works have been restored since 1814. 

EIDER, a river, separating Sclileswig from Holstein, was passed by tlie Austrians and 
Prussians, Feb. 4, 1864. 

EIKON BASILIKE ("the Portraiture of His Sacred Majesty in his Solitudes an 
Sufferings"), a book of devotion formerly attributed to king Charles I., but now generally 
believed to have been written partially, if not wholly, by bishop Gauden, and possibly 
approved by the king : it was published in 1648, and sold with great rapidity. 

EISENACH DECLARATION. See Germany, 1859. EISTEDDFODD. See Bards. 

ELBA, Isle of (on the coast of Tuscany), taken by lord Nelson in 1796 ; but abandoned 
1797. Elba was conferred upon Napoleon (with the title of emperor) on his relinqinshing 
the throne of France, April 5, 1814. He secretly embarked hence with about 1200 men in 
liired feluccas, on the night of Feb. 25, 1815, and landed in Provence, March i, to recover 
the Imperial crown. See France, 1815. Elba was resumed by the grand duke of Tuscany, 
July, 1815. 

ELDERS (in Greek, preshuteroi), in the early church equivalent with cpisco2Mt, or 
bishops (see i 2%n. iii. and 2'itus i.), who afterwards became a distinct and superior order. 
Eldei-s in the Presbyterian churches are laymen. 

ELDORADO (the " Gilded Man "). When the Spaniards had conquered Mexico and 
Peru, they began to look for new sources of wealth, and having heard of a golden city ruled 
by a king or priest, smeared in oil and rolled in gold dust (which report was founded on a 
merely annual custom of the Indians), they organised various expeditions into the interior 
of South America, which were accompanied with disasters and crimes, about 1560. Raleigh's 
expeditions in search of gold in 1596 and 1617 led to his fall. 

ELEATIC SECT, founded at Elea in Sicily, by Xenophanes, of Colophon, about 535 B.C. 
He had been banished to Sicily on accoimt of his M'ild the'ory of God and nature. He 
supposed that the stars were extinguished every morning and rekindled at night ; that 
eclipses were occasioned by a partial extinction of the sun ; that there were several suns and 
moons for the convenience of the difl'erent climates of the earth, &c. Sirabo. Zeno (about 
364) was an Eleatic. 

ELECTOR PALATINE. See Palatinate. 



ELE 



268 



ELE 



ELECTORS for members of parliament for counties were obliged to have forty shillings 
a-year in land, 8 Hen. VL 1429. Among the acts relating to electors are the following : 
Act depriving excise and cnstom-house officers and contractors with government of their 
votes, 1782. Act to regulate polling, 1828. Reform in parliament act (see Reform Bill), 
1832. County elections act, 1836. See Bribery. The forty shilling freeholders in Ireland 
lost their privilege in 1829. By Dodson's act, passed in 1861, university electors are per- 
mitted to vote by sending balloting papers. 

ELECTORS OP Germany. The empire became electoral about 619. In the I3tli 
century seven princes (the archbishops of Mentz, Treves, and Cologne, the king of Bohemia, 
the electors of I3randenliurg and Saxony, and the elector Palatine), who possessed the greatest 
power, assumed the exclusive privilege of nominating the emperor. Robertson. An eighth 
elector (Bavaria) was made in 1648; and a ninth (Hanover) in 1692. The number was 
reduced to eight in 1777 ; and was increased to ten at the peace of Luneville, in 1801. On 
the dissolution of the German empire, the crown of Austria was made hereditary, 1804- 
1806. See Germany. 

ELECTRICITY,— from the Greek tlcktron, electrum, amber. The electrical properties 
of rubbed amber are said to have been known to Thales, 600 B.C. See Magnetism. 



1600 



1647 
1676 



FRlCTinNAI- OR STATIC ELECTRICITY. 

Gilbert records that other bodies besides amber 
generate electricity when rubbed, and that 
all substances may be attracted . . _ . 

Otto von Gucricke constructs the first electric 
machine (a globe of sulphur), about 

Boyle pviblisbes his electrical experiments . . 

Stephen Grey, aided by Wheeler, discovered 
that the human body conducts electricity, 
that electi-icity acts at a distance (motion in 
light bodies being produced by frictional elec- 
tricity at a distance of 666 feet), the fact of 
electric induction, and other remarkable phe- 
nomena 172036 

Dufay originates his dual theory of two electric 
fluids : one vitreous, from rubbed glass, &c. , 
the other 7-csinovs, from rubbed amber, resin, 
&c. ; and showed that two bodies similarly 
electrified repel each other, and attract bodies 
oppositely electrified, about . ... 1733 

The Leyden jar (vial or bottle) discovered by 
Kleist, 1745, and by Cunseus and Muschen- 
broek, of Leyden ; Winckler constructed the 
Leyden battery 

Desaguliers classifies bodies as electrics and 
non-electrics 

Important researches of Watson, Canton, Bec- 
caria, and NoUet i740"7 

Franklin annoimces his theory of a single fluid, 
terming the vitreous electricity positive, and 
the resinous negative, 1747 ; and demonstrates 
the identity of the electric spark and light- 
ning, drawing down electricity from a cloud 
by means of a kite* . . . - June, 1752 

Professor Richmann killed at St. Petersburg, 
while repeating Franklin's experiments Aug. 

Becoaria pubhshes his researches on atmo- 
spheric electricity, 175S ; and ^pinus his 
mathematical theory 

Electricity developed by fishes investigated by 
Ingenhousz, Cavendish, and others, about . 

Lichtenberg produces his electrical figures 

Electro-statics : Coulomb applies the torsion 
balance to the measurement of electric force 

Electro-chemistry — water decomposed by Caven- 
dish, Fourcroy, and others . . . 1787-90 

Discoveries of Galvani and Volta (see Voltaic 
Electricity, below) 1791-3 

(Ersted, of Copenhagen, discovers electro-mag- 
netic action (see Electro-Magnetism, below) . 1819 

Thei-mo-EUctncity (cuiTents produced by heat) 
discovered by Seebeck : it was produced by 



1746 



1742 



1753 



1759 



1773 
1777 



i7'55 



heating pieces of copper and bismuth soldered 
together, 1823 ; the thermo-electrometer in- 
vented by Snow Harris, 1827; the thermo- 
multiplier constructed by Melloni and Nobili, 
1831. [Marcus constructed a powerful ther- 
mo-electric battery in 1865.] 

Faraday produces a spark by the sudden sepa- 
ration of a coiled keeper from a permanent 
magnet (see Magneto- Electricity, below) . . 

Wheatstone calculates the velocity of electricity, 
on the double fluid theory, to be 288,000 miles 
a second ; on the single fluid theory, 576,000 
miles a second 

Armstrong discovers, and Faraday explains, 
the electricity of high pressure steam, which 
produces the hj'dro-electric machine . . 

Electric Machines. Otto von Guericke ob- 
tained sparks by rubbing a globe of sulphiir, 
about 1647 ; Newton, Boyle, and others used 
glass, about 1675 ; Hawksbee improved the 
machine, about 1709 ; Bose introduced a 
metallic conductor, 1733; Winckler contrived- 
the cushion for the rubber, 1741 ; Gordon 
employed a glass cylinder, 1742 ; for which a 
plate was substituted about 1770 ; Canton 
introduced amalgam for the rubber, 1751 ; 
Van Marum constructed an electric machine 
at Haarlem, said to have been the most 
powerful ever made. 1785 ; Dr. H. M. Noad 
set up at the Panopticon, Leicester-square, 
London, a very powerful electric machine 
and Levden battery [in possession of Mr. 
Edwin Clark, 1862] 

The Hi/dro-Electric machine, by Armstrong, was 
constructed 

The Electrophorus, a useful apparatus for 
obtaining frictional electricity, was invented 
by Volta in 1775, and im])roved by him in 

Electrometer and Electroscope, as the terms 
signify, are apparatus for ascertaining the 
presence and quantity of electrical excita- 
tion. Pith-balls were employed in various 
ways as electroscopes by Gilbert, Canton, and 
others. Dr. Milner invented an electrometer 
similar to Peltier's, 1783. The gold leaf elec- 
trometer was invented by rev. A. Bonnet, 
1789, and improved by Singer, about 1810 ; 
Lane's discharging electrometer is dated 
1767 ; Henley's, 1772; Bohnenberger's electro- 
scope, 1820; Peltier's induction electrometer, 

about 



1S34 
1S40 



185s 



17S2 



* In 1748 at a pic-nic, he "killed a turkey by the electric spark, and roasted it by an electric jack 
before a fire kindled by the electric hoiiXn."— Penny Cyclopadia. 



ELE 



269 



ELE 



ELECTRICITY, continual. 

GALVANISM, OR VOLTAIC-ELECTRICITY, AND 
ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. 

Siilzer noticed a peculiar sensation in the 
tongue wlien silver and lead were brought 
into contact with it and each other . . . 1762 

JIadame Galvani observed the convulsion in 
the muscles of frogs when brought into con- 
tact with two metals, in 1789 ; and M Gal- 
vani, after studying the phenomena, laid the 
foundation of the galvanic battery . . i7gi 

Volta announced bis discovery of the "Voltaic 
liile," composed of discs of zinc and sUver, 
and moistened card ...... 1800 

By tlie voltaic pile, Nicholson and Carlisle de- 
compose water, and Dr. Henry decomposes 
nitric acid, ammonia, &c. . . . . „ 

Behrcns forms a dry pile of 80 pairs of zinc, 
copper, and gilt paper 1805 

By means of the large voltaic battery of the 
Ruyal Institution, London, Davy decom- 
poses the alkali potash, and evolves the metal 
potassium ..... Oct. 6, 1807 

Zamboni constructs a dry pile of paper discs, 
coated with tin on one side and peroxide of 
manganese on the other ..... 1809 

Children's battery fuses platinum, <fec. . . „ 

Davy exhibits the voltaic arc .... 1813 

Wollaston's thimble battery ignites platinum 
wire 1815 

Galvanometers invented by Ampfere and by 
Schweigger, 1820 ; by Gumming, 1821 ; De la 
Rive, 1824; Ritchie (torsion), 1830; Joule 
(magnetic), 1843. 

Ohm enunciates his formulae relating to the 
galvanic current 1827 

Improvement in constructing the voltaic bat- 
tery maile by Wolla.ston, 1S15 ; Becquerel, 
1029; Sturgeon, 1830; J. F. Daniell, 1836; 
Grove (nitric acid, &c.), 1839; Jacobi, 1840; 
Smee, 1840; Bunsen (carbon, &c.), 1842; 
Grove (gas battery), 1842. 

Faraday demonstrates the nature of electro- 
chemical decomposition, and the principle 
that the quantity and intensity of electric 
action of a galvanic battery depends on the 
size and number of plates employed . . 1834 

Wheatstone invents his electro-magnetic chro- 
noscope ........ 1840 

Electro-Magnetism begins with ffirsted's dis- 
covery of the action of the electric current 
on the magnetic needle, 1819 ; proved by 
Ampfere, who exhibits the action of the vol- 
taic pile \ipon the magnetic needle, and of 
terrestrial magnetism upon the voltaic cur- 
rent ; he also airanges the conducting wh-e 
in the form of a heli.x or spiral, invents a gal- 
vanometer, and imitates the magnet by a 
sjiiral galvanic wire . ..... 1S20 

Arago magnetised a needle by the electric cur- 
rent, and attracted iron filings by the con- 
necting wire of a galvanic battery . . . ,, 

Induction of electric currents discovered by 
Faraday and announced ..... 1S31 

Faraday discovers the electro-magnetic rotative 
force developed in a magnet by voltaic elec- 
tricity, 1831 ; experiments on the induction 
of a voltaic current . . . ... 1S34 

Sturgeon makes a bar of soft iron magnetic by 
surrounding it with coils of wire, and send- 
ing an electric current through the wire . 1S37 



Becquerel invents an electro-magnetic balance 1837 

Breguet uses electro-magnetic force to manu- 
facture mathematical instruments, about . 1854 

Magneto-Electricity (the converse of CErsted's 
discovery of electro-magnetism), discovered 
by Faraday, who produced an electric spark 
by suddenly sep.aratuig a coiled keeper from 
a permanent magnet ; and found that an elec- 
tric current existed in a cojiper disc rotated 
between the poles of a magnet . . . . 1831 

The Magneto-Electric macliine arose out of Fara- 
d.ay's discovery, and was first made at Paris 
by Pixii, 1832 ; and in London by Saxton . 1833 

Ruhmkorff's magneto-electric induction coil 
constructed, about 1850 

ELECTRIC telegraph.* 

The transmission of electricity by an insulated 
wire was shown in the middle of the last 
century, by Watson and others. 

Telegraphic arrangements were devised by Le- 
sarge, 1744 ; Betancourt, 1787 ; Cavallo, 1795 ; 
Salva, 1 796 ; Soemmering, exhibited, Aug. 29, 
1809; Ronalds 1816 

Ampere invents his telegraphic arrangement, 
employing the magnetic needle and coil, and 
the galvanic battery 1820 

F. Ronalds pubUshes an account of his electric 
telegraph 1823 

Professor Wheatstone constructs an electro- 
magnetic apparatus, by which 30 signals are 
conveyed through nearly four miles of wire, 

June, 1836 

Telegraphs invented by Schilling, Gauss, and 
Weber (magneto-electric), 1833; by Steinheil ' '"^ 
and by Masson, 1837; by Morse . . . 1837 

The magnetic needle telegraph patented by W. 
F. Cooke and C. Wheatstone . June 12, ,, 

Mr. Cooke set up the telegi-aph line on the 
Great Western Railway, from Paddington to 
West Draji:on, 1838-9; on the Blackwall line, 
1840; and in Gla.sgow . . ." . . . 1841 

Professor Wheatstone's alphabetical printing 
tclegi'aph patented . . . . . . ,, 

The first telegraph line in America set up from 
Washington to Baltimore 1S44 

The murderer Tawell apprehended by means of 
the telegi'aijh 1845 

The electric telegraph company established 
(havmg purchased Cooke and Wheatstone's 
telegraiihic inventions) ... . . 1846 

Gutta-percha suggested as an insulator by 
Faraday 1847 

Over-house electric telegraphs (first erected at 
Paris) set u]) between their premises in the 
City and West-end bj- Messrs. Waterlow, in 
1857 ; extended throughout London . . 1S59-62 

House's printing telegraph, 1846 ; Bain's electro- 
chemical telegi'aph, 1846; Hughes's system, 
1S55 ; the American combination system (of 
the preceding), which can convey 2000 words 
an hour, adopted by the American telegraph 
company Jan. 1S59 

Wheatstone's automatic prmting telegi-aph 
patented i860 

Professor Charles Wheatstone, in 1840, drew 
plans of a projected submarine telegraph be- 
tween Dover and Calais. In 1847, Mr John 
Watkins Brett submitted a similar plan to 
Louis Philippe without success ; but in 1850, 
he obtained permission from Louis Napoleon 



* The Electric Telegraph may be said to have run a race with Time, and beaten him. New Orleans is 
westward of New York, and the clocks are thus later in the former city than in the latter, in proportRin to 
the difference of longitude. When the Atlantic made her first return voyage from Liverpool, a brief abstract 
of her news was telegraphed to New Orleans at a few minutes after noon (New York time); it 1 cached its 
destination at a few minutes before noon (New Orleans time), and was published m the New Orleans papers 
on the evening of the very day when the ship arrived at New York : the evening pajsers of New YTork and 
New Orleans gave the same news at the same houi- (April, 1850}. 



ELE 



270 



ELE 



ELECTRICITY, continued. 

to make a trial. This took place on Aug-. 28, 
1850. The connecting wires (27 miles long-) 
were placed on the government pier in Dover 
harhovir, and in the Goliath steamer were 
coiled about 30 miles in length of telegraphic 
wire, enclosed ua a covering of gutta-percha, 
half an inch in diameter. The Goliath started 
from Dover, unrolling the telegraphic wire as 
it proceeded, and allowing it to drop to the 
bed of the sea. In the evening the steamer 
arrived on the French coast, andthewii-e was 
run up the cliff at cape GrLsnez to its terminal 
station, and messages were sent to and fro 
between England and the French coast. But 
the wire, in settling into its place in the sea- 
bottom, crossed a rocky ridge, and snapped 
in two, and thus the enterprise for that time 
failed. New arrangements were soon made, 
and on a scale of greater magnitude ; and 
the telegraph was oi^ened, Nov. 13, 1851. On 
that day the oisenmg and closing prices of the 
funds in Paris were known on the London 
stock exchange within business hours, and 
guns were fired at Dover by communication 
from Calais. 

Communications were complete between Dover 
and Ostend, and between Portpatrick and 
Donaghadee, in May, 1853 ; Holyhead and 
Hovvth, June, 1854; Paris and Bastia, Nov. 
1854 ; London and Constantinople, May, 1858 ; 
Cromer and Emden, 1858; Aden and Suez, 
May, 1S59 ! Malta and Alexandria, Sept. 28, 
1861 ; England and Bombay, opened March 
I, 1865 (engineer, sir C. T. Bright); Marsala, 
Sicilj% and La Calle, Algeria . . June 21, 

Atlantic Teleoraph. A plan to unite Europe 
and America by telegraph was entered at the 
government registration ofiice in June, 1845, 
by Mr. J. Watkins Brett, who made jaroposals 
to the government, which were not accepted. 
This plan was_attempted to be carried out by 
a company in 1857 and 1858, with the con- 
currence of the British and American govern- 
ments. 2500 miles of wire were manufactured, 
and tested in March, 1857. The laying it 
down commenced at Valentia, in Ireland, on 
August 5. The vessels employed were the 
Niagara and Susquehanna (American vessels), 
and the Leopard and Ac/amemnon (British 
vessels). After sailing a few miles the cable 
snapped. This was soon repaired ; but on 
Aug. II, after 300 miles of wire had been 
'paid out, it snapped again, and the vessels 
returned to Plymouth. In 1858, a second 
attempt to lay the cable failed through a vio- 
lent storm, on June 20-21 ; but the third 
voyage was successful. On Aug. 5, the jimc- 
tion between the two continents was com- 
pleted bj' the laying down of 2050 miles of 
wire from Valentia, in Ireland, to Newfound- 
land. The first two messages, on Aug. 5, 
were from the queen of England to the 
president of the United States, and his reply. 
This event caused great rejoicing in both 
countries ; but, unfortunatelj', the insulation 
of the wire gradually became more faulty, 
and on Sept. 4 the power of transmitting in- 
telligence utterly ceased. A new company 
was formed, i860. The Great SasternstidanieT, 
engaged to lay down 2300 miles of wire, with 
25,000 tons burden, sailed for Valentia, Ireland, 
from the Thames, July 15, 1865 ; commanded 
by capt. Anderson, accompanied by professor 
Wm. Thomson and Mr. Cromwell F. Varley, 
to superintend the paying out the cable. 
After connecting the wire with the land, the 
Great EaMern sailed from Valentia, July 23. 
Telegrajjhie communication with tlie vessel 
(inteiTupted by two faults, due to defective 
insulation, caused by pieces of metal pressed 



into the gutta percha coating, which wera 
immediately reisaired) finally ceased on 
Aug. 2. Tlie ajiparatiis for raising the wire 
proving insufficient, the vessel returned, and 
arrived at the Medway . . . Aug. 19, 1865 

It was stated that there are in work 15,000 miles 
of electric telegi-aph wire in Great Britain ; 
80,000 on the continent of Europe ; and 
48,000 in America ; and altogether about 
150,000 miles laid down in the world . Julj', 1862 

BonelU's typo-eleotric telegraph, made known 
and company established, i860 ; andadoptcd 
between Liverpool and Manchester, 1863 ; 
promised revival .... June, 1864 

An " electric telegraph " conference, at which 
16 states (not Great Britain) were represented, 
met first at Paris .... March, 1865 

Electric Clock, <&c. Professor Wheatstone 
invented an electro-magnetic telegraph clock 
in 1840. Clocks worked by electricity, in- 
vented by Mr. Alexander Bain, Mr. Shepherd, 
and others, appeared in the exhibition of 
1851. An electric clock, with four dials, illu- 
minated at night, was set up in front of the 
office of the electric telegraph company, in 
the Strand, London, July, 1852. A time ball 
was set ujibyMr. French, in Comhill, in 1856. 
In i860. Mr. C. V. Walker so connected the 
clock of the Greenwich observatory with that 
of the South-eastern station, London, that 
they could be controlled by electricity. 

Electric Light. Apparatus for regulating the 
electric light were devised in 1846, and shown 
by Staite and Petrie in 1S4S ; by Foucault 
soon after. Jules Duboscq's Electric Lamp 
(the most perfect of the kind) appeared at 
the Paris exhibition in 1855; and was first . 
employed by professor Tyndall, at the Royal 
Institution, London, for illustrating lectures 
on light and coloiu's, in 1856. The works of 
new Westminster bridge were illuminated 
by Watson's electric light, in 1858. M. Serrin, 
of Paris, exhibited his improved electric 
lamp, in 1862. The Magneto- Electric light 
(the most brilliant artificial light yet pro- 
duced), by means of apparatus devised by 
professor Holmes, was successfully tried in 
1858 and 1859, at the South Foreland light- 
house, Dover. In April, 1861, the French 
government ordered eight lighthouses on 
their coast to be illuminated by electric light. 
MJI. Dumas and Benoit constructed an elec- 
tric safety lamp in ..... . 1862 

Electric Loom. M. Bonelli, of Turin, in 1854, 
devised a plan of employing magnets and 
electro-magnets in weaving, thereby super- 
seding the tedious and costly Jacquard 
system of cards. His loom was set up in 
London in 1859, and lectured upon at the 
Royal Institution by professor Faraday, on 

June 8, i860 

Electro-Physiology was not much cultivated 
after the discoveries of Galvani in 1790, till 
about 1830, when the researches of Matteucci 
commenced ; all the phenomena of electro- 
physiology or animal electricity being con- 
sidered by Volta as due to an ordinary electric 
current. Fowler experimented on animals 
with galvani.sm, 1793 ; and Aldini, 1796, who 
produced muscular contractions in a criminal 
recently executed, 1803 ; Ure did the same, 
1818 ; Du Bois Reymond lectured on animal 
electricity at the Royal Institution, and 
showed the existence of an electric cur- 
rent, developed by action of the human 
muscles . in 1855 

Electro-Tint. Mr. Palmer, of Newgate-street, 
London, patented inventions by which en- 
gi-avings may not only be copied from other 
engraved plates, but the engi-aving itself 



ELE 



271 



ELP 



ELECTRICITY, continued. 

actually produced, by electrical agency, and 
one process he termed glyphograpby . 1841-2 
Electro-Type or Deposit. Mr. Spencer, iu 
England, and professor Jacobi, in Russia, 
made the first successful experiments in this 
art in 1S37 '^^d 1838. Since then, Mr. A. Smee 
and others have perfected the processes. In 
1840, Mr. Rob. Jlnrray apphed black-lead to 
non-metallic bodies as a conducting surface. 
In 1840, Mr. Ruolz and Mr. Elkington applied 
it to gilding and silver platmg. Since 1850, 
printing- types and woodcuts, and casts from 
them, have been electrotyped with copper. 



and the process is now largely adopted in 
the arts. 
Messrs. C. Wheatstone and F. A. Abel experi- 
ment on the application of electricity to miU- 
tary purposes in 18 

The Electro-block company established, i860; 
by their processes the enlai-gementand reduc- 
tion of engravings, obtained by india-rubber, 
can be immediately transferred to a litho- 
graphic stone, and multiplied at pleasure. 
Leech's engravings, so enlarged, were coloured 
by himself, and exhibited in . . . . iS 



ELEGY. Elegiac verse was the first variation from the hexameter or epic mea.sure, as 
used for various subjects by Tyrtffius and other early poets. The elegies of Ovid and 
Catullus are celebrated. Gray's " Elegy, written iu a country churchyard, " was published 
in 1749. 

ELEMENTS were formerly reckoned as four : earth, air, fire, and Avater. The chemical 
elements now are about 51 (1865). 

ELEPHANT, in the earliest times trained to war. The history of the Maccabees informs 
us, that " to every elephant tbey appointed 1000 men armed with coats of mail, and 500 
liorse : and upon the elephants were strong towers of wood, &c." The elejihants in the army 
of Antiochus were provoked to fight by showing them the "blood of grapes and mulberries." 
The first elephant said to have been seen in England was one of enormous size, presented by 
the king of France to our Hen. III., iu 1238. Baker's Cliron. But Polytenus states that Ctesar 
brought one to Britain 54 B.C., which terrified the inhabitants greatly. 

ELEUSINIAN MYSTEEIES. The institution of these celebrated] religious ceremonies 
at Athens, are generally attributed to Eumolpus, 1356 B.C. If any one revealed them, it 
was supposed that he had called divine vengeance upon him, and he was put to death. 
They were introduced from Eleusis into Rome, and la,sted about iSoo years, and were at last 
abolished by Theodosius the Great, a.d. 389. The laws Avere — i. To honour parents ; 2. 
To honour the gods with the fruits of the earth ; 3. Not to treat brutes witli cruelty. 
Cicero makes the civilisation of mankind one of the beneficial effects of the Eleusiuian 
mysteries, 

ELGIN MARBLES were derived chiefly from the Parthenon, a temple of ilinerva, on 
the Acropolis at Athens, of which they formed part of the frieze and pediment, the work of 
Phidias under the government of Pericles, about 500 B.C. Thomas lord Elgin began the 
collection of these marbles during his mission to the Ottoman Porte, in 1802 ; they were 
purchased of him by the British government for 35,000?. and placed in the British Musemn, 
in 1816.* 

ELIS, a Greek state termed the "Holy Land," in the Peloponnesus, founded by the 
Heraclidfie, 1103 B.C. Here Iphitus revived the Olympic games, 884, which were regularly 
celebrated after Coroebus gained the prize in 776. The city of Elis was surrendered to the 
Spartans in a war, 399. Elis joined the Achasan league, 274 ; and with the rest of Geeece 
was subjugated by the Romans in 146 B.C. 

ELL (so named from uliia, the arm) was fixed at 45 inches, by king Henry I. in iioi. 
The old French ell, or aune, was 46790 inches. 

ELLISON GALLERY. In April, i860, Mrs. Elizabeth Ellison presented to the South 
Kensington Museum a series of 50 original water-colour drawings, by the first masters. 

ELOPEJIENT. A wife who departs from her hu.sband, loses her dower by the statute 
of "Westm. 1285— unless her husband, without coercion of the church, be reconciled to her. 
Earlier laws punished elopement with death when adultery followed. 

ELPHIN (Ireland). St. Patrick founded a cathedral near Elphin, "by a river issuing from 
two fountains," iu the 5tli centitry, and placed over it St. Asicus, whom he created bishop, and 
who soon after filled it with monks. After many centuries, Roscommon, Ardcarn, Drumclive, 
and others of less note, were also annexed to Elphin, which became one of the richest sees in 



* The ship conveying them was wrecked near Cerigo. Mr. W. E. Hamilton, who was on board, re- 
njaiucd several mouths at Cerigo, and succeeded iu i-ccovci-m^ them from the sea. 



ELY 272 EME 

Ireland. It is valued in the king's book, by an extent returned 28 Eliz., at 103/. 185. 
sterling. The see was united to Kilmore in 1841, under the provisions of the Church 
Temporalities act, passed Aug. 1833. 

ELY, an island in Cambridgeshire, on which a church was built about 673, by Etheldreda, 
queen of Egfrid, king of Northumberland ; she also founded a religious house, filled it with 
virgins, and became herself first abbess. The Danes ruined the convent about 870 ; but a 
monastery was built in 879, and filled with monks, on whom king Edgar and succeeding 
monarchs bestowed great privileges and grants of land ; whereby the abbey of Ely became 
the richest in England. Kichard, the eleventh abbot, wishing to free liimself from the bishop 
of Lincoln, made great interest with Henry I. to get Ely erected into a bishopric, 1108. His 
successor Hervfeus was the first prelate, 1109. It is valued in the king's books at 
2134?. i8s. 5d, present stated income, 5500?. 

EECENT BISHOPS OF ELY. 

1781. James York, died Aug. 26, 1808. 
1808. Thomas Dampier, died May 13, 1812. 
1812. Bowyer Edw. Sparlie, died April 4, 1836. 



1S36. Joseph Alien, died March 20, 1845. 
1845. Thomas Tiirton, died Jan. 7, 1864. 
1864. Edward Harold Browne (present bishop). 



ELZEVIES, a celebrated family of printers, in Holland, whose reputation is based on 
fine pocket editions of the classics. Their first book is dated 1683. 

EMANCIPATION. See lioman Catholics and Slavery. 

EMBALMING. The ancient Egyptians believing that their souls, after many thousand 
years, would reinhabit their bodies, if these were preserved entire, embalmed the dead. 
Some of the bodies, called mummies, buried 3000 years ago, are perfect to this day. 
"The physicians embalmed Israel," 1689 B.C. Gen. 1. 2. See Mummies.* 

EMBANKMENTS of earth were erected by the ancients, for preservation from their 
enemies and the inundations of the tide. Those of the Egyptians are described b}'' Hero- 
dotus and Strabo. To the Romans are attributed the first dykes of Holland, and the 
embankments of Eomncy Marsh, considered to be the oldest in Britain. In 1250 
Henry III. issued a writ enforcing the support of these valuable works ; and his succes- 
sors followed his example. James I. greatly encouraged the embankment of the Thames. 
Sir W. Dugdale's "History of Embanking" first aj^peared in 1662. See Drainage and 
Levels. Since 1830, many millions of pounds have been expended in embankments for 
railways. 

EMBAEGO, from the Spanish emhargar, to detain, applied to the restraining ships from 
sailing. This power is vested in the crown, but is rarely exercised except in extreme cases, 
and sometimes as a prelude to war. The most memorable instances of embargo were those 
for the prevention of corn going out of the kingdom in 1766 ; and for the detention of all 
Russian, Danish, and Swedish ships in the several ports of the kingdom, owing to the 
armed neiitrality, Jan. 14, 1801. See Armed Neutrality. 

EMBER "WEEKS, ordained in the Christian church in the 3rd century, to implore the 
Hessing of God on the produce of the earth by prayer and fasting, in which penitents used 
to sprinkle the ashes (embers) of humiliation on their heads. In the English church the 
Ember clays are the Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday, after — the first Sunday in Lent, 
Whit-sunday, Sept. 14 (Holy Cross), and Dec. 13 (St Lucia), 

EMBROIDERY is usually ascribed to the Phrygians ; but we learn from Homer, and 
other ancient authors, that the Sidonians particularly excelled in this species of needlework. 
Mention is made of this art in 1491 B.C. Exodus xxxv. 35, and xxxviii. 23. See Bayeux 
Tapestry. Embroidery is now done by machinery. The first embroidery machine is said 
to have been invented by John Duncan of Glasgow in 1804. Heilman's machine was 
exhibited in Paris in 1834. 

EMERALD, a precious stone, of a green colour, found in the East and in Peru. It has 
been erroneously alleged that there were no true emeralds in Europe before the conquest of 
Peru ; but there is one in the Paris Museum, taken from the mitre of pope Julius II. who 
died in 15 13, and Peru was not conquered till 1545. 

* The most perfect specimens of modern embahninij are preserved in the museum of the royal college of 
•surgeons, one being the body of the wife of Van Butchell, preserved by John Hunter by injecting campho- 
rated spirits of wine, dec, into the arteries and veins ; and the other, the body of a young woman, who died 
about 1780 of consumption, in the Lock hospital. The method of embalming royal personages in modern 
times is fully described in " Hunter's Posthumous Works." He died in 1793.— During the American war 
(1861-5) many soldiers' bodies were embalmed and sent home. 



EMI 



i73 



ENA 



EMIGRATsTS. The French aristocracy and clergy began to leave their country in July, 
1789, at the breaking out of the revolution : their estates were confiscated in Dec. A large 
number returned in 1802, after the peace of Amiens. Alany were indemnified after the 
restoration iu 1815. 

EMIGEATION. Plicenician and Greek emigrants colonised the coasts of the Mediter- 
ranean and the Black Sea (see Magna Grcecia, Marseilles, d-c. ). The discovery of America 
opened a vast field for emigration, which was restrained by Charles I. in 1637. It has been 
greatly encouraged since 1819. Regulations for emigration were made iu 1831, and in Jan. 
1840, the Colonial Land and Emigration Board was established. 

Emigration from tbn United Kiiigdotn, in 1815, 2081 ; Indies, Cape of Good Hope, New South Wales, 

in 1820, 25,729; in 1830, 56,907; in 1840, 90,743; Swan River, Van Diemeu's Land, <fcc., in 1820-30, 

in 1850, 280,843. according to official returns, 154,291 ; in 1830-40, 

Einigi-ation.s to North American colonies, AVest 277,695. 



In 


1846, 


From England . 87,611 


From Ireland . . 38,813 


From Scotland . 3,427 


Total, 


129,851 


hi 


1847, 


Ditto . . . 153,898 


Ditto . . . 95,756 


Ditto . 


. 8,616 


Total, 


258,270 


In 


1848, 


Ditto . . . 176,883 


Ditto . . .59,701 


Ditto 


. . 11,505 


Total, 


248,089 


In 


1849, 


Ditto . . . 212,124 


Ditto . . . 70,247 


Ditto . 


■ 17.127 


Total, 


299,498 


In 


1850, 


Ditto . . . 214,612 


Ditto . . . 51,083 


Ditto 


• • 15,154 


Total, 


280,849 


In 


1851, 


Ditto . . . 254,970 


Ditto . . .62,350 
Fro>n the United Kingdo 


Ditto . 

n. 


. 18,646 


Total, 


335.966 


In 


1852 


. 368,764 In 1855 . ] 


76,807 1 In 1859 . 120,432 


In 1862 


. 121,214 1-11 


1864 . . 


208,900 


In 


1854 


. . 323,429 In 1857 . . 212,875 1 In 1861 . . 91,770 


In 1863 . 


• 223,758 







To yorfh American Colonies, 1111842,54,123; in 1847, To Australia and Nelf Zealand, in 1842, 8534; in 

109,680 ; in 1856, 16,378; in 1857, 21,001 ; in 1861, 1845, 830; in 1850, 16,037; i" i^S^ (gold discovery), 

12,707; in 1863, 18.083; in 1864, 12,721. 87,881 ; in 1853, 61,401 ; in 1854, 83,237; in 1855, 

2'o Z7fti<ei< S^a^es, in 1842, 63,852; in 1847, 142,154; in 52,309; in 1856, 44,584 ; in 1857, 61,248; in i85i, 

1857, 126,905; in 1861, 49,764; in 1862, 58,706; in 23,738; in 1863, 53.°54; in 1864, 40,942. 
1863, 146,813 ; in 1864, 147,042. 

EMILY ST. riERRE. See United States, 1862. 

EMINENCE, a title conferred npon cardinals by pope Urban YIII. Jan. 10, 163 1, as 
more honourable than "Excellency." Previously cardinals had the title of Illustrissimi. 
Ashe. The grand-master of Malta also obtained this title. Pardon. 

EMIR, a title of the caliphs among the Turks and Persians, first awarded to the descend- 
ants of Mahomet's daughter Fatima, abont 650. Rkaut. To such only was originally given 
the privilege of wearing the green turban. 

EJILY, an Irish see, said to have been founded by St. Patrick. Emly was called Imelaca- 
Ibair : St. Ailbe was the first bishop in 448. It is now an inconsiderable village. In 1568, 
the see was united to Cashel. See Cashel. 

EMPALEMENT. This mode of executing criminals, mentioned by Juvenal, and often 
inflicted in Rome, is still used in Turkey and Arabia. In England the dead bodies of mur- 
derers were sometimes staked in this maimer, previously to being buried. 

EMPEROR, from ImiKrator (ruler), a title conferred on victorious Roman generals, and 
taken by Julius Ctesar as perpetual dictator, B.C. 46. 



Augustus Cfesar the first Roman emperor B.C. 27 
Valentitiian I. first emperor of the west, and a.d. 

Valens first emperor of the east . . . . 364 
Charlemagne first emperor of Germany, crowned 

by Leo III 800 

Othman I. founder of the Turkish empire, the 

first emperor of Turkey 1296 



The Czar the fir.=t emperor of Russia . . 1722 

Napoleon Bonaparte first emperor of the French 1804 
Don Pedro IV. of Portugal the first emperor of 

Brazil 1825 

Faustin I. the first emperor of Hayti, in 1849 ; 

deposed 1859 

Maximilian I. first emperor of Mexico, April 10, 1S64 



EMPIRICS, a sect of physicians, formed in the 3rd century before Christ, who contended 
tliat all reasoning respecting the animal economy was useless, and that experience and 
observation alone" were the foundation of medicine. The sect adopted the principles of 
Acron of Agrigentum, who flourished about 430 B.C. 

ENAMELLING was practised bv the Egyptians, Chinese, and other nations, and was 
known in England in the time of the Saxons. At Oxford is an enamelled jewel, which 
belonged to Alfred, and which, as apjiears by the inscription, was nnule by his order, in his 
reiffn,"about 887. Li inog.-s enamelled ware was popular in the i6th century. On June 19, 
1862,' Madame Rachel sued captain Carnegie for 928^. io\- enamelling his ivife's face : and 
was non-suited. See Mosaic. 

T 



ENC 



274 



ENG 



ENOJSNIA, Greek festivals kept on days on wlucli cities were built and temples con- 
secrated ; and in later times, as at Oxford, at the celelsrations of founders and benefactors. 
Oldisivorlh. They -were the origin of chnrch-wakes in England, about 600. They were also 
feasts celebrated by the Jcavs on the 25th of the ninth month, in commemoration of the 
Maccabees cleansing the temple which had been polluted by Antiochus Epiphaues, 131 B.C. 

_ ENCAUSTIC PAINTING, the art of enamelling or painting by fire. BaiUy. Painting 
with burnt wax is said to have been known to Praxiteles about 360 B.C. This art, after 
having been lost, was revived by M. Bachelier, 1749, by count Cajdus, 1765, and by jMiss 
Greenland, 1785 and 1792. 

ENCEATITES, followers of Tatian, about 170, denounced marriage, and abstained from 
flesh, and from wine even at the Lord's supper. 

ENCUMBERED ESTATES ACT, passed in July 1849, to enable owners of land, or of 
a lease of land, subject to encumbrance, to apply to commissioners appointed under it to 
direct a sale of such property. These commissioners held their first court in Dublin, 
Oct. 24, 1849, and their last July 28, 1858. A new court was established under the 
Landed Estates act (1858). The number of estates sold up to 1858 was 2380, producing 
twenty-two millions of pounds. In 1854 a similar act was passed for the West Indies. 

ENCYCLOPJ^IDIA, or Cyclopedia, a general dictionary of art, science, and literature. 
This name has been given to a work by Abulpharagius in the I3tli century. Alsted's 
Encyclopaedia appeared in 1620, Hnfmanns Lexicon Universale in 1677, and J^ayle's 
Dictionnaire in 1696. Tlie earliest English encyclopedia is the Lexicon Tcchnicuin of John 
Harris, 1704; supplements, 1710, 1741. 



Louis Morori's Dictionnaire Hi.storique 

Corneille'.s Dictionnaire des Arts 

Ephraim Chambers' Cj'clopaidia . 

Zedler's Universal Lexicon 

Encyclop^die (by Diderot and D'Alembert) 

[The contributors were termed Encvclopedistes, 
and their bold wi'itings are believed to have 
hastened the outbreak of the French revolu- 
tion in 1789.] 

Encyclopii'dia Britannica, ist edition (by "Wm. 

Sniellie) 

[The 8th completed, 1861.] 



• ^'573 
. 1694 
. 1728 
1732-50 
1751-80 



1778 



Encyclopedie Methodique (liy Pancouck) 1782-1832 
Chambers' Cyclopajdia (edited by Rees) . . 1786 

Rees' Cyclopwdia 1802-19 

Brockhaus's Conversations-Lexicon, 1st edition iSiS 

[New editions frec^uent.] 
Encyclopaedia Metropolitana . . . 1829-45 
Cabinet Cyclopaadia (a collection of treatises) 1829-46 

Penny Cyclopaedia 1833-46 

Knight's English Cyclopa3dia (4 divisions) . 1S53-61 
Chambers' Cyclopaedia (now publi-shing) began 1859. 
Ersch and Gruber's Allgenieine Encyclopadie, 
began 1818; 125 vols, published . . . i86i 



ENDERBY LAND. See Southern Continent. 

ENDOSMOSIS. M. Dutrochet, about 1826, found that if two fluids, gases or vapours, 
of unequal density, are separated by an animal or vegetable membrane, the denser will 
attract the less dense through the medium. Tliis property he called cndosmose, Avhcn the 
attraction is from the outside to the inside, and exosmose, when it o])erates from the inside 
to the outside. By this discoverj- many natural phenomena are more clearly understood. 
Brandc. 

ENFIELD MUSKET. See Fire arms. 

ENGEN, Baden. Here Moreau defeated the Austrian s. May 3, iSoo. 

ENGHIEN, or Steenkiek (S.W. Belgium). Here the British under William III. were 
defeated by the French under marshal Luxemburg, July 24. 1692. — A victory obtained here 
by the great Conde first gave the ducal title to a prince of the house of Bourbon Conde. 
Their descendant, the due d'Enghien, was seized in Baden by order of Bonaparte, conveyed 
to Vincennes, and, after a hasty trial, shot by torch-light, immediately after condemnation, 
March 20, 1804. The body was exhumed, March 20, i8i6. 

ENGINEERS. This name is of modern date, as engineers were formerly called Trench- 
masters. Sir William Pelham officiated as Trench-master in 1622. The chief engineer was 
called camp-master general in 1634. Captain Thomas Budd had the rank of chief engineer 
to tlie king about 1650. The corps of engineers was formerly a civil corps, but was made a 
military force, and directed to rank with the artillery, April 25, 1787. It lias a colonel-in- 
chief, 16 colonels-commandant, and 16 colonels. Civil Engineering began to be eminent in 
the middle of the last century, when Snieaton began the Eddystone lighthouse, and Brindley 
the Bridgewater canal. Since then the Rennie.s, Telford, the Stephensons and Brunels, 
Locke, and others have constructed the breakwaters, docks, bridges, railway.', tunnels, &c.,- 
which are the marvel of our age. 



ENG 



ENG 



has its bead-quarters in Birmingham, cstab- 

, lislied 1847 

Isambard Kingdon Brunei, projector of the 
Great Eastern, a^ed 53, died Sept. 15 ; Robert 
Stephenson, railway engineer, aged sg, died 

Oct. 12, 1859 



ENGINEERS, continued. 

The first society of Civil Engineers formed by 

Smeaton and others, afterwards termed the 

/Smeo^o/iiaji Soci<v of Civil Engineers . . 1793 
Institution of Civil Engineers established in 

1S18 ; obtained a charter in .... 182S 
Institution of Mechanical Engineers, which 

• . ENGLAND, so named by order of Egbert, first king of England, in a general council 
lield at Winchester, 829. This appellative had been used as far back as 688, but had never 
been, until then, ratified by any a.ssembly of the nation. It came from Amflcfi, a tribe of 
Saxons, and lond, the Saxon for country. See Anglo-Saxons. England and Wales wore 
luiited 1283 : Scotland was united iTuder the same sovereign in 1603, and the same legis- 
lation in 1 707, when the three were styled Great Britain. Ireland was incorporated with 
tliem, by the act of legislative union, Jan. i, 1801, and the whole was called the United 
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. For previous history see Britain, and for further 
details, population, revenue, &c., see separate articles. Histories of England, by Rapin (in 
English), 1725-31 ; Thomas Carte, 1747-55 ; David Hume, 1755-62 ; Tobias SmoUett, 
1757-65 ; John Lingard, 1819-30 ; Charles Knight, 1856-62. 

Egbert, "kingof the English," 827; defeats the 
Welsh, Danes, ifec. , at Hengestdown . . 835 

Alfred, king, 871 ; after many vicissitudes, van- 
quishes the Danes 871-S96 

He frames a code of laws, 890 ; forms a militia 
and navy, surveys and siiljdividcs the coun- 
try, and promotes education .... 896 

Athelstan's great victory over the Danes, Scots, 
&c 937 

Predominance of Dunstan ; ho promotes mona- 
chism and the celibacy of the clergy, about . 952 

Ethelred compounds with the Danes for peace 991 

And treacherously causes their general massacre 

Nov. 13, 1002 

Which is avenged by SwejTi, king of Denmark ; 
Ethelred flees to Normandy .... 1003 

Swejii dies, and Ethelred returns, 1014; dies . 1016 

Canute the Dane sole monarch . . . . 1017 

Edward the Confessor kmg; Saxon dynasty 
restored 1042 

Harold II. crowned, Jan. 6 ; defeats the Nor- 
wegians, Sept. 25 ; defeated and slain at Has- 
tings by William of Normandy . Oct. 14, 1066 

William I. crowned . . . Dec. 25, ,, 

The northern counties rebel ; ravaged from the 
Humber to the Tyne .... 1069-70 

Introduction of the feudal system, about . 1070 

Justices of peace appointed 1076 

Domesday book compiled .... 1085-6 

William II. crowned . . . Sept. 26, 10S7 

The crusades begin ... . . . . 1096 

Henry I. crowned; grants a charter restoring 
Saxon laws, <fec Aug. 5, iioo 

Defeats his brother Robert, and gains Nor- 
mandy 

Stephen crowned .... Dec. 26, 

Civil war between the empress Maud, Henry's 
daughter, and Stephen ; her friends the 
Scots defeated at the battle of the Standard, 
Aug. 22, 1138 ; she lands in England, and is 
successful, 1 1 39; crowned at Winchester, 
March 3, 1141 ; is defeated ; retires to France, 
1147 ; concludes a peace with Stexjhen . 

Henry II. crowned . . . Dec. 19, 

Constitutions of Clarendon enacted , Jan. 1 164 

Ari-ogance ofBecket ; murdered . Dec. 29, 11 70 

1 1 72 



iio5 
1135 



"53 

1 1. =54 



Conquest of Ireland 

England divided into six circuits for the ad- 
ministration of justice 1 1 76 

English laws digested by Glanvillo, about . 1 181 
Richard I. crowned .... Sept. 3, 1189 
He joins the crusades, 1191 ; defeats Saladin, 
1192; made prisoner by Henry VI. of Ger- 
many, Dec. 1192 ; is ransomed by his sub- 
jects for 4oo,ooo< 1 194 

John crowned May 27, 1199 

Normandy lost to England 1204 

England put under an interdict . . . 1208 



June 15, 1215 

Oct. 28, 1216 

• ■ 1257 

1262-8 

. . 1265 

Nov. 20, 1272 



1292 
1297 
1307 

1314 



I "Magna Charta signed 
Henry III. crowned . 
Gold first coined in England . 
The Barons' war (zohich see) 
The first regular parliament . 
Edward I. crowned . • 
Wales united to England 

Death of Roger Bacon 

Scotland subdued, 1296 ; revolts . . . . 
Edward II. crowned .... July 8, 
Defeated by Robert Bruce at Bannockburn, 

June 24, 
Insurrection of the barons against his favourites 

1308, 1315, 1325 
Edward III. crowned . . . Jan. 25, 1327- 

Defeats the Scots at Hallidown-hill . . . 1333 
Invades France ; victorious at Crecy Aug. 26, 1346 

Takes Calais 13.^7 

Order of the Gai-ter instituted .... 1350 
Victory at Poictiers . . . Sei^t. 19, 1356 

Law pleadings in English 1362 

Richard II. crowned . . . June 22, 1377 
Insurrection of Wat Tyler suppressed . . 1381 

Death of Wickhffe 1385 

Henry IV. crowned .... Sept. 30, 1399 
Order of the Bath instituted by Henry IV. . ,, 
Insurrection of the Percies and the Welsh . 1403-5 
Henry V. crowned . . . March 21, 1413 

France invaded by Henry V. who gains the 

battle of Agincourt . . . Oct. 25, 1415 

Treaty of Troyes ; the French crovra gained by 

Henry 1420 

Henry VI. crowned at Paris . . . Dec. 1430 
Appearance of the maid of Orleans ; the French 

conquests lost, except Calais . . . 1429-31 
Edward IV. deposes Henry VI. . March 4, 1461 
War of the Roses. (See Ruses and Battles) . 1455-71 
Printing introduced by Caxton .... 1471 
Edward V. accession . . . April 9, 1483 
Richard III. deposes Edward V. . June 25, ,, 
Henry VII. accession ; Richard defeated and 

slain at Bosworth field . . Aug. 22, 1485 
Henry manies Elizabeth, daughter of Edw. IV. 1486 
Insurrection of Lambert Simnel quelled . 14S6 7 
Court of Star Chamber instituted . . . 1487 
Yeomen of the guard, the first appearance of a 

standing army in England, instituted . . 14SS 
Henry sells the sovereignty of Krance . . 1492 
Insurrection of Perkin Warbeck quelled . i492-S 
Gardeningintroduced into England, principally 

from the Netherlands . . . about 1502 
Death of prince Arthur . , April 2, „ 

Henry VIII. accession . . . April 22, 1509 

Rise of Wolsey 1514 

Henry VIII. 's interview with Francis I. at 

Ardres. (See " Field of the Cloth of Gold.") 

June 4-25, 1520 
Pii-st map of England drawn by G. Lilly, about 15.0 

T 2 



ENG 



276 



ENG 



ENGLAND, continued. 

Henry VIII. becomes " Defender of the Faitli" 1521 
Fall of Wulsoy : he dies . . . Nov. 29, 1530 
Henry VIII. marries Anue Boleyn ; divorces 

Catherine May 23, 1533 

Henry VIII. i,s style "Head of the Church " . 1534 
The pope's authority in England is abolished . ,, 
Sir Tliomas More beheaded . . July 6, 1535 

Queen Anne Boleyn beheaded . May 19, 1536 
Queen Jane Seymour dies . . . Oct. 24, 1537 

Monasteries suppressed 1538 

Statute of Six Articles jxassod .... 1539 
Abbots of Glastonbury, Reading, &c., executed ,, 
The first authorised edition of the Bible (Cran- 

mer'.s) jirinted 

Cromwell, lord Essex, beheaded . . . 1540 
Anne of Cloves divorced . . . July 9, ,, 
Qu«en Catherine Howard beheaded . . . 1542 
The title of " king of Ireland " confirmed to the 

Engli.sh sovereigns 1543 

Henry marries Catherine Parr . . July 12, ,, 
Edward VI. accession, Jan. 28 ; promotes the 

Reformation (Somerset, protector) . . . 1547 
Somer.set deprived of power, 1549; beheaded . 1552 
Book of Common Prayer established . . , , 
Mary, accession July 6 ; restores popery . . 1553 
Execution of lady Jane Grey and her friends . 1554 
Mary marries Philip of Spain ; persecutes the 

Protestants ,, 

Ridley, Latimer, and Cranmer burnt 1555 & 1556 
Calais retaken by the French .... 1558 
Elizabeth, a.cce.ssion Nov. 17 ; the church of 

England re-established ,, 

Mary, queen of Scots, lands in England, 1568 ; 

executed Feb. 8, 1587 

The Spanish armada 1588 

Devereux, earl of Essex, beheaded . . . 1601 
James I. accession ; union of the two crowns, 

March 24, 1603 
Assumes the style of " king of Great Britain," 

Oct. 24, 1604 

The Gunpowder plot 1605 

The present translation of the Bible completed . 161 1 
Baronets first created . . . May, ,, 

The Overbury murder . . . Sept. 15, 1613 
Shakspeare dies .... April 23, 1616 

Raleigh beheaded i5i8 

Book of Sports published . . . May 24, ,, 
Charles I. accession . . . March 27, 1625 
Death of lord Bacon .... Ajiril g, 1626 
Duke of Buckingham assassinated Aug. 23, 1628 
Hampden's trial respecting "ship money " . 1637 
Contest between the king and parliament ; im- 
peachment and execution of lord Strafford . 1^41 
"Arrest of the five members," Jan. 4 ; the civil 
war begins : battle of EdgehiU (see Battles), 

Oct. 23, 1642 
Archbishop Laud beheaded . . Jan. 10, 1645 
Charljs defeated at Naseby . . June 14, ,, 
He flees to the Scotch, May 5 ; who give him up 

Sept. 21, 1646 
Execution of Charles I. . . . Jan. 30, 1649 
Cromwell 8 victory at Worcester . Sept. 3, 1651 
Oliver Cromwell made protector of the Com- 
monwealth 1653 

Richard Cromwell, protector . Sept. 3, 1658 

Rich ird resigns May 25, 1659 

Charles II. : monarchy re-established, May 29, 1660 
Act of uniformitj- i^assed ; church of England 
restored ........ 1662 

The great plague 1665 

The great fire of London . . Sept. 2, 3, 1666 

Disgr .ce of lord Clarendon .... 1667 

Death of Milton .... Nov. 8, 1674 

Oates's "Popish plot" creates a panic, Aug. 13, 167S 
Sir Edmondbury Godfrey found murdered, 

Oct. 17, „ 
Many Roman Catholics executed . . 1078-9 
The habeas corpus act, for protecting English 
svibjects against false arrest and imprison- 
ment, passed 1679 



"Rye-house plot;" lord Russell (July 21) and 

Algernon Sydney (Nov. 21) executed . . 1683 

James II. accession .... Feb. 6, 16S5 
Duke of Monmouth's rebellion defeated at Sedg- 

moor, July 6 ; he is beheaded . July 15, ,, 
Acquittal of the seven bishops . . June 30, i588 
Abdication of James II. . . . Dec. 11, ,, 
William III. and Mary proclaimed by the con- 
vention parliament . . . Feb. 13, 1689 

National debt begins 1692 

Bank of England incorporated . April 25, 1694 
Death of the qvieen regnant, Mai-y . Doc. 28, ,, 

Peace of Ryswick 1697 

Death of James II. in exile . . Sept. 16, 1701 
Anne, accession .... March 8, 1702 

Victory of Marlborough at Blenheim . . . 1704 
Union of the two kingdoms under the title of 
Great Britain .... May i, 1707 

Sacheverell riots ....... 1710 

Treaty of Utrecht, advantageous to Great 

Britain April 11, 1713 

George I. ; accession of the house of Hanover, 

Aug. I, 1714 
The Scots' rebellion quelled . . . -1715 

South sea bubble 1720 

Death of the duke of Marlborough . . . 1722 
Order of the Bath revived (m7i!c7i ocf) . . . 1725 
George II. accession . . . June 11, 1727 

Death of Newton .... March 20, ,, 
George II. present at the victory of Dettingen, 

June 16, 1743 
Second Scots' rebellion : prince Charles-Edward 
gains Edinburgh, Sejit. 17 ; victor at Preston- 
pans, Sept. 21, 174s ; at Falkirk, Jan. 18 ; de- 
feated totally at Culloden . . April 16, 1746 
Death of prince Frederick Louis, son of George 

II. and father of George III 1751 

New style introduced into England, 

Sept. 3 (made 14) 1752 

Seven years' war begins 1756 

Conquest of India begins, under colonel (after- 
wards lord) Olive. (See India) . . . . 1757 
Death of general Wolfe. {iie& Quebec) . . 1759 
George III. accession . . . Oct. 25, 1760 
His nuptials with Charlotte Sophia, of Meck- 
lenburg Strelitz, Sept. 8 ; crowned, Sept. 22, 1761 

Peace of Paris 1763 

Isle of Man annexed to Great Britain . . 1765 
Death of the Old Pretender, the " chevalier da 
St. George " . . . . . Dec. 30, ,, 

Royal marriage act passed 1772 

Commencement of American war . . . 1773 
Death of earl of Chatham . . May 11, 1778 
" No Popjry " riots . . . . June 2-7, 1780 
Separation of America from England Nov. 30, 1782 
Margaret Nicholson's attempt on the life of 

George III Aug. 2, 17S6 

Trial of Warren Hastings begins . Feb. 13, 17S8 
Death of the Young Pretender, at Rome, 

March 3, ,, 
Tlie king's illness made known . . Oct. 12, ,, 
He recovers, and goes to St. Paul's to make 

thanksgiving .... April 23, 1789 
First coalition against France . . June 26, 1792 
Habeas Corpus act suspended . May 23, 1794 

Howe's victory June i, ,, 

Marriage of the prince of Wales with the pi in- 

cess Caroline of Brunswick . . April 8, 1795 
Warren Hastings' trial ends ; acquitted, 

April 17, ,, 
Princess Charlotte born . . . Jan. 7, 1796 

Cash payments suspended . . Feb. 25, 1797 

Death of Edmund Burke . . July 8, ,, 

Battle of the Nile .... Aug. i, 1798 
Habeas Corpus act again suspended . Aug. ,, 
Hatfield's attempt on the king's Ufo 3Iay 11, 1800 
Union of Great Britain with Ireland . Jan. i, 1801 
Nelson's victory at Copenhagen . April 2, „ 
Habeas Corpus act again suspended April 19, ,, 
Peace of Amiens .... Oct. i, ,, 



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277 



ENG 



ENGLAND, continued. 

War against Uonaparto . . . May i8, 
Nelson's victory and death, at Trafalgar Oct. 21, 
Death of Mr. Pitt .... Jan. 23, 

" Delicate investigation " . . . May 22, 
Lord Melville impeached, April 29 : acquitted, 

June 12, 
Death of Charles James Fox . . Sept. 13, 
Orders in council against the Berlin decree, 

Jan. 7, 
Abolition of the slave trade . March 25, 

Death of sir J. Moore. (See Corun))a) Jan. 16, 
Duke of York Impeached by col. Wardle Jan. 
JubUee celebrating king's accession . Oct. 25, 
Unfortunate Walcheren expedition Aug. -Nov. 
Sir Francis Burdett's arrest, and riots April 6, 
Death of princess Amelia ; king's malady returns 

Nov. 2. 
Great commercial embarrassment . Dec. 
Reoency. — The prince of Wales prince regent, 

Feb. 5, 

Luddite riots Nov. 

Assassination of Mr. Perceval, premier, May n. 
Earl of Liverpool premier . . . June 9, 
War with America commenced . June 18, 
Peace with France, &c. . . . April 14, 
Visit of the emperor of Russia and king of 
Prussia to England . . . June 7, 
Centenary of the house of Hanover . Aug. i, 

AVar with Amei-ica Aug. 

Peace with America (treaty of Ghent) Dec. 24, 
Battle of Waterloo (close of French war), June 18, 
Princess Charlotte marries prince Leopold, of 

May 2, 
. July 9, 
Dec. 2, 
. Feb. 2, 
Feb. 21, 
Sept. 22, 
. Nov. 6, 
Nov. 17, 
May 24, 
Aug. 16, 
Jan. 23, 
Jan. 29, 
Feb. 23, 



1807 
1809 



laii 
1 81 2 



1815 
i8i6 



iai» 
1819 



Saxc-Coburg 
Death of R. B. Sheridan 
Spa-fields meeting (which see) . 
Green-bag inquiry (ichkk see) 
Habeas Corpus act suspended 
Cash payments resumed . 
Princess Charlotte dies in childbirth 
Queen Charlotte dies at Kew . 
Queen Victoria born 
Manchester reform meeting 
Duke of Kent dies 
Georoe IV. accession 
Cato-street conspirators arrested 
Trial of queen Caroline . Aug. ig to Nov. 10 
Coronation of George IV. . . July ig, 1S21 
Queen Caroline dies at Hammersmith Aug. 7, ,, 
Lord BjTon dies .... April ig, 1824 

Commercial panic 1825-6 

Duke of York dies .... Jan. 22, 1827 
Mr. Canning, first minister, April 30 ; dies, 

Aug. 8, ,, 
Battle of Navarino .... Oct. 20, ,, 
Roman Catholic Relief bill passed . April 13, 1829 
Political panic in London ; riots . Nov. g, ,, 

William IV. accession . ... June 26, 1830 
Mr. Huskisson killed at the opening of the 

Liverpool and Manchester railway Sept. 15, „ 
Grey administration formed . . . Nov. ,, 
King opens new London bridge , . Aug. 1831 
The cholera morbus in England . Oct. 26, „ 
Reform bill rejected by the lords, Oct. 7 ; fatal 

Bri.stol riots Oct. 29, ,, 

Reform .act pas.sed .... June 7, 1832 
Sir Walter Scott dies . . . Sept. 21, „ 
Assault on Wilham IV. by a discharged pen- 

.sioncr at Ascot .... June 19, ,, 
S. T. Coleridge dies .... July 25, 1834 
Slavery ceases in the colonies . . Aug. i, ,, 
Corporation reform act passed . . Sept. 9, 1835 
Queen Victoria, acccs.sion ; Hanover separated 

from Great Britain . . . June 20, 1837 
Coronation of Victoria . . . June 28, 1838 

Beginning of war with China . . March, 1839 
Penny postage begins . . . Jan. 10, 1840 

Marriage of the queen with prince Albert of 

Saxe-Coburg (see p. 281) . . Feb. 10, „ 
Oxford's a.s.sault on the queen . . June 10, ,, 
Prince of Wales bom . . . Nov. 9, 1841 



King of Prussia visits England . Jun. 24, 
John Francis fires at the queen . . Slay 30, 
Bean presents a pistol at her . . July 3, 

Income tax act passed ... Aug. 

Queen embarks for Scotland (ist visit) Aug. 29, 
Peace of Nankin (with China) . . Dec. 
Death of duke of Sussex . . . April 21, 
Queen's visit to the Orleans family at chateau 



1843 

1844 

^4-5 
1845 

1846 

1848 
-1849 



d'Eu Sept. 2, 

Empei-or of Russia visits England . June i, 
King Louis Philipise's vi.sit . . C)ct. 7, 
Tractarian or Puseyite controversy . . i 
Anti-eorn-law agitation .... 
Queen's visit to Germany . . . Aug. 9, 
Peel's new tariff, 1845 ; railway mania, Nov. 

1845 ; panic March, 

Corn laws repealed .... June 26, 
Chartist demonstration in London . April 10, 
Cholera re-appears in England in . 1848 and 
Queen embarks on her visit to Ireland, Aug. i, „ 
Adelaide, queen dowager, dies . Deo. 2, ,, 

" Exhibition of 1851 " announced . Jan. 3, 1850 
Death of Wordsworth (aged 80) . April 23, „ 
Pate's assault on the queen . . June 27, ,, 

Death of su- Robert Peel (aged 62) . July 2, ,, 

Duke of Cambridge dies . . . July 8, „ 
Queen's visit to Belgium . . Aug. 21, ,, 
Great excitement occasioned by the pope's 
establishment of a Roman Catholic hierarchy 

in England Nov. ,, 

Census of United Kingdom. (See Population) 

March 30, 185 1 
The first "Great Exhibition" opened May i, ,, 
Australian gold arrives . . ". Dec. ,, 

Death of the poet Thomas Moore . Feb. 26, 1852 
Slight earthquake at Liverpool, &e. Nov. 9, ,, 
Death of Wellington (aged 83), Sept. 14 ; funeral, 

Nov. 18, ,, 
Camp at Chobham . . June 14— Aug. 19, 185,^ 
Death of sir Charles Napier, conqueror of 

Scinde Aug. 29, ,, 

EngUsh and French fleets enter Bosphorus, 

Oct. 22, „ 
Protocol signed between England, France, 
Austria, and Prussia, for re-esfcvblishment of 
peace between Russia and Turkey Dec. 5, ,, 
Many meetings on eastern question, favourable 

to Turkey .... Sept. to Dec. „ 
Great strike at Preston ; 14,972 hands unem- 
ployed at one time Oct. 15, 1853, to May i, 1834 
Queen reviews Baltic fleet . . March 11, „ 
Treaty of alliance between England, France, 

and Turkey signed . . . March 12, „ 

War declared against Russia. (See Russo- 

Tarkish War) .... March 28, „ 
Fast day on account of the war . April 26, ,, 
Marquis of Anglesey dies . . May 28, ,, 

King of Portugal visits England . June, ,, 

Crystal Palace opened by the queen June 10, „ 
Cholera prevails in the south and west of 

London .... Aug. and Sept. ,, 
Thanksgiving for abundant harvest . Oct. i, „ 
Great explosion and fire at Gateshead and 

Newcastle Oct. 6, ,, 

Meeting of Parliament . . . Dec. 12, „ 

Resign.ation of Aberdeen ministry . Jan. 29, 1855 
Foi-mation of Palmerston ministry . Feb. ,, 
Death of Josejii Hume (aged 78) . Feb. 20, „ 
Sebastopol Inquiry Committee nominated, 

Feb. 23, „ 
Visit of emperor and empress of French, 

April i5 to 21, ,, 
Loan of 16 millions agreed to . . April, ,, 
Distribution of Crimean medals . May 18, ,, 
Metropolitan cattle market opened June 13, 
Agitation and rioting concernin] 

trading bill, which is withdrawn 
The queen and prince visit Paris . 
Peace with Russia proclaimed, April 19; thanks- 
giving day, May 4 ; illuminations, &c. May 29, 



Sunday 

July 2, 

Aug. 



ENG 



278 



ENG 



ENGLAND, continued. 

War with China (i(7nV/i iff) . . . Oct. 1856 
War with Persia (w/iic/i ste) . . . Nov. ,, 

Dissolution of parliament, Blarch 21 ; new 

parliament meets . . . April 30, 1857 
Death of duche.ss of Gloucester (aged 81), the 

last of George III. 's children . Ajml 30, ,, 
Mutiny of Indian army begins. (See India) 

March, „ 
Educational conference in London, prince 

Albert in the chair . . . June 22, ,, 
Victoria crosses (uiiich sec) distributed by the 

queen in Hyde-park . . . June 26, „ 

Meetings for relief of sufferers by the mutiny 

in India [by Nov. 15, 260,000^. raised] Aug. 25, ,, 
Great commercial panic ; relieved by suspension 

of Bank Charter Act of 1844 . Nov. 12, ,, 
Parliament nieets .... Dec. 3, ,, 
Marriage of princess royal to prince Frederick- 
William of Prussia . . . Jan. 25, 1S58 
Excitement respecting attempted assassination 
of Louis Napoleon, Jan. 14 ; indiscreet ad- 
drosses of French colonels, published, Jan. 27, ,, 
"Conspiracy to Murder" bill (inti-oduced by 
liird Palmer.ston, Feb. 8) rejected, Feb. 19; 
Palmerston ministry resigns . Feb. 22, ,, 
Derby-Disraeli administration formed, Feb. 26, „ 
Dr. Simon Bernard acquitted of conspii-acy 

against the li!'e of Louis Napoleon April 17, ,, 
The JewLsh Disabilities bill passed . July 12, ,, 
The India bill passed . . . July 23, ,, 
The queen visits Birmingham, Juno 15 ; Cher- 
bourg, Aug. 4, 5 ; the princess royal (at Pots- 
dam), Aug. 12, etc. ; and Leeds ' . Sept. i, ,, 
Excitement about the confessional ; pulilic 

meetings held again.st it, July 12 & Sept. i3, ,, 
Tlie Association for the Promotion of Social 

Science meet at Liverpool . . Oct. 12, ,, 
E.xcitement resjjecting the Italian war ; pro- 
clamation for manning the navy . April 30, 1S59 
Declaration of neutrality of England May 12, ,, 
Proclamation for the organisation of volunteer 

rifle corps : many formed . May — Oct. ,, 
The Derby ministry defeated on the Reform 
bill ; dissolve parliament, April 23 ; again 
defeated, they resi'_,'n, June 11 ; and the 
ralmeiston-Russell administration is formed 

June 18, ,, 
The Handel commemoration . June 20, 22, 24, „ 
The income-tax increased to provide for the 

defences of the country . . . July, „ 
Lord Macaulay dies (aged 59) . . Dec. 28, ,, 
Commercial treaty with France, signed Jan. 23 ; 

approved bj' parhament . . . March, i8Go 
Sir Charles Barry dies (aged 65) . May 12, ,, 
The queen reviews 18,000 volunteers in Ilj'de- 

Park June 23, ,, 

Great failures in the leather trade . July, &c. „ 
National rifle shooting match at Wimbledon, 

July 2-7, ,, 
The earl of Derby reviews about 11,000 Lanca- 
shire volunteers at Knowsley . Sept. i, ,, 
The queen and prince visit their daughter in 

Prussia .."... Sept. ,, 
Peace with China signed . . . Oct. 24, ,, 
Thos. Cochrane, earl of Dundonald, dies (aged 82) 

Oct. 31, ,, 
Prince of Wales visits Canada and United 
States, Jvily 24 — Oct. 20 ; returns to England 

Nov. 15, ,, 
Severe cold. (See Cold) . Dec. i860, and Jan. 1861 ' 



Chai'ter granted for E.xhibition of 1862, Feb. 14, 

Death of duchess of Kent (aged 75), March i6. 

Excitement about " Essays and Reviews " 

Seventh census taken . . . April 8, 

Great excitement through capt. Wilkes (of U. S. 

navy) forcibly taking Messrs. Slidell and 

Mason from the Royal British muil steamer 

Trent: (See l/nited Slates) . . Nov. 8, 

King of Sweden and his son visit London Aug. 

Death of the prince consort of " typhoid fever, 

duration 21 days," Dec. 14 ; buried (see Albert 

Memorial) . . , . . Dec. 23, 

The United St.ates' government release Messrs. 

Slidell and Mason . . . Dec. 28, 

International E.xhibition opened by the duke 

of Cambridge May i, 

Prince Alfred declared king of Greece at Athens 

(declined) Oct. 23, 

Final closingof international exhibition,Nov. 15, 
Remains of the prince consort transfen'ed to 
the mausoleum at Frogmore . Dec. 18, 
Great distress in the cotton manvtfacture dis- 
tricts begins, April : contributions received, 
central relief fund, 407,830;. ; i\Ian.sion-house 

fund, 236,926/ Dec. 20, 

Princess Alexandra of Denmark enters London, 
March 7 ; married to the prince of Wales, 

March 10, 

The British, French, and Austrian governments 

remonstrate with Kussiaoncnieltiesin Poland 

April 7, 
Inauguration of the Great Exhibition memorial 
to the prince consort in the Horticultural 
gardens, London . . . June 11, 
Arrival of captains Grant and Speke from ex- 
ploring the source of the Nile . June, 
Gre.at decrease of distress in cotton districts, Oct. 
Earthquake in central & N.W. England Oct. 6, 
The government declines the French emperor's 
projjosal for a congress of sovereigns Nov. 
Death of William Thackeray (aged 52) Dec. 24, 
Birth of prince Albert-Victor of Wales Jan. 8, : 
Final judgment of the judicial committee of 
the privy council that the government had 
no atithoi'ity to seize the ^tec.iicZra (Confede- 
rate) steamer Feb. 8, 

Garibaldi's visit to England causes great enthu- 
siasm April 3-27, 

The loni.an isles made over to Greece June i, 
European conference at London on the Sohles- 
wig-Holstein question . April 24 — June 25, 
Great excitement through the murder of Mr. 
Biiggs in a first-class carriage on the North- 
London railway .... July g, 
Great explosion of gunpowder at the Belvedere 
magazine, near Woolwich . . Oct. i, 
Death of John Leech (aged 47) . Oct. 29, 

Death of Richard Cobden (aged 61) . April 2, ] 
Prince George of Wales born . June 3, 

General election ; majority for Palmerston ad- 
ministration .... July 10, (fee. 
Visit of Abd-el-Kader ; departs . Aug. 6, 
Prevalence of a cattle plague, June — Oct. 
Royal commission appointed, met Oct. 10, 
English fleet visits Cherboui-g, Aug. 15 ; French 
fleet visits Portsmouth . . Aug 30, 

Fine Art and Industrial exhibitions opened in 
London and the provinces . July — Sept. 
Death of Lord Palmerston . . Oct. 18, 
His public funeral .... Oct. 27, 



KING.S AND QUEENS OF ENGLAND. 



BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

827. Egbert, styled " king of England " in S28. 

837. p;thelwolf ; his son. 

857. Ethelbsild ; his son. 

S60. Ethelbert; brother. 



866. Ethelred ; brother. 

S71. Alfred the Great; brother; died 21st or 28th 

Oct. 901. 
901. Edw.ard the Elder; son; died 925. 
925. Athelstan ; eldest son ; died Oct." 17, 940. 



ENG 



279 



ENG 



ENGLAND, continued. 

g4o. Edmund I., fifth son of Edward tlie Eldei- ; 

bled to death from a wound received hi an 

affray, May 26, 946. 
946. Edred ; brother ; died 955. 
955. Edwj-, eldest son of Edmund ; died of grief in 

958. In this reiijn Dunstan, a turbulent 

and aniljitious priest, ruled the king, who 

afterwards banished him. 
958. Edgar the Peaceable ; brother ; died Jvily i, 

975- 
975. Edward the Martyr, his son, stabbed at Corfe 

Castle, at the instance of his mother-in-law 

Elfrida, March 18, 979. 
979. Ethelred II. ; half-brother ; retired. 

1013. Sweyn, proclaimed king; died Feb. 3, 1014. 

1014. Canute the Great ; his sou. 

1015. Ethelred restored in Canute's absence; died 

April 24, 1016. 
roi6. Edmund Ironside, hisson, divided the kingdom 

with Canute ; murdered at Oxford, Nov. 30, 

1016 ; reigned seven months. 
1017, Canute sole king; married Emma, widow of 

Ethelred; died, Xov. 12, 1035. 
1035. Harold I. ; natural son ; died April 14, 1039. 
1039. Hardicanute, sou of Canute and Emma; died 

of repletion at a marriage feast, June 8, 1042. 
1042. Edward the Confessor, son of Ethelred and 

Emma ; died Jan. 5, 1066, naming William 

of Normandy his successor. 
106G. Harold II., son of earl Godwin ; reigned nine 

months ; killed near Hastings, Oct. 14, 1066. 

THE NORMAXS." 

io65. William the Conqueror ; crowned Dec. 25 ; 
died .at Rouen, Sept. 9, 1087. 
Quffti, Matilda, daughter of Baldwin, earl of 
Flanders ; married in 1054; died in 1083. 

10S7. William II. Kufus ; reign began, Sept. 26; 
killed by an arrow, Aug. 2, iioo. 

HOC. Henry I. IBeauclerc, his brother ; reign began 
Aug. s ; died of a surfeit, Dec. i, 1135. 
Queens, Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III. king 
of Scotland ; married Nov. 11, iioo; died 
Maj- 1, 1 1 19. 2. Adelais, daughterof Godfrey, 
earl of Louvaine ; married Jan. 29, 1129 ; 
survived the king. 

1 135. Stephen carl of Blois, nephew of Henrj- ; 
reign began Dec. 26; died Oct. 25, 1154. 
Queen, Matilda, daughterof Eustace, count of 
Boulogne ; naarried in 1128 ; died May 3, 1151. 
[Maude, daughter of Hera-y I. and right- 
ful heir to the throne ; born iioi ; be- 
trothed, in 1 109, at eight years of age, to 
Henry V. emperor of Germany, who died 
1 1 25. She married, secondly, Geoffrey Plan- 
tagenet, earl of Anjou, 1130. Was set aside 
from the English succession by Stephen, 
1133; landed in England and claimed the 
crown, 1139. Crowned, but soon alter de- 



feated at Winchester, 1141 ; concluded a 
I)eace with Stephen, which secured the 
succesionto hersonHenry,'ii53; died 1165.] 

THE PLANTAGEXETS. 

. Henry II. Plantit/jcitct, grandson of Henry I. 
and son of Maud ; reign began Dec. '19 ; 
died July 6, 1189. 

Queen, Eleanor, the repudiated queen of Louis 
VII. king of France, and heiress of Guienne 
and Poitou ; man-ied to Henry 1151 ; died 
1204. See Rosamond. 

Richard I. Qeur de Lion, his son ; reign began 
Sejst. 3 ; died of a wound, April 6, 1199. 

Queen, Berengaria, daughter of the king of 
Navarre; married May 12, 1191 ; survived 
the king. 

John, the brother of Richard ; reign began 
May 27 ; died Oct. 19, 1216. 

Queens, Avisa, daughter of the earl of Glouces- 
ter ; maiTiedin 1189; divorced. 2. Isabella, 
daughter of the count of Angouleme ; she 

. was the young and virgin wife of the count 
de la Marche ; married to John in 1200. 
Survived the king, on whose death .she was 
re-married to the count de la Marche. 

Henry III. son of John ; reign began Oct. 28 ; 
died Nov. 16, 1272. 

Queen, Eleanor, daughter of the count dc 
Provence; married Jan. 14, 1236; survived 
the king ; and died in 1291, in a monastery. 

Edward I . son of Henry, surnamed Longsheuils : 
reign began Nov. 20 ; died July 7, 1307. 

Queens, 'EAea.nor of Castile; married in 1253 ; 
died of a fever, on her joimiey to Scotland, 
at Grantham, in Lincolnshire, 1290. 2. Mar- 
garet, sister of the king of France ; man-ied 
Sept. 12, 1299 ; survived the king, dj-ing in 
1317. 

Edward II. son of Edward I. ; reign began 
July 8 ; dethroned Jan. 20, 1327 ; murdered 
at Berkeley castle, Sept, 21 following. 

Queen, Isabella, daughter of the king of France ; 
married in 1308. On the death, by the 
gibbet, of her favourite Jlortimer, she was 
confined for the rest of her life in her own 
house at Risings, near London, and died in 

1357- 

Edward III. his son; reign began Jan. 25; 
died June 21, 1377. 

Queen, Philippa, daughter of the count of 
Hainault ; married in 1326 ; died Aug. 15, 
1369. 

Richard II. son of Edward the Black Prince, 
and gi-andson of Edward III. ; reign began 
June 22 ; dethroned Sept. 29, 1399 ; mur- 
dered at Pomfret castle, Feb. 10, following. 

Queens, Anne of Bohemia, sister of the emperor 
Wenceslaus of Germany ; married in Jan. 



"^ The REGKAL-DATES are those given by sir H. Nicolas. The early Norman and Plantagenet kings reckoned 
their reigns from the d.ay of their coronation ; the later Plantagenets from the daj' after the death of their 
]n-edecossor. With Edward VI. began the present custom of beginning the reign on the death of the 
preceding sovereign. 

ROYAL ARMS OF ENGLAND. 



William I. William II. and Henry I.— two lions or 
leopards passant : Stephen — Sagittarius, the archer 
of the signs of the Zodiac (Traditionetl). 

Henrj' II. to Edward II. Three lions passant. 

Edward III. and his successors quartered the pre- 
ceding with fleurs de lys, the arms of France. 

Henry \'. used only 3 flours de lys. 

Mary 1. quaitcred the preceding with the arms of 
her husband Philip II. of Spain. 

■UNITED KINODOM. 

.James I. and his successors combined the arms of 



England and France (ist and 4th quarter) ; 2nd, 

the lion rampant of Scotland ; 4th, the harp of 

Ireland. 
George I. George II. and George III. introduced the 

arms of Brunswick. 
In 1 801 the arms of France were omitted. In 1S16 

the arms were modified through Hanover being 

nude a kingdom. 
Victoria. In 1S37 the arms of Hanover were omitted 

and the arms are now ; ist and 4th qu.irtors, 3 

lions pas.sant for England ; 2nd, lion ramixviit for 

Scotland ; 3rd, harp for Ireland. 



ENG 



280 



ENG 



ENGLAND, continued. 

1382; died Aug. 3, 1394. 2. Isabella, daughter 
of Charles V. of France ; married when only 
seven years old, Nov. i, 1396. On the 
murder of her husband she returned to her 
father. 

HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 

1399. Henry IV. cousin of Richard II. ; reign began 
Sept. 30 ; died March 20, 1413. 
Queens, Mary, daughter of the earl of Hereford 
she died, before Henry obtained the crown, 
in 1394. 2. Joan of Navarre, widow of the 
duke of Bretagne ; married 1403; survived 
the king ; died 1437. 

1413. Henry V. his .'son ; reign began March 21 ; 
died Aug. 31, 1422. 
Queen, Catherine, diuighter of the king of 
France ; married May 30, 1420. She outlived 
Henry, and was married to Owen Tudor, 
grandfather of Henry VII., in 1423 ; died 

1437- 
1422. Henry VI. his son ; reign began Sept. 1 ; 
deposed March 4, 1461 ; murdered by Richard, 
duke of Gloucester, in the Tower, June 20, 
1471. 
Qmen, Margaret, daughter of the duke of 
Anjou ; married April 22, 1445 ; survived 
the kuig ; died Aug. 25, 1481. 

IIOCSE OF YORK. 

1461. Edward IV. ; died April g, 1483. 

Qufcn, Ladj' Elizabeth Grey, daughter of sir 
Richard Woodvllle, and widow of sir John 
Grey, of Groby ; married March i, 1463, or 
1464. Suspected of favouring the insun'cc- 
tiou of Lambert Simnel ; and closed her Ufe 
in confinement June 8, 1492. 

14S3. Edward V. his son; deposed June 25, 1483, 
and murdered in the Tower by Gloucester ; 
reigned two months and thirteen day.«. 
,, Richard III. brother of Edward IV. ; began to 
reign June 26; dain at Bosworth, Aug. 22, 
1485. 
Queen, Anne, daughter of the earl of Warwick, 
and widow of Edward, prince of Wales, 
whom Richard had murdered, 1471. She is 
supposed to have been poisoned by Ricliard 
(liaving died suddenly, Mai-ch 16, 1485), to 
make way for his intended marriage with 
princess Elizabeth of York. 

HOaSE OF TUDOR. 

14S5. Henry VII. ; began to reign Aug. 22; died 
April 21, 1509. 
Queen, Elizabeth of York, princess of England, 
daughter of Edward IV. ; married Jan. 18, 
14S6; died Feb. 11, 1503. 

1509. Henry VIII. his son; began to reign, April 22 ; 
died Jan. 28, 1547. 
Queens, Catherine of Aragon, widow of Henry's 
elder brother, Arthur, prince of Wales ; mar- 
ried June 3, 1509; was the mother of queen 
Mary ; was repudiated, and afterwards for- 
mally divorced. May 23, 1533; died Jan. 7, 
1536. 2. Anno.Boleyn.daughter of .sir Thomas 
lioleyn, and maid of honour to Catherine ; 
was privately married, before Catherine was 
divorced, Nov. 14, 1532 ; was the mother of 
queen Elizabeth ; was beheaded at the Tower, 
May 19, 1536. 3. Jane Seymour, daughter of 
sir John Seynioin', and maid of honour to 
Anne Boleyn ; was married May 20, 1536, 
the day after Anne's execution ; was the 
mother of Edward VI. of whom she died in 
childbirth, Oct. 24, 1537. 4- Anne of Cleves, 
sister of William, duke of Cleves ; married 
Jan. 6, 1540 ; divorced July 10, 1540 ; died 
1557. 5. Catherine Howard, niece of the duke 
of Norfolk ; married July 28, 1540 ; be- 
headed on Tower-hill, Feb. 12,1542. 6. Cathe- 



rine Parr, daughter of sir Thomas Parr, and 
widow of Nevill, lord Latimer ; married July 
12, 1543 ; survived the king, after whose 
death she mairied sir Thomas Seymour, 
created lord Sudloy ; died Sejit. s, 1548. 

1547. Edward VI. son of Henry VIII. (by Jane Sey- 
mour; ; died July 6, 1553. 

1553. Jane, daughter of the duke of Suffolk, and 
wife of lord Guildford Dudley ; proclaimed 
queen on the death of Edward ; ten days 
afterwards returned to private life ; was 
tried Nov. 13, 1553 ; beheaded Feb. 12, 1554, 
when but 17 years of age. 
,, Mary, daughter of Henry (by Catherine of 
Aragon) ; married Philip of Spain, July 25, 
1554; died Nov. 17, 1558. 

1558. Elizabeth, daughter of Henry (by Anne 
Boleyn), died March 24, 1603. 



HOUSE OF ST CART. 



160 



James I. of England and VI. of Scotland, son 

of Mary, queen of Scots ; died March 27, 1625. 
Queen, Anne, princess of Denmark, daughter of 

Frederick II. ; married Aug. 20, 1590 ; died 

March, 1619. 
1625. Charles I. his son ; beheaded at Whitehall, 

Jan. 30, 1649. 
Queen, Henrietta-Maria, daughter of Henry IV. 

king of France ; mar7-ied June 13, 1625 ; 
. survived the king ; died in France, Aug. 10, 

i66g. 

1649. Commonwealth. Oliver Cromwell made pro- 
tector, Dec. 12, 1653 ; died Sept. 3, 1658. 

1658. Richard Cromwell, his son, made protector, 
Sept. 4 ; resigned April 22, 1659. 

1660. Charles II. son of Charles I. ; died Feb. 6, 1685. 
Queen, Catherine of Braganza, infanta of Por- 
tugal, daughter of John IV. and sister of 
Alfonso VI. ; married May 21, 1662 ; sur- 
vived the king ; returned tu Portugal ; died 
Dec. 21, 1705. 

16S5. James II. his brother ; abdicated by flight, 
Dec. II, 1688 ; died in exile, Aug. 6, 1701. 
Qucfn. [Ann Hyde, daughter of Edward Hyde, 
earl of Clarendon ; married Sept. 1660 ; died 
before James ascended the throne, 1671 
mother of queens Mary and Anne] Mary 
Beatrice, princess of Modena, daughter of 
Alphonzo d'Este, duke; married Nov. 21, 
1673 ; at the revolution in 1688, she retired 
with James to France ; died at St. Germains, 
1718. 

i6Sg. William III. prince of Orange, ling, and Mary, 
queen, daughter of James ; married Nov. 4, 
1677 ; began their reign, Feb. 13, 1689 ; Mary 
died Dec. 28, 1694 ; William died of a fall 
from his horse, Maich 8, 1702. 

1702. Anne, daughter of James II. ; married George, 
prince of Denmark, July 28, 1683 ; succeeded 
to the throne, March 8, 1702 ; had thirteen 
children, all of whom died young ; lost her 
husband, Oct. 28, 1708 ; died Aug. i, 1714. 

HOUSE OF HANOVER. (Scc Brunsxcic'k and Es^te.) 
1714. George I. elector of Hanover and duke of 
Brunswick-Lunebtirg ; son of Sophia, who 
was datighter of Elizabeth, the daughter of 
James I ; died Jinie 11, 1727. 
Queen, Sophia-Dorothea, daughter of the duke 
of Zell ; she died in prison, Nov. 2, 1726. 
1727. George II. his son ; died Oct. 25, 1760. 

Queen, Wilhelmina Caroline Dorothea, of Bran- 
denburg- Anspach ; married 1705 ; died Nov. 
20, 1737. 
1760. George III. grandson of George II ; died Jan. 
29, 1820. 
Queen, Charlotte Sophia, daughter of the duke 



ENG 



281 



ENG 



ENGLAND, conlinued. 

of Mccklenburg-Strclitz ; married Sept. S, 
1761 ; died Nov. 17, 1818. 
1820. George IV. liis son ; died June 26, 1830. 

Queen, Caroline Amelia Augusta, daughter of 
the duke of Brunswick; married, Api-il S, 
1795, died, Aug. 7, 1821. (See article Queai 
Caroline.) 



William IV. brother of George IV. ; died June 
20, 1837. 

Ci«cf", Adelaide Amelia Louisa Theresa Caroline, 
sister of the duke of Saxe-Meiningen ; mar- 
ried July II, 1818 ; died Dec. 2, 1849. 

Victoria, the reigning queen, whom god pre- 

SEBVK. 



THE TRESEXT ROYAL FAMILY OF GREAT BRITAIX. 

The Queen-, » Aloxanclrina ViCTORrA, only daughter of Edward, duke of Kent ;t born May 24, 1S19; suc- 
ceeded to the throne on the decease of her uncle, William IV. June 20, 1837 ; cro-svned at Westminster, 
June 28, 183S ; married (Feb. 10, 1840) to her cousin, 

Francis-ALBERT-Aiigustus Charles-Emmanuel, duke of Saxe, prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha ; bom Aug. 
26, i8ig (ordered June 20, 1857, to be styled Prince Consort) ; elected chancellor of the university of 
Cambridge, Feb. 28, 1S47 ; died Dec. 14, 1861. 



ISSUE. 

Victoria- Adelaide-Mary- Louisa, princess royal, 
born Nov. 21, 1840; married to prince Frederick- 
William of Prussia, Jan. 25, 1858 (dowry 40,000?. 
.andannuity of Sooo(.). Issue: Frederick-William, 
born Jan. 27, 1859; Charlotte, July 24, i860; 
Henrj-, Aug. 14, 1862; Sigismond, Sept. 15, 1864. 

Albert-Edward, prince of Wales, duke of Saxony, 
duke of Cornwall and Rothsay, earl of Chester 
and Carrick, baron of Renfrew, and lord of the 
Isles, born Nov. 9, 1841 ; married princess Alex- 
andra of Denmark, March 10, 1863. Issue: Al- 
bert Victor, born Jan. 8, 1S64 ; George Frederick, 
June 3, 1865. (See Wales.) 



3. Alice-Maud- Mary, born April 25, 1S43 : niarried 

prince Louis of Hesse-Darmstadt, July i, 1862 
(dowry 30,000?., annTxity6ooo?.). I.isue : Victoria. 
April 5, 1863 ; a princess, Nov. i, 1864. 

4. Alfred-Ernest,, bom Aug. 6, 1844; entered the 

Euryalus as midshipman, Aug. 31, 1058. 

5. Helena-Augusta-Victoria, born May 25, 1846. 

6. Louisa- Carolina- Alberta, born Miirch 18, 1S48. 

7. Arthur-Patrick-Albert, born May i, 1850. 

8. Leopold-George-Duncan-Albert, born April 7, 

1853; 

9. Beatrice-Mary -Victoria- Fcodore, born April 14, 

1857- 



The Queen's Aunt and Cousins, Augusta, duchess (widow of the late duke) of Cambridge, bom July 25, 
1797. Her son, George, duke of Cambridge, commander-in-chief, born March 26, 1819 ; and her 
daughters, Augusta, grand duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, bom July 19, 1822 ; and the princess Mary 
of Cambridge, bom Nov. 27, 1833. 

ENGLISH LANGUAGE is traced from tlie Fiisian variety of tlie Teutonic or Germanic 
branch of tlie great Indo-European family. 



Celtic prevailed in England . . . a.d. i 

Latin introduced 1-450 

Saxon prevails (Beowidf, Ca;dmon, Alfred) 450-1066 
Latin re-introduced by missionaries . . . 596 
Norman French combining withEnglisht (Orm, 

Robert of Gloucester, Layamon, Havelok) 1066-1350 
English in course of formation . . . 1209-1500 

English foiTaed 1550 

Law pleadings were made in English by order 
of Edward III. instead of the French lan- 
guage 1362 

The English tongue and English apparel were 



ordered to be used in Ireland, 28 Hon. VIII. . 

The English was ordere i to be used in all law- 
suits, and the Latin disused . . May, 

Per-centage of AnCxLO-Saxun words in the 
English Bible, 97 ; Swift, 89 ; Shakspeare 
and Thonison, 85 ; Addison, 83 ; Spenser and 
Milton, 81 ; Locke, 80 ; Young, 79 ; Poj)e, 76 ; 
Johnson, 75 ; Robertson, 68 ; Hume, 65 ; 
Gibbon, 58. Marsh. 

Of Too_,ooo English word.s, 60,000 are of Teutonic 
origin ; 30,000 Greek and Latin ; and 10,000 
from other soiu'ces. 



i5 3'5 



PRINCIPAL BRITISH AND AMERICAN AUTHORS. 



Born. 


Died. 




Born. 


Died. 




Born. 


Died. 


John Gower . .about 1320 


1402 


Walter Raleigh . 


■ 1552 


1618 


John Locke 


■ 1632 


1704 


Geoffrey Chaucer . 1328 


1400 


Francis Bacon . 


• 1561 


1626 


Joseph Addison 


. 1672 


1719 


Paston Letters . . 1460 


1482 


George Herbert . 


• 1593 


1635 


Matthew Prior 


. 1664 


1721 


Wm. Caxton . . 1421 


1491 


Ben Jonson 


• 1574 


1637 


Richard Steele . 


. 1671 


1729 


Sir Thomas More . 1482 


1535 


Philip Massingcr 


■ 1584 


1640 


Daniel De Foe 


• 1663 


1731 


Sir Philip Sidney . 1554 


158G 


Jeremy Taylor . 


• 1613 


1667 


John Gay . 


. 16S8 


1732 


Holinshed's Chronicles, 1586 




John Milton 


. 1608 


1674 


Alexander Pope 


1688 


1744 


Jolin Fox . . . 1517 


1587 


Isaac Barrow . 


. 1630 


1677 


Jonathan Swift . 


. 1667 


174s 


Edmund Spenser . 1553 


159S 


Samuel Butler . 


. 1612 


1680 


James Thomson 


1700 


1748 


Richard Hooker . . 1553 


1600 


John Bunyau . 


. 1628 


16S8 


Henry Fielding . 


1707 


1754 


Wm. Shakspeare . 1564 


1G16 


John Dryden 


• 1631 


1700 


Samuel Richardson 


. 1689 


1 761 



* On Nov. I, 1S5S, the queen was proclaimed throughout India .as " Victoria, by the grace of God, of 
the united kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and of tlie colonics and dependencies thereof, in Europe, 
Asia, Africa, America, and Australasia, Quern, defender of the faith," &c. 

t He was born Nov. 2, 1767 ; and died Jan. 23, 1820 ; he married Victoria-Maria-Louisa (widow of the 
prince of Leiningon, sister of Leopold, king of the Belgians, and aunt to the prince consort). May 29, 1818. 
She was bom Aug. 17. 17S6 ; and died March 16, 1S61. 

\ William I. .and his successors used English in their laws, <fcc. ; it w.as superseded by Latin in the 
reign of lleu'-y 11. Norman French was not used in law-deeds till the reign of Henry III. 



ENG 



282 



ENT 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE, continued. 



Edwavd Young . 
Laurence Sterne . 
Mark Akensido 
Thomas Gray 
Tobias Smollett 
Oliver Goldsmith. . 
David Hume 
Samuel Johnson . 
Benjamin Franklin 
William Robertson 
Edward Gibbon . 
Robert Burns . 
William Cowper , 
Percy B. Shelley 



Sorn. 


Died. 


. 1681 


176^ 


• 17:3 


1768 


. 1721 


1770 


. 1716 


1771 


. 1720 


1771 


. 1728 


1774 


. 1711 


1776 


• 1709 


1784 


. 1706 


1790 


. 1721 


1793 


• 1737 


1794 


• 1759 


1796 


• 1731 


1800 


• 1792 


1822 



George lord Bj-ron . 
Walter Scott . 
Samuel T. Coleridge. 
Charles Lamb ' . 
William Cobbe'tt . . 
Robert Southey 
Thomas Campbell 
Sidney Smith . . 
William Wordsworth 
J. Fenimore Cooper . 
Joanna Baillie . 
William Prcscott . . 
Thomas Moore . 
John Wilson . . . 



Burn. 


Died. 


1788 


1824 


1771 


1832 


1772 


1834 


1775 


1834 


1762 


i8^S 


1774 


1843 


1777 


1844 


1771 


184s 


1770 


1850 


1798 


1851 


1763 


1851 


1796 


1859 


17S0 


1852 


1785 


1854 



Samuel Rogers 
Henry Hallam . 
Thomas Ue Quincey 
Washington Irving 
T. B. Macaulay. 
Abp. Richd. Whately 1787 
Wm. M. Thackeray . 1811 
Thomas Carlj'le 
George Bancroft 
Edwd. Bulwer Ly tton 
Benjamin Disraeli 
Alfred Tennyson . 
Charles Dickens 
John Ruskin 



Bon. 


Died. 


1763 


1855 


1778 


1859 


1786 


1859 


1783 


i8sQ 


1800 


1859 



179s 



1 80s 



19 



ENGRAVING on signets is mentioned Ri-od. xxviii. 11., B.C. 1491. Engraving on plates 
and ■\Yood began about the middle of the 15th century. Engraving on glass was perfected by 
Bourdier, of Paris, 1799. The copyright to engravings has been protected by several statutes; 
among tins principal are the acts 16 & 18 Geo. III. 1775 and 1777 ; and the acts 7 & 8 Vict. 
Aug. 6, 1844, and 15 Vict. May 28, 1852. A process of enlarging and reducing engravings 
by means of sheets of vulcanised india-rubber, was shown by the electro-printing block 
company in i860. See Lithography and Photo-Galvanocjrcqjhy.* 



ing which has reached om- times is one represent- 
ing St. Christopher carrying the infant Jesus over 
the sea ; it bears date 1423. 

En.iraving on Soft Steel, to bo hardened after- 
wards, was introduced into England by Messrs. 
Perkins and Heath, of Philadelphia, 1S19. 

Mezzotinto is said to have been discovered by col. 
de Siegen, who engraved a portrait of princess 
Amelia of Hesse in mezzotinto in 1643 ; it was im- 
proved by prince Rupci-t in 1648 ; sir Christopher 
Wren further imxirovcd it in 1662. 

Aquatinta, by which a soft and beautiful effect is 
produced, was invented by the celebrated French 
arti.st, St. Non, about 1662 ; he communicated his 
invention to Le Prince. Barabbe of Paris was dis- 
tinguished for his improvements in this kind of 
engraving, 1763. Chiar'-o.?cn.ro engraving origi- 
nated with the Germans, and was first i>raotised 
by Mair, one of whose pi-ints bears date 1491. (See 
Ziac, &c.) 



Engr.wing on Coppek. Prints from engraved 

copper-plates made their appearance about 1450, 

and were first produced in Germany. Masso, sur- 

named Finiguerra, is considered to have been the 

first Italian engraver, about 1440. The earliest date 

known of a copper-plate engraving is 1461. Roll- 
ing-presses for working the plates were invented 

in 1545. Of the art of etching on copper by means 

of aqi'-a-furtit, Francis Mazzuoli, or Parmegiano, is 

the reputed inventor, about 1532. De Piles. Etching 

was practised Ijy Albert Durer. The etching 

club was established in r838. 
Engraving on Wood, long known in China, began 

in Europe with the brief mahlers, or manufacturers 

of playing-cards, about 1400. (Sec Print inr/.) The 

art is referred by some to a Florentine, and by 

others to Reuss, a German ; it was greatly im- 
proved by Durer (1471-1528) and Lucas Van Leyden 

(1497). It was much impi-oved in England by 

Bewick and his brother, and pupils, Xesljett, An- 
derson, &c., 1789, et seq. The earliest wood engrav- 

ENLISTMENT. No persons enlisting as soldiers or sailors are to be sworn in before a 
magistrate in less than twenty-four hours after, and then they are are at liberty to withdraw 
upon their returning the enlistment or bounty money, and 21s. costs. Enlistment is now 
entirely voluntary. In 1847 the term of enlistment was limited to ten years for the infimtry, 
and twelve years for the cavalry, artillery, and roj'al marines. 

ENNISKILLEN (N.W. Ireland). This town made an obstinate defence against the army 
of Elizabeth, 1595, and against James II., 1689. 1500 Enuiskilleners met general M'Carthy 
witli 6000 men (of whom 3000 were slain, and nearly all the rest made prisoners), they 
losing but twenty men, July 30, 1689. The dragoon regiment, the " Inniskillingers," is 
recruited here. 

ENOCH, Book of, an apocryphal work, quoted by the fathers, disappeared about the 
8th century. A MS. Ethiopic version was found in Abyssinia by Bruce, and brought to 
England in 1773. Of this archbishop Lawrence published an English translation in 1821, 
and the Ethiopic text in 1838. 

ENTAIL of estates began with the statute of Westminster, 1285. Subsequent legislation 
broke the entail in cases of treason (1534), when the e.state is to revert to the crown, and of 
bankruptcy (1833 and 1849), when it is to be sold. 

ENTOMOLOGY, the science of insects, mainly based upon the arrangement of Linnaius, 
1739. Ray's "Method of Insects" M'as published in 1705. The Entomological Society of 
London was instituted in 18^3. 



* In "Lyra Germanica," published in 1861, are illustrations engraved upon blocks photographed from 
negatives taken by John Leighton, F.S.A. 



ENV 



283 



EPI 



ENVELOPES for letters came into general iise shortly after the establishment of the 
penny postal system in 1840. Machinery for their manufacture was patented by Mr. George 
Wilson in 1844 ; and by Messrs. E. HiU and Warren de la Rue in 1845. 

ENVOYS AT Courts, in dignity below ambassadors, enjoy the i)rotection, but not the 
ceremonies of ambassadors. Envoys Extraordinary are of modern date. Wicqurfort. The 
court of France denied to them the ceremony of being conducted to court iii the royal 
carriages, 1639. 

EPACT (Greek, added) is the excess of the solar month above the lunar S3'nodical month, 
I day, II hours, 15 minutes, 57 seconds, the lunar month being only 29 days, 12 hours, 
44 minutes, 3 seconds ; and the excess of tlie solar j'ear above the lunar synodical year 
(nearly 1 1 days), the lunar year being 354 days. The number of the Gregorian epact for 
1865, "is 3 ; for 1866, 14 ; for 1867, 25. 

EPHESUS (in Asia Minor), a city founded by the louians about 1043 B.C. It was 
subdued by Cyrus in 544 B.C. ; it revolted from the Persians 501 B.C. and was destroyed bj* 
an earthquake in a.d. 17. Paul preached here A.D. 55, 56 {Acts xviii. xix.). His epistle to 
the Ephesians is dated A.D. 64. See Diana, TcmjJle of, and Seven Churches. The third 
general council was held here in 431. 

EPHORI, powerful magistrates of Sparta, five in number, said to have been first created 
by Theopompus to control the ro3'^al power, about 757 B.C. 



EPIC POEMS (from Greek epos, a song), narratives in verse. Eminent examj^les :- 



Homer's " Iliad " and "Odyssey" (Greeh), be- 
tween 8th and loth century B.C. (See Homer) 
Virgil's " ^ncid" (£a?t/i), about . . B.C. 19 
Ovid's " Metamorphoses " (Latin), about . A.D. i 
Dante (died 1321), " Diviua Coniraedux" (Italian) 
published ....... 1472 

Ariosto, " Orlando Furioso " (Italian) . . . 1516 



1369 



Camoens' "husiad" (Portuguese) 

Tasso, " Jeru.salem Delivered " (Italiayi) 

Spenser's " Faery Queen " .... 15906 

Milton's " Paradise Lost " 1667 

Voltaire, " Henriade " (F)-fncft) .... 1728 
Walter Scott, " Lay of the La.st Minstrel," Arc. iSos 



EPICUREAN PHILOSOPHY. Epicurus of Gargettus, near Athens, about 300 e.g., 
tauglit that the greatest good consists in peace of mind springing from virtue, as tending to 
ju'cvent disquiet ; but the name epicurean is given to those who derive happiness from sensual 
pleasure. 

EPIGRAMS derive their origin from tlie inscriptions placed by the ancients on their 
tombs. Marcus Valerius Martialis, the celebrated Latin epigrammatist, who flourished about 
A.D. 83, is allowed to have excelled aU others ancient or modern. The following Latin 
epigram on the miracle of Our Savour, in turning water into wine atCana {John iii.) is given 
as an example : — 

" ViditeterubuitlymphapudioaDeum." " The modest water saw its God, and blushed." Crashaw, d. 1650. 

EPIPHANY (appearance), a feast (Jan. 6), vulgarly called Twelfth Day, celebrates the 
manifestation of the Saviour, by the appearance of the star which conducted the Magi to 
the place where he was to be found ; instituted 813. Wlicatly. 

EPIRUS (Northern Greece). Its early history is very obscure. 

The first Pyrrhus (Xeoptolemus) settled ia 

Epirus, .after the Trojan war, 1170 b.c, and 

was killed in the temple of Delphi, about B.C. 1165 
Pyrrhus the Great reigns, 295 ; he takes Jlace- 

don from Demetrius, 290 ; compelled to yield 

it to Lysimachus 287 

lie invades Italy : defeats the Romans, 2S0 ; 

again, 279 ; subdues Sicily .... 278 
Ho invades Italy again, and is totally defeated 

by Curius Dentatus 274 



He takes Macedon from Antigonus . .B.C. 

He unsuccessfully invades Sparta ; enters 
Argos, and is killed by a tile, thrown by a 
woman ......... 

PhiUp unites Epirus to Macedon 

Its conquest by the Romans 



167 



Epirus annexed to the Ottoman empire a d. 1466 
An insun-ection put down 1854 



EPISCOPACY. See Bishops. 

EPITAPHS wore inscrilied on tombs by the Jews, Greeks, and Romans. Mr. T. J. 
Pettigrew published a collection entitled " Chronicles of the Tombs," in 1857. 

EPITHALAMIUM, a nuptial song at marriage, Tisias, the lyric poet, is said to have 
been the first writer of one. He r'eceived the name of Stesichoru.s, from the alterations 
made by him in music and dancing. 536 B.C. Bossuct. 



EPO 



284 



ESC 



EPOCHA, a point of time made remarkable by some event, from which subsequeiit years 
are reckoned by historians and clironologers. See Eras. 



Creation B.C. 4004 

JJeluge 2348 

ist Olympiad 776 



Building of Rome 

The birth of Christ 

The Hegira (or flight of Mahomet) 



EPSOM (Surrey). The mineral springs were discovered in 1618.' The races began about 
171 1, and have been held annually since 1730. 

EQUATOR (or Ecuador), a South American republic, founded in 1831, when the Colum- 
bian republic was divided into three ; tlie other two being Venezuela and New Granada. 
The po]iulation of Etjuator is about 1,040,400, of which 76,000 are in Quito, the capital. 
General Franco, president, Aug. 21, 1859; defeated in battle by general Flores, Aug. i860. 
President (elected in 1861) G. Gr. Moreno. 

EQUINOX. When the sun in his progress passes through the equator in one of the 
equinoctial points, the day and night are equal all over the globe. This occurs twice in the 
year ; about JIarcli 21, the vernal equinox, and Sept. 22, the autumnal equinox. The 
equinoctial points move backwards about 50 seconds yearly, requiring 25,000 years to 
accomplish a complete revolution. This is called the precession of the equinoxes, which is 
said to have been observed by the ancient astronomers. 

EQUITY, Courts of, are those of the lord chancellor, the vice-chancellors, and the 
master of the rolls, their office being to correct the operations of the literal text of the law, 
and supply its defects by reasonable construction not admissible in a court of law. The 
.supreme court of session in Scotland combines the functions of law and equity. In 1865 
e(|uity powers were conferred on the county courts for cases resj^ecting sums under 500Z. 

ERAS. Notices of the principal eras will be found in their alphabetical order ; a few 
only need be mentioned here. 

The Romans reckoned from the building of 
their city, 753 B.C. ; and afterwards from 
the 1 6th year of the emperor Augustus (see 
Casars), which reckoning was long used by 
the Spaniards. 

The Mahometans began their era from the 



Iltgira, or flight of their prophet from Mecca, 

A.D. 

See Calendar, Creation, Anno Domini. 



622 



Era of Ifabonafsar, after which the astronomical 

observations made at Babylon were reckoned, 
began Feb. 26, b.c. 
Kra of the Seleucidce (used by the Maccabees), 

commenced 
The Olympiads belong to the Grecians, and date 

from the year 776 b.c. ; they subsequently 

reckoned by indictions, the first beginning 

A.D. 313 ; these, among chronologers, are still 

used. (See Indictions^ 

ERASTIANISM, the opinions of Thomas Lieber (latinised Erastus), a German physician 
(1523-84), who taught that the church had no right to exclude any person from church 
ordinances, or to inflict excommunication, &c. Persons who acknowledge the jurisdiction of 
the civil power in spiritual matters and the law of patronage, are now termed Erastians. 

ERASURES. By order of sir John Romillj', master of the rolls, in 1855, no document 
corrected by erasure with the knife is to be henceforth received in the court of chancery. 
The errors must be corrected with the pen. 

ERFURT (Central Germany), was founded in 476 ; and its university established about 
1390. Erfurt was ceded to Prussia in 1802. It capitulated to Murat, when 14,000 Prussian 
troops surrendered, Oct. 16, 1806. In this city Napoleon and Alexander met, and offered 
jieace to England, Sept. 27, 1808. The French retreated to Erfurt from Leipsic, Oct. 18, 
1813. A German parliament met here in March and April, 1850. 

ERICSSON'S CALORIC ENGINE. See Heat, note. 

ESCHEATS. Land or other property that falls to a lord within his manor by forfeiture 
or death. The escheator observes the rights of the king in the county whereof he is escheator. 
Vowel. In London a court of escheats was held before the lord mayor to recover the property 
of a bastard who died intestate, for the king ; such a court had not been held in the city for 
150 years before — July 16, 1771. Phillips. 

ESCURIAL (or Escorial, 25 miles N.W. of Madrid), the magnificent palace of the 
sovereigns of Spain, was commenced by Philip II. in 1563 and completed in 1586, at a cost 
of 6,000,000 of ducats. It is built in the form of a gridiron in honour of St. Lawrence, on 
Avhose day (Aug. 10, 1557) the Spaniards gained the victory of St. C^uentin. According to 
Francisco de los Santos, the total length of all its rooms 'and apartments, is above 120 English 
miles. Alvarez de Colmenar asserts that there are 14,000 doors, and 11,000 windows. 



ESP 



285 



ETH 



P^SPAKTO, Ji Spanish grass, a species of stii)a, now largely employed in paper-making, 
was first imported into this country, as we are informed, in 1857. 

ESPIERRES (or Point-a-Chiu, Flanders). The French, under Pichcgru, here attacked the 
allied English and Austrian army (100,000 men) commanded by the duke of York, and were 
repulsed after a long and desperate engagement, losing many killed and wounded, and 
prisoners, and several pieces of cannon, May 22, 1794. 

ESPRIT, Saint (or Holy Ghost), the title of an order of knighthood, founded Ly 
Henry III. of France in 1578 ; and abolished in 179 1. 

ESQUIRES, among the Greeks and Romans, were armour-bearers to, or attendants on, a 
knight. Blount. In England, the king created esquires by putting about their necks the 
collar of SS, and bestowing upon them a pair of silver spurs. The distinction of esquire 
was first given to persons of fortune, not attendant upon knights, 1345. Ston: 

"ESSAYS AND REVIEWS," by six clergjmien and one layman of the church of England 
(the Revs. Drs. Fred. Temple and Rowland Williams, professor Baden Powell, H. B. Wilson, 
Mark Pattison, and professor B. Jowett, and Mr. 0. W. Goodwin) weie published in an 8vo 
vol. in March, i860.* 

ESSENES, an ascetic Jewish sect at the time of Christ. 

ESSEX, Kingdom of. See Britain. ESSLING, Battle of. See AsjKrnc. 

ESTE, House of. Bonifiice, count of Lucca and duke of Tuscany, about 811, is said to 
have descended from Odoacer, king of Italy. From Boniface sprang Albert Azzo II., 
marquess of Italy and lord of Este, born about 996, who married first Cunegonda of the house 
of Guelf, by whom he had Guelf, duke of Bavaria, the ancestor of the house of Brunswick 
{see Bavaria and Brunswick) ; and secondly Gersouda, by whom he had Fulk, the ancestor 
of the Estes, dukes of Ferrara and Modena. 

ETCHING. See Engraving. 

ETHER was known to the earliest chemists. Nitric ether was first discovered by Kunkel, 
in 1681 ; and muriatic ether, from the chloride of tin, hy Courtanvaux, in 1759. Acetic 
ether was discovered by count Lauraguais, same year ; and hydriotic ether was first prepared 
by Gay-Lussac. The phosphoric ether was obtained by M. Boullay. The discovery that by 
inhaling ether the patient is rendered unconscious of pain, is due to Dr. Charles T. Jackson, 
of Boston, U. S. Mr. Thomas Morton, of the same place, first introduced it into surgical 
practice, under Dr. Jackson's directions (1846). See Chloroform and Amylena. The term 
" ether " was applied to the transparent celestial space by the German astronomer Encke, 
about 1829, when studying the elements of Pons' comet, discovered in 1818. 

ETHICS (Greek term for Morals). The works of Plato, Aristotle, and Confucius contain 
ancient systems. The New Testament is the code of Christian ethics. Paley's Moral Philo- 
sophy appeared in 1785, and Whewell's Elements of Morality in 1845. 

ETHIOPIA. The name was applied ancientlj'^rather vaguely to countries the inhabitants 
of which had sun-burnt complexions, in Asia and Africa ; but it is now considered to apply 
})roperly to the modern Nubia, Sennaar, and northern Abyssinia. Many pyramids exist at 
Napata, the capital of Meroe, the civilised part of ancient Ethiopia. 



The Ktbiopians settle near Egypt . B.C. 1615 

Zcnib, the Ethiopirai, defeated by Asa . . 941 
A dynasty of Ethiopian kings reigned over 

Egypt from 765 to 715 

Tirhakab, king of Ethiopia, marches against 

Sennacherib 710 



Ethiopia unsuccessfully invaded by Cambyses, 

B.C. 525-522 

Ptolemy Euergetes extended his conquests in 
Ethiopia ........ 225 

Candace, queen of Meroe, advancing against 
the Roman settlements at Elephantine, (de- 
feated and subdued by Petronius . A.D. 22-23 

ETHNOLOGY, a branch of anthropology, is defined as the science "which determines 
the distinctive characters of the persistent modifications of mankind, their distribution, and 
tlic causes of the modifications and distribution." The study of the relations of the different 
divisions of mankind to each other is of recent origin. Balbi's Ethnograiihic Atlas was 

' The liook did not excite much attention at first, l)ut having been severely censured for heterodox 
views by nearly all the bishops and many of the clergy, it created much excitement in i86r, and was con- 
demned by convocation June 24, 1864. The ecclesiastical court sentenced the Revs. R. Williams and H. B. 
Wilson to suspension for one year, and costs, Dec. 15, 1S62 ; bxit on aj:)peal the sentence was reversed by 
the judicial committee of the privy council, Feb. 8, 1864. The most remarkable amongst the works put 
forth in opposition (in 1862) arc the " Aids to Faith," edited by the bishop of Gloucester (W. Thomson, now 
abp. of Ycn-k), and " Replies to E.ssays and Reviews," edited by the bishop of Oxford (S. Wilbcrforce). 



ETH 



286 



EUP 



published in 1826, and Dr. Prichard's great work, Researches on the Physical History of 
Mankiiul, 1841-7. The Ethnological Society, established in 1843, publishes its transactions. 
Dr. R. G. Latham's works, on the Ethnology of the British Empire, appeared in 185 1-2. 

ETHYL, a colourless gas, with a slightly ethereal odour, a compound of carbon and 
hydrogen, first obtained in the free state by professor Edw. Frankland in 1849. It is one 
of the compound radicles. Many of its compounds take fire on exposure to the air. 

'• ETNA, MouxT (Sicily). Here were the fabled forges of the Cyclops : and it is called by 
Pindar the jaillar of heaven. Eruptions are mentioned by Diodorus Siculus as happening 
1693 B.C., and Thucydides speaks of three eruptions as occ\irring 734, 477, and 425 B.C. 
There were eruptions, 125, 121, and 43 B.C. Livy, 



Eruptions, a.d. 40, 254, and 420. Carrera. 

One in 1012. Ge'tffrey de V'derbo. 

One overwhelmed Catania, when 15,000 inhabit- 
ants perished in the bm-nlng ruins 

Eruptions, 1329, 1408, 1444, 1536, 1537, 1564, 
and in i66g, when tens of thousands of per- 
sons perished in the streams of lava which 
rolled over the whole country for forty days. 



1169 



Eruptions in 1766, 1787, i8oq, iSii, and in 
May, 1830, when several villages were de- 
stroyed, and showers of lava reached near to 
Rome. 
The town of Bronte was destroyed . Nov. iS, 1832 
Violent eruption occui-red in . Aug. & Sept. 1852 
The last eruption began on Feb. i, and ceased in 

July, 186= 



ETON COLLEGE (Buckinghamshire), founded by Henry VI. in 1440, and designed as 
a nursery to King's College, Cambridge. John Stanberry, confessor to Henry VI. (bishop of 
Bangor, in 1448), was the first provost. Besides about three hundred noblemen's and 
gentlemen's sons, there were seventy king's scholars on the foundation, v.'lio, when properly 
qualified, are elected, on the first Tuesday in August, to King's college, Cambridge, and are 
removed there when there are A^acancies, according to seniority. In Dec. i860 there were in 
all 820 scholars. See Camhridgc. The establishment of the Montemis nearly coeval with the 
college. It consisted in the procession of the scholars, arrayed in fancj'' dresses, to Salt-hill 
once in three years ; the donations collected on the road (sometimes as much as 800?. ) were 
given to the senior or best scholar, their captain, for his support while studying at Cambridge. 
The montem was discontinued in 1847. 'The regatta has taken its place. 

ETRURIA (or TusciA, hence the modern name Tuscany), an ancient province of Italj-, 
whence the Romans, in a great measure, derived their laws, customs, and superstitions. 
Herodotus asserts that the country was conquered by a colony of Lydians. The subjugation 
of this country forms an important part of early Roman history. It was most powerful 
under Porsena of Clusium, who attempted to reinstate the Tarquins, 506 B.C. Veil was 
taken by Camillus, 396 B.C. A truce between the Romans and Etrurians for forty years was 
concluded 351 B.C. The latter and their allies were defeated at the Vadimonian lake 283, B.C., 
and totally Inst their independence about 265 e.g. The vases and other works of the 
Etruscans still remaining, show the degree of civilisation to which they had attained. See 
Tuscany. — Etruria, the site of Mr. Wedgwood's porcelain works, &c., was founded in 1771. 

EUBCEA, the largest island in the ^gean sea. Two of its cities, Chalcis and Eretria, 
were very important, till the former was subdued by Athens, 506 B.C. and the latter by the 
Persians, 490. After the Persian war, Euboea became wholly subject to Athens, being its 
most valuable foreign possession. It revolted in 445, but was soon subdued by Pericles. 
After the battle of Chferonea, 338, it became subject to Macedon. It was made independent 
by the Romans in 194 ; but was afterwards incorporated in the province of Achaia. It now 
forms part of the kingdom of Greece. 

EUCLID, Elements of. Euclid was a native of Alexandria, and flourished there about 
300 B.r. The Elements are not wholly his ; for many of the invaluable truths and demon- 
strations they contain were derived from Thales, Pythagoras, Eudoxus, and others. Euclid 
was the first to reduce them to regular order, and probably interwove many theorems of his 
own. The Elements were first printed at Basil by Simon Grynteus, in 1533. 

EUDIOMETER, an apparatus to ascertain the purity of atmospheric air, or the quantity 
of oxygen gas or vital air contained in it, was invented by Dr. Priestley, in 1772. 

EUNUCHS are first mentioned among the Egyptian and As.syrian nations. The first 
princess who employed them was Semiramis, queen of Assyria, about 2007 B.C. Eunuchs 
fequently attained to political power in the late Eastern Empire. 

EUPATORIA (Kosleff), a sea-port on the west coast of the Crimea. After the allied 
French, English, and Turkish armies landed in the Crimea, Sept. 14, 1854, a detachment 
under captain Brock occupied this place, which was afterwards reinforced by the Turks. It 



EUP 287 EXC 

^\'AS attacked Feb. 17, 1855, lij' 40,000 Russians under Lipraiuli. The latter were repulsed 
with tlie loss of 500 men by the Turlcs, whose loss was only 50, among which, however, was 
Selini Pasha, the commander of the Egyptian contingent. 

EUPHUISM, an affected style of language, prevalent in the time of Elizabeth, arose from 
" Euphues ; the Anatomy of Wit," by John Lyly, published iu 1581. 

EUROPE, the smallest of the three divisions of the old continent ; area, ncarl}^ 3,800,000 
square miles; population, 270,000,000(1861). For the history, see Greece, Home, and the 
modern kingdoms. 

EURYMEDON", a river iu Pamphylia, near which Cimon, son of Miltiades, destroyed 
the fleet of the Persians at Cyprus, aud defeated their land forces, 466 b. c. 

EUSTACE, ST. (Lower Canada). The rebels were defeated here, Dec. 19, 1837, and 
compelled to surrender their arms. Their.chiefs fled. 

EUSTATIA, ST., a West India island, settled by the Dutch, 1632 ; taken by the 
French in 1689 ; by the English in 1690 ; again by the British forces under Rodney and 
Vaughan, Feb. 3, 1781. It was recovered by the French iinder the marquis de Bouille, 
;N'ov. 26, same year ; captured by the British, 1801, 1810; restored to the Dutch, 1814. 

EUTYCHIANS, so called from Eutyches, an abbot of Constantinople, who asserted in 
446 that there was but one nature in Christ, the human having been absorbed in the divine. 
This doctrine was condemned by councils — at Constantinople in 448, and at Chalcedon in 451. 
It has been also called MonojjJiysite (of one nature), aud Jacobite, from Jacobus Baradasus, 
its zealous defender in the 6tli century. It is the form of Christianity now existing among 
the Copts and Armenians. 

EUXINE. See Black Sea. 

EVANGELICAL, a term applied to a portion of the clergy of the Church of England (also 
called the low church), who profess to preach the gosjjel more pm-ely thau their brethren, 
termed the high church part}'. See Church of England. 

_ EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE, founded by sir Culling Eardley Smith and others at 
Liverpool in 1845, with the view of promoting unitj'' among all denominations of protestant 
Christians against Romanism and infidelity. It holds annual meetings. It met in Sept. 
1857, at Berlin, where it was well received by the king. The 19th meeting was held at Hull, 
Oct. 3, 1865. 

EVANGELISTS, preachers of the "gospel," or good news. See Gospels, 

EVENING SCHOOLS for adults of the lower classes were strongly recommended by 
bishop Hinds in 1839, and by tlie committee of the Privy Council on Education in 1861. 
One was set up at Bala in Wales by the Rev. T. Charles in 181 1, 

EVESHAInI (Worcestershire), where prince Edward, afterwards Edward I., defeated the 
barons headed by Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, Aug. 4, 1265, when the earl, his son 
Henrj', and most of his adherents were slain. Henry III. at one period of the battle was on 
the point of being cut down by a soldier who did not know his rank, but M'as saved by his 
timely exclamation, "Do not kill me, soldier; I am Henry of Winchester, thy king !" 
This victory broke up the combination of the barons. 

EVIL ]\IAY-DAY (May i, 1517), thus called on account of the violence of the apprentices 
and populace, directed against foreigners, particularly the French. "The rioters were headed 
by one Lincoln, who, witli 15 others, was hanged ; and 400 more iu their shirts, and bound 
with ropes, and halters aljout tlicir necks, were carried to Westminster, but they crying 
' mercy, mercy !' Avere all pardoned by the king (Henry VIII.), which clemency gained him 
much love." Bclaune. 

EXAMINATIONS of persons preliminary to their employment in the civil service has 
been enforced since 1855. Air. Gladstone in 1862 said that the present might be termed the 
"age of examinations." 

EXARCHS, appointed by the Byzantine emperors of the East, to govern central Italy 
after its con(iuest by Belisarius and Narses, 548. — They ruled from 568 to 752, when 
Eutychus, the last, was overcome by Astolphus the Lombard. 

EXCHANGE. One called Collcrp'um J/crrato'iim, existed at Rome, 493 e.c. The 
Exchange at Amsterdam was reckonecl the finest structure of tlie kind in the w'orld. Many 
edifices of this name in the United Kingdom are magnificent. See Royal Exchange aud 
Bills of Exxhancje, 



EXC 



288 



EXC 



EXCHEQUER, an institution of great antiquity, consisting of officers whose functions 
arc financial and judicial : the cliancellor of tlie exchequer, the financial officer, formerly 
sat in the court of cxclicquer above the barons. The first chancellor was Eustace de Fau- 
conbridge, bishop of London, in the reign of Henry III. about 1221. Sir Robert Walpole 
was the last chancellor of the exchequer who acted judicially (in 1735). The exchequer 
stopped payment from Jan. to May 24th, Charles II. 1673. Stow. The English and Irish 
exchequers were consolidated in 1816. See Chancellors of the Exchequers, and Talhj 
Office. 



Exchequer Bills. Tbo government securities, so 
called, said to have been invented by Montague, 
afterwards earl of Halifax, were first issued in 
1697, and first circulated Ijy the bank in 1796. 
These bills, of which more than twenty millions 
stei'ling are often in circulation, are in effect ac- 
commodation notes of government, that are issued 
in anticipation of taxes, at daily interest ; and, 
being received for taxes, and paid bj' the bank in 
lieu of taxes, in its dealings with the exchequer, 
they usually bear a premium.* The highest 
amount in circulation was 56,974,780?. in 1817 ; the 
lowest, 16,008,700?. in 1854. 

Exchequer Boxds, a .species of piiblic securities, 
introduced by Mr. W. E. Gladstone, in 1853, liave 
not been well received. 

Telt.ers of the Exchequer. Besides chamberlains 
of the exchequer, clerks of the pells, and auditor 
of the exchequer (offices which have all been dis- 
continued since their last avoidance in Oct. 1826, 
or by sun-ender or abolition, in Oct. 1834), there 



were the four lucrative offices of tellers of the ex- 
chequer, also abolished, Oct. 10, 1834.! 

Comptroller-General of the Exchequer. This 
office was created on the abolition of the offices of 
the auditor and the four tellers of the excheqvier, 
and the clerk of the pells, mentioned in the pre- 
ceding paragi-aph. The first comptroller-general 
was sir John NewiDort, appointed Oct. 11, 1834. — 
34,438/. per annum have been saved to the state 
by the retrenchments in this department of the 
government. 

Court of E.xchequer Chamber. Erected by Ed- 
ward III. in 1357. It was remodelled by Eliza- 
beth, in 15S4, and then made to comprise the 
judges of all the courts. This court is for error 
from the judgments of the courts of queen's bench, 
common pleas, and exchequer of pleas in actions 
commenced therein. lie-modelled by act ii Geo. 
IV. & I Will. IV. c. 70 ("July 23, 1830). 

The Exchequer office, Westminster, was instituted 
by Henry IV. in 1399. 



CII.-VNCELLOKS OF THE EXCHEQUER SINCE 180O. 



1804 



1812) 



1»23 

1827 



Viscount Althorpe {a/t. earl Spencer), 
Sir Robert Peel {premier) 
Thos. Spring Rice (aft. Id. Monteagle), 
Francis T. B.iring (a/lerwards baronet), 
Henry Goulbuni .... 
Charles Wood (afterwanU baronet) 
Benjamin Disraeli .... 
William E. Gladstone . 
Sir George Cornewall Lewis 
Benjamin Disraeli 
William E. Gladstone 



Nov. 22, 
Dec. 10, 
April 18, 
Aug. 26, 
Sept. 3, 
. July 6, 
Feb. 21, 
Dec. 28, 
March, 
Feb. 27, 
.June 13, 



1830 
1834 
1835 
1839 
1841 
1846 
1852 

185s 
1858 

1S59 



Henry Addington ((//i. Id. Sidmouth), March 21, 
Wm. Pitt(;;n)/iiV)-)' .... May 16, 
Lord Henry Petty {afterwards marquess of 

LansdowTie) Feb. 105 

SiJencer Perceval .... March 31, 

An6. premier TiGC. 6, 1809 (assassinated May 11, 
Nicholas Vansittart (nftds. Id. Bexley), Juno 9, 
Fred. J. Robinson (afiencards lord Goderich 

and earl of Ripon) . . . Jan. 31, 
George Canning {premier) . . . April 24, 
John C. Herries .... Aug. 17, 
Henry Goulburn .... Jan. 26, 

EXCHEQUER, Court of. Instituted by "William I. on the model of the Transmarine 
Exchequer of Normandy, in 1079 ; according to some authorities, by Henry 1. It included 
the common pleas until they were separated, i6John, 1215. Coke's Reports. The exchequer 
is so named from a chequered cloth which anciently covered the table where the judges and 
chief officers sat. t Here are tried all causes relating to tlie king's revenue ; such as are con- 
cerning accounts, disbur.sements, customs, and fines imposed, as well as all matters at common 
law between subject and subject. The judges are styled barons. Beaison. There are a 
chief and four puisne barons : the fifth judge having been added July 23, 1830. The office 
of Cursitor Baron was abolished in 1856, by 18 & 19 Yict. c. 86. 



CHIEF BARONS OF THE EXCHEQUER. 



1695. 
1714. 
1716. 



Sir Robert Atkins. 
Sir Edward Ward. 
Sir Samuel Dodd. 
Sir Thomas Bury. 



April 10. 
June 10. 
Nov. 22. 
June II. 



1722. Sir James Montagu. May 9. 

1723. Sir Robert Eyre. Dec. 5. 

1725. Sir Geoffrey Gilbert. Junn i. 

1726. Sir Thomas Pengelly. Oct. 29. 



* Robert A.slett, a cashier of the bank of England, was tried in 1S03 at the Old Bailey for embezzling 
excheauer bills, and found )(o< £r«i/?y, on account of the invalidity of the bills, though the act\ial loss to 
the bank amounted to 342,697?. Jlr. Beaumont Smith was tried for forging exchequer bills to the amount 
of 350,000?. ; plt'aded guilty, and was sentenced to transiJortation, Dec. 4, 1841. 

t John Jeffreys Pratt, earl and marquess Camden, was appointed a teller of the exchequer, when a 
commoner, in 1780, and hold the appointment until his death, in 1840. During nearly half of this long 
term he relinquished the income arising from the office, amounting in the whole to ujiwards of a quarter 
of a million sterling, and placed it at the service of the -state, as it annually accrued. 

I In process of time the court of exchequer became gradually enlarged in its jurisdiction, until at 
lenath it was not merely a revenue coin-t and one at comnmn law between subject and .subject, but one 
in which .suits in equity were also instituted. In fact, until the act 5 Vict. c. 5 (1841), tbo court of ex- 
chequer possessed a triple jurisdiction ; but by this statute its equity business was transferred to the 
court of chancery. 



EXC 



289 



EXE 



EXCHEQUER, Coukt of, continiud. 

1730. Sir Jfvmes Reynolds. April 30. 

1738. Sir John Corny n. July 7. 

1740. Sir Edmund Probyu. Nov. 24. 

1742. Sir Thomas Parker. Nov. 29. 

1772. Sir Sj'dney Stafford Smythe. Oct. 29. 

1777. Sir John Skynner; Dec. 17. 

1787. Sir James Eyre. Jan. 26. 

1793. Sir Archibald Macdonald. Feb. 12. 

1813. Sir Vicary Gibbs. Nov. 8. 



1814. 
1817. 
1824. 



1834. 
1S44. 



Sir Alexander Thompson. Feb. 24. 

Sir Richard Richards. April 22. 

Sir William Alexander. Jan. 9. 

John, lord Lioidhurst. Jan. 18. Previoisly 

lord chancellor ; again lord chancellor, 1834. 
Sir James Scarlett. Doc. 24. Created lord 

Abinger, Jan. 1835. 
Sir Frederick Pollock, April 15. 



CHIEF BAROXS OF THE EXCHEQITER IN IRELAND. 



1690. John Hely. Dec. s- 

1695. Robert Doyne. May 10. 

1703. Nehemiah Donnellan. Dec. 27. 

1706. Richard Freeman. Jvme 25. 

1707. Robert Rochfort. June 12. 

1714. Joseph Deane. Oct. 14. 

1715. Jeffrey Gilbert. June 16. 
1722. Bernard Hale. June 9. 
1725. Thomas Daltun. Sept. 2. 
1730. Thomas Marlay. Sept. 29. 
1741. John Bowes. Dec. 21. 
1757. Edward Willis. March 11. 



1766. Anthony Foster. Sept. 5. 

1777. James Dennis (f(/Y'(?s. baron Tracton). Julys. 

1782. Walter Hussey Burgh. July 2. 

1783. Barry Yelverton {afterwards viscount Avon- 

more). Nov. 29. 
1805. Standish O'Grady (a/tericards viscount Guilla- 

more). Oct. 5. 
1831. Hemy Joy. Jan. 6. 
1838. Stephen Woulfe. Jvily 20. 
1840. Maziere Brady. Feb. 11. 
1846. David Richard Pigott. Sept. i. 



EXCISE. The system was established in England by the Long Parliament in 1643, 
dnties being levied on wines, beer, &c., and tobacco, to support the parliamentary forces 
against Charles I. It was continned nnder Charles II. The present system was settled 
about 1733. The duty was arbitrarily levied upon lirpiors and provisions. The old excise 
office was built on the site of Gresham college in 1774 ; the present is at Somerset-house. 
The officers of excise and customs were deprived of their votes for returning members to 
])arliament in 1782. In 1849 the board of excise was incorporated with that of .stamps and 
taxes, under the name of "the Inland Revenue office." Notwithstanding the abolition of the 
excise duty upon numerous articles, and the reduction of duty upon various others, of late 
years, the total excise revenue, so far from having decreased, has progressively advanced 
(1 847 and 1 86 1 excepted) in its aggregate annual amount. Additional excise duties were 
charged by 17 & 18 Vic. c. 27, July 3, 1S54. The excise duties were further modified in 
i860. See Revemie. 



AMOUNT OF THE EXCISE REVENUE OF GREAT BRITAIN. 



(Great Britain) 
1744 .... £3,754,072 

1786 .... 5,540,114 
1808 . . . . 19,867,914 

1820 .... 26,364,702 
1827 (United Kingdom) 20,995,324 



1830 (United Kingdom) £18,644,385 
1834 .... 16,877,292 
1837 . . . . 14,518,142 

1S40 .... 12,607,766 
1845 .... 13,585,583 

1847 . . . . 12,883,678 



1848 (United. Kingdom) £13,919,652 
1850 .... 15,278,208 
1858 (to March 31) , . 17,825,000 
i860 .... 20,361,000 
1865 . . . . 19,558,000 



EXCLUSION" BILL (to exclude the duke of York, afterwards James II., from the 
throne), was passed by the commons, but rejected by the lords in 1679. The revival of the 
(j^uestion led to the dissolution of parliament in l68r. 

EXCOMMUNICATION, or separation from Christian communion, founded on Matt, xviii. 
17 ; I Cor. T., &c., was originally instituted to preserve the purity of the church. The 
Roman church excommunicated by Bell, Book, and Candle {which see). See Interdict. 



Henry VIII. of England by Clement VII. in 
1527, and by Paul III. in 1535 ; and Ehzabeth 

by Paul IV 1558 

The emperor of France, the king of Sardinia, 
and others, were virtually excommunicated 
(bvit not by name) on accoimt of the an- 
nexation of the Romagna by Sardinia, 

March 29, 1S60 



Gregory VII. excommunicated the emperor 

Henry IV., and absolved his subjects from 

their allegiance 1077 

Innocent III. excommimicated John of England, 

placing the country under an interdict 1208-14 
Gregory IX. excommunicated the emperor 

Frederic II. four times between . . 1228-45 
Louis XII. of France was excommunicated by 

Julius II. 1510; Francis I. by Leo X. 1521 ; 

EXECUTIONS. See Crime. In the reign of Henry VIII. (38 years) it is shown that 
no less a number than 72,000 criminals were executed. Stoiv. In the ten years between 
1820 and 1830, there were executed in England alone 797 criminals ; but as our laws became 
less severe, the number of executions decreased. In the three years ending 1820, the execu- 
tions in England and AVales amounted to 312 ; in the three years ending 1830, they were 
178; in the three years ending 1840, they were 62. The jdace of execution in London 



EXE 



290 



EXE 



(formerly generally at Tylniru) has lieen in front of Newgate since 1783. 
the bodies of executed persons was abolished in 1832. 



The dissection of 



EXECUTIOXS IN LONDON. 



1820 

1825 
1830 

1835 





• • • 


• 43 


1837 




. . 


2 


1843 . 




. 






. ■ 17 


1838 . 




. 





1844 


. 


. . I 


, 




. 6 


1839 






2 


1845 . 




• 3 






. . 


1840 . 






I 


1846 




. . 2 






. 1842 






2 


1847 . 




. 






IN ENGLAXr 


, MIDDLESEX, AND 


STJEKEY. 








England. 


Middlesex. 


Surrey. 




England. 


Middlesex. 


Surrey, 


1847 


. 8 


T 


. 


1856 . 


• 15 ■ 


2 . 





1848 . 


12 . 


2 . 





'^57 


• 13 


I 


. 


1849 


. 15 


. 


. 2 


1858 . 


II . 


I . 


I 


1850 . 


6 . 


. 





1859 


. 9 


. I 


. 


1851 


. 10 


. 


. 2 


i860 . 


12 . 


I . 


I 


1852 . 


9 • 


1 . 


I 


i86i 


. 15 


. I 


. 


1853 


. 8 


I 





1862 . 


. 16 . 


2 . 





1854 . 


5 • 


. 





1863 


. 22 


. I 


. I 


1855 


• 7 


. 2 




. 


1864 . 




19 . 


8(6foreignrs)o 



EXECUTIONS OF KEMARKABLE CRIMINALS. 



Jack Sheppard, liigliwayman ; Tyburn, Nov 16, 1724 

Lurd Balmerino and others, rebellion ; Tower- 
hill Aug. 18, 1746 

liord Lovat, rebellion ; Tower-hill . March 30, 1747 

Eugene Aram, murder ; York . . Aug. 6, 1759 

Theodore Gardolle, murder; Haymaiket, 

April 4, 1760 

Earl Ferrers, murder of his steward ; Tyburn, 

Mays, ,, 

John Perrott, fraudulent bankrupt ; Smithfleld, 

Nov. II, 1 761 

John M'Naughten, esq., murder of Miss Knox ; 
Strabane Dee. 13, ,, 

Elizabeth Brownrigg, murder of her apprentice ; 
Tyburn Sept. 14, 1766 

Daniel and Robert PeiTeau, wine merchants, 
forgery ; Tyburn .... Jan. 17, 1776 

Eev. Dr. Dodd, found giiilty of forging a bond, 
in the name of Lord Chesterfield, for 4200?. : 
the highest influence wa-s exerted to save 
him, but when the case came before the 
council, tlie minister of the day said to 
George III., "If your majesty pardon Dr. 
Dodd, you will have murdered the Perrcaus ;" 
Tyburn June 27, 1777 

Eev. Henry Hackman, murder of Jliss Reay, 
mistress of earl ofSandwich ; Tyburn, April 19, 1779 

Capt. John Donelian, murder of sir Theodosius 
Bough ton ; Warwick . . . April 2, 1781 

Mrs. Phepoe, celebrated murderess ; Old Bailey, 

Dec. 11, 1797 

Sir Edward Crosbie, high treason; Ireland, 

Jime 4, 1798 

Messrs. Sheares, high treason ; Dublin, July 12, 1799 

Galloping Dick, highway robbery ; Aylesbury, 

April 4, 1800 

Governor Wall, murder of Serjeant Ai-mstrong ; 
Old Bailey Jan. 28, 1802 

Mr. Crawley, murder of two females ; Dublin, 

March 16, „ 

George Foster, murder of his wife and child ; 
Old Bailey Jan. 18, 1803 

Colonel Despai-d, high treason ; Horsemoiiger- 
lane Feb. 21, „ 

John Hatfield (a rank impostor, who m.arried, 
by means of the most odious deceit, the cele- 
brated "Beauty of Buttei-mere "), forgerj-; 
Carlisle Sept. 3. ,, 

Robert Emmett, high treason ; Dublin, Sept. 20, „ 

Richard Patch, minder of Mr. Bligh ; Horse- 
monger-lMne April 8, 1806 

John Hollowav, Owen Haggerty ; murder of Jlr. 
Steele ; Old Bailey (thirty of the spectators of 



this execution were troden to death, and 
numbers were pressed, maimed and wounded) 

Feb. 22, 1807 

T. Simmons, the man of blood, murder ; Hert- 
ford March 7, i8oS 

Major Campbell, murder of capt. Boyd in a 
duel; Armagh Oct. 2, ,, 

Capt. Sutherland, murder; Execution dock, 

June 29, 1809 

Richard Armitage, forgery ; Old Bailey, June 24, 1811 

John Bellingham, murder of Mr. Perceval ; Old 
Bailey -May 18, 1812 

Philip Nicholson, murder of iMr. and Mrs. 
Bonar ; Pennenden-heath . . . Aug. 23, 1813 

Francis Tuite, murder of Mr. Goulding ; Dublin, 

Oct. 9, „ 

Charles Callaghan, murder of Mr. Men-y ; Horse- 
monger-lane April 2, 1814 

William Sawyer, murder of Jack Hacket ; Old 
Bailey May 15, ,, 

Eliza Fenning, administering poison ; Old 
Bailey July 26, 1815 

[Immediately after her execution, great sensa- 
tion was caused by its being universally 
believed that this young creature suffered 
innocently. She denied her guilt on the 
scaffold, and thousands believing her, accom- 
panied her funeral. In the " Annual Regis- 
ter " for 1857, p. 143, it is stated on the autho- 
rity of Jlr. Gurney, that she confessed the 
crime to Mr. James Ujjton, a baptist minister, 
shortly before her execution.] 

Captain Grant, Irish robber ; Maryboi-ough, 

Aug. 16, 1816 
John Cashman, Spa-fields riots ; Skinner-street, 

March, 12, 1817 
Murderers of the Lynch family. Wild-goose 

lodge affair ; Ireland . . . July 19, ,, 
The three Ashcrofts, father and sons, murder; 

Lancaster Sept. 8, ,, 

Brandrotli and others, high treason ; Derby, 

Nov. 7, „ 
Charles Hussey, murder of Mr. Bird and his 

hou.sckceiier ; Pcnneni'en-heath Aug. 3, 181S 

John Scanlan, esq., murder of Ellen Hanley ; 

Limerick March i6, 1820 

Aithur Thistlewood, John Brunt, .James Ings, 

John Davidson, Richard Tidd (see Cato-ntrctt) ; 

Old Bailey May i, „ 

John Chcnnell, Thomas Calcraft, murder of Mr. 

Cbaniiell, fenr. ; Godalmirg . Aug. 17, ,, 
JIurderers of Miss Thomi'scn ; Dublin May 3, 1821 



EXE 



291 



EXE 



EXECUTIONS, continued. 

David Haggart, fimious robber ; Edinburgh, 

June II, 1821 
Josiah Cadman, forgery ; Old Bailey Nov. 21, ,, 
iSamucl Greenwood, highway robbery ; Old 

Uailoy Dec. 27, 1822 

John Tluirtcll, murder of Jlr. Weare ; Hertford, 

Jan. 9, 1824 
John Wayto, forgery ; Old Bailey . Feb. 24, ,, 
lien. Fauutleroy, esq., banker, forgery; Old 

Bailey Nov. 30 „ 

Probci-t (an accomplice of Thnrtell'.s in the 

murder of Mr. Weare ; he became approver), 

horse-stealing ; Old Bailey . . June 20, 1825 
Spitalfields gang, highway robbery ; Old Bailey, 

Nov. 29, 1826 
Chas. Thos. White, arson ; Old Bailey Jan. 2, 1827 
*Edward Lowe, coining ; Old Bailey Nov. 22, ,, 
Catherine Walsh, murder of her child ; Old 

Bailey April 14, 1828 

fWilliam Rea, highway robbery ; Old B liley, 

Jiily 4. „ 
WilUam Corder, murder of Maria Marten ; Bury 

St. Edmund's .... Aug. 8, ,, 
Joseph Hunton, quaker, forgery ; Old Bailey, 

Dec. 8, „ 
Burke, the murderer (see Burking) ; Edinburgh, 

Feb. i6, 1829 
Anne Chapman, murder of her child ; Old 

Bailey Juno 30, ,, 

Stewart and wife, noted murderers ; Glasgow, 

July 24, ,, 
Thomas Maynard, the last executed for foi-gery ; 

Old Bailey Dec. 31, ,, 

Mr. Comyn, burning his own house ; Ennis, 

March 18, 1S30 
John Bishop, Thomas Williams, murder of a 

poor Italian boy (see Burking) ; Old Bailey, 

Dec. 5, 1 831 
Elizabeth Cooke, burking of Cath. Walsh ; Old 

Bailey Jan. g, 1832 

John Smith, James Pratt, unnatural crime ; 

Old Bailey April 8, 1S35 

Maryanne Burdock, remarkable case of poison- 
ing ; Bristol April 15, ,, 

John Pegsworth, murder ; Old Bailey, March 7, 1837 
James Greeiiacre, murder of Hannah Brown ; 

Old Bailey May 2, ,, 

William Lees, murder of his wife ; Old Bailey, 

Dec. 16, 1839 
Francois Benj. Courvoisier, murder of lord W. 

Russell ; Old Bailey . . . July 6, 1840 
Josiah Misters, wounding Mr. Mackreth ; 

Shrewsbury April 2, 1841 

Robert Blakesley, murder of Mr. Burden"; Old 

Bailey Nov. 15, ,, 

John Delahunt, murder of Thomas Maguire ; 

Dubhn Feb. 5, 1842 

Daniel Good, murder of Jane Jones ; Old Bailey, 

May 23, „ 
William Crouch, murder of his wife ; Old Bailey, 

May 27, 1844 
James Tapping, murder of Emma Whiter ; Old 

Bailey March 24, 1845 

John Tawell, murder of Sarah Hart ; Aylesbury, 

Marcli 28, ,, 
Thomas Henry Hocker, murder of Jlr. Delarue ; 

Old Bailey April 28, „ 

Jo.seph Connor, murder of Mary Brothers ; Old 

Bailey Jvine 2, ,, 

John Platts, murder of Collis ; Derby, April i, 1847 
Catherine Foster, mui-der of her husband; 

Bury St. Edmund's . . . April 17, ,, 



I James Bloomficld Rush, murder of Jlessrs. 

Jermy, sen. and jun. ; Norwich April 21, 

Fred. George Manning, and his wife, Maria 

Manning, murder of O'Connor; Horsemouger- 

lane Nov. 13 

James Barbour, murder of Robinson ; York, 

•Jan.' 15, 

Henry Horler, murder of his wife ; Old Bailey, 

.Jan. IS, 

Grant, Quin, and Coomey, murder of Thomas 
Bateson ; Jlonaghan . . . Ai^ril to, 

Emanuel Barthelemy, murder of Mr. Moore 
and C. CoUard ; Old Bailey . Jan. 22, 

William Bousfield, murder of his wife and three 
children ; Old Bailey . . March 30, 

William Palmer (of Rugeley), murder of J. P. 
Cook by poison ; Stafford . . June 14, 

William Dove, murder of his wife by poison ; 
York Aug. 

Joseph Jenkins, alias Robert Marley, murder 
of Cope, a shopman, in Westminster; Old 
Bailey Dec. 15, 

William Jackson, murder of two children ; 
Che.ster Dec. 20, 

Lagava, Bartelano, and Pettrick, murder of two 
officers and piracy ; Winchester . Dec. 23, 

Dedea Redaines, murder of two girls at Dover ; 
Maidstone Jan. i, 

Thomas Mansell (after seven months' respite), 
murder of a soldier : Maidstone . July 6, 

Capt. H. Rogers, murder of A. Rose, a Ijlack, 
with great cruelty ; Liverpool . Sept. 12, 

Thomas Davis, murder of wife ; Old Bailey, 

Nov. 16, 

John Wm. Beale, murder of Charlotte Pugsley, 
his sweetheart ; Taunton . . Jan. 12, 

James Thomson, alias Peter Walker, murder of 
Agnes Montgomery by poison — discovered by 
a child ; Paisley .... Jan. 14, 

Christian Sattler, a German, murder of inspec- 
tor Thain ; Old Bailey . . Feb. 10, 

Giovanni Lani, murder of Hfloise Thaubin ; Old 
Bailey April 26, 

John B. Bicknell, murder of his grandfather 
and grandmother ; Taunton . . Aug. 24, 

Hen. Reid, murder of wife ; Kirkdalo, Jan. i, 

Wm. Burgess, murder of his daughter ; T'aunton, 

Jan. 4, 

Joseph Castle, mui-der of his wife ; Bedford, 

March 31, 

Willam Yoimgman, murder of his sweetheart, 
Mary Streeter, and of his mother and two 
brothers, on Aug. 16 ; Horsemonger-lane, 

Sept. 4, 

James Mullins, murder of Mrs. Emsley, at 
Stepney ; Old Bailey . . . Nov. ig, 

James Johnson, murder of two non-commis- 
sioned officers ; Winchester . . Jan. i, 

Matthew and Charles Wedmore, murder of 
their aunt ; Taunton . . . April 5, 

Wm. Cogan, murder of his wife ; Old Bailey, 

Oct. 14, 

Thomas Jackson, a soldier, mm-der of sergeant 
John Dickson ; Winchf ster . Dec. 27, 

Wm. Charlton, engine-driver, murdered Jane 
Emmerson, to obtain the money she had 
saved for her funeral ; Carlisle March 15, 

G. J. Gillaert, brutal murder of Miss M. S. Hall, 
on her way to church ; Winchester Aug. 4, 

William Taylor, murder of Mr. Meller from 
revenge ; he previously killed his own child- 
ren ; Kirkdale . . . , Sept. 13, 



1849 



1S54 
1855 
1856 



1859 



* He was the last coiner drawn on a sledge to the scaffold. 

t Captain Charles Montgomery was ordered for execution this cay for fojgery ; but he took a dose (an 
ounce and a half) of prussic acid, to save himself from the ignominy of the g: I'ows, and was found dead in 
his cell. 

U 2 



EXE 



292 



EXE 



EXECUTIONS, continued. 

Catherine Wilson, murder of Mrs. Soamc s by 

poison [and of several other peisons]; Old 

Bailey Oct, 20, 

William Ockold (aged 70), murder of his wife, 

after 50 years' marriage : Worcester, Jan. 2, 
Noah Austen, murder of Mr. Allen ; Oxford, 

March 24, 
Robert A. Burton, miuderof aboy ; Maidstone, 

April II, 
Edward Cooper, murder of his defomied son ; 

Mirew.sbvu-y .... April 11, 

Dennis Delane, hired Beckham and Walsh to 

nuirder his landlord, F. Fitzgerald, April 13, 
J. Ducker, murder of Tye, a policeman ; Ijjs- 

wich April 14, 

Wm. Hope, violation and murder of Mary 

Otirbett ; Hereford . . . April 15, 

I). MacPhail and G. Woods, murder of Mrs. 

Wahie ; Kirkdale .... April 25, 
J. Brookes, murder of Davey, a policeman ; Old 

Bailey Apiil 27, 



I Joseph Kelly, mui'der of Fitzhenry, a school- 
master; Wexford . . . ,Aug. 11, 

1862 I Thomas, Alvarez, H\ighes, and O'Brien, fero- 

cious murderers ; Kirkdale . . Sept. 12, 

1863 Alice Holt, murder of her mother ; Chester, 

Dec. 23, 
,, Samuel Wiight, murder of his paramour, 

Jan. 11!, 
John Lyon and four others (foreigners); 
murder and piracy ; Old Bailey . Feb. 22, 
Charles Bricknell, murder of his sweetheart, 

Aug. I, 
Franz MtOler, murder of Mr. Briggs in a rail- 
way carnage (see Trials); Old Bailey, 



1863 



Ferdinand Kohl, 
Chelmsford 



murder of 



Nov. 14, 
M. Fuhrkop ; 
. Jan. 26, 



Edw. William Pritchard, M.D., murder of wife 
and her mother ; Glasgow . . July 28, 

John Currie ; murder of major De Vera ; Maid- 
stone Oct. 12, 



1865 



EXETER (Devonshire), said to have been earlj'^ honoured with the name oi Augusta frora. 
having been occupied by the second Augustan legion commanded by Vespasian : its present 
name is derived from Exccstrc, "the castellated city of the Exe." It was for a considerable 
time the capital of the West Saxon kingdom. The bishopeic anciently constituted two 
sees, Devonshire (foitndcd about 909) and Cornwall. The church of the former was at 
C^rediton, of the latter at Bodmin. In 1046 the sees were united. St. Petroc was the first 
bishop of Cornwall, before 900 ; Qidulphus, the first bishop of Devonshire, 905 ; and Leofric, 
the first bishop of Exeter, in 1049. The cathedral originally belonged to a monastery 
founded by Atlielstan : Edward the Confessor removed the monks to his new abbey of 
Westminster, and gave their church for a cathedral to the united see 1049 ; valued in the 
king's books at 500^. per annum. Present stated income 2'jool. 



.6 
1200 
1236 
1250 



Alfred invested the city, held by the Danes, and 
compelled them to capitulate . . 877 & 894 

Exeter sacked by Swepi 1003 

Besieged by William the Conqueror . . . 1067 
The castle surrendered to king Stephen . 
The city first governed by a mayor 
The celebiated nunnery founded 
The ancient bridge built 
Edward I. holds a parliament here . 
The Black Prince visits Exeter . . . . 1371 
The duchess of Clarence takes refuge in the city 1469 
Besieged by sir WilUam Coiutenay . . . ,, 
City assaulted by Perkin Warbeck . . . 1497 
Exeter constituttd a county of itself . . 1536 

WeLsh, the vicar of St. Thomas's, hanged on the 
tower of his church, as a leader in the Cornish 

rebellion July 2, 1549 

Annual festival established . . Aug. 6, ,, 

The guildhall built ....... 1593 

Prince Maurice takes Exeter forking Charles I. 

Sept. 4, 1643 



It siurenders to the parliamentarians, April, 

The canal to Topsham cut 

A mint establislied by James II 

Water-works erected 

The sessions house built 

The new bridge built 

The theatre erected 

Lunatic asylum founded 

Covmty gaol built 

Subscription library founded .... 
Devon and Exeter institution for the ijromotion 

of science established 

New city prison built ...... 

The last of the ancient gates removed . . . 
The subscription rooms opened .... 

The public baths erected ... . . 

Mechanics' institution opened .... 

New cemetery commenced 

Railway to Bristol opened . . . May i. 
Great fire, 20 houses burnt . . . Aug. 2, 
Another great fire .... April 26, 



1646 
167s 
1688 
1694 
1773 
1778 
1783 
1795 
1796 
1807 

1813 
1818 

1820 
1821 
1825 
1837 



1847 



RECENT BISHOPS OF EXETEK. 



1803. John Fisher, translated to Salisbury in 1807. 
1S07. Hon. George Pelham, translated to Lincoln, 
Sept. 1820. 



1820. William Carey, translated to St. Asaph, 

March, 1830. 
1S30. Christopher Bethell, translated to Bangor, 1830 
1830. Henry Philpotts (present bishop). 

EXETER CHANGE (London), was built by Walter Stapleton, bishop of Exeter and 
lord treasurer in 13 19, beheaded by order of the queen-regent, Isabella, in 1326. It was 
entirely demolished at thff period of the Strand improvements, in 1829. The new Exeter. 
Change, built by the marc|uis of Exeter near its site, and running from Wellington-street to 
Catherine-street, with a passage, on each side of which are shops for fancy articles, w^as 
opened in 1845. It was pulled down in 1863, and the groimd now forms part of the site of 
the Strand Music-hall. 

EXETER COLLEGE (Oxford) was founded by Walter Stapleton, bishop of Exeter, in 
1314. The college btiildings consist of a handsome quadrangle in the later Clothic style. 



EXE 



293 



EXH 



EXETER HALL (Strand, Loudon), erected in 1830- 1 for the meetings of religious, 
scientific, and other institutions, concerts, oratorios, and musical societies, a lar^e and ma^r- 
niticent apartment with a splendid orchestra and organ, and having I'ooms attached for 
committees, &c. See under Music. Religious services were lield here in 1856 by the 
Rev. C. Spurgeon, and in 1857 by ministers of the Church of England, on Sundays. 

EXHIBITIOISr OF 1851. The original idea of a National Exhibition* is attributed to 
j\[r. F. "Whishaw, secretary of the Society of Arts in 1844. It was not taken up till 1849, 
when prince Albert, president of the society, said, " Now is the time to prepare for a Great 
Kxhibitiou, an exhibition worthy of the greatness of this country ; not merely national in 
its scope aud benefits, but comprehensive of the whole world ; and I oiler myself to the 
public as their leader, if they are willing to assist in the undertaking." See Or ijslal Palace. 



Royal commission appointed . . Jan. 3, 
A subscription list opened, beaded by tlio queen 

for loooL 
Civic banquets in support of the plan, at Lon- 
don, March 21, 22 ; and at York . Oct. 25, 
The buildingt commenced . . Sept. 26, 

Slanj' persons admitted to it in Jan. ; it i.s 
virtually transferred to the royal commis- 
.sioners by the contractors, Messrs. Fox and 

Henderson Feb. 

Reception of goods began Feb. 12, and the sale 
of sea.son tickets .... Feb. 25, 
The Exhibition opened by lier majesty, May i, 
The number of exhibitors exceeded 17,000, of 
whom 2918 received prize medals and 170 
council medals. The articles exhibited in 
arts, manufactures, and the various i^roduce 
of countries, defy calculation. 
The palace continued open above 23 weeks, 
altogether 144 days (May i to Oct. 15), withhi 
which time it was visited by 6, 170,000 per- 
sons, averaging 43,536 a d.ay, whose admis- 



iSso 



sion at the respective prices of one pound, 
half-a-crovTO, and one shilling, amounted to 
505,107^ including season tickets, leaving a 
surplus, after payment of expenses, of about 
iSo,ooo(. 

The greatest number of visitors in one day was 
109,760 (Oct. 8); and at one time (2 o'clock, 
Oct. 7) were 93,000 ; these persons wjre assem- 
bled at one time, not in an open ar3a, like a 
Roman amphitheatre, but (it should be recol- 
lected) within a windowe i and floored and 
roofed building. There is no like vast assem- 
blage recordecl in either ancient or modern 
annals, as having been gathered together, it 
may be said in one room. 

The Exhibition was closed to the public, 

Oct. II, 1851 

A memorial statue of the prince consort, by 
Joseph Durham, placed in the gardens of the 
Royal Horticultural Society, uncovered in 
the presence of the prince and princess of 
Wales June 10, 1863 



EXHIBITION OF 1862. A proposal in 1858 for another Great Exhibition, to be held 
in 1S61, was withdrawn in conseqiience of the war in Italy in 1859, &c. The scheme was 
revived in April i860, when the prince-consort engaged to guarantee 10,000^. if 240,000/. 
should be subscribed for by other persons. 

The jurors' awards of medals were announced 
in the building on . . . July 11, 18C2 

The Exhibition was closed on Nov. i, when the 
total number of visitors (exclusive of attend- 
ants) had been 6,117,450. 

The Exhibition re-opened on Nov. 3 for the 
sale of goods exhibited ; was finally closed on 

Nov. 15, ,, 

The success of the Exhibition was much im- 
Ijaired by the decease of the prince consort, 
Dec. 14, 1861, and the breaking out of the 
civil war in the United States of America. 
The foreign exhibitors in 1851 were 6566 ; in 
1862, 16,456. 



1862 



A charter granted to the following commis- 
sioners : Earl Granville, the m.irquis of 
Chandos, C. W. Dilke, jun., and Thomas 
Fau-bairn Feb. 22, 1861 

The guarantee fund amounted to 349,000^. in 
Nov. i860, and to 452,300!. on . . Aug. 22, 

The building, J erected ,at South Kensington, 
by Messrs. Kelk and Lucas, according to a 
design by capt. Fowke, made over to the 
commissioners on . . . . Feb. 12, 

The Exhibition was opened by the duke of 
Cambridge and a distinguished company on 

May I, 

The fine arts department included a noble col- 
lection of paintings and sculptures. 



* Industrial exhibitions began with the French; £'j;posrtw;i« having been organised and ojiened at Par's 
in 1798, 1801, 1802, 1806, 1819, 1823, 1827, 1834, 1839, 1844, and 1849, the last, being the eleventh, exceeding 
all the ijreceding in extent and brilliancy. The first exhi1:)ition of the kind in this country was the National 
Repository, opened under royal patrona;^e in 1828, near Charing-cross. It was not successful. Other ex- 
hibitions were opened at Manchester in 1837, at Leeds in 1839, and at Birmingham in 1849. Exhibitions 
have since been held at Cork, Dublin, Manchester, New York, Paris, Montreal, Florence, Constantinople, 
Biiyonne, &c. {which, »ee). 

t The palace, with the exception of the flooring and joists, was entirely of glass and iron. It was de- 
signed by Mr. (since sir Joseph) Paxton (who died June 8, 1865), and the contractors were Messrs. Fox and 
Henderson, to whom it was agreed to pay 79,800!., or 150,000!. if the building were permanently retained. 
It co.st 176,030!. i3.«. 8(!. Its length was 1851 feet, correspond'ng with the year ; the width 40S feet, with an 
additiontl projection on the north side, 936 feet long, by 48 wide. The central portion was 120 feet -wide 
and 64 feet high, and the great avenues ran east and west through the building ; the transept near the 
centre was 72 feet wide and loS feet high. The entire area was 772,784 square feet, or about 19 acres. Four 
gaUei-ies ran lengthways, and others round the transept. The ground-floor and galleries contained 1,000,000 
square feet of flooring. There were altogether 4000 tons of u'on in the structure, and 17 acres of glass in 
the roof, besides about 1500 vertical glazed sashes. 

J The main building occupied about 16 acres of ground, and the annexes 7 acres. The south front was 
1x50 feet long and 55 feet high, and over the cast and west fronts rose the two domes 260 feet high. The 



EXO 



294 



FAB 



EXODUS (Greek, v-ay out), a term apjilied to the departure of the Israelites from Egypt 
1491 B.C. ; and described in the book of E.xodus. Clironologers vary in the date of this 
event: the LXX. give 1614 ; Hales, 1648; Wilkinson, 1495 ; Bunseu, 1320 or 1314. 

EX OFFICIO INFORMATIONS are those filed by the attorney-general, by virtue of 
his office, without applying to the court where they are filed for leave, or giving the defendant 
an ojjportunity of showing cause why they should not be filed. Cabinet Laioyer. They 
were used by the Liverpool adniinistration about 181 7 — 19. William Hone was tried ou 
criminal information, Dec. 18-20, 181 7, and acquitted. The British bank directors were 
thus tried, 1857. 

EXPEDITIONS, Bp.itish. Many are described under their respective heads : e.g. : — 



France, near Port I'Orient 

Cherbourg 

St. Malo ; 4000 men lost . 
Quiberon Bay (French emigrants) 
Ostend (all made prisoners) 
Haider Point and Zuyder Zee 



Oct. I, 


1746 


Aug. 7, 


I7S8 


. Sept. 


17^8 




1796 


• M.aj', 


lyqa 


Sept. 


1799 



Ferrol, in Spain 
Egypt (Abercromhie) . 
Coiienhagcn 
Walcberen (unfortunate) 
Bergen-op-Zoom 
Crimea 



. Aug. iSoo 

March, 1801 

Sept. 1807 

July, 1809 

March 8, 1814 

. Sept. 1854 



EXPENDITURE. See under Revenue. 

EXPORTS. Edward III. by his encouragement of trade turned the scale so much in 
favour of English merchandise, that hy a balance taken in his time, the exported comrao- 
<lities amounted to 294,000/. and the imported to only 38,000/. See Revenue. The declared 
value is of much less amount than the official. 



OFFICIAL VALUE OF EXPORTS FROM GKEAT BRITAIN TO ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD, VIZ. : 

1840 



1700 
1750 
1775 
1800 



£6,097,120 

10,130,991 

■ 16,326,363 

. 38,120,120 



1810 
1820 



1835 



£45,869,839 
51,733.113 
66,735,445 
78,376,732 



1S51 



£97,402,726 
131,564,503. 
175,126,706 
190,397,810 



TOTAL DECLARED VALUE OF BRITISH AND IRISH PRODUCE EXPORTED. 



1853 
1855 



• £74.448,722 

• 98,933,781 
. 95,688,085 



1 8 =-.6 
1857 
1859 



£115,826,948 
122,155,237 
130,440,427 



£ 


135,891 


227 




125,102 


814 




123,992 


264 



£146,602,342 
160,436,302 



EXTREME UNCTION. See Anointinci. 

EYLAU (Prussia), where ou Feb. 7, 8, 1807, the French defeated the Russians, in one 
of the most bloody contests of the war. Napoleon commanded in person. Both armies by 
this and other battles were so much reduceil, that the French retired to the Vistula, and the 
Russians on the Pregel. The victor lost 15,000 men ; the Russian loss in slain alone was 
20, 000. 

EYRE (old French for ire, to go). Tlic itinerant court of justices, the justices in eyre, 
was instituted by Henry II. 1176 ; and when the forest laws were in force, its chief justice 
had great dignity. These justices were to go their circuit ever}'- third year, and puuisli all 
abuses committed in the king's forests. The last instance of a court being held in any of 
the forests is believed to have been in 1671. Beatson. 



F. 



FABII. A noble and powerful family at Rome, who derived their name from faha, a 
bean, because some of their ancestors cultivated this pulse ; they were said to be descended 
from Fabius, a sujiposed son of Hercules, and were once so numerous that they took upon 
themselves to wage war against the Veientes. They came to a general engagement near the 
Cremera, in which all the family, consisting of 306 men, were slain in a sudden attack, 
477 B.C. There only remained one, Avliose tender age had detained him at Rome, and from 
him arose the noble Fabii in the following ages. Fabius Cunctator (the delayer) kept 
Hannibal in check for some time without coming to an engagement, 217, 216 B.C. 

interior was decorated by Mr. John G. Grace. The building was given up to Messrs. Kelk and Lucas on 
I>ec. 31, 1862, the house of commons having refused to purchase it for 8o,ooo^ July 2, 1863 ; and the pull- 
ing down commenced on July 6. 'I'he domes and other x:)arts of the structure were purchased for erection 
iu Alexandra-park, Muswell-hill, near London (north). 



TAB 205 FAL 

FABLES. " Jotham's fable of the trees (Judges ix., about 1209 B.C.) is the oldest extant, 
and as beautiful as any made since. " Addison. Nathan's fable of the poor man (2 Sam. xii., 
aboiit 1034 B.C.) is next in anti(juity. The earliest collection of fables extant is of eastern 
origin, and preserved in the Sanscrit. The fables of Yishnoo Sarnia, called Pilpay, are the 
most beautiful, if not the most ancient in the world. Sir William Jnncs. The well-known 
^'Esop's fables (which see), supposed to have been written about 565 or 620 B.C., were versified 
by Babrius, a Greek poet, about 130 B.C. (Coratj), and turned into })rose by Maximus 
rianudes, a Greek monk, about 1320, who added other fables and appended a worthless life 
of .iEsop. The fables of Lafontaine (1700) and Gay (1727) are justly celebrated. 

FACTION'S, among the Eomans, were parties that fought on chariots in the circus, and 
vho were distinguished by their colour!?, as green, blue, red, and white ; to which Doniitian 
added two others, gold and scarlet, about 90. At Constantinople, the higher ranks took 
jiart in the games, and the emjierors and people generally favoured one colour.* 

FACTORIES, supplied with machinery for producing manufactures, have immensely 
increased in this country -since 1815. The Factory act, regulating the hours of labour, &c., 
Avas passed in 1833. No child is to be employed under nine years of age, except in silk 
factories. Similar acts have been passed since. 

FAIELOP OAK, with a trunk 48 feet in circumference, the growth of five centuries, in 
the forest of Hainault, Essex, was blown down in Feb., 1820. Beneath its branches a fair 
was annually held on the lirst Fi'iday in July, which originated with the eccentric Mr. Day, 
a pump and block maker of Wapping, who, having a small estate in the vicinity, annually 
vejiaired here with a party of friends, to dine on beans and bacon. 

FAIEOAKS, near the Chickahominy, Virginia, the site of two sanguinary indecisive 
liattles between the Confederates, under general Joseph Johnson, and the Federal army of 
the Potomac, under general M'Clellan, May 31, and June i, 1862. 

FAIRS AND AVakes, of Saxon origin, were instituted in England by Alfred, 886. 
Spcbjian. Wakes were established by order of Gregory VII. in 1078, and termed Fericc, at 
which the monks celebrated the festival of their patron saint : the vast resort of people 
occasi,oned a great demand for goods, wares, &c. Fairs were established in France about 800 
l>y Charlemagne, and encouraged in England about 1071 by AVilliam the Conqueror. 

FALCONRY in England cannot be traced with certainty until the reign of king Ethel- 
bert, the Saxon monarch, 850. Pennant. The grand seignior at one time kept six thousand 
falconers in his service. Recents attempts have been made to revive falconry. 

FALCZI, Pe.vce of, concluded between Russia and Tui'key, July 2, 171 1, the RiLssians 
giving up Azoph and all their possessions on the Black Sea to the Turks. The Russians 
were saved from imminent destruction by the address of Catherine the empress. In 1 712 the 
■war was renewed, and terminated by the peace of Constautinoiile, April 16, 1712. 

FALERNIAN WINE, celebrated by Virgil and Horace, Avas the produce of Falernus, or, 
iis called by Martial, Mons Massicus, in Campania. Horace in his (Jdcs boasts of having 
drunk Falernian Avine that had been, as it were, born Avith him, or Avhich reckoned its age 
from the same consuls, 14 B.C. The Opimian Aviue is said to have been kept for 200 years. 

FALKIRK (Stirlingshire, Scotland), the site of a victory by the English under Edward I. 
over the Scots, commanded by Wallace, part of Avhose forces deserted him. It is said froni 
20,000 to 40,000 of the latter Avere slain, July 22, 1298. A battle Avas fought here between 
the royal forces and prince Charles Stuart, in Avhich the former Avere defeated, Jan. 17, 1746, 

FALKLAND ISLANDS, a group in the South Atlantic, belonging to Great Britain. 
Seen by Americus A'^espucius ; and A'isited by Davis, 1592. Taken possession of by France, 
1764. The French Avere expelled by the Spaniards ; and in 1771, Spain gave up the sove- 
reignty to England. Not having been colonised by us, the republic of Buenos Ayres assumed 
a ri'dit to the.se islamls, and a colony from that country settled at Port Louis ; but owing to 
<a dispute Avith America, the settlement Avas destroyed by the latter in 1831. In 1833 the 
British Hag AA'as hoisted at Port Louis, and a British officer has since resided there. 
M'Culloch° 

* In Jan. 5152, <a conflict took place, when about 30.000 lives were lost, and Justinian was mainly in- 
debted for his life and throne to the heroism of his empress Theodora, formerly a courtesan. The blues 
and greens united for a day or two agaiu.st the emperor, takin'^ Nika ! (overcome) for a watchword, from 
which the sedition has been namcl. The blues soon repented, and massacred nearly all the gre;;ns. The 
games were svippressed for a time. 



FAM 296 FAS 

FAMILY COMPACT. See Bourbon. 

FAIMILY OF LOVE, a society, called also Pliiladelpliiaus, from tlie love they professed 
to bear to all men, even the most -wicked. They assembled at Brew-house yard, Nottingham. 
Their founder was named David George, an Anabaptist, of Holland, who propagated his doc- 
trine in Switzerland, where he died in 1556. After this event the tenets of the society were 
declared to be impious, and George's body and books were ordered to be burned by the hang- 
man. See also Agapemonians. 

FAMINES. The famine of the seven years in Egypt began 1708 b.c. Usher ; Blair. 

Famine at Rome, when tlionsands of people , One in England and France (Rapiti) . . 1353 

threw themselves into the Tiber . .B.C. 436 Again, one so great, that bread was made from 

Awful famine in EgjTpt . . . a.d. 42 fern-roots (Stozo) 1438 

At Rome, attended by Plague . . . . 262 One throughout these islands . . . .1565 
In Bribiin, so grievous that people ate the bark | Awful one in France ( FoWaice) . . . . 1693 

of trees 272 One general in these realms .... 1748 

In Scotland, and thousands die . . . . 306 One which devastates Bengal . . . . 1771 
In England, where 40,000 perish . . . 310 At Cape de Verde ; 16,000 persons perish . 1775 

Awful one in Phrj-gia 370 One grievouslj- felt in France . . . . 1789 

In Italj-, when parents ate their children (Da- One severely felt in England .... 1795 

fresnoy) 450 Again, throughout the kingdom . . . . 1801 

I n England, Wales, and Scotland . . . 739 At Drontheim, owing to Sweden intercepting 

Again, when thousands starve .... 823 the supi^lies 1813 

Again, which lasts four years . . . . 954 Scarcity of food severely felt by the Irish poor, 
Awful one throughout Europe .... 1016 1814, 1816, 1822, 1831, 1S46, in consequence of 

In England, 21 WilUam 1 1087 the failure of the potato crop. Grants by par- 

In England and France : this famine leads to a i liament, to relieve the suffering of the people, 

pestilential fever, which lasts from 1193 to 1195 ' were made in the session of 1847, the whole 
Another famine in England .... 1251 ' amounting to ten millions sterling. 
Again, so dreadful that the people devoured the I In N. W. provinces of India, thousands starving. 

flesh of horses, dogs, cats, and vermin . . 1315 ; (See India.) .... Jan. — March, 1861 
One occasioned by long rains . . . . 1335 ', 

FAN. The use of the fan was known to the ancients ; Cape hoc flahellum, et vcntulum 
huic sic facito. " Take this fan, and give her thus a little air." Terence, EunucMis, B.C. 
166. — Fans, together with muffs, masks, and false hair, were first devised by the harlots in 
Italy, and were brought to England from France. Stoiv. The fan was used by females to 
hide their faces at church. Pardon. In the British Museum are fan-handles and other 
articles of Egj'ptian manufacture, used anciently by women. 

FAKCE, a short comic drama, usually of one or two acts. One by Otway is dated 1677. 
The best English farces (by Foote, Garrick, Bickerstaff, &c.) appeared from about 1740 to 
1780. These species of dramatic entertainment originated in the droll shows which were 
exhibited by charlatans and their buffoons in the open street. See Drama. 

FAENESE FAMILY became important through the elevation of Alexander Farnese 
to the papacy as Paul III. He gave liis natural son Peter the duchy of Parma, and his 
descendants ruled there till the death of Antony without issue in 1731. Alexander prince of 
Parma was governor of the Netherlands in 1579. 

FARRINGDON-MAEKET, erected by the corporation of London, near the old Fleet- 
market, was opened Nov. 20, 1829. 

FAPiTHING, an early English coin. Farthings in silver were coined by king John ; the 
Iri.sh farthing of his reign is of the date of 12 10, and is valuable and rare. Farthings were 
coined in England in silver by Henry VIII. First coined in copper by Charles II. 1665 ; 
and again in 1672, when there was a large coinage of copper money. Half- farthings were 
first coined in the reign of Victoria, 1843. See Queen Anne's Farthings. 

FASTS, observed by most nations from the remotest antiquity ; by the Jews (2 Chron. 
XX. 3) ; by the Ninevites (Joimh iii. ). A fast was observed by the Jews on the great day of 
atonement, Lev. xxiii. 1490 B.C. The first Christian ministers were ordained with fasting 
(45), Acts xiii. 2. Annual fa.sts, as that of Lent, and at other stated times, and on par- 
ticular occasions to appease the anger of God, began in the Christian church, in the second 
century, 138. The Mahometan fast is termed Ramadan {v-hich sec). Fast days are 
appointed by the Reformed churches in times of wai- and pestilence (as March 21, 1855), 
for the Russian war, and Oct. 7, 1857, for the Indian mutiny). See Abstinence. 



FAT 



FEX 



FATHERS OF the CHURCH. The foUowiug are the principal : 



SECOND CEMTURY. Greek. 
Justin Alartyr, d. abt. i66 
Irenaius . . d. abt 200 
Athenagoras. 

THIRD CEKTURV. Gre(l: 
(elements . . d. abt. 217 
Origen . . d. abt. 253 



Latin. 
Tertullian . d. abt. 220 
MinutiusFelis,.^. abt. 230 
Cyprian . . d. abt. 258 

FOURTH AND FIFTH CEN- 
TURIES. OreeL: 
Eusebius . d. abt. 340 



Athanasins, d. . 
Ephrem Syrus, (Z.abt. 
B;vsU . . d 
Cyiilof Jei-usalom, d. 
Gregory N,aziauzen,rf. 
GregoryNysseu.d. abt. 
Epiphanius . d. 
Chrysostom . . d. 



373 
378 
379 



394 
402 
407 



CjTil of Alexandria, d 


444 


latin. 




Arnobiiis . . fi. 


30^ 


Lactiintius . d. abt. 


330 


Ambrose . . d. 


397 


Jerome . . d. 


420 


Augustine . . d. 


430 



FATIMITES. See AU and 31a7wmetanism. 

FATS are oils solid at ordinary temperatures. Tlie researches of Chevreul since 181 1 on 
their chemical natiu'e are very important. See Candles. 

FAUSTUS, a professor of magic, renowned in cheap-books, flourished about the end of 
the 15th century. Goethe's poem, "Faust," appeared in 1790. 

FEASTS AND FESTIVALS. The "Feasts of the Lord," viz., those of the Passover, 
Pentecost, Trumpets, and Tabernacles were instituted 1490 B.C. [Leviticus, ch. x.xiii. )! 
The Feast of the Tabernacles was celebrated with the greatest magnificence for fourteen 
days, upon the dedication of the temple of Solomon, 1004 B.C. Hezekiah (726 B.C.) and 
Josiali (623) kept the feast of Passover in a most solemn manner. In the Christian Church 
the feasts of Christmas, Easter, Ascension, and the Pentecost or Whitsuntide, are said to 
have been ordered to be observed by all Christians, in the ist century. Rogation days were 
appointed in 469. Jubilees in the Romish Church were instituted by Boniface YIII. in 
1300. See Jubilees. For fixed festivals observed in the Church of England, as settled at 
the Reformation, ct seq., see Book of Common Prayer. For Feasts of Charity, see Acjapee. 

FEBL^RARY (from Fehruus, an Italian divinity), the second month of the year, in which 
were celebrated Februa, feasts on behalf of the manes of deceased persons. This month, 
■with January, was added to the year b}' Xuma, 713 B.C. 

FECIALES, or Fetiale.s, heralds of Rome, twenty in number, to denounce war or pro- 
claim peace, appointed by Numa, about 712 B.C. 

FEDERAL ST--VTES are those united by treaty as one state, without giving up self- 
governraent--as in Switzerland. The term Federal was given to the Northern of the United 
States of America during the great conflict in 1S61-5. 

FEEJEE ISLANDS, or Fiji, in the Pacific Ocean, about 15CX) miles from S3-dne}-. 
There are 80 islands, the largest about 360 miles in circumference, with 20,000 inhabitants. 
The islands were ottered by the chiefs to the British government, July, 1859 ; but not 
accepted. In 1S60 the house of commons granted 1680Z. for expenditure in them. 

FELONY, in English law (says Blackstonc, in 1765) comprises every species of crime 
which occasions the forfeiture of land and goods. 

FENCIBLE LIGHT DRAGOONS, a body of cavalry raised voluntarily in various 
counties of England and Scotland in 1 794, to serve during the war in any part of Great 
Britain. This force (between 14,000 and 15,000), which did its duty with much judgment 
during a period of intense popular excitement, was disbanded in 1800. 

FENCING was introduced into England from France. Fencing-schools having led to 
duelling in England, were prohibited in London by statute 13 Edw. I. 1285. In 1859 there 
were eight teachers of fencing in London. 

FENIANS, a secret society in the United States of America, which became known early 
in 1863, formed with the professed object of invading Ireland and establishing a republic. 
Attempts to enlist supporters in Dublin in Jan. 1864, were discountenanced by the Roman 
Catholic clerg}-, but secret drilling went on till Sept. 1S65. John O'JIahony, termed the 
"head-centre," resides at New York. The principal agent in Ireland is Stephens, who was 
concerned in the movement in 1848. See Ireland. 



Riot between the Fenians and their opponents 
at the Rotondo, DubUn . . Feb. 22, 1864 

25 persons arrested in Dublin, and the news- 
paper the Ii-'tsh PeO[ik (established Sept. 1863) 
seized Sept. 15, 1865 

Other persons, princip;illy of the lower classes 
of society, arrested . . Sept. 17-30 ,, 

The Fenians in America published an address, 
stating that officers were going to Ireland to 
organise an army of 200,000 men . Sept. „ 

Fenians arrested at Manchester . Sept. 21, ,, 



A ship ladeu with gimpowder seized at Liver- 
pool Sept. 1865 

Allocution of the pope, condemning secret, 
societies Sept. 30 ,, 

Evidence adduced that 5000?. and 2000 pike- 
he.ads had been received from America in 
Sept. 

O'Donovan and 5 others committed for high 
treason Oct. 2, ,, 

33 Fenians committed for trial, up to Oct. 14, ,, 

Many arriving from America are arrested Oct. ,, 



FER 298 FET 

FERE-CHAMPENOISE (France). Here the French army under Marniont, Mortier, 
and Arrighi, were surprised and defeated by the Austrians under the prince of Scdiwartzen- 
berg, March 25, 1814, after a heroic resistance. Paris surrendered to the allies six da3'S 
after. 

FERINE LATIN.i'E were solemn festivals at Rome, instituted by Tarquin the Proud, 
iibont 534 B.C. The principal magistrates of forty-seven towns of Latium assembled on a 
mount near Rome, where they and the Roman authorities offered a bull to Jupiter Latialis. 

FERMENTATION, by Gay-Lussac, termed one of the most mysterious processes in. 
nature : he showed that in the proces.s, 45 lbs. of sugar are resolved into 23 of alcohol and 22 
of carbonic acid. His memoir appeai'ed in 18 10. In 1861 Pasteur brought forward 
evidence to show that fermentation depends on the presence of minute organisms in the 
fermenting fluid, and that the source of all such organisms is the atmosphere. 

FERNS (Ireland), an ancient bishopric, once archiepiscopal. St. Ednen was seated here 
in 598. Leighliu and Ferns were united in 1600 ; and by the Church Temporalities' act, 
passed Aug. 1833, both were united to the bishopric of Ossory. See Ossory. — Ferns, an 
order of cryptogamous plants, now much cultivated in Wardian cases, 'which sec, and also 
Natii,re- Printing. 

FEROZESHAH (India). The British, commanded by sir Hugh Gough, attacked the 
entrenchments of the Sikhs, and carried by storm their flrst line of works, Dec. 21, 1845 ; 
but night coming on, the operations were suspended till daybreak next day, when their 
second line was stormed by general Gilbert, and 74 guns captured. The Sikhs advanced 
to retake their guns, but were repulsed with great loss, and retreated towards the Sntlej, 
Dec. 22 ; and recrossed that river unmolested, Dec. 27, The British loss was reckoned 
at 2415. 

FERRARA, a city in the Papal States, formerly part of the Exarchate of Ravenna, under 
the emperors of the East. It was subdued by the Lombards in the 8th century, and taken 
from them about 752 by Pepin, who gave it to pope Stephen II. About 1208 it fell into the 
hands of the house of Este {which sec), and became the principal seat of the literature and 
fine arts in Italy. Pope Clement VIII. obtained the long-claimed sovereignty in 1598, on 
the death of the duke Alphonso II., the last legitimate male of the Este family. His 
illegitimate nephew, Cresar, became duke of MoJena. The French under Masseua took 
Ferrara in 1796 ; but it was restored to the pope in 1814. An Austrian garrison held it from 
1849 ; it retired in June, 1859, and the peo])le rose and declared for annexation to Sardinia, 
which was accomplished in March, i860. 

FERRARS' ARREST. In March, 1542, Mr. George Ferrars, a member of parliament, 
being in attendance on the house, was taken in execution by a sheriff's officer for debt, and 
committed to the Compter prison. The house despatched their serjeant to require his 
release, which was resisted, and an affray taking place, his mace was broken. The house in 
a body repaired to the lords to comjilain, when the contempt was adjudged to be very 
great, and the punishment of the offenders was referred to the lower house. On another 
messenger being sent to the .sheriffs by the commons, they delivered up the senator, and the 
civil magistrates and the creditor were committed to the Tower, the inferior officers to 
Newgate, and an act was passed releasing Mr. Ferrars from liability for the debt. The king, 
Henry VIII., highly approved of all these proceedings, and the transaction became the basis 
of that loile of parliament which exempts members from arrest. HoUiished. 

FERRO, the most western of the Canary isles, from whose west point some geographers 
have taken their first meridian, was known to the ancients, and was re-discovered in 1402. 

FERROL (N.^y. Spain). Upwards of 10,000 British lauded near Ferrol under the 
command of sir James Pulteney, in Aug. 1800. They gained possession of the heights ; 
notwithstanding which the British general, despairing of success, on account of the strength 
of the works, re-embarked his troops. His conduct, which was in opposition to the opinion 
of his officers, was very much condemned in England. The French took seven sail of the 
line here, Jan. 27, 1809. 

FESCENNINE VERSES were rude extemporary dialogues, frequently licentious, in 
favour among the ancient Etruscans, and still popular in Italy. 

FESTIVALS. See Fcants. 

FETE DK DIEU, a feast of the Roman church in honour of the real presence in the 

Lord's Supper, kept on the Thursday after Trinity Sunday. See Corpus Christi. Berengarius, 



FET 299 FIN 

arclil)isliop of Angers, ayus opposed to the doctrine of trausubstantiation when it was 
propagated, and to atone for his crime a yearly procession was made at Angers, which was 
called la f etc de Dicu, 1019. 

FETE DE YERTir, an annual assemblage, chiefly of young persons, to whom were 
adjudged rewards for industry and virtue. These fetes, held at Nuneham, in Oxfordshire, 
begun by lady Harcourt in 1789, continued till her death. 

FEUDAL LAWS. The tenure of land by suit and service to the lord or owner was 
introduced into England by the Saxons, about 600. This slavery was increased in 1068. 
The kingdom was divided into baronies, which were given on condition of the holders 
furnishing the king with men and money. The vassalage, restored, but limited by Henry VII. , 
1495, was abolished by statute 1660. The feudal system was introduced into Scotland bj-- 
JMalcolrn II. in 1008, and the hereditary jurisdictions were finally abolished in that kingdom, 
1746-7. Tlie feudal laws, established in France by Clovis I. abont486, were discountenanced 
by Louis XL in 1470. 

FEUILLANTS, a religious order founded by Jean de la Barriere in 1577 at the abbey of 
Feuillant, near Toulouse, and settled in Paris in 15S7. The Feuillant club, formed in Paris 
by La Fayette and others in 1789, to counteract the intrignes of the Jacobins, was so 
named from the convent, where they met. A body of Jacobins burst into their hall and 
obliged them to separate, Dec. 25, 1791 ; and the club was broken up in 1792. 

FEZ (in the ancient Mauritania, Africa), founded by Edris, a descendant of Mahomet, 
about 787, was long capital of the kingdom of Fez. After long-continued struggles, it was 
annexed to Morocco about 1550. Leo Africanus describes it as containing more than seven 
hundred temples, mosques, and other public edifices, in the 12th centu^3^ 

FICTIONS. See Romances. — Fictions ix L.\w were invented by the lawyers in the 
reign of Edward I. as a means of carrying cases from one court to another, whereby the 
courts became checks to each other. Hume. Lord Mansfield, in the couit of King's 
Bench, emphatically declared, that " KO fiction of law shall evf.r .so far prevail 

AGAINST THE REAL TRUTH, AS TO PREVENT THE EXECUTION OF JUSTICE," May31, I784. 

FIEF. See Feudal Laws. 

FIELD OF March and May. See Champ. Field of the Cloth of Gold, a plain 
near Ardres, near Calais, in France, on which Henry VIII. met Francis I. of France, June, 
7-25, 1520. The nobility of both kingdoms elisplayed their magnificence, and niany 
involved themselves in debt. Paintings of the embarkation and interview are at AVindsor 
castle. 

FIERY CHAMBER. See Chambre Ardente. 

FIESCHFS ATTEMPT on Louis-Philitpe. See France, 1835. 

FIFTH-MONARCHY MEN about 1645 .supposed the period of the Millennium to be 
just at hand, when Jesus should descend from heaven, and erect the fifth universal monarchy. 
They ^iroceeded so far as to elect Jesus Christ king at London. Cromwell dispersed them, 
1653. Kcarsley. Another rising with loss of life was suppressed in Jan. 1661. 

FIG-TREE {Ficus Carica). Brought from the south of Europe, before 1548. The 
Botany-Bay Fig, Ficus Australis, brought from N.S. AYales in 1789. 

FIGURES. See Arithmetic, and Digits. 

FILES are mentioned (i Sam. xiii. 21) B.C. 1093. The manufacture of them has 
attained to great perfection, \>y means of file-cutting machinery. That set up by Mr. T. 
Greenwood of Leeds, in 1859, was invented by M. BeVnot of Paris. It is said tliat the price 
of files made by it are reduced from T,2d. to 4^. per dozen. 

FILIBUSTERS, a name given to the freebooters who plundered the coasts of America 
in the 17th century. See Buccaneers and Nicaragua. 

FILTERERS. A jdan for purifying corrupted water was patented by Wm. AVollcott in 
1675. Other modes followed. James Peacock's method of filtration was patented in 1791. 

FINE ARTS. See Arts, Paintings, Sculpture, Engraving, &c. 

FINES AND KECOVERIES, conferring the power of breaking ancient entails and 
alienating estates, began in the reign of Edward IV., but was not, properly speaking, law, 
till Henry VII., by correcting some abuses that attended the practice, gave indirectly a 
sanction to it, 1487. Fines and recoveries were abolished in 1833. 



FIN 300 FIR 

FINLAND, a Eussian graiid-ducli}'^, in the middle of the 12th century was conquered 
hy the Swedes, who introduced Christianity. It was several times conquered by the Russians 
(1714, 1742, and 1808), and restored (1721 and 1743) ; but in 1809 they retained it by treaty. 
See Abo. Its political constitution was confirmed by the czar in 1809, 1825, and 1855. 
ropulation in 1862, 1,746,229. 

FINNIAN. See Fenians. I 

FIRE is said to have been first produced by striking flints together. The poets supposed ^ 
that fire was stolen from heaven by Prometheus. Heraclitus about 596 B.C. maintained that 
the world was created from fire, and deemed to be a god onmipotent. 

FIRE-ANNIHILATOR, an apparatus invented by Mr. T. Phillips, and made known by 
him in 1849. When put in action, steam and carbonic acid are formed, which extinguish 
Hame. It was not successful in practice. 

FIRE-ARMS. (See Artillery and Cannon.) The first small fire-arms were a species of 
cannon, borne by two men. See Revolver. 

Fire-arms made at Perugia, in Italy . . . 1364 All these were of very rude constructicjii, being 
Employed by the Burgundians in the defence i first discharged by a lighted match, aftcr- 

of Arras 1414 wards, about 1 517, by a wheel-lock, then by 

Edward IV., when he landed at Ravenspur, is \ the flint. 

.said to have been accompanied by 300 ; The match-lock and wheel-lock superseded by 

Flemings, ai-med with hand-guns . . . 1471 ' the flint-lock, about 1692 

At the battle of Morat, the Swiss are said to The rev. Mr. Forsythe patented the percussion 

have had 10,000 men armed with fire-arms . 1476 principle of igniting gunjiowder in muskets 
Fire-arms were used at the siege of Berwick . 1521 by means of detonating powder . . . . 1807 
The petronel (from poitrine, the chest) or ar- Percussion caps came into use between 1820 & 1830 

quebus came into use, 1480 ; and the musket , The old musket (Brown Sess) was superseded by 

employed in the armies of the emperor 1 the Enfleld rifle, which is likely to give way 

Charles V. about „ [ to Lancaster's smooth-bored rifle . . . 1858 

SMALL ARMS OP THE BRITISH SERVICE, 1854. 



Percussion musket ; pattern, 1842. 
Victoria carbine (for cavalry). 
Regulation rifle musket'; pattern, 1851. 



Enfield rifle mu.sket, adopted for the service in 1853, 
after experiments at the royal manufactory, En- 
field Lock. 

Artillery carbine ; pattern, 1842. 



FIRE-BRIGADE was established in London in 1832 by Mr. R. Bell Ford, director of the 
Sun fire-office. It then had 80 men and 19 stations. In 1863 it had 130 men and 20 
stations. In May, 1862, a commission recommended the establishment of a Police fire- 
brigade, which was effected by an act of parliament in 1865. It was to be supported by a 
\d. rate and by contributions from government and from the insurance offices. 

FIRE-DAMP INDICATOR, is a small apparatus, about the size of a chronometer, 
invented by Mr. G. F. Ansell, and patented by him in 1865, by which the presence of very 
small quantities of fire-damp or light carburetted hydrogen gas may be detected in mines. 
It is an apjilication of the law of the diflusion of gases. 

FIRE-ENGINES are said to have been invented by Ctesibius 250 B.C. They arc 
mentioned by Pliny, a.d. 70. A "Water-bow" was patented by Thos. Grent in 1632, one 
was constructed by John Vander Heyden, about 1663. Bramah's engine was patented in 
1793, and many others since. Mr. John Braithwaite constructed a steam fire-engine in 
1830. A trial of steam fire-engines took place at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham, on July, 
I, 2, 3, 1863 ; when prizes were awarded to a large one by Merry weather and a small one by 
Shand and Mason. 

FIRE-ESCAPES have been patented by David Marie (1766), Joachim Smith (1773), and 
by many other persons. The Royal Society for the Protection of Life from Fire was first 
established in 1836 ; it object was not fully attained till 1843, Avhen it was re-organised, 
beginning with six escape stations in London ; in March, 1859, it possessed 67. In 1861 it 
was stated that 84 lives had been saved by the conductors. In 1858, 504 fires had been 
attended, and 57 persons rescued. Versmann's composition for rendering washing dresses 
Jire-proo/ was published about i860. 

FIRE INSURANCE. See Insurance. 

FIRE-SHIPS were first used in the 13th century. Among the most formidable con- 
trivances of this kind ever used, was an explosion vessel to destroy a bridge of boats at 
the siege of Antwerp, in 1585. The first use of them in the British navy was by Cliarles, 
lord Howard of Effingham, in the engagement of the Spanish Armada, July, 1588. Itapin. 



FIR 



301 



FIR 



FIRE-WATCH, or Fire-Guard of London, was instituted Nov. 1791. 

FIRE-WORKS* are said to have been familiar to the Chinese in remote ages. They were 
invented in Europe at Florence about 1360 ; and were exhibited as a spectacle in 1588. 



Macaulay stites that *he fire-works let off in Eng- 
land at the i-icace of Ryswick, in 1697, cost 12,000/. 

Very grand lire- works were let offlrom a magnificent 
building erected in the Green-park, London, at the 
peace of Aix-la-Cliapelle, signed April 30, 1748. 

At an exhibition of fire- works in Paris, May 31, 1770, 
in honour of the marriage of the clauxihin, after- 
wards Louis XVI., nearly 1000 pcrsc)ns perished 
liy pressure and drowning, through a panic. 



The display of fireworks, \uider the direction of sir 
Wni. Cungreve, on the celebration of the general 
peace, and to commemorate the ccntenarj' acces- 
sion of the family of Brunswick to the British 
throne, surpassed all previous exhibitions, Aug. i, 
1814. 

A grand display of this kind (at a cost of 10,000?.) to 
celebrate the peace with Russia, May 29, 1856. 



FIRES IN London. The conilagration of a city, with all its tumult of concomitant 
distress, is one of the most dreadful spectacles which this workl can offer to human eyes. 
Dr. Johnson. See Santiago, Liverpool, &c. (1862). 



REMArvKABLE FIRES IN OR NEAR LONDON. 



A gi-cat rart of thecitj' destroyed, including St. 

Paul's cathedral .... 962 & 1087 
One at London-bridge, began on the Southwark 
side, and was communicated to the other side, 
and hemmed in a numerous crowd. Of those 
who threw themselves into boats and barges, 
about 3000 were drowned. A great part of 
the city, north and south, was burned, 14 

John 1212 

The Great Fire, whose iniins covered 436 acres, 
extended from the Tower to the Temple- 
church,, and from the north-cast gate to 
Holboni-bridge. It began at a baker's house 
in Pudding-lane, behind Jlonunicnt-yard, and 
destroyed, in the space of four days, 89 
churches (including St. Paul's), the city gates, 
the Royal Exchange, the Cust<im-house, 
Guildhall, Siou college, and many other 
public buildings, besides 13,200 houses, lay- 
ing waste 40c streets. About 200, 000 persons 
encamped in Islington and Highgate fields. 
(See Monument.) . . . Sept. 2-6, 1666 
In Southwark, 60 houses burnt • . . . 1676 
In Wajiping, 150 houses burnt, 50 lives lost . 171.S 

Custonis-hovise burnt 1718 

At ShadwcU, so houses burnt . Sept. 10, 1736 
In ComhiU ward, 200 houses burnt ; this fire 
began in Change-alley, and was the most 
ten-ible since the great fire of 1666, March 25, 1748 
At Coven t-garden, 50 houses . . . . 1759 

In Smithfield, 28 houses burnt .... 1761 
At ShadweU, 30 houses burnt . . . . „ 
In Throginorton-stroet, 20 houses . . . 1774 

At Wapjting, 20 hou.ses 1775 

At Hermitage-stairs, 31 houses .... 1779 
At Horselydown, 30 houses, besides many 

warehouses and ships . . April 30, 1780 

Xewgate, &c. , by the Gordon mob . June, ,, 

In the Strand, 40 houses 1781 

In Aldersgate street, 40 houses ; the loss exceed- 
ing ioo,ooof. Nov. 5, 1783 

I The Opera-house .... June 17, 1789 
At Rotherhithe, 20 houses . . . Oct. 12, 1790 
Again, when many ships and 60 houses were 

consumed ..... Sept. 14, 1791 
Pantheon, Oxford-street . . June 14, 1792 
At Wajjping, 630 houses, and an East India 
warehou.'^c, in which 35,000 bags of saltpetre 
were stored : the lo.ss 1,000,000/. July 21, 1794 

Astley's amphitheatre . . . Sept. 17, ,, 
St. Paul's church, Covent-garden Sept. 11, 1795 



At ShadweU, 20 houses burnt . Nov. i, 

In the Minorics, 30 houses . . March 23, 
In the King's Bench, 50 residences July 14, 
Near the Customs, three West India ware- 
houses ; loss 300,000/. . . . Feb. 11, 
At Wapping, 30 houses . . . Oct. 6, 

In Store-street, Tottenham-com-t-road, immense 

property destroyed .... Sept. 27, 
The great tower over the choir of Westminster 

abbey buint July 9, 

Astley's again, and 40 houses . . Sept. i, 
Frith-street, Soho, lasted several days, many 

houses destroyed .... Dec. 2, 

Surrey theatre Aug. 12, 

Covent-garden theatre . . Sept. 20, 

Drury-lane theatre .... Feb. 24, 
In Conduit-street ; jNIr. Windham, in aiding to 

save Mr. North's library, received an injury 

which caused his death . . . July 9, 
In Bury-street, St. Mary-axe, half the street 

made ruins June 12, 

Custom house, warehouses, and public records 

destroyed Feb. 12, 

At Rotherhithe, 60 houses and several ships 

destroyed ; loss 80,000/. . . March 16, 
At Mile-end ; loss 200,000/. . . Jan. 22, 
In Smithfield ; loss 100,000/. . . Aug. 14, 
Royalty theatre destroyed . . April 11, 
In Red Lion-street, 1 5 houses . . June 6, 
Argyle rooms destroyed . . . Feb. 5, 
English opera-house, &c., burnt . Feh. 16, 

Houses of parliament consumed . Oct. 16, 
Fenning's-wharf, London-bridge, <fcc. ; loss 

250,000/ Aug. 30, 

The Royal Exchange destroyed . Jan. 10, 

At Wai^ping, 12 houses . . . June 16, 
Camberwell church .... Feb. 7, 
Astley's theatre again .... June 8, 
At the Tower ; the armoury and 280,000 stand 

of arms, &c. destroyed . . . Oct. 30, 
Raggett'shotel, Dover-street, Piccadilly; several 

eminent persons perished . . May 27, 

Several houses in New-square, Lincohi's inn, 

Jan. 14, 
Olympic theatre .... M.arch 29, 
One in St. Martin's-lane (at a publican's named 

Ben Caunt), three lives lost . . Jan. 15, 
Fire at Duke-street, London-bridge ; property 

lost estimated at 60,000/. . . Feb. 19, 

At the Rose and Crown, Love-lane, City, four 

lives lost May iS, 



1796 
1797 
1799 

1800 



1B14 

1820 
1821 
1822 
1826 
1828 



1S40 



1S51 



* In consequence of explosions frequently occurring at fire- work makers (particularly one on July 12, 
1858, at Mr. Bennett's, in the West minster- road, Lambeth, when five lives were lost, and about 300 persons 
seriously injured, and much i:)roperty dcstroj-cd), it was determined to enforce 9 & 10 Will. III. c. 7 (1697), 
an act to prevent the throwing and forming of squibs, serpents, and other fire-works. An act regulating 
the making of fire- works was passed in i860. 



FIR 



302 



FIS 



FIRES, continued. 

Foot of London-bridge, four large hop ware- 
houses burnt ; loss 150,000?. . . June 23, 1851 

CoUard and Co., pianoforte makers, Caraden- 
Town ; loss 60,000/. . . . Dec. 19, ,, 

The warehouses of Messrs. Pawson, St. Paul's- 
churohyard, burnt . . . Feb. 24, 1S53 

Work.s of Gutta Percha Company, near City- 
road ; loss 100,000/. . . . Junes, >> 

Kirkman's pianoforte manufactory . Aug. 10, ,, 

Messrs. Seott Russell and Co.'s works, Mill wall ; 
loss 100,000/ Sept. 10, ,, 

Premises of Messrs. Savill and Edwards, 
printers, Chandos-street, destroyed, Sept. 30, ,, 

Premises of Townend and Co., Bread-street, 
destroyed ; loss about 100,000/. . Dec. 31, ,, 

Messrs. Cubitt's premises, Pi m lico Aug. 17, 1854 

Whittington club-house . . . Dee. 3, ,, 

Premises of Messrs. Routledge, Messrs. Rennie, 
&c., Blackfriai-.sroad ; loss, one life and 
150,000/ Peb. 16, 1855 

Of Etna steam battery at Messrs. Scott Russell's 
works ; loss about 120,000/. . . May 3, ,, 

Pavihon theatre .... Feb. 13, 1856 

Covent-garden theatre . . . March 5, ,, 

Messrs. Scott Russell's (third fire), much valu- 
able machinery destroyed . March 12, ,, 

Messrs. Dobbs' premises, Fleet-.street, April i, ,, 

Shad Thames flour mill; loss about 100,000?. 

July 17, ,, 

Messrs. Broadwood's, pianoforte makers, West- 
minster Aug. 12, ,, 

Premises of Messrs. Almond's, army accoutre- 
ment makers, and others, in St. Martin's- 
lane ; estimated loss ^0,000/. . Nov. 9, ,, 

Messrs. Pickford's premises, at Chalk Farm 
station June g, 1857 

Gilbert-street, Bloomsbury; ij lives lost, 

March 28, 1858 

Limehouse ; Messrs. Forest, Dixon's, &c., pre- 
mises destroyed, and Bluckwall railway 
arches ; insured . . . July 19-20, ,, 

Fresh wharf ; 25,000/. worth of silk June 21, ,, 

London docks ; great explosion ; man killed by 
fright; loss about 150,000/. . June 29, ,, 

Great James-street, Marylcbone ; six lives lost, 

Feb. 26, 1859 

Messrs. Hubbuck and Co., Lime-street; one 
life and a large amount of property. May 20, 

West Kent wharf and New Hibernia wharf; 
destroyed property valued at 200,000/. ; fire 
lasted nearly a month ; commenced Aug. 17, il 

St. Martin's-hall, built for Mr. HuUah, and 
other premises, destroyed . . Aug. 26, 

Thames iron-works, Blackwall . Aug. 31, 

Kilbum church, Maida-hill, destroyed, Nov. 29, . 

Surrey music-hall destroyed . . June 11, 1 

Cotton's wharf and depot and other wharves 
near Tooley-street, containing oil and other 



combustible substances, took fire about half- 
past 4 P.M , June 22, and continued burning 
for a month. Several persons were killed, 
including James Braidwood, the able super- 
intendant of the London fire-brigade ; the 
loss of property was estimated at 2,000,000/. 

Davis's wharf, Horselydovvn, burnt ; loss about 
15,000/ Aug. I, 

Near Paternoster-row ; Messrs. Longman's, 
booksellers, Messrs. Knight's, tallow-melters, 
and others ; loss above 50,000'. . Sept. 4, 

Mr. Price's, Fountain-court, Strand^ three 
lives lost Jan. 3, 

At Campden-house, Kensington, pictures and 
other valuable property of Mr. Woolley de- 
stroyed ..... March 23, 

Mr. Dean's, Berkeley-street, Clerkenwell, three 
lives lost May 5, 

Mr. Joel's, Fore-street, City, four lives lost. 

May 21, 

Mr. Boor's, druggist, Bishopsgate-street ; ex- 
plosion ; two lives lost . . . Jime 7, 

Great Cumberland-street, Hyde-park ; Mr. 8. 
Barrett and two daughters burnt Aug. 15, 

Messrs. Price's oil-mills, Blackfriars, buint 
down ; great loss of proijerty, but no lives 
lost ...... Nov. 20, 

The ancient Austin-friars church, City, partially 
destroyed Nov. 22, 

Mr. Chard's, Portland-street, Soho, six Uves 
lost Dec. 26, 

Messrs. Capel's, Seething-lane, City ; great de- 
struction of property . . . April 18, 

Warehouses of Messrs. Grant and otherS be- 
tween Wood-street and Milk-strett; property 
worth about 100,000/. destroyed . Dec. 19, 

Meriton's wharf, Dockhead; immense loss of 
property Jvuie 7, 

Royal Savoy chapel, Strand, destroyed July 7. 

Haberdashers' hall and Messrs. -Tapling and 
others' warehouses . . . Sept. 19, 

Messrs. Barrj', Sufferance wharves, Dockhead ; 
great loss .... Nov. 25, 26, 

Surrey theatre destroyed . . Jan. 30, 31, 

Savillo house (where George III. was born), 
Leicester-square .... Feb. 28, 

Poulterers' arms, Leadenhall market ; two 
lives lost June 13, 

Mes.srs. Meeking's and Co., Holborn ; damage 
3o;ooo/ Juno 24, 

Messrs. Sotheby and Co. auctioneers ; valuable 
library destroyed . . . _ . June 29, 

There were 953 fires in 1854 ; 1113 in 1857 ; 1114 
in 1858 (38 lives lost) ; 1183 in 1861. 1303 fires 
in 1862 ; 1404 in 1863; and 1715 in 1864. In 
but few cases were the premises totally 
destroyed. Several fires were occasioned 
by careless use of coal oils in 1861-2. 



i86i 



1863 



1865 



FIRE-WORSHIPPERS. See Parsees. 

FIRST-FRUITS were offerings which made a large part of the revenues of the Hehrew 
priesthood. First-fruits (called Annates, from annus, a year), in the Roman church, 
originally the profits of one year of every vacant bishopric, afterwards of every benefice, 
were first claimed by pope Clement V. in 1306, and were collected in England in 13 16 : 
but chronologers ditier on this point. The exaction was submitted to till the 26th of 
Hen. VIII. 1534, when the first-fruits were assigned, by act of parliament, to the king and 
his successors. Mary gave up the Annates once more to the popes (1555) ; but Elizabeth 
resimied them (1559). They were gi-anted, together with the tenths, to increase the incomes 
of the poor clergy, by queen Anne, in 1703. The oflices of First-fruits, Tenths, and queen 
Anne's Bounty were consolidated by i Vict. c. 20, 1838. See Augmentation of Poor 
Livings. Annates were long resisted in France, but not totally suppressed till 1789. 

FISHERIES. Laws for their protection were enacted by Edward I. in 1284, and by 
his successors. The rights of the English and French fishermen were defined by treaty 
in 1839. ^ec Herring, Whale, and Nciajfoundland Fisheries. 



FIS 



303 



FLA 



FISHERIES, continued. 

Fishmongers' company of London incorporated 1384 
Fishing towns regulated by an act passed in . 1542 
Fishing on our coast forbidden by statute to 
strangers ........ i6og 

The Dutch paid 30,000?. for permission to fish 

on the coasts of Britain 1636 

Corporation of Free British Fisheries instituted 1750 
Fisli-machines, for conveying fisli by hind to 
London, set up in. 1761 ; and supported by 

parliament 1764 

The British Society of Fisheries established in 

London in 1786 

The Irish Fishery Company formed in . Dec. 1818 
In 1849, two peasant.^ Remy and Gehin, ob- 
tained medals for their exertions in culti- 
vating fish in France, and the government 



set up an establishment for this pui-pose at 
Huningvie, luider M. Coumes. 

In 1S60 great progress had been made by M. 
Coste and others. 

Commissions to examine into British fisheries 
were appointed in i860, and acts to amend 
the law relating to fisheries in Great Britain 
and Ireland were passed in . . . 1861 

The subject lias excited since much attention 
in Britaui. 

In April, 1863, Mr. Ponder.s placed in the 
Thames 76,000 young fish (salmon, trout, 
char, and grayling); and on April 17, Mr. 
Frank Buckland demonstrated the import- 
ance of fish culture before the members of 
the Royal Institution, Loudon. 



FISHGUARD (Pembrolce). On Feb. 22, 1797, 1400 Frenchmen landed nccir tliis place. 
On Feb. 24, they surrendered to lord Cawdor, and .some countrymen, armed with scythes 
and pitchforks. 

FITZ WILLI AM MUSEUM (Canibri<Ige), founded by Eichard viscount FitzwUliam, who 
died in 1816, and bequeathed his collection of books, pictures, &c., to the university, with 
100,000?. to erect a building to contain them. This was begun by G. Basevi in 1837, and 
finished by Cockerell some years after. 

FIVE HUNDRED, Council of, established by the new French constitution, Aug. 22, 
1795, was unceremoniously dissolved by Napoleon Bonapai-te, Nov. 10, 1799. 

FIVE-MILE ACT, an oppressive statute passed in the lytli year of Chas. II., Oct. 
1665. It obliged non-conformist teachers, who refused to take the non-resistance oath, not 
to come within iive miles of any corporation where they had preached since the act of 
oblivion (unless they were travelling), under the penalty of 50?. They were relieved by 
Will. III. in 1689. 

FLAG. The flag acquired its present form in the 6th century, in Spain ; it was pre- 
viously small and sc^uare. Ashe. It is said to have been introduced there by the Saracens, 
before whose time the ensigns of war were extended on cross pieces of wood. Pardon. The 
flag at sea denotes to what country a ship belongs, and the rank of its commander. The 
hoiwur-of-thc-flag salute at sea was exacted by England from very early times ; but it 
was formerly yielded by the Dutch in 1673, at which period they had been defeated in many 
actions. Loiiis XIV. obliged the Spaniards to lower their flag to the French, 1680. 
Henault. After an engagement of three hours between Tourville and the Spanish admiral 
Papachin, the latter yielded by firing a salute of nine guns to the French flag, June 2, 1688. 
Idem. See Salute at Sea and Union Jack. 

FLAGELLANTS. A fatal plague gave raise to this fanatic sect. Henault. They 
established themselves at Perouse, about 1268. They maintained that there was no remission 
of sins without flagellation, and publicly lashed themselves. Clement VI. declared them 
heretics in 1349 ; and 90 of them and their leader, Conrad Schmidt, were burnt, 1414. In 
1574, Henry III. of France became a flagellant for a short time. 

FLAGEOLET. See Flute. 

FLAMBEAUX, Feast of. See Argos. 

FLAMMOCK'S BEBELLION. See Rebellions, 1497. 

FLANDERS, the principal part of the ancient Belgium, which was conquered by Julius 
Cffsar, 51 B.C. It became part of the kingdom of France in 843, and was governed by 
counts subject to the king, from 862 till 1369, the first being Baldwin, Bras de Fa\ who is 
said to have introduced tlie cloth manufacture. In 1204, Baldwin IV..becamc emperor at 
Con.stantinople. In 1369, Philip duke of Burgundy married Margaret, the heiress of count 
Louis II. After this, Flanders was subjected alternately to Burgundy (1384), Austria (1477), 
and Spain (1555). In 1580 it declared its independence, but afterwards returned to its 
allegiance to the house of Austria. In 1713 it was incliuled in the empire of Germany. 
France obtained a part of Flanders by treaty in 1659 and 1679. See Burgundy, Netherlands, 
and Belgium. 

FLAT-BUSH, Battlk of. See Long Island. 



FLA 30i FLO 

FLATTERY CAPE (W. coast of North America), so named by captain Cook, because at 
a distance it had the deceptive appearance of a harboiir, 1778. 

FLAVIAN CiESARS were the Roman emperors Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian, who 
reigned 69 — 96. 

FLAX was brought from Egypt to Gaul about i B. c. ; and was ordered to be grown in 
England, by statute 24 Hen. VIII., 1533. For many ages the core was separated from the 
flax, the bark of the ])lant, by the hand. A mallet was next used ; but the old methods 
of breaking and scutching the flax yielded to a water-mill which was invented in Scotland 
about 1750. See Hemp. In 185 1, chevalier Clanssen patented a method of " cottoning" flax. 

FLEECE. See Golden Fleeee. 

FLEET-PRISON MARKET, &c. (London), were built over the small river Fleta, now 
used as a common sewer. In the reign of Henry VII. this river was navigable to Holborn- 
bridge ; and the obelisk in Fleet-street denotes the extent of it in 1775. The prison was 
founded in the first year of Richard I., and was allotted for debtors, 1640, and persons were 
committed here who had incurred the displeasure of the Star Chamber, and for contempt of 
the court of Chancery. It was burnt by the prisoners, June 7, 1780.* It was pulled 
down in 1845 (and the debtors removed to the Queen's Bench prison). The site was 
sold to the London, Dover, and Chatham railway company for 6o,oooZ, on June 2, 1864. 
Fleet-market, originally formed in 1737, was removed, and the site named Farriugdon-street 
in 1829. A new (Farringdon) market was opened Nov. 20, 1829. Tlie granite obelisk in 
Fleet-street, to the memory of alderman "Waithman, was erected June 25, 1833. 

FLEUR-DE-LIS, the emblem of France, said to have l)een brought from heaven by an 
angel to Clovis, he having made a vow that if he proved victorious in a pending battle with 
the Alemanni near Cologne, he Avould embrace Christianity, 496. It was the national emblem 
till the revolution in 1789, when the tricolor (white, red, and blue) was adopted. 

FLEURUS (Belgium), the site of several battles : (i.) On Aug. 30, 1622, between the 
Catholic league under Gonzales de Cordova, and the Protestant union (indecisive). (2.) 
"When the prince of AValdeck was defeated by Luxembourg, July i, 1690. (3.) Between the 
allies under the prince of Coburg, and the French revolutionaiy array commanded bj* 
Jourdan. The allies, with an army of 100,000 men, had for their object the relief of 
Charleroi, when they were met on the plains of Fleurus, and signally defeated. Between 
8000 and 10,000 were killed, wounded, and taken prisoners ; and Jourdan was enabled to 
form a junction with the French armies of the ]\Ioselle, the Ardennes, and the north. In 
this memorable battle the French made use of a balloon to reconnoitre the enemy's army, an 
experiment which it is said contributed to the success of the day, June 26, 1794. (4.) 
The battle of Ligny {which see) is also called the battle of Flenrxis. 

FLIES. There was an extraordinarj'' Ml of these insects in London, covering the clothes 
of passengers in the streets, 1707. Cliamherlain. In the United States of America the 
Hessian fly, from the notion of its having been brought there by the Hessian troops in the 
service of England in the war of independence ; ravaged the wheat in 1777. Before and 
during the severe attack of cholera at Newcastle in Sept. 1853, the air was infested with 
small flies. 

FLINTS, in form like arrow-heads, and considered by him to have been shaped by human 
hands, were found in 1847, near Amiens, by I\I. Boucher de Perthes. His theory, which.; 
gives a much higher antiquity to man than is usually received, was much opposed ; but 
latterly has been received by some eminent geologists. Many have been since discovered in 
other countries ; in Java, in 1865. 

FLOATING BATTERIES. See Batteries, and Gibraltar, Siege of, 17S1. 

FLODDEN FIELD (Northumberland). The site of a battle on Sept. 9, 15 13, between 
the English and Scots ; in consequence of James IV. of Scotland having taken part with 
Louis XII. of Fraflce against Henry VIII. of England. James, many of his nobles, and 

* Fleet Marriages. Illicit marriages were celebrated here to an amazing extent. Between the 19th 
of October, 1704, and Feb. 12, 1705, there were celebrated 2954 maiTiages in the Fleet, without licence or 
certificate of banns. 20 or 30 couple were sometimes joined in one day, and tht-ir names concealed by pri- 
vate marks, if they chose to pay an extra fee. Pennant, at a later period, describes the daring manner in 
which this nefarious traffic was carried on. He says, that in walking by the prison in his youth, he has 
been often accosted with, ' ' Sir, will you please to walk in and be married ? " And he states that painted 
signs, of a male and female hand conjoined, with the inscription, " Marri.ages performed within," were 
common along the building. This glaring abuse v/as put an end to by the marriage act in 1753. 



FLO 



30£ 



FLO 



upwards of 10,000 of his army were slain; while the English, who were commanded by the 
earl of Surrey, lost only persons of small note. 

FLOGGING. Wm. Cobbett in 1810, and John Drakard in 181 1, were punished for 
publishing censures on flogging in the army. By orders issued Nov. 9, 1859, this mode of 
punishment was very much diminished in tho army (see Army) ; and on Dec. following it 
was orderetl that first-class seamen should not be flogged, except after a trial. lu 1863, 
flogging was made a punishment for attempts at garrotting. 

FLOODS. See Inundatio'iis. 

FLORAL ILVLL, adjoining Covent-garden theatre, is a large conservatory, 220 feet long, 
75 feet wide, and 55 feet high, erected from designs by Mr. E. M. Barry, and was opened 
with the volunteers' ball, March 7, i860. It was opened as a flower-market, May 22, 1861. 

FLO R ALIA, annual games at Rome in honour of Flora, instituted about 752, but not 
celebrated with regularity till about 174 B.C. 

FLORENCE {Florcntia), capital of Tuscany (tvhich see). It is said to have been founded 
by the soldiers of Sylla (80 B.C.), and enlarged by the Roman Triumviri. This city is truly 
the seat of the arts. In its palaces, universities, academies, churches, and libraries, are to 
be found the rarest works of sculpture and painting in the world. The Florentine academy 
and Accadania della Cntsca (established 15S2) were instituted to enrich literature and 
improve the language of Tuscany ; the latter was so named, because it rejects like Iran all 
words not purely Tuscan : both are now united under the former name. 



Destroyed bj' Totila, about .... 541 

Rebuilt by Charlemagne 781 

Becomes an indeisendent republic, about . 1 198 

Dante bom here .... May 14, 1265 

Savonarola burnt 1498 

The ijower of the Medici begins, about 1420 ; 
the liberty of Florence was lost by the ap- 
pointment of Alexander de' Mtdici as per- 
petual governor ....... 1530 

Cosmo de' Medici created gi-and-duke of Tus- 
cany 1569 

Revolution at Florence . . . April 27, 1859 



Annexation to Sardinia voted by the people, 

March 11, 12 ; the king entei'S Florence, 

April 7, i860 
The king opens the exhibition of the industrial 

products of Italy .... Sept. 15, 1861 
Florence decreed to be the capital of Italy, 

Dec. II, 1864 
The king and court remove there . May 13, 1865 
The Dante festival (the 600th anniversary of 

his birth) opened by the king . May 14, ,, 
Inauguration of a national rifle meeting ; the 

king fires the first shot . . . Jmie 18, „ 



FLORES, or Isle of Flowers (one of the Azores, ivhich see), discovered by Vanderberg 
in 1439 ; and settled by the Portuguese in 1448. 

FLORIDA, a peninsula, one of the southern states of North America, first discovered by 
Sebastian Cabot in 1497. It was visited by Ponce de Leon, the Spanish navigator, April 2, 
1512, in a voyage he had absurdly undertaken to discover a fountain whose waters had the 
propertj' of restoring youth to the aged who tasted tliem ! Florida was conquered by the 
Spaniards imder Ferdinand de Soto in 1539 ; but the settlement was not fully established 
until 1565. It was plundered by sir Francis Drake in 1585 ; and by Davis, a buccaneer, in 
1665. It was invaded by the British in 1702; and again by general Oglethorpe in 1740; 
ceded to the British crown in 1763 ; taken by the Spaniards in 1781 ; and guaranteed to them 
in 1783. Revolution in 1810, when the American government took means for occupying the 
country ; and after a tedious negotiation it was finally ceded* by Sixain to the United States 
in 1820-21 ; and admitted into the Union in 1845, from which it seceded in Dec. i860. 
Reunited in 1865. See United States. 

FLORIN, a coin first made by the Florentines. A /orm was issued by Edward III. 
wliich was current in England at the value of 6s. in 1337. Camden. This English coin 
was called floren after the Florentine coin, because the latter was of the best gold. Ashe. 
The florin of Germany is in value 2s. 4^^. ; that of Spain, 4s. 4^d. ; that of Palermo and 
Sicily, 2s. 6d. ; that of Holland, 2s. Ayliffc. A silver coinage of florins (value 2s.) was 
issued by iiroclamatiou of queen Victoria, August, 1849. 

FLOWERS. Our present common flowers were for the most part introduced into England 
from the reign of Henry VII. to that of Elizabeth (1485 — 1603). The art of preserving 
flowers in sand was discovered in 1633. A* mode of preserving them from the efiects of frost 
in winter, and hastening their vegetation in summer, was invented in America, by Geo. Morris, 

* In 1801, the American government purchased Louisiana from the French, of which they contended 
West Florida formed a j'art. On the revolution, and in consequence of this purchase, Spain, unable to 
defend the country, ceded the whole of Florida to the United States, to wliich it was finally anufxed after 
the negotiation above muntioued. 

X 



FLU 



306 



FLY 



in 1792. A very great number have been introduced from America, Australia, tlie Cape, 
&c., during the present century. 



Acacia, N. America, before . 

Allspice shrub, Carolina 

Aniseed tree, Florida, about . 

Arbor VitiB, Canada, befuro . 

Arctox)us, Cape of Good Hope 

Auricula, Switzerland . 

Azarole, S. Eurojiie, before . 

Bay, royal, Madeira . . . 

Bay, sweet, It;dy, before 

Camellia, China . . . 

Canary bell-flower. Canaries . 

Canary Convolvulus, Cauaries 

Carnation, Flanders 

Ceanothus, blue. New Spain . 

Chaste tree, Sicily, before 

Christ's thorn, Africa, before 

Convolvulus, many-flowered. 

Coral tree. Capo . . . 

Coral tree, bell-flowered. Cape 

Coral tree, tremulous, Cap& . 

Creeper, Virginian, N. America 

Dahlia, China. 

Dryandria, New Holland . . 

Evergreen, thorn, Italy . 

Everlasting, gi-eat-flowered. 
Cape 

Everlasting, giant. Cape 

Fernbush, sweet, N. America 

Fox-glove, Canaries 

Fucbsiafiilgens,lIexico,about 

Geranium, Flanders 

Gillyflower, Flanders . . 

Gold-plant, Japan . 

Golden-bell-flower, Madeira . 

Hawthorn, American, before 

Heaths, Cape . . 1774- 

Honeyflower, gi-eat, Cape 

Honeysuckle, Chinese, China 

Honeysuckle, fly, Cape . 

Honeysuckle, trumpet, N. 
America .... 

Hyssop, south of Europe, be- 
fore 

Jasmine, Circassia, before . 



1640 
1726 
1766 
1596 
1774 
1567 
1640 
1665 
1548 
1811 
1696 
1690 
1567 
1818 
1570 
1596 
1779 
1816 

1 791 
1789 
1603 



1629 



1791 
1714 



1534 
1567 



177^ 
16S3 



1S06 
1752 

1656 
1548 



Jasmine, Catalonia, B.Indies 1629 
Judas tree, south of Europe, 

before ..'... 1596 

Laburnum, Hungary . . 1576 

Laurel, Alexandrian, Portu- ! 

gal, before . . . • 1713 

Laurustine, south of Europe, 

before 1596 

Lavender, south of Europe, 

before 1568 

Lily, Italy, before . . . 1460 
Lily, gigantic, N. South Wales 1800 
Lily, red-coloured, S. America 1623 
Loblolly bay, N. America, be- 
fore 1739 

Lupine tree, Cape, about . . 1793 
Magnolia (see Magnolia), N. 

America 1688 

Jlagnolia, dwarf, China . 1786 
MagnoKa, laurel-leaved, N. 

America 1734 

Maiden-hair, Japan . . 1714 
Mignonette, Italy . . . 1528 
Milk-wort, great-flowcrod, 

Cape 1713 

Milk-wort, showy. Cape . 1814 
Mock orange, south of Eu- 
rope, before . . . ■ 1 596 
Mountain tea, N. America, 

befnre 1758 

Myrtle, candleberry. North 

America .... 1699 
Myrtle, woolly-leaved, China 1776 
Nettle tree, south of Europe, 

before . . . . ' . 1596 
Oleander, red, south of Eu- 
rope 1596 

Olive, Cape, Cape . . . . 1730 
Olive, sweet-scented, China . 1771 
Paraguay tea, Carolina, before 1724 
Passion-flower, Brazil . . 1692 
Passion-flower, orange, Caro- j 

liua 1792 



Pigeon-berry, N. America . 1736 
Pink, from Italy . . . 1567 
Ranunculus, Alps . . . 152S 
Roses, Netherlands . . . 1522 
Rose, the China, (.'hina. . 17S9 
Rose, the damask, south of 

Europe, about . . . 1543 
Rose, the Jai^an,. China. . 1793 
Rose, the moss, before . . 1724 
Rose, the musk, Italy . . 1522 
Rose, the Provence, Flanders 1567 
Rose, sweet-scented guelder, 

from China .... 1821 
Rose, tube, from Java and 

Ceylon .... 1629 

Rose withoiit thorns. North 

America, before . . . 1726 
Rosemary, south of Euroj)e . 1548 
Sage, African, Capo . . .1731 
Sage, Mexican, Mexico . . 1724 
St. Peter's wort, N. America 1730 
Sassafras tree, N. America, 

before 1663 

Savin, S. of Europe, before . 1584 
Snowdrop, Carolina . . 1756 
Sorrel-tree, N. Amei-ica,before 1752 
Sweet-bay, south of Eurojie, 

before 1548 

Tamarisk plant, Germany . 1560 
Tea tree, China, about . . 1768 
Tooth-ache tree, from Caro- 
lina, before .... 1739 
Trumpet-flower, N. America 1640 
Trumpet-flower, Cape . . 1823 
Tulip, Vienna. . . . 1578 
Virginia creeper, N. America, 

before 1629 

Virgin's bower, Japan . . 1776 
Wax tree, China . . . 1794 
Weeping willow, Levant, be- 
fore . . . . . . 1692 

Winter-berry, Virginia . . 1736 
Youlau, China . ... 1789 



FLUORESCEISrCE. When the invisible chemical rays of the blue end of the solar 
spectrum are sent through uranium glass, or solutions of quinine, horse-chestnut bark, or 
stramonium datura, they become luminous. This iihenomenon was termed "fluorescence" 
by its discoverer, pi'ofessor Stokes, in 1852. See Caloresccnce. 

FLUORINE, a gaseous element, obtained from fluor spar ; first collected over mercury 
by Priestley. Its property of corroding all vessels is so great that it is separated with great 
difficulty. It was named by Ampere in 1810. Its chemical history was further elucidated 
by Davy '(1809), Berzelius (1824), and succeeding chemists. The corroding property of 
fluoric acid was employed in the arts in 1760, by Schwankhard of Nuremberg. Gmelin, 

FLUSHING, Siege of. See Walchcren Eximlition. 

FLUTE, a most ancient instrument, known to the Greeks. It has been improved by 
Bohm in Germany, and in Loudon by Richard Potter, 1785 ; Rudall and Rose 1832, and 
others. The English flute or flageolet was patented by Wm. Bainbridgo in 1803, with 
improvements in 1810 and 1819. 

FLUXIONS, a branch of the higher mathematics, invented by Newton, 1665, similar to 
the ditt'erential calculus described by Leibnitz, 16S4. The finest applications of the calculus 
are by Newton, Euler, La Grange, and La Place. The first elementary work on fluxions in 
England is a tract of twenty-two ])ages in A Neig Short Treatise of Algebra, together with a. 
Specimen of the Nature and Algorithm of Fluxions, by John Harris, M.A. London, 1702. 

FLYING, Artificial, has been attempted in all ages. * Friar Bacon maintained the 



* In Greek mythology, it is said that Diedalus attached wings of wax to the body of his son Icarus, 
■who, neglecting the advice of his father, flew so high that the sun melted his wings, and he fell into the sea 



FOG 



507 



FOR 



possibility of tlic art of flying, and predicted it would be a general practice, 1273. Bishop 
Wilkins says (1651), it will yet be as usnal to hear a man call for his wings when he is going 
on a journey, as it is now to hear him call for his boots ! Borelli (about 1670) showed the 
futility of these speculations. About iSoo, sir George Cayley experimented on the subject, 
and in 1843 Mr. Henson invented a ilying machine ; but nothing has been devised capable of 
serving a practical purpose. 

FOG SIGNALS. In 1S62, much attention was paid to the subject by the Royal Com- 
mission on Light-houses, &c. The use of bells, steam-trumpets, a battery of whistles blown 
by steam, the transmission of sound through water, the sireue, &c., were considered. 

FONTAmEBLEALT, near the Seine, France. The royal palace, founded by Robert 
Ic Pieux about 999, enlarged and adorned by successive kings, was completed by Louis 
Philippe, 1S37-40. Fontainebleau was entered by the Austrians Feb. 17, 1814. Here 
Xapoleou resigned his dignity, April 4, and bade farewell to his arm}', April 5, 1814. 



Peace between France, Denmark, &,c. . . 1679 
Treaty between Germany and Holland, Nov. S, 1785 



Treaty between Napoleon and Spain . Oct. 27, 1807 
Concordat between Napoleon and pope Pius VII. 

Jan. 25, 1813 



FONTEXOY, near Tournay, in Belgium, the site of a battle on April 30 (May 11, n.s.), 
1745, between the French, commanded by marshal Saxe, and the English, Hanoverians, 
Dutch, and Austrians, commanded by the duke of Cumberland.* The battle was fought 
with great obstiiuxcy, and the carnage on both sides was considerable, the allies losing 12,000 
men, and the French nearly an equal number of lives ; but the allies were compelled to 
retire. Marshal Saxe (ill of the disorder of which he afterwards died) was carried about to 
all the posts in a litter, assuring his troops that the day would be their own. 

FONTHILL ABBEY, Wiltshire, founded in 1796, the mansion of Wm. Beckford, 
author of " Vathek," and son of alderman Beckford. He died in 1844. Within this edifice 
(which alone cost 273,000/.) were collected mo.st costly articles of vertu, the rarest works of 
the old masters, and the finest specimens of the arts. The sale of the abbey and its 
contents to Mr. Farquhar took place in 18 19 ; 7200 catalogues at a guinea each were sold in 
a few days. On Dec, 21, 1825, the lofty tower fell, and in consequence the remaining 
buildings were sold. 

FONTS. Formerly the baptistery was a small place partitioned off in a chiu'ch, within 
which a large font was placed, where the persons to be baptized (frequently adults) were 
submerged. Previously, lakes and rivers were resorted to for immersion. Fonts are said to 
have been set up about 167. 

FOOLS, Festivals of, were held at Paris on the ist of January, where we are told 
all sorts of absurdities and indecencies were committed, from 1198 to 1438. Fools or licensed 
jesters were kept at court in England (and at other courts in Europe), and were tolerated up 
to the time of Charles I. 1625. 

FORBES MACKENZIE'S ACT (16 & 17 Vict. c. 67) "for the better regulation of 
public-houses in Scotland," was passed in 1853, and is said to be much evaded. It permits 
grocers to sell spirits, &c., as usual, but forbids drinking on the premises, which is to be 
confined to i^laces duly licensed. Much dram-drinking previously took place in grocers' 
shops. 

FORCE. See Conservation and Correlation. 

FOREIGNERS, ^ee Alien. 

FOREIGN ENLISTMENT ACT, 59 Geo. III. c. 69 (1819), forbids British subjects to 
enter the sei-vice of a foreign state, without licence from the king or privy council, and also 
the fitting out or equipping ships for any foreign power to be employed against any power 
with which our government is at peace. ' (See Trials, 1862, 1863.) In 1606, Englislmren. 
were forbidden to enter foreign service, without taking an oath not to be reconciled to 
the pope. The act was suspended in 1835 on behalf of the British Legion {which sec). 



which has received his name. {Ovul, Met. viii. 195.) Archytas is said to have made an artificial flying 
dove, al)out 400 B.C. 

* The king Louis XV. and the dauphin were present at this great battle. The success of the British 
at the commencement of it is still quoted by mihtary men as the best ilhistration of the extraordinary 
power of a cohunn. The advance of the Austrians during several hours at the battle of Marengo (fought 
June 14, iSoo) was compared to it by Bonaparte. 



FOR 



FOR 



FOREIGN LEGION. Foreigners have frequently Leen enijiloj'ed as auxiliaries in the 
pay of the Britisli government. (See Hessians.) An act (i8 & 19 Viet. c. 2) for the formation 
of a Foreign Legion as a contingent in the Russian war (1855), was i)assecl Dec. 23, 1854.* 
The queen and prince Albert reviewed 3500 soldiers, principally Swiss and Germans, at 
Shornclitie, Aug. 9, 1855. On the jieace in 1856, many were sent to the Cape of Good Hope; 
but not i)rospering, returned. 

FOREIGN OFFICE was established at the re -arrangement of the duties of secretaries of 
state in 1782. It has the exclusive charge of British interests and subjects in foreign 
countries. 1 he secretary for foreign affairs negotiates treaties, selects ambassadors, consuls, 
&c., for foreign countries, and grants passports. The new foreign office, building in the 
Italian style (designed by Gilbert Scott), was begun in 1864. 

FOREIGN ORDERS. No British subject is permitted to accept a foreign order from 
the .sovereign of any foreign country, or wear the insignia thereof, without her Majesty's 
consent, — Regulations published in London Gazette, May 10, 1855. 

FORESTALLING was forbidden by statutes (in 1350, 1552, &c.), all repealed in 1844. 

FORESTS. There were in England, even in the last century, as many as 68 forests, 18 
chases, and upwards of 780 parks. The New Forest in Hampshire was made by William I., 
who for that purpo.se destroyed 36 parishes, pulled down 36 churches, and dispeopled the 
country for 30 miles round, 1079-85. Stow.-Y 

FORESTS, Charter of the, Charta dc Forcsta, granted by Henry III. in 1217, was 
founded on Magna Charta, granted by king John, June 15, 1215. 

FORFARSHIRE STEAMER, on its passage from Hull to Dundee, on Sept. 6, 1838, was 
wrecked in a violent gale, and thirty-eight persons out of fifty-three perished. The Outer- 
Fern Lighthouse keeper, James Darling, and his heroic daughter Grace, ventuied out in a 
tremendous sea in a coble, and rescued several of the passengers. 

FORGERY. The forging deeds, or giving forged deeds in evidence, was made prrni.shable 
by fine, by standing in the pillory, having both cars cut off, the nostrils slit up and seared, 
the forfeiture of land, and perpetual imprisonment, 5 Eliz. 1562. Since the establishment of 
paper credit, a multitude of statutes have been enacted. J 



Forgery fir.=t piniis-Led by death . . . 1634 
Forging letters of attonie.y m.sde caiiital . . 1722 
Mr. Waid, M.P., a man of wealth, expelled the 

house of commons for forgery, Jlay 16, 1726 ; 

and ccnsigned to the pillory . March 17, 1727 
Value of forged notes preii^ented to the bank 

1801-10 nominally 101,661?. 
The bank prosecuted 142 jiersons for forgery or 

the uttering of forged notes . . . . 1817 
Thos. Maynard was the last person executed 
for forgery Dec. 31, 1829 



Statutes reducing into cne act all such forgeries 
as shall henceforth be punished with death , 1830 

The pnni.shment of forgery with death ceases, 
except in cases of forging or altering wills or 
powers of attorney to transfer stock . . . 1832 

These casts also reduced to transportable 
offences 1837 

A barrister, Jem Saward, and others, tried for 
forging numerous drafts on bankers, March 5, 1S57 

The law respecting foigery amended in . . 1861 
[See £xecutimts (for forgeiyj, 1776, 1777 et seg.] 



FORKS were in use on the continent in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. 
Voltaire. This is reasonably disputed. In Fynes Moryson's Itinerary, reign of Elizabeth, 
he says, "At Venice each jierson was served (besides his knife and .spoon) with a fork to hold 
the meat while he cuts it, for there they deem it ill manners that one should touch it with 
liis hand." Thomas Coijate describes, with much solemnity, the manner of using forks in 

* The endeavour to enlist for this legion, in 1854, in the United States, gave great otTence to the Ameri- 
can goveniinei;t. Mr. Crampton, our envoy, was dismissed May 28, 1856, in si^ite of all the judicious j^acific 
efforts of lord Clarendon. Lord Napier was sent out as our representative in 1857. 

\ The commissioners appointed to inquire into the state of the woods and forests, between 1787 and 
1793, reported the following as belonging to the crown, viz. : — In Berkshire, Windsor Forest and Windsor 
Great and Little Park. In Doiset, Cranburn Chase. In Essex, Waltham or Epping and Hainault Forest. 
In Gloucestershire, Dean Forest. In Hampshire, the New Forest, Alice Holt, Woolmer Forest, and Bere 
Forest. In Kent, Greenwich Park. In Middlesex, St. James's, Hjde, Bushy, and Hampton- covirt Parks. 
In Northamptonshire, the forests of Whittlebury, Salcey, and Rockingham. In Nottingham, Sherwood 
Forest. In Oxford, Whichwood Forest. In Surrey, Richmond Park. Several of these have been disforested 
since 1851, viz., Hainault, Whichwood, and Whittlebury. 

I It appears, from official returns, that the first forger on the bank of England was Richard William 
Vaughan, a linen-draper of Staffiird, in 1758, before which time, from the establishment of the bank, a 
jeriod of sixty-six years, no attempt at this species of forgery had been made. Vaughan employed a 
number of artists on different parts of the notes fabricated, which had all the appeai-ance of being genuine. 
The criminal had filled up twenty of the notes, and had deposited them in the hands of a young lady of 
high respectability-, whom he was on the point of marrying, as a i^roof of his being a man of substance. 
Banknotes having been in circulation so loi'g previously, and n -ne having been before counterfeited, no 
suspicion of these notes was entertained. One of the artists was the informer and accuser. 



FOR 



309 



YOU 



Italy, and adds, "I myself have thought it good to imitate the Italian fashion since I came 
home to England," 1608. Two-pronged forks at Sheffield were made soon after. Three - 
pronged forks are much more recent. Silver forks came into use in England ahout 18 14. 

FORMA PAUPERIS. A person having a just cause of suit, certified as such, yet so 
poor that he cannot meet the cost of maintaining it, has an attorney and counsel assigned 
him on his swearing that he is not worth 5^., by stat. 11 Henry VII. 1495. — This act has 
been remodelled, and now persons may plead in form! pauperis in the courts of law. 

FORMIC ACID. Its artificial production by Pelouze in 183 1 is considered an event in 
the progress of organic chemistry. 

FORT ERIE (Upper Canada). This fortress was taken by the American general Browne, 
June 3, 1S14. After several conflicts it was evacuated by the Americans, Nov. 5, 1814. 

FORTH AND CLYDE CANAL was commenced July 10, 1768, under the direction of 
Mr. Smeaton, and opened July 28, 1790. A communication is formed between the eastern 
and western seas on the coast of Scotland. 

FORTIFICATION. The Phcenicians were the first people to fortify cities. Apollodorus 
says that Perseus fortified Mycenre, where statues were afterwards erected to him. The 
modern system was introduced about 1500. Albert Durer first wrote on the science of 
fortification in 1527 ; and great improvements were made by Vauban (1707) anl others. 
The fortifications of Paris, the most recent work claiming notice, were completed in 1846. 
See Paris. In Aug. i860, the British parliament passed an act for the expenditure of 
2,ooo,oooZ. in one year upon the fortifications of Portsmouth, Plymouth, Pembroke, and 
Portland, the Thames, Medway, and Sheerness, Chatham, Dover, and Cork, and on the 
purchase of a central arsenal establishment ; the estimated expense being 9,500,000/. 

FORTUNE-TELLING is traced to the early astrologers, by whom the planets Jupiter 
and Venus were supposed to betoken happiness. The Sibyllse were women who flourished 
in different parts of the world, and who were said to have been inspired by Heaven. See 
Sibyls and Gipsies. In England the laws against fortune-telling were at one time very 
severe. A declaration was published in France, Jan. 11, 1680, of exceeding severity against 
fortune-tellers and poisoners, under which several persons suffered death. HeiiauU. Fortune- 
tellers, although liable by the act of 1824 to be imprisoned as rogues and vagabonds, still 
flourish in England. 

FORTY-SHILLING FREEHOLDERS. See Freeholders. 

FOTHERINGAY CASTLE (Northamptonshire), built aboiit 1400. Here Richard III. 
of England was born in 1450; and here Mary queen of Scots was tried, Oct 11-14, 1586, 
and beheaded, Feb. 8, 1587. It was demolished by her son, James I. of England, in 1604. 

FOUGHARD, near Armagh, N. Ireland. Here Edward, brother of Robert Bruce, after 
invading Ireland in 1315, was defeated by sir John Bermingham in 1318. Bruce was killed 
by Roger de Maupis, a burgess of Dundalk. 

FOUNDLING HOSPITALS. A species of foundling hospital was set up at Milan in 
787, and in the middle ages most of the principal cities of the continent possessed one. 
The French government in 1790 declared foundlings to be the "children of the state." 



Foundling hospital at Moscow, founded by 
Catherine II. in 1763 ; about 12,000 children 
are received annually. 

Foundling hospitals are recent in England ; 
none existed when Addison wrote in . . 1713 

London foundling hospital, projected by 
Thomas Coram, a sea-captain, incorpo- 
rated by charter m Oct. 1739; opened, 

June 2, 1756 

It succours about 500 infant children ; Coram'a 
statue was put up in 1856 

Foundling hospital in Dublin instituted in 1704. 



In this charity there had been received, ac- 
cording to parliamentary returns, in the 
thirty years preceding Jan. 1825, as many as 
52,150 infants : of these, 14,613 had died in- 
fants — 25,859 were returned as dead from the 
country, where they wore out nursing — 730 
died in the infirmaiy after returning — 322 
died grown children— total deaths, 41,524; 
so that 10,626 only escaped this fate. Owing 
to this mortality, and from certain moral 
consider.ations, the internal department was 
closed by order of government . March 31, 1835 



FOUNTAINS are apparatus, natural or artificial, by which water is made to spring 
irpwards. The fountain of Hero of Alexandria was invented about 150 B.C. Among the 
remarkable fountains at Rome are the Fontana di Trevi, constructed for pope Clement XII. 
in 1735 ; the Fontana Paolina, erected for pope Paul V. in 1612 ; and Fontana dell' Acqua 
Felice, called also the Fountain of Moses. The fountains in the palace gardens at Versailles, 
made for Louis XIV., and the Grand Jet d'Eau, at St. Cloud, are exceedingly beautiful. 



FOU 



310 



FUA 



There are above lOO public foinitaius in Paris, the most striking being the Chateau d'Eau on 
the Boulevard St. Martin (by Girard, 1811), and that at the Palais KoyaL London is not 
remarkable for fountains ; the largest are those in Trafalgar-square, which were constructed 
in 1845, after designs by sir Charles P^arry. There are beautiful fountains at Chatsworth, 
in Derbyshire, the seat of the duke of Devonshire. The magnificent fountains at the Crystal 
Palace, Sydenham, were first publicly exhibited on June 18, 1856, in the presence of tlie 
queen and 20,000 spectators. 

FOUEIERTSM, a social system devised by M. Charles Fourier (who died in 1837). The 
Phalansterv (or association of 400 persons living in one edifice) was to be so arranged as to 
give the highest amount of happiness at the lowest cost. All attem})ts to realise the system 
have failed ; caused, it is said, by the smallness of the scale on which they were tried. 

FOX AND GRENVILLE ADMINISTRATION. See Grenville Administration. 

FOX-GLOVE. The canary fox-glove (Digitalis Canaricnsis), from the Canary islands, 
1698. The Madeira fox-glove came here in 1777. Tlie fox-grape shrub (Viiis Vulinna), 
from Virginia, before 1656. 

FRANCE was known to the Romans by the name of Ga%d [which sec). In the decline of 
their power it was conquered by the Franks, a people of German}', then inhabiting Franconia, 
where they became known about 240. These invaders gave the name to the kingdom 
(Franken-ric, Franks' kingdom) ; but the Gauls, being by far the most numerous, are the 
real ancestors of the modern French. The present constitution is cliiefly based upon the 
plebiscitums of Dec. 21, 22, 1851 ; and Nov. 21, 22, 1852. For the dynastic changes, see list 
of sovereigns, p. 316. Previous to the revolution, France was divided into 40 governments. 
In 1790 it was divided into 83, and subsequently into 130 departments, including Corsica, 
Geneva, Savoy, and other places, chiefly concpiests. In i8i5the departments were reduced 
to 86 ; in i860 they were raised to 89 by tlie acquisition of Savoy and Nice.* For details 
of important events, see separate articles. 



The Franks settle in that part of Gaul, till late 

called Flanders, about 

Clevis, 481 ; defeats Syagrius and the Gauls at 

Solssons, 486 ; and the Alemanni at Tolbiac, 

near Cologne ; and embraces Christianity 
He kills Alaric the Goth, in battle near Poic- 

tiers, unites his conquests from the Loire to 

the Pyrenees,, and makes Paris his capital . 
lie proclaims the Salique law ; and dies, leaving 

four sons (see p. 316) 

The mayors of the palace now assume almost 

sovereign authority 584 

Charles Martcl becomes mayor of the palace, 

and rules with desijotic sway . . . . 
Invasion of the f^aracens, 720 ; defeated by 

Charles Martel, near Tours . . Oct. 10, 

Eeign of Pepin the Short 

Charlemagne king, 768 ; conquers Saxony and 

Lonibardy, 773 ; crowned emperor of the 

West Dec. 25, 

The Normans invade Neustria, 876 ; part of 

which is granted RoUo, as Normandy, by 

Charles the Simple 

Reignof Hugh Capet . .... 

Paris made capital of all France 

Letters of franchise gi-antedto cities and towns 

by Louis VI 1135 

Louis VII. joins in the crusades . . . 1146 
Philip Augustus defeats the Germans at Bou- 

vines 1214 

Louis VIII., Cccur de Lion, frees his serfs . . 1224 
Louis IX., called St Louis, defeats John of 

England ; conducts an army into Palestine ; 

takes Damietta ; and dies before Tunis . 1250-70 
Chai'les of Anjou conquers Naples and Sicily . 1266 
His tyranny leads to the massacre called the 

Sicilian Vespers (w/iicA see) . . . 12S2 



496 



507 



5" 



714 



800 



911 

987 
996 



Philip the Fair's quaiTcls with the pope . 1301-2 
Knights Templars suppressed . . . 1307-8 

Union of France and Navarre .... 1314 
English invasion — Philip VI. defeated at Cressy, 

Aug. 26, 1346 
Calais taken by Edward III. . Ang. 3, 1347 

Bauphiny annexed to France .... 1349 
]3attle of Poictiers (ukich see) ; king John taken 

and brought prisoner to England . . . 1356 
France laid under an interdict by the pope . 1407 
Battle of Agincourt (ichich see) . . Oct. 25, 1415 
Henry V. of England acknowledged heir to the 

kingdom ........ 1420 

Henry VI. crowned at Paris ; the duke of 

Bedford's regency 1422 

Siege of Orleans, May 8 ; battle of Patay ; the 

English defeated by ./oon o/.^?r . June 18, 1429 
Jo.an of Arc bm-nt at Rouen . . May 30, 1431 
England lost all her possessions (but Calais) in 

France, lietween .... 1434 and 1450 
League of the public good formed against Louis 

XI. by the nobles .... Dec. 1464 

Edward IV. of England invades France . . 1475 
Charles VIII. conquers Naples, 1494; loses it . 1496 
League of Cambray against Venice . . . 1508 
Pope Julius II. forms the Holy League against 

France ......... 1511 

English invasion — battle of Spurs . Aug. 16, 1513 
Interview of the Cloth of Gold between Francis 

I. and Henry VIII. of Ena^land . . . 1520 
Francis I. defeated and taken prisoner at Pavia, 

Feb. 24, 1525 
Pgace of Cambray .... Aug. 5, 1529 
Persecution of pi-otestants begins . ... 1530 
Royal printing press established 1531 ; Robert 

Stephens prints his Latin Bible . . . 1532 



* Population of France in 1700, 19,669,320; in 1762, 21,769,163 ; in iSqi, 27,349,003 ; in 1820, 30.451,187 ; 
in 1836, 33,540,910; in 1846, '35,401,761 ; in 1856, 36,039,364; in 1S61, including the new departments, 
37,382,225. ' Poxnilation of the colonies (in Asia, Pondicherry, &c. ; Africa, Algeria, &c. ; America, Mar- 
tinique, Guadaloupe, ifec. ; Oceania, the Marquesas, (fee), in 1S58, 3,641,226. In May, 1S62, the Monitew 
asserted the effective army to be 447,000, with a reserve of 170,000. 



niA 



311 



FRA 



FRANCE, contmued. 

League of England with the emperor Charles 

V. ; Henry VIII. invades France . . 1544 
Successful defence of Metzby the duke of Guise 1552 
He takes Calais {which see) .... 1558 

Keligious wars ; massacre of protostants at 

Vassy March i, 1562 

Guise defeats the Huguenots at Dreux Dec. 19, „ 
Guise killed at siege of Orleans, Feb. iS ; tem- 
porary peace .... March 19, 1563 
Huguenots defeated at St.'Denis, Nov. 10, 1567; 

and at Jarnac, March 13 ; at Moucontour, 

Oct. 3, 1569 
IMassacre of St. Bartholomew . . Aug. 24, 1572 
The "Holy Catholic League " established . . 1576 
Duke of Guise assassinated by command of the 

king, Dec. 23 ; and his brother, the cardinal, 

Dec. 24, 1588 
Henry III. murdered by Jacques Clement, a 

friar Aug. i, 1589 

Heny IV. becomes a Roman Cathohc July 25, 1593 
The league leaders .submit to him . Jan. 1596 
He promulgates the edict of Nantes April 13, 1598 
Silk and other manufactures introduced by him 

and Sully 1606-1610 

Quebec in North America settled . . . 1608 
Murder of Henry IV. by Ravaillac May 14, 1610 

Regency of Mary de' Medici . . . 1610-14 

The states general meet and complain of the 

management of the finances . Oct. 27, 1614 
Rise of the Coucinis, i6to; and their fall . . 1617 

Navarre annexed to France 1620 

Vigorous and succes.sful administration of 

Richelieu, begins with finance . . . 1624 

Rochelle taken after a long siege . . . 1628 
Richelieu organises the Acaddmie de France . 1634 
His death (aged 58) . . . . Dec. 4, 1642 
Accession of Louis XIV., aged four years (Anne 

of Austria regent) .... May 14, 1643 
Administration of Mazarine ; victories of 

Turenne . • 1643-6 

Civil wars of the Fronde . . . 1648, <fec. 

Colbert becomes financial minister . . . 1661 

War with Holland, ire 1671 

Canal of Languedoc constructed . . 1664-81 

Edict of Nantes revoked . . . Oct 22, 1685 
Louis marries Madame de Jlaintenon . . . 1686 
War with William III. of England . . 1689, &c. 
Peace of Ryswick .... Sept. 20, 1697 
War of the Spanish succession .... 1701 
French defeated at Blenheim . Aug. 13, 1704 

At Ramillies May 23, 1706 

Peace of Utrecht (!o/(Jc/i se?) 1713 

Accession of Louis XV. ; stonny regency of the 

duke of Orleans . . . SeiJt. i, 1715, <fcc. 
Law's bubble in France. (See Laio) . . . 1716 
French defeated at Dettiugen. . June 16, 1743 
Successful campaign of marshal Saxe . . 1746 
Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle . . . Oct. 1748 

Seven years' war begun . . . ... 1756 

Damieus' attempt on the life of Louis XV. 

Jan. 5, 1757 
Canada lost— battle of Quebec . . Sept. 13, 1759 
The Jesuits banished from France, and their 

effects confiscated 1762 

Peace of Paris ; Canada ceded to England . 1763 
Louis XV. enslaved by Madame du BaiTy . .1769 
Death of Louis XV. .... May 10, 1774 
Louis XVI. assists America to throw off its 

dependence on England, at first secretly . .1778 
Torture abolished in French judicature . . 1780 
Peace with England . . . . Sept. 3, 1783 
The diamond-necklace affair .... 1785 



Meeting of the as.^embly of notables, Feb. 22, 
1787 ; again Nov. 9, 1788 

Opening of the states general (308 ecclesiastics, 
285 nobles, and 621 deputies, tiers ^tat) 

May 5, 1789 

The tiers ^tat constitute themselves the National 
Assembly June 17, ,, 

The French revolution commences with the de- 
struction of the Bastille (wldch see) July 14, ,, 

The National Assembly decrees that the title of 
the "king of France " shall be changed to 
that of the " king of the French " Oct. 16, ,, 

The plate and other property of the clergy is 
confiscated Nov. 6, ,, 

Confederation of the Champ de Mars ; France is 
declared a limited monarchy ; Louis XVI. 
takes the oath to maintain the constittition, 

July 14, 1790 

The silver plate used in the churches trans- 
ferred to the mint and coined . March 3, 1791 

Death of Mirabeavi .... April 2, „ 

The king, queen, and royal family arrested 
at Varennes, in their ilight from Paris, 

June 21, ,, 

Louis (now a prisoner) sanctions the National 
Constitution .... Sept. 15, „ 

The Jacobin club declare their sittings perma- 
nent June 18, 1792 

The multitude, bearing the red bonnet of 
liberty, march to the Tuileries to make 
deruands on the king . . . June 20, „ 

First coalition against France : commencement 
of the great French war . . . June, ,, 
[See Battles, 1792 to 1815.] 

The royal Swiss guards cut to pieces ; massacre 
of 5000 persons .... Aug. 10, ,, 

Decree of the National Assembly against the 
priests ; 40,000 exiled . . . Aug. 26, ,, 

Dreadful massacre in Paris ; the prisons broken 
open, and 1200 persons (100 priests) slain, ,, 
Sept. 2-s, ,, 

Mm-der of the princess de Lamballe* Sept. 3, „ 

The National Convention opened . Sept. 17, ,, 

The Convention abolishes royalty and esta- 
blishes a republic . . . Sept. 20-22, ,, 

The French people declare their fraternity with 
all nations who desire to be free, and offer 
help Nov. 19, „ 

Decree for the perpetual banishment of the 
Bourbon family, those confined in the Temple 
excepted Dee. 20, ,, 

Louis imprisoned in the Temple distinct from 
the queen, and brought to trial, Jan. 19 ; con- 
demned to death, Jan. 20 ; beheaded in the 
Place de Louis Qwinze . . . Jan. 21, 1793 

War with England- declared . . . Feb. i, ,, 

Insurrection in La VendtSe . . March, ,, 

Reign of terror— proscription of the Girondists, 
May 31 ; establishment of the convention, 

June 23, ,, 

Marat stabbed by Charlotte Corday . July 13, ,, 

The queen beheaded . . . Oct. 16, „ 

Philip Egalite, the duke of Orleans, who had 
voted for the king's death, is himself guillo- 
tined at Paris (see Orleans), Nov. 6; and 
madame Roland .... Nov. 8, „ 

Execution of Danton and others, April 5 ; of 

madame EUzabeth . . . March 10, 1794 
Robespierre and 71 others guillotined July 28, ,, 
Louis XVII. dies in pri.son . . . June 8, 1795 
French directory chosen . . . Nov. i, „ 
Bonaparte's successful campaigns in Italy, 1796, &c. 



» The multitude hurried to the Temple bearing the mutilated body of Madame de Lamballe m order 
to exhibit the "impious head " of theu- relative to the royal family : the queen and the pnncess Elizabetli 
manifested the deepest emotion and sensibUity ; but the king said with assumed apathy (while shrinking 
S the sight) to the'^^erson by whom it was shown to him, " reus avez raisou. Monsm'.r." " \ou are right. 
Sir ! " These assassins were termed the Septembnsers {which see). 



FEA 



312 



FRA 



1796 
1797 



FRANCE, continued. 

Babeuf's conspiracy suppressed . . May 12, 
Pichegru's conspiracy fails . . . May, 
Council of Five Hundred deposed by Bonaparte, 

who is declared First Consul . . Nov. 10, 1799 
He defeats the Austrians at Marengo June 14, 1800 
His life attempted by the infernal machine, 

Dec. 24, ,, 
Peace of Atuiens (with England, Spain, and 

Holland) signed .... March 27, 1802 
Amnesty to the emigrants . . . April, ,, 
Legion of Honour instituted . . Maj' 19, ,, 
Bonaparte made consul for life . . Aug. 2, ,, 
The bank of France established . April 14, 1803 
Declaration of war against England May 22, ,, 
Conspiracy of Moreau and Pichegru against 

Bonaparte, Feb. 15; the latter was found 

strangled in prison. (See Georges) April 6, 1804 
Duke d'Enghien shot . . . March 20, ,, 
France formed into an empire ; Napoleon pro- 
claimed emperor .... May 18, ., 
He is crowned king of Italy . . May 26, 1805 

He defeats the allies at Austerlitz . . Dec. 2, ,, 
And the Prussians at Jena . . . Oct. 14, 1806 
New nobility of France created . March i, 1808 
Divorce of the emperor and empress Josephine 

decreed by the senate . . . Dec. 16, 1809 
Holland imited to France . . . July 9, 1810 
War with Russia declared . . . June 22, 1812 
Victory at Borodino .... Sept. 7, ,, 

Disastrous retreat Oct. ,, 

Triple alliance of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, 

against France Sept. 9, 1813 

The British pass the Bidassoa, and enter France, 

Oct. 7, „ 
Surrender of Paris (see Battles) to the allied 

armies March 31, 1814 

The constitutional charter established June 4-10, ,, 
Abdication of Napoleon . . . Aprils, .. 
Bourbon dynasty restored, and Louis XVIIL 

arrives in Paris May 3, ,, 

Napoleon arrives at Elba . . . May 3, ,, 
Quits Elba, and lands at Cannes . March i, 1815 
Arrives at Foimtainebleau . . March 20, ,, 
Joined by all the army . . March 22, ,, 

The allies sign a treaty for his subjugation, 

March 25, ,, 
He abolishes the slave-trade . . March 29, ,, 
Leaves Paris for the army . . . June 12, ,, 
Is defeated at Waterloo . . . .June 18, ,, 
Returns to Paris, June 20; and abdicates In 

favour of his infant son . . , June 22, „ 
Intending to embark for America, he arrives at 

Rochefort July 3, ,, 

Louis XVIII. enters Paris . . . July 3, ,, 
Napoleon surrenders to capt. Maitland, of the 

Bellerophon . . . . ' . . July 15, ,, 
Transferred at Torbay to the Northumberland, 

and with admiral sir George Cockbum sails 

for St. Helena Aug. 8, ,, 

Arrives at St. Helena to remain for life, Oct. 15, ,, 
Execution of marshal Ney . . . Dec. 7, ,, 
The family of Bonaparte excluded for ever from 

France by the law of amnesty . Jan. 12, 1816 
Duke of Berry murdered . . . Feb. 13, 1820 
Death of Napoleon I. (See ^yilh) . . May 5, 1821 
Louis XVIII. dies; Charles X. succeeds, 

Sept. 16, 1824 
National Guard disbanded . . April 30, 1827 
War with Algiers ; the dey's fleet defeated, 

Nov. 4, „ 
Election riots at Paris ; barricades ; several 

persons killed .... Nov. 19, 20, ,, 



Seventy-six new peers created . Nov. 5, 1827 
The VilMe ministry replaced by the Mavtignac, 

Jan. 4, 182S 
B^ranger condemod and imprisoned for his 
songs ....... Dec. 10, „ 

Poliguac administration formed . . Aug. 8, 1829 
Chamber of Deputies dissolved . May 16, 1830 

Algiers taken July 5, ,, 

The constitutional charter of July published 

Aug 14, ,, 
The obnoxious ordinances regarduig the press, 
and reconstruction of the chamber of 

deputies July 26, ,, 

Revolution commencing with barricades, July 27, „ 
Conflicts in Paris between the populace (ulti- 
mately aided by the National duard) and the 

army July 28-30, ,, 

Charles X. retires to Rambouillet ; flight of the 
ministry, July 31 ; Charles X. abdicated 

Aug. 2, ,, 
The duke of Orleans accepts the crown as 

Louis-Philippe I Aug. 7, ,, 

Charles X. retires to England . Aug. 17, ,, 

Polignac and other ministers tried and sentenced 

to perpetual imprisonment . . Dec. 21, ,, 
The abolition of the hereditary peerage decreed 
by both chambers ; the peers (36 new peers 
being created) concurring by a majority of 
103 to 70 . . . . . Dec. 27, 1831 
The A. B. C. (a6aiSc«^«) insurrection in Paris sup- 
pressed June 5, 6, 1832 

Charles X. leaves Holyrood-house for the (Con- 
tinent Sept. 18, ,, 

Ministry of marshal Soult, duke of Dalmatia, 

Oct. II, ,, 
Bergeron and Bcnoit tried for an attempt on 

the life of Louis-Philippe ; acquitted March 18, 1833 
The duchess of Berry, who has been deUvered 
of a female child, and asserts her secret 
marriage with an Italian nobleman, is sent 
off to Palemio ..... June 9, ,, 
Death of La Faj'ette .... May 20, 1834 
Marshal Gerard takes ofBce . . . July 15, ,, 
M. Dupuytren dies .... Feb. 8, 1835 
Due de Broglie, minister . . . Feb. ,, 
Fieschi attempts the king's* life . July 28, „ 

He is executed Feb. 6, 1836 

Louis .\libaud fires at the.king on his way from 

the Tuileries, June 25 ; guillotined July 11, „ 
Ministry of count Mole, in room of M. Thiers, 

Sept. 6, ,, 

Death of Charles X Nov. 6, „ 

Attempted insurrection at Strasburg by Louis 
Napoleon (now emperor), Oct. 30 ; he is sent 
to America ..... Nov. 13, ,, 
Prince Polignac and others set at liberty from 

Ham, and sent out of France . Nov. 23, ,, 
Meunier fires at the king on his way to open 
the French Chambers . . . Dec. 27, 
Amnesty for political offences . . May 8, 
" Id(5es Napol^ennes," by the present emperor, 

were published 1838 

Talleyrand dies ^lay 17, ,, 

Marshal Soult at the coronation of the queen 

of England June 28, ,, 

Birth of the count of Paris . . Aug. 24, ,, 
Death of the duchess of W\n-temberg (daughter 

of Louis-Philippe), a good sculptor . Jan. 2, 1839 
M. Thiers, mini.ster of foreign affairs March i, 1840 
The chambers decree the removal of Napoleon's 

remains from St. Helena to France f May 12, ,, 
Descent of prince Louis Napoleon, general 



1837 



* He fired an infernal machine as the king rode along the lines of the National Guard, on the Boulevard 
du Temple, accompanied by his three sons and suite. The machine consisted of twenty-five ban-els, charged 
with various species of missiles, and lighted simultaneously by a train of gunpowder. The king and his 
sons escaped: but marshal Mortier, duke of Treviso, was shot dead, many oflicers were dangerously 
wounded, and upwards of forty persons killed or mjured. 

t By the permission of the British government, these were taken from the tomb at St. Helena, and 



FKA 



313 



fi;a 



FRANCE, conlinued. 

Jlonthdlon, and 50 followers, at Vimeroiix, 
near Hoiilogiie, Aug. 6 ; the prince sentenced 
to imprisonment for life . . Oct. 6, 

Parmcs fires at the king . . . Oct. 15, 

JI. Guizot, minister of foreign affairs Oct. 29. 

Project of law for an extraordinary credit of 
140,000,000 of francs, for erecting tbe fortifi- 
cations of Paris .... Dec. 15, 

The duration of copyright to 30 years after the 
author's death, fixed . . " . March 30, 

Bronze statue of Napoleon placed on the column 
of the grande arincSe, Boulogne . Aug. 15, 

Attempt to assassinate the duke of Aumale 

(son of the king) on his retuni from Africa, 

Sept. 13, 

The duke of Orleans, heir to the throne, killed 
by a fall from his carnage . . July 13, 

The queen of England visits the royal family at 
Chateau d'Eu .... Sept. 2 to 7, 

Attempt of Lecompte to assassinate the king 
at Fontainehleau .... April 16, 

Louis Napoleon escapes frona Ham . May 25, 

The seventh attempt on the Ufe of the king : 
by Joseph Henri .... July 29, 

JIarriage of the due de Montpensier witli tlie 
infanta of Spain .... Oct. 10, 

Disastrous inundations in the south Oct. 18, 

The Praslin murder (see Praslin) . Aug. 18, 

Death of marshal Oiidinot (duke of Reggio) at 
Paris, in his 91st year, Sept. 13; Soult made 
genei-al of France, in his room . Sept. 26, 

Jerome Bonaparte returns to France after an 
exile of 32 years .... Oct. 10, 

Death of the ex-empress, Maria Louisa, Dec 17 ; 
and of madame Adelaide . . . Dec. 30, 

The proposed grand reform banquet at Paris, 
suppressed Feb. 21, 

Violent revolutionary tumult in consequence ; 
impeachment and resignation of Giiizot, 
Feij. 22 ; barricades thrown up, the Tuileries 
ransacked, the prisons opened, and fright- 
ful disorders committed by the populace, 
Feb. 23, 24, 

Louis-Philippe abdicates in favour of his infant 
grandson, the comte de Paris, who is not 
accepted ; the royal family and ministers 
e.scape Feb. 24, 

A republic proclaimed from the steps of the 
Hotel de Ville .... Feb. 26, 

The ex-king and queen arrive at Newhaven in 
England March 3, 

Grand funeral procession in honour of the 
victims of the revolution . . March 4, 

The provisional government, which had been 
formed in the great public commotion, 
resigns to an executive commission, elected 
by the National Assembly of the French 
Republic May 7, 

[The members of this new government were : 
MM. Dupont de TEure, Arago, Gamier- 
Pagfes. Marie, Lamartine, Ledru-Rollin, and 
Cremieux. The secretaries : Louis Blanc, 
Albei-t Flocon, and Marrast.] 

Perpetual banishment of Louis-Philippe and 
his familj' decreed .... May 26, 

Election of Lo\iis Napoleon for the department 
of the Seine and three other departments to 
tbe National Assembly . . . June 13, 

Rise of the red republicans; war against the 
troops and national guard ; more than 300 



1840 



1847 



barricades thrown up, and firing continues 

in all isarts of Paris diu-ing tbe night June 23, 1848 

The troops under generals Cavaignac and La- 
moricifere succeed, with immense loss, in 
driving the insurgents from the left bank of 
the Seine June 24, ,, 

Paris declared in a state of siege . June 25, ,, 

The Faubourg d>i Temple carried with cannon, 
and the insurgents surrender . . June 26, ,, 

[The national losses caused 1)y this dreadful 
outbreak were estimated at 30,000,000 francs ; 
16,000 persons killed and wounded, and 8000 
prisoners were taken. The archljishop of 
Paris was killed.] 

Gen. Cavaignac made president of the council, 

June 28, ,, 

Louis Napoleon takes his seat in the National 
Assembly Sept 26, ,, 

Paris relieved from a state of siege, which had 
continued four months . . . Oct. 20, ,, 

Solemn promulgation of the constitution of 
Nov. 4, in front of the Tuileries . Nov. 12, ,, 

Louis Napoleon elected president of the French 
republic, Deo. 11 ; proclaimed Dec. 20, ,, 

[He had 6,048,872 votes; Cavaignac, 1,479,121; 
Ledru-Rollin, Raspail, and Lamartine hid 
but few.] 

Military demonstration to stifle an anticipated 
insurrection Jan. 29, 1849 

Death of king Louis-Philippe, at Claremont, in 
England Aug. 26, 1850 

Liberty of the press restricted . Sept. 26, ,, 

Gen. Changarnier deprived of the command of 
the national guard . . . Jan. 10, 1851 

Death of the duchess of Anarouleme, daughter 
of Louis XVL, at Frohsdorf . . Oct. 19, ,, 

Death of marshal Soult . . . Oct. 26, ,, 

Electric telegraph between England and France 
opened Nov. 13, ,, 

Coup d'etat : the legislative assembly dissolved ; 
iniiver.Sid suffrage established, and Paris 
declared in a state of siege : the election of a 
president for ten years proijosed, and a second 
chamber or senate . . . . Dec. 2, ,, 

MJ[. Thiers, Changarnier, Cavaignac, Bedeau, 
Lamoricifere, and Charres arrested, and sent 
to the castle of Vincennes . . Dec, 2, ,, 

About 180 members of the assembly, with M. 
Berryer at their head, attempting to meet 
are arrested, and Paris is occupied by troops, 

Dec. 2, ,, 

Sanguinary conflicts in Paris ; the troops 
victorious Dec. 3, 4, ,, 

Consultative commission founded . Dec. 12, ,, 

Voting throiighout France for the election of 
a president of the republic for ten years ; 
affirm.ative votes 7,481,231, negative votes 
640,737 ...... Dec. 21, 22, ,, 

Installation of the prince-president in the 
cathedral of Notre-Dame : the day observed 
as a national holiday at Paris, and Louis 
Napoleon takes up his residence at the 
Tuileries Jan. i, 1852 

Gens. Changarnier, Lamoricifere, and others, 
conducted to tlie Belgian frontier . Jan. 9, „ 

83 members of the legislative assembly 
banished ; 575 persons arrested for resistance 
to the coup d'etat of Deo. 2, and conveyed to 
Havre for transportation to Cayenne, Jan. 10, ,, 

[The inscription "Liberty, Equality, Fnitertiity," 



embarked on the 16th of October, 1840, on board the Belle Poide French frigate, under the command of the 
prince de Joinville ; the vessel reached Cherbourg on November 30th ; and on December 15th the body 
was deposited in the II6tel des Inv.alides. The ceremony was witnessed by 1,000,000 of persons ; 150,000 
soldiers assisted in the obsequies : and the royal family and ,all the high personages of the realm were 
present ; but it w.as remarkable that all the relatives of the emperor were absent, being proscribed, and in 
exile or in prison. The body was finally placed in its crypt on March 31, i86i. 



FllA 



314 



FEA 



FKANCE, continued. 

ordered to be forthwith erased throughout 
France, and the old names of streets, public 
buildings, and places of resort to be restored. 
The trees of liberty are everywhere, hewn 
down and burnt.] 

The national guard disbanded, and reorganised 
anew, and placed vuider the control of the 
executive, the president appointing the 
otBcers Jan. lo, 1852 

A new constitution published . . Jan 14, ,, 

Decree obliging the Orleans family to sell all 
their real and personal property in France 
within a year Jan. 22, ,, 

Second decree, annulling the settlement made 
by Louis-Philippe upon his family previous 
to his accession in 1830, and annexing the 
property to the domain of the state, Jan. 22, ,, 

The birthday of Napoleon I. (Aug. 15) to be the 
only national holiday . . . Feb. 17, ,, 

The departments of France released from a 
state of siege .... March 27, ,, 

Installation of the legislative chambers, 

March 29, „ 

A permanent crystal palace authorised to be 
erected in the Champs Elys^es at Paris, 

March 30, ,, 

Plot to assassinate the prince-president dis- 
covered at Paris .... July i, „ 

President's visit to Strasburg . July 19, ,, 

M. Thiers and other exiles permitted to return 
to France Aug. 8, ,, 

The French senate prays "there-establishment 
of the hereditary sovereign power in the 
Bonaparte family " . . . Sept. 13, „ 

Enthusiastic reception of the prince-president 
at Lyons Sept ig, ,, 

Infernal machine, intended to destroy the 
prince-president, seized at Marseilles, 

Sept. 23, ,, 

Prince-president visits Toulon, Sept. 27 ; and 
Bordeaux, where he says "the empire is 
peace " (L'Empire c'est la paix) . Oct. 7, ,, 

He releases Abd-cl-Kader (see Algiers), Oct. 16, ,, 

He, convokes the senate for November to deli- 
berate on a change of government, when a 

'■ senatits consuUum will be proposed for the 
ratification of the French people . Oct. 19, ,, 

Protest of comte de Chambord . Oct. 25, „ 

In his message to the senate, the prince-presi- 
dent announces the contemplated restoration 
of the empire, and orders the people to be 
consulted upon this change . . Nov. 4, ,, 

Votes for the emjjire, 7,839,552; noes, 254,501 ; 
null, 63,699 Nov. 21, ,, 

The prince-president declared emjieror; as- 
sumes the title of Napoleon III. . Dec. 2, ,, 

Marriage of the emperor with Eugenie, countess 
of Teba, at Notre-Dame . . Jan. 29, 1853 

4312 political offenders pai'doned . Feb. 2, ,, 

Bread riots Sept. ,, 

Military camp at Satory, near Paris . Sept. ,, 

Emperor and empress visit the provinces 
(many political prisoners discharged) . Oct. ,, 

Francis Ar J go, astronomer, &c., died Oct. 2, „ 

Attempted assassination of the emperor ; ten 
persons condemned to transportation for life, 

Nov. ,, 



Reconciliation of the two branches of the Bour- 
bons at Forhsdorf . . . Nov. 20, 

Marshal Ney's statue inaugurated exactly 38 
years after his death on the sjiot where it oc- 
curred Dec. 7, 

War declared against Russia (see Musso- Turkish 
IVar) March 27, 

Visit of prince Albert at Boulogne . Sept. 5, 

Death of marshal St. Arnaiid . Sept. 29, 

The emperor and empress visit London, 

April 16-21, 

Industrial exhibition at Paris opened May 15, 

Attempted assassination of the emperor by 
Pianori, April 28 ; by Belleraarre . Sept. 8, 

Queen Victoria and prince Albert visit France, 
Aug. 18-27, 

Death of count Moli5 .... Nov. 24, 

Birth of the imperial prince ; amnesty givanted 
to 1000 political prisoners . . March 16, 

Peace with Russia signed . . March 30, 

Awful inundation in the south* . . June, 

Distress in money market . . . Oct. 6, 

Sibour, archbishop of Paris, assassinated by 
Verger, a priest Jan. 3, 

Elections (3,000,000 voters to elect 257 deputies); 
gen. Cavaignac elected deputy, but declines 
to take the oath . . . June 21, 22, 

Conspiracy to assassinate the em2:)eror in Paris 
detected July n, 

Death of Bft-anger .... July 16, 

Longwood, the residence of Napoleon I. at St. 
Helena, bought for 180,000 francs . 

The conspirators Grilli, Bartolotti, and Tibaldi, 
tried, convicted, and sentenced to transporta- 
tion, &c Aug. 6, 7, 

The emperor and empress visit England, 

Aug. 6-10, 

The emperor meets the emperor of Russia at 
Stutgardt Sept. 25, 

Death of Eugfene Cavaignac (aged 55) Oct. 28, 

Death of Mdlle. Rachel (aged 38) . Jan. 4, 

Attempted assassination of the emperor by 
Orsini,t Fieri, Rudio, Gomez, &c., by the ex- 
plosion of three shells (two persons killed, 
many wounded) .... Jan. 14, 

Public safety bill passed — bold protest against 
it by OUivier .... Feb. 18, 

France divided into five military departments ; 
general Espinasse becomes minister of the 
interior Feb. 

" Napoleon III. et I'Angleterre " published, 

March 11, 

Intemperate speeches in France against Eng- 
land — misconceptions between the two coun- 
tries removed in ... . March, 

A republican outbreak at Chalons sujDpressed, 

March 9, 

Orsini and Fieri executed . . March 13, 

Simon Bernard tried in London as their accom- 
plice, and acquitted . . April 12-17, 

Marshal Pelissier sent as ambassador tojLondon, 

April 15, 

Espinasse retires from ministry of the interior 
[he was killed at the battle of Magenta, June 
4, 1859] June, 

Queen of England meets the emperor ; visits 
Cherbourg Aug. 4, 5, 



1853 

1854 
185s 

1856 
1857 



* The subscriptions in London to relieve the sufferers amounted to 43,000?. Sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy, 
of Bombay, gave 500^ for the same purpose. 

t FeUx Orsini, a man of talent and energy, intensely devoted to endeavouring to obtain Italian inde- 
pendence, was born Dec. 1819 ; studied at Bologna in 1837 ; joined a secret society in 1843 ; was arrested 
and condemned to the galleys for life in 1844 ; was released in 1846 ; took part in the Roman revolution in 
1848, when he was elected a member of the assembly ; and on the fall of the republic, fled to Genoa in 1849, 
and came to England in 1853. Entering into fresh conspiracies, he was arrested in Hungary. Jan. 1855, 
and sent to Mantua ; he escaped thence and came to England in 1856, where he associated with Kossuth, 
Mazzini, &c. ; delivered lectures, and where he de\-ised the plot for which he suffered. In his will he 
acknowledged the justice of his sentence. 



TEA 



315 



FEA 



FEANCE, continued. 

Conference at Paris respecting the Danulnan 
Ijriucipalities closes . . . Aug. 19, i 

Dispute with Portugal respecting the Charles et 
Georges {tohlch see) settled . . Oct. 23, 

Trial of corate de Montalembert* . Nov. 25, 

Emperor's address- to the Austrian ambassador 
(see Austria) Jan. i, 1 

Marriage of prince Napoleon to princess CIo- 
tilde of Savoy .... Jan. 30, 

Publication of " Napoleon III. et I'ltalie," Feb. 

On the Austrians invading Sardinia, France 
declares war, and the French entei' Sardinia ; 
the emjiress appointed regent ; the emperor 
ai-rives at Genoa .... May 12. 

Loan of 20,000,000 francs raised . May 21, 

Victories of the allies (French and Sardinians) 
at Montebello, May 20 ; Palestro, May 30, 31 ; 
Magenta, June 4 ; Melogiiauo (Marignano), 
June 8 ; Napoleon enters Milan, Jime 8 ; vic- 
tory of allies at Solferino . . June 24, 

Armistice agreed on . . . July 6, 

Meeting of emperors of France and Austria at 
Villa Franca July 11, 

Peace agreed on July 12, 

Louis Napoleon returns to Paris . July 17, 

The emperor addresses the senate, July ig ; 
and the diplomatic boiy . . . July 21, 

Eeduction of the army and navy ordered, Aug. 

Conference of Austrian and French envoys at 
Zurich (see Zurich) . . Aug. 8 — Nov. , 

Anniesty to political offenders . Aug. 17, 18, 

Violent attacks of the French press on Eng- 
land repressed Nov. 

" Le Pape et le Congrcs" published; 50,000 sold 
in a few days Dec. . 

Count Walewski, the foreign minister, resigns ; 
M. Thouvenel succeeds him . . . Jan. il 

The emperor announces a free-trade policy ; 
Mr. Cobden at Paris .... Jan. 5, . 

Comniercial treaty with England signed, Jan. 23, 

L'Unirers suppressed for publishing the pope's 
letter to the emperor . . . Jan. 29, 

Treaty for the annexation of Savoy and Nice 
signed March 24, 

The press censured for attacking England 

April 7, . 

The empei'or meets the German sovereigns at 
Baden June 15-17, , 

Jerome Bonaparte, the emperor's uncle, dies 
(aged 76) June 24, , 

The emperor, in a letter to count Persigny, dis- 
claims hostility to England *. . July 25, . 

The emperor and empress visit Savoy, Corsica, 
and Algiers Sept. 1-17, 

New tariff comes into operation . Oct. i. 

Public levying of Peter's pence forbidden, and 
free issue of pastoral letters checked . Nov. , 

The empress visits London, Edinburgh, Glas- 
gow, he. . . . . . Nov. — Dec , 

Important ministerial changes ; greater liberty 
of speech granted to the chambers ; two sets 
of ministers appointed — speakers and admi- 
nistrators ; Pelissier made governor of Algeria; 
Persigny, minister of the interior ; Flahault, 
EngUsh ambassador . . Nov. and Dec. 

Passports for Englishmen to cease after Jan. i, 
1861 Dec. 16, 



Six bishoprics vacant .... Dec. 

Persignj- relaxes the bondage of the press, Dec. 
11; [but for a short time] . . Dec. 20, 

The emperor advises the pope to surrender his 
revolted provinces . . . Deo. 31, 

" Rome et les Ereqxies" \)\\h\is\i&dL . Jan. 6, 

Jerome (son of Jerome Bonaparte and Eliza- 
beth Patei'son, an Araerican ladyt) claims his 
legitimate rights ; non-suited after a trial 

Jan. 25 — Feb. 15, 

Purchase cif the principality of Monaco for 
4,000,000 francs, Fel). 2 : announced, Feb. 5, 

Meeting of French chambers, Feb. 4 ; stormy 
debates in the chambers . Feb. and March, 

" La, France, Rome, d r/;a;(e"publi.shed, Feb. 15, 

Angry reply to it hj the bishop of Poitiers, who 
comjjares the emperor to 'Pilate . Feb. 27, 

Failure of Slirfes, a railway banker and loan 
contractor, kc. ; he is arrested . Feb. 17, 

Slanj- influential persons suspected of partici- 
pating in his frauds ; the government promise 
a searching inquu-y and strict justice 

Feb. and March, 

Eugene Scribe, dramatist, dies (aged 80) Feb 20, 

Eloquent speech of prince Napoleon in favour 

of Italian unity, the English alliance, and 

against the temporal government of the pope, 

March i, 

Strong advocacy of the temporal government 
of the pojie in the chambers ; the French 
army stated to consist of 687,000 men, March, 

Circular forbidding the priests to meddle with 
politics April II, 

Liberal commercial treaty with Belgium signed 

May I, 

Publication in Paris of the due d'Aumale's 
severe letter to prince Napoleon, April 13; 
printer and publisher fined and imprisoned. 

May, 

Declaration of neutrality in the American con- 
flict June II, 

OfScial recognition of the kingdom of Italy 

June 24, 

Visit of king of Sweden . . . Aug. 6, 

Conflict between French and Swiss soldiers at 
Ville-la-Grande .... Aug. 18, 

Mirfes, the speculator, sentenced to five years' 
imprisonment .... Aug. 29, 

Pamphlet "La France, Rome, et I'ltalie " appears 

Sept. 

Commercial treaty between France, Great 
Britain, and Belgium comes into operation 

Oct. I, 

Meeting of the emperor and king of Prussia at 
Conipii5gne, Oct. 6 ; and king of Holland, 

Oct. 12, 

French troops enter the valley of Dappes (Swit- 
zerland) to prevent an arrest . Oct. 27, 

Convention between France, Great Britain, and 
Spain, respecting intervention in Mexico, 
signed (see Mexico) .... Oct. 31, 

Embarrassment in the government finances ; 
Achilla Fould becomes finance minister, Nov. 
14 ; with enlarged powers . . Dec. 12. 

The emiaeror reminds the clergy of their duty 
" towards CM.sar " .... Jan. i, 

French army lauds at Vera Cruz . Jan. 7, 



1862 



* In Oct. 185S, the comtc piiblished a pamphlet entitled " Un Dcbat sur Vlade," in which he eulogised 
English institutions .and depreciated those of France. He was condemned and sentenced to six months' 
imprisonment and a fine of 3000 francs, but was pardoned by the emperor, Dec. 2. The comte appealed 
against the sentence of the court, and was again condemned ; but acquitted of a part of the charge. The 
senteuce was onca more remitted by the emperor (Dec. 21). In Oct. 1859, the comte published a pamphlet 
entitled "Pie IX. et la France en 1849 et 1S59," in which England is severely censured for opposition to 
pojoery. 

t The marriage took place in America, on Dec. 24, 1803; but was annulled, and Jerome married the 
princess Catherine of Wurtemberg, Aug. 12, 1807 ; their childi-en are the prince Napoleon and the princess 
Mathilde (sec p. 318). 



FRA 



316 



FRA 



FRANCE, continued. 

The French masters of the province of Bien- 
hoa, ill Annani ..... Jan. 20, 
Fruitless meeting of French and Swiss com- 
missioners respecting the Ville-la-Grande 

conflict Feb. 3, 

Fould announces his finance scheme, inchides 
reduction of 4^ per cent, stock to 3 per cent., 
and additional taxes and stamp) duties, 

Feb. 24, 
Fierce debate in the legislative chamber, in 
which prince Xapoleon takes part Feb. 27, 
French victories in Cochin-China (6 provinces 
ceded to France) . . . March 28, 
The Spanish and IBritish iilenipotentiaries de- 
cide t') quit Mexico ; the French declare war 
against the Mexican government (for the 
events, see Mexico) . . . Ajiril i6. 
Sentence against MirSs examined and reversed 
at Douai ; he is released . . April 21, 
Treaty of peace between France and Annam 

signed June 3, 

Duke Pasquier dies (aged 96) . . July 5, 

New commercial treaty with Prussia signed 

Aug. 2, 

New.spaper La France, opposed to Italian unity, 

set up by Lagueronnifere . . . Aug. 

Ship Prince Jerome, containing reinforcements 

for Mexico, burnt near Gibraltar ; crew saved 

Aug. 
Camp at Chalons formed on account of Gari- 
baldi's movements in Sicily ; broken, when 
he is taken prisoner . . . Aug. 29, 
Great sympathy for him in France . Sept. 
Treaty of commerce with Madagascar Sept. 12, 
Urouyn de Lhuys made foreign minister in 
room of Thouvenel . . . Oct. 15, 
Baron Gros becomes ambassador at London in 
the room of the comte de Flahault, resigned 

Nov. 18, 
Serjeant Glover brings an action in the court of 
queen's bench against the comte de Persigny 
and M. Billault, claiming 14,000^ for sub.si- 
dising the Morning Chronicle and other news- 
papers Nov. 22, 

The emperor inaugurates Boulevard Prince 

EugSne, Paris .... Dec. 7, 

Great distress in the manufacturing districts 

through the cotton famine and the civil war 

in America Dec. 

Treaty of commerce with Italy signed, Jan. 17, 
Revolt in Annam suppressed . Feb. 26, 

Convention regulating the French and Spanish 
frontiers concluded .... Feb. 27, 
Resignation of M. Magne, the " .speaking minis- 
ter " in the assembly . . . April I, 
Dissolution of the Chambers . . May 8, 
Persigny issues arbitrary injunctions to electors 

May, 
Thiers, Ollivier, Favi-e, and other opposition 
candidates elected in Paris, May 31 — June 15, 
Changes in the ministry — rciignation of Per- 
signy, Walewski, and Rouliind . June 23, 
The empress visits queen of Sjjain at Madrid, Oct. 
Baron Gros resigns, and the prince Tour 
d'Auvergne becomes ambassador at London 

Oct. 14, 



1863 



Death of M. Billault (born 1805), the "speaking 
minister " in the legislative assembly, Oct. 
13 ; succeeded by M. Rouher . Oct. 18, 1S63 

The emperor proposes the convocation of a 
Europsan congress, and invites the sovereigns 
or their deputies by letter ; . Nov. 4, ,, 

Thiers and his friends form the centre of a new 
opposition ..... Nov. 9, ,, 

The invitation to the congress declined by Eng- 
land Nov. 25, ,, 

Thiers speaks in the chamber . . Dec. 24, ,, 

Arrest of Grego and other conspirators against 
the emperor's life, Jan. 3 ; ti-ied and sen- 
tenced to transportation and imprisonment 

Feb. 27, 1864 

Convention betwcDn France, Brazil, Italy, Por- 
tugal, and Hayti for establishing a tele- 
graphic line between Europe and America 

M.ay 16, ,, 

Death of marshal Pelissier, duke of Malakhoff, 
governor of Algeria (born 1794) . May 22, ,, 

Convention between France and Japan signed 
by Japanese ambassadors at Paris June 20, ,, 

Convention of commerce, &c. , between France 
and Switzerland signed . . June 30, ,, 

Prince Napoleon Victor, son of prince Napoleon 
Jerome and princess Clotilde, born July 16, , 

Garnier-PagSs and 12 others who had met at 
his house for election pvirposes, convicted as 
members of a society " of more than 20 mem- 
bers" Dec. 7, ,, 

Death of the emperor's private secretary and 
old friend, Mocquard . . . Dec. 11, ,, 

Death of Proudlaon (born 1809), who said 
" Propri(5t^ c'est vol " . . . Jan. ig, 1865 

The clergy prohibited from reading the pope's 
encyclical letter of Dec. 8 in churches ; creates 
much excitement, and the archbishop of 
Bssancon and other prelates disobey . Jan. ,, 

The prince Napoleon Jerome appointed vice- 
president of the privy council . . Jan. ,, 

Decree for an international exhibition of the 
products of agriculture and industry, and of 
the fine arts, at Paris, on May, i, 1867, Feb. i, ,, 

Treaty with Sweden signed . . Feb. 15, ,, 

The niinister Duruy's plan of comijulsoiy edu- 
cation rejected by the assembly . March 8, ,, 

Death of the due de Momy, said to be half- 
brother of the emperor . . March 10, ,, 

Loi des suspects (or of public safety) suflfered 
to expire March 31, ,, 

A secretary at the Russian embassy assassinated 

April 24, ,, 

The emperor visits Algeria . . May 3-27, ,, 

Inauguration of the statue of Napoleon I. at 
Ajaccio, with an imprudent speech Ijy prince 
Napoleon Jerome, May 15 ; censured by 
the emperor ; the prince resigns his offices 
- June 9, ,, 

The English fleet entertained at Cherbourg and 
Brest Aug. i$ et seq. ,, 

The French fleet entertainod at Portsmovith 

Aug. 29— Sept. I, ,, 

Death of general LamoriciSre . Sei^t. 11, „ 

The queen of Spain visits the emperor at 
Biarritz Sept. 11, ,, 



KINGS OF FRAx/Je. 



MEROVINGIAX RACE. 

• Pharamond (bis existence doubtful). 
42S. Clodion the Hairy ; his supposed son : king 

of the Salic Franks. 
447. Merova!US, or M^rov^e ; son-in-law of Clodion. 
458. Childeric ; son of M^rovee. 
481. Clovis the Great, his son, and the real founder 
of the monarchy. He left four sons, who 
divided the empire : 
511. Childebert; Paris. 



51 1. Clodomir; Orleans. 
,, Thierry; Metz ; and 
,, Clotaire ; Soissons. 
534. Theodebert ; Metz. 
548. Theodebald, succeeded in Metz, 
558. Clotaire ; now sole ruler of France. Upon his 
death the kingdom was again divided be- 
tween his four sons : viz., 
561. Charibert, ruled at Paris. 
,, Gontram, in Orleans and Burgundy. 



FRA 



317 



FRA 



Both assassinated. 



FRANCE, continued. 

561. Sigebert, at Mctz, and 
,, C'liiliicric, at Soissons. 

575. Cliildebert II. 

584. Clutaire II. ; Soissons. 

596. 1 hieiTj- II., son of Childebert ; in Orleans. 
,, Theodebert II. ; Metz. 

613. Clotaire II.;; became sole king. 

628. Dapobert the Great, son of Clotaire II. ; he 
divided the kingdom, of which he had be- 
come sole monarch, between his two sons : 

638. Clovis II. has Burgundy and Xeustria, 
,, ^igebert II. has Austrasia. 

656. Clotaire III., son of Clovis II. 

670. Childeric II. ; he became king of the whole 
realm of France ; assassinated, with his 
queen and his son Dagobert, in the forest of 
Livri. Henault ] 
[At this time Thierry III. rules in Burgundy 
and Neustria, and Dagobert II., son of Sige- 
bert, in Austrasia. Dagobert is assassinated, 
and Thierry reigns alone. Henault. 

691. Clovis III. Pepin, mayor of the palace, rules 
the kingdom in the name of this sovereign, 
who is succeeded by his brother, 

695. Childebert III., surnamed the Just; in this 
reign Pepin also exercises the royal power. 

711. DagoJaert III., son of Childebert. 

716. Chilperic II. (Daniel); he is governed, and at 
length deposed, by Charles Martel, mayor 
uf the palace, whose sway is now unbounded. 

719. Clotaire IV. , of obscure origin, raised by Charles 

JIartel to the throne ; dies soon after, and 
Chilperic is recalled from Aquitaine, whither 
be had fled for refuge. Henault. 

720. Chilperic II. restored ; he shortly afterwards 

dies at Noyou, and is succeded by 
,, Thierry IV., son of Dagobert III., surnamed 

de Clielle.^; died in 737. Charles Martel now 

reigns under the new title of " duke of the 

French." Henault. 
737. Interregnum, till the death of Charles Martel, 

in 741 ; and luitil 
742. Childeric III., son of Chilperic II., surnamed 

the Stupid. Carloman and Pepin, the sons 

of Charles Martel, share the government of 

the kingdom in this reign. 

THE CARLOVINGIANS. 

752. Pepin the Short, son of Charles Martel; he is 
succeeded by his two sons, 

768. *Charlera<agne and Carloman ; the former, sur- 
named the Great, crowned Empekor of the 
West, by Leo. III. in 800. Carloman reigned 
but three years. 

814. Louis I. le Debonnaire, Emperor ; dethroned, 
but restored to his domiuions. 

840. Charles, siunamed the Bald, King ; Empef.or 
in 875 ; poisoned by Zedechias, a Jewish 
physician. 

877. Louis II., the Stammerer, son of Charles the 
Bald, King. 

879. Louis III. and Carloman II. ; the former died 
in 882, and Carloman reigned alone. 

884. Charles III. le Gros; a usurper, in prejudice to 
Charles the Simple. 

887. Eudes, or Hugh, count of Paris. 

898. Charles III. (or IV.), the Simple ; deposed, 
and died in prison in 929 ; he had married 
Edgiva, daughter of Kdward the Elder, of 



England, })y whom lie had a son, who was 
afterwards king 

Robert, 1 irother of Eudes ; crowned at Rheims ; 
but Charles marched an army against him, 
and killed him in battle. Henault. 

Rudolf, duke of Burgundy ; elected king, but 
he was never acknowledged by the southern 
provinces. Henault. 
936. Louis IV. d'Outremer, or Transmarine (from 
having been conveyed by his mother into 
England), son of Charles III. (or IV.) and 
Edgiva ; died by a fall from his horse. 

Lothaire, his sou ; he had reigned jointly with 
his father from 952, and succeeds him, at 15 
years of age, under the protection of Hugh 
the Great ; poisoned. 

Louis V. , the Indolent, son of Lothaii-e ; also 
poisoned, it is supposed by his queen, 
Blanche. In this jji-ince ended the race of 
Charlemagne. 



922. 



923. 



954- 



9S7. 



996. 

1031. 
1060. 



1223. 
1226. 



1270. 
128,. 



1316. 
1316. 



the CAPETS. 

Hugh Capot, the Great, count of Paris, &c., 
eldest son of Hugh the Abbot, July 3 ; he 
seizes the crown, in prejudice to Charles of 
LoiTaine, imcle of Luuis Transmarine. From 
him this race of kings is called Capevingians 
and Capetians. He dies Oct. 24, 

Robert II., surnamed the Sage; son; died 
lamented July 20, 

Henry I., son ; dies Aug. 29, 

Philip I. the Fair, and I' Amoureux ; succeeded 
at 8 years of age, and ruled at 14 ; son ; dies 
Aug. 3, 

Louis VI. , surnamed the Lusty, or le Gros ; 
son ; dies Aug. i, 

Louis VII. ; son ; surnamed the Young, to dis- 
tinguish him from his father, with whom he 
was for some j-ears associated on the throne ; 
dies Sept. 18, 

Phihp II. (Augustus) ; son ; succeeds at 15 ; 
crowned at Rheims in his father's hf etime ; 
dies July 14, 

Louis VIII., Cixur de Lion ; son ; dies Nov. 8, 

Lotus IX. ; son ; called St. Louis ; ascended 
the thi-one at 15, luider the guardianship of 
his mother, who was also regent ; died in 
his camp before Tunis, Aug. 25, 

Philip III., the Hardy ; son; died at Perpig- 
nan, Oct. 6, 

Philip IV., the Fair; son ; ascended the throne 
in his 17th year ; dies Nov. 29, 

Louis X. ; son ; surnamed /^it^in, an old French 
word, signifying headstrong, or mutinous ; 
died June 5, 

John, a posthumous son of Louis X. ; born 
Nov. 15 ; died Nov. 19, 

Philip V. the Long (on account of his stature) ; 
brother of Louis ; died Jan. 1., 

Charles IV., the Handsome; brother; died 
Jan. 31, 1328. 

HOUSE OF VALOIS. 

PhiliiJ VI., de Valois, grandson of Philip the 
Hardy ^(called the Fortunate) ; died Aug. 
23, 

John II., the Good; son; died suddenly in 
the Savoy in London, April 8, 



* This great prince vore on ly a plain doublet in 7cintei; made of an otter's skin, a woollen tunic, fringed 
with sill:, and a b'ue coat or ra.«.«oct,' Ids hone coiisisted of irans^'ei-se bands or fillets of different colours. He 
woiild march with the greatest rapidity from the Pyrenoan nioimtains into Germany, and from Germany 
into Italy. The whole world echoed his name. He was the tallest and the strongest man of his time. In 
this ropect he resembled the herots cif fabulous stor}' ; but he differed from them, .as he thought that 
force was of use alone to conquer, and that laws were necessai-y to govern. According!}-, he enacted several 
laws after the form observed in those days, that is, in mixed assemblies, composed of a number of bishops 
and the principal lords of the nation. Eyinhart. 



FRA 



318 



FRA 



FRANCE, continued. 

1364, Charles V., sumamed the Wise; son; die J 

Sept. 16, 
1380. Charles VI., the Beloved; son; died Oct. 21, 
1422. Charles VII., the Victorious; son; died July 

22, 
1461. Louis XI. ; son ; able but cruel ; died Aug. 30, 
1483. Charles VIII., the Affable ; son; died April 7, 
1498. Louis XII. , Duke of Orleans ; the Father of his 
People ; great-grandson of Charles V. ; died 
Jan. I, 
1515. Francis I. of Angouleme ; called the Father of 
Letters; great-great-grandson of Charles 
V. ; died March 31, 
1547. Henry II. ; son ; died of a wound received at 
a tournament, when celebrating the nuptials 
of his sister with the duke of Savoy, acci- 
dentally inflicted by the comte de Montmo- 
rency, July 10, 

1559. Francis II. ; son ; married Mary Stuart, 

afterwards queen of Scots ; died Dec. 5, 

1560. Charles IX. ; brother ; Catherine of Medicis, 

his mother, obtained the regency ; died 
May 30, 
1574. Henry III. ; brother ; elected king of Poland ; 
last of the house of Valois, murdered by 
Jacques Clement, a Dominican friar, Aug. 
I, 15^9- 

HOUSE OF BOURBON. 

1589. Henry IV., the Great, of Bourbon, king of 
Navarre ; son-in-law of Henry II. ; murdered 
by Francis Ravaillac, May 14, 

1610. Louis XIII., the Just ; son ; died ilay 14, 

1643. Louis XIV., the Great, styled Sieudonnt' ; 
son ; died Sept. i, 

1715. Louis XV., the Well-beloved ; great-gi-andson : 
died May 20, 

1774. Louis XVI. , his grandson ; ascended thi5 throne 
in his 20th year ; married the archduchess 
Marie- Antoinette, of Austria, in May, 1770 ; 



dethroned, July 74, 1789 ; guillotined, Jan. 
21, 1793,* and his queen, Oct. 16 following. 
1793. Louis XVII., son of Louis XVI. Though num- 
bered with the kings, this prince never 
reigned ; he died m prison, supposed by 
poison, June 8, 1795, aged 10 years 2 mouths. 

THE REPUBLIC. 

1792. The Xational Convention (750 members}, 
first sitting, Sept. 21. 

1795. The^DiRECToRY (Lareveillfere Ldpaux, Letour- 
neur, Rewbell, Barras, and Carnot) nomi- 
nated Nov. I ; abolished, and Bonaparte, 
Ducos, and Si^yfes appointed an executive 
commission, Nov. 1799. 

1799. The Consulate. Napoleon Bonaparte, Cam- 
bacerfes, and Lebrun appointed consuls, Dec. 
24. Najjoleon appointed consul for 10 years, 
May 6, 1802 ; for life, Aug. 2, 1802. 

FRENCH ESIPIIlE.t 

[Established by the senate May 18, 1804.] 
1804. Napoleon (Bonaparte) I. ; bom Aug. 15, 1769. 
He married, first, Josephine, widow of 
Alexis, vicomte de Beauharnais, Mai-ch 8, 
1796 (who was divorced Dec. 16, 1809, and 
died May 29, 1814) ; 2nd, Maria-Loui.sa of 
Austria, April 2, 1810 (she died Dec. 17, 
1847). He renounced the thrones of France 
and Italy, and accepted the isle of Elba for 
his retreat, April 5, 1814 ; again appeared 
in France, March i, 1815; was defeated at 
Waterloo ; finally abdicated in favour of his 
infant son, Jvuie 22, 1815 ; banished to St. 
Helena, where he dies. May 5, 1821. (See 
note, p. 312). 

BOURBONS RESTORED. 

1814. Louis XVIII. {comte de Provence), brother of 
. Louis XVI. ; born Nov. 17, 1755 ; married 



* On Monday, the 21st of January, 1793, at eight o'clock in the morning, this unfortunate monarch 
was summoned to his fate. He ascended the scaffold with a firm air and step ; and raising his voice, he 
said, " Frenchmen, I die innocent of the offences imputed to me. I pardon all my enemies, and I implore 

of Heaven that my beloved France :" At this instant the inhuman Santerre ordered the drums to 

beat and the executioners to perform their office. When the guillotine descended, the priest exclaimed, 
" Son of St Louis ! ascend to heaven." The bleeding head was then held up, and a few of the populace 
shouted " Vive la R^publique ! " The body was interred in a grave that was immediately afterwards tilled 
up with quick lime, and a strong guard was placed around until it should be consumed. Hist. French 
RevolvXioii. 



t THE BONAPARTE FAMILY. 

[The name appears at Florence and Genoa in the 13th 
century : in the isth a branch settles in Corsica.] 

Charles Bonaparte, born March 29, 1746, died Feb. 
24, 17S5. He married in 1767, Letitia Ramolina 
(born Aug. 24, 1750, died Feb. 1836); issue, 

Joseph, born Jan. 7, 1768, made king of Two Sicilies, 
1805; of Naples alone, 1806; of Spain, 1808; re- 
sides in United States, 1815 ; comes to England, 
1832 ; settles in Italy, 1841 ; dies at Florence, July 
28, 1844. 

Napoleon I., emperor, born Aug. 15, 1769 (see 
above). 

LuciEN, prince of Canino, bom 1775 : at first aided 
his brother Napoleon, but opposed his progress 
towards universal monarchy. He was taken by 
the Enghsh on his way to America, and resided in 
England tUl 1814. He died at Viterbo, Jvme 30, 
1840. His son Charles (born 1803, died 1857) was 
an eminent naturalist. 

Louis, born Sept. 2, 1778; made king of Holland, 
1806; died July 15, 1S46. By his marriage -vvith 
Hortense Beauharnais (daughter of the empress 
Josephine), in 1802, he had three sons : Napoleon 
Louis (born 1803, died 1807); Louis Napoleon (born 
1804, died 1 831); and 



Charles-Louis-Napoleon, born April 20, 1808; 

educated under the care of his mother at 

Aremljerg, Switzerland, and at Thun, luider 

general Dufour ; took part in the Carbonari 

insurrection in the Papal States in March, 

1831 ; attempted a revolt at Strasburg, Oct. 30, 

1S36 ; sent to America, Nov. 13, 1836; repairs 

to London, Oct. 14, 1838; lands at Boulogne 

with fifty followers, Aug. 6, 1840 ; condemned 

to imprisonment for life, Oct. 6, 1840 ; escapes 

from Ham, May 25, 1846; arrives at Boulogne, 

March 2, 1848 ; elected deputy, June 8 ; and 

takes his seat, Aug. 27 ; his coup d'diat, Dec. 

2, 1851 ; elected president of the republic, 

Dec. 10; for 10 years, Dee. 21, 22, 1S51 ; 

elected emperor, Nov. 21, 1852 ; declared 

emperor, as Napoleon III., Dec. 2, 1852. 

Jerome, born Nov. 15, 1784; king of Westphalia, 

Dec. I, 1807 — 1814; made governor of the In- 

vaUdes, 1848 : and marshal, 1850 ; died June 24, 

i860 : his children are 

Napoleon, born Sept. 9, 1822 ; man-ied princess 

Clotilde of Savoy. Jan. 30, 1859 : issue, 

Napoleon-Victor-Jerome, born July 18, 1862; 

Napoleon-Louis-Joseijh, born July 16, 1864. 

Mathilde, bom May 27, 1820 ; married to prince 

A. Demidoff in 1841. 



FRA 



319 



FRA 



FRANCE, continued. 

Marie-Joscpliine-Louise of Savoy ; entered 
Paris, and took possession of the tljrone, 
May 3, 1S14 ; obliged to flee, March 20, 1815 ; 
returned July 8, some year; died without 
issue, Sejit. 16. 
1S24. Charles X. (comted'Artois), his brother; born 
Oct. g, 1757 ; married Marie-Th^rtse of 
Savoy; dei^osed July 30, 1830. He resided 
in Britain till 1832, and died at Gratz, in 
Hungarj', Nov. 6, 1836. 
[Htir : Henri', due de Bordeaux, called comte 
de Chambord, son of the due de BeiTy ; bom 
Sept. 29, 1820.] 

HOUSE OF ORLEANS. (See Oiiectns.) 
1830. Lonis-PhiUppe, sou of Louis-Philippe, duke of 
Orleans, called Egalite, descended from 
Philippe, duke of Orleans, son of Louis 
XIII. ; born Oct. 6, 1773; married Nov. 25, 
1809, Maria-Amelia, daughter of Ferdinand 
I. (IV.) king of the Two Sicilies. Raised to 
the throne as king of the French, Aug. 9, 
1830: abdicated Feb. 24, 1848. Died in 
exile, in England, Aug. 26, 1850. 

KEW REPUBLIC, 1848. 

The revolution commenced in a popidar insurrection 
at Paris, Feb. 22, 1848. The royal family escaped 



by flight to England, a provisional government 
was established, monarchy aboUshcd, and France 
declared a republic. 
Charles-Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, declared by the 
National Assembly (Dec. ig) president of the 
republic of France; and proclained next day, 
Dec. 20 ; elected for ten years, Jan. 15, 1852. 

FRENCH EMPIRE REVIVED. 

[1821. Napoleon II. * (Napoleon- Joseph), son of Napo- 
leon ' I. and Maria Louisa, archduchess of 
Austria; bom March 20, 181 1 ; created king 
of Rome. On the abdiciition of his father 
he was made duke of Reichstadt, in Austria ; 
and died at the palace of Schoenbrunn, 
July 22, 1832. aged 21.] 

1852. Napoleon (Charles-Louis) III., Dec. 2 (formerly 
president), the pre.sent (1S65) emperor of 
the French. (See note, p. 318.) 
Empress : Eugenie-Marie fa Spaniard, formerly 
countess of Teba), born May 5, 1826 ; mamed 
Jan. 29, 1853. 
Heir : Napoleon - Eugene - Louis - Jean- Joseph, 

bom March 16, 1856. 
[On Dec. 18, 1852, the succession, in default 
of issue from the emperor, was determined 
in favour of prince Jerome-NaiDoleon and 
his heirs male.] 



FRANCE, Isle of. See Mauritius. 

FRANCHE COMTE, successively part of the kingdom and duchy of Burgimdy and the 
tingdom of France, was given to Philip II. of Spain as the dowry of Isabella of France, 
whom he married in 1559. It was conquered and retained by Louis XIV. in 1674. 

FRANCHISE. A privilege or exemption from ordinary jurisdiction ; and anciently an 
asylum or sanctuary where the person was secure. In Spain, churches and monasteries were, 
until lately, franchises for criminals, as they were formerly in England. See Smictuarics. 
In 1429 the Elective franchise for counties was restricted to persons having at least 40s. 
a year in land, and resident. See Reform. 

FRANCIS' Assault on the Queen. John Francis, a youth, fired a pistol at queen 
Victoria, as she was riding down Constitution-hill, in an open barouche, accompanied by 
prince Albert, May_ 30, 1842. The queen was uninjured. Previous intimation having 
reached the palace of the intention of the criminal, her majesty had commanded that none 
of the ladies of her court should attend her. Francis was condemned to death, June 17 
following, but was afterwards transported for life. 

FRANCISCANS, Roman Catholic friars, called also Grey friars, founded by Francis de 
Assisi, about 1209, or 1220. Their rules were chastity, poverty, obedience, and very austere 
regimen. In 1226 they appeared in England, where, at the time of the dissolution of 
monasteries by Henry VIII., they had fifty-hve abbeys or other houses, 1536-38. 

FRANKFORT-ox-the-Main (Central Germany), many ages a free city ; was taken and 
retaken several times during the French wars, and held by Bonaparte from 1S03 to 1813, 
when its independence was guaranteed by the allied sovereigns. 



! The diet of the princes of Germany established 
here by the Rhenish confederation ' . . . 

i Appointed capital of the Germanic confede- 
ration 

, The Frankfort diet publish a federative consti- 
tution March 30, 

'■ The plenipotentiaries of Austria, Bavaria, 
Saxony, Hanover, Wurtembcrg, Mecklen- 



1815 



burg, (fee, here constitute themselves the 
council of the Germanic diet . Sept. i, 1850 

The German sovereigns (excepting the king of 
Prussia) met at Frankport(at the invitation 
of the emperor of Austria), to consider a plan 
of federal reform, Aug. 17 ; the plan was not 
accepted by Prussia . . . Sept. 22, 1863 

Population in 1859, 67,975. See Germany. 



FRANKFORT-on-tue-Oder (N. Germany) ; a member of the Hanseatic league, suffered 
much from marauders in the middle ages, and in the thirty years' Avar. The university 
was founded in 1506, and incorporated with the Breslau in 181 1. Near Frankfort, on 
Aug. 12, 1759, Frederick of Prussia was defeated by the Russians and Austriaus. See 
Cunnersdorf. 

* Decreed to be so termed by the present emperor on his accession. 



FRA 



320 



FRA 



FRANKING LETTERS, passing letters free of jiostage, was claimed by parliament 
about 1660. The privilege was restricted in 1837, and abolislied ou the introduction of 
the uniform penny postage, Jan. 10, 1840. The queen was among the first to relinquish 
her privilege. 

FRANKLIN, tlie English freeholder in the middle ages. See "the Franklin's Tale," 
in Chaucer's Canterbury Tales (written about 1364). 

FRANKLIN'S ARCTIC EXPEDITION. Sir John Franklin, with captains Crozier and 
Fitzjames, in H.M. ships Erebus and Terror (carrying in all 138 persons), sailed on an arctic 
expedition of discovery and survey, from Greenhithe, ou May 24, 1845. Their last despatches! 
were from the Whalefish islands, dated July 12, 1845. Their protracted absence caused" 
intense anxiety throughout Europe, and numerous expeditions Avere sent from England and 
elsewhere in search of them to various parts of the polar regions. Quantities of coals, pro- 
visions, clothing, and other necessaries, were deposited in such places in the Arctic seas as the 
crews of the Erebus and Terror discovery shijis might visit, so as to afford them immediate 
relief, by our own and by the American government, by lady Franklin, and numerous private 
persons. The Truelove, cnptain Parker, which arrived at Hull, Oct. 4, 1849, from Davis's 
Straits, brought intelligence (not afterwards confirmed) that the natives had seen sir John 
Franklin's ships as late as the previous March, beset or frozen up by the ice in Prince 
Regent's inlet. Other accounts were equally illusory. Her Majesty's government, on 
March 7, 1850, oflfered a reward of 20,oooZ. to any party of any country, that should render 
efficient assistance to the crews of the missing ships. Sir John's first winter quarters were 
found at Beechy island by captains Ommanney and Penny. 



1. H.M.S. P/oj'cr, capt. Moore (afterwards under 
capt. Maguire), sailed from Sheerness to 
Behring'.s Straits, in search . . Jan. i, ] 

2. Land expedition under sir John Richardson 
and Dr. Rae, of the Hudson's Bay Comp.any, 
left England .... March 25, 

[Sir John Richardson returned to England 
in 1849, -i^d I^i' ^^^ continued his search 
till 1S51.] 

3. Sir James Ross, with the Enterprise and In- 
vestigator (June 12, 184S), having also sailed 
in search to Barrow's Straits, returned to 
England (Scarborough) . . . Nov. 3, : 

4. The Enterprise, cai.)t. ColUnson, and Investi- 
gator, commander M'Clm-e, saUed from Ply- 
mouth for Behring's Stiaits . . Jan. 20, : 

[Both of these ships proceeded through to 
the eastward.] 

5. Capt. Austin's expedition, viz. : Resolute, 
capt. Austin, C.B. ; Assistance, ca-iit. Omman- 
ney ; Iiitrepid, lieut. Bertie Cator; and Pioneer, 
lieut. Sherard Osborn, sailed from England 
for BaiTOw's Straits . . . April 25, 

[Returned Sept. 1851.] 

6. The Lady Franklin, capt. Penny ; and Sophia, 
capt. Stewart, sailed from Aberdeen for Bar- 
row's Straits .... April 13, 

[Returned home Sept. 1851.] 

7. The American expedition in the Advance 
and Rescue, under lieut. De Haven and Dr. 
Kane (son of the judge), towards which Mr. 
Grinnell subscribed 30,000 dollars, sailed for 
Lancaster Sound and Barrow's Straits ; after 
drifting in the pack down Baffin's Bay, the 
ships were released in 1851 vminjui-ed, May 25, 

8. The Felix, sir John Ross, fitted out chiefly by 
the Hudson Bay Company, sailed to the same 
locahty ... . . May 22, 

[Returned in 1851.] 

.9. H.M.S. Kortk Star, commander Sauuder.s, 
which had sailed from England in 1849, win- 
tered in Wolstenholme Sovind, and returned 
to Spithead Sept. 28, 

10. B..U &. Herald, capt. Kellett, C.B., which 
had sailed in 1848, made three voyages to 
Behring's Straits, and returned in . 

Lieut. Pim went to St. Petersburg with the 
intention of travelling through Siberia to the 
mouth of the river Kolyma ; but was dis- 



suaded from proceeding by the Russian 

government Nov. 18, 185 1 

[The Enterpjrise and Investigator (see No. 4 

above) not having been heard of for two 

years,] 

11. Sir Edward Belcher's expedition, consisting 
of — Assistance, sir Edward Belcher, C.B.; 
ResohUe, capt. Kellett, C.B. ; North Star, capt. 
PuUen ; Intrepid, capt. M'Clintock ; and 
Pioneer, capt. Sherard Oslom, sailed from 
Woolwich Aiiril 15, 1852 

[This expedition had ari-ived at I5eechy 
Island Aug. 14, 1852. 1'he Assistance and 
Pioneer proceeded through Wellington 
Channel, and the Resolute and Intrejudto 
Melville Island ; the North Sfar remaining 
at Beechy Island.] 

LADY franklin's EQUIPMENTS. 

Lady Franklin, from her own resources, aided 
by a few friends (and by the " Tasmanian 
Tribute" of 1500/.), equipped four seijarate 
private expeditions : 

12. The Prince A Ibert, capt. Forsyth, sailed from j^ 
Aberdeen to Barrow's Straits . June 5, i 

[Returned Oct. i, 1850.] 

13. The Prince Albert, Mr. Kennedy, accompa- 
nied by lieut. Bellot, of the French navy, and 
John Hepburn, sailed from Stromness to 
Prince Regent's Inlet . . . June 4, 1851 

[Returned Oct. 1852 ] 

14. The Isabel, commander Inglefield, sailed for 
the head of Baffin's Bay, Jones's Sound, and 
the Wellington Channel, July 6 ; and returned 

Nov. 1S52 

15. Mr. Kennedy s.ailed again in the Isabel, on 
a renewed search to Behring's Straits . . 1853 

16. H.M.S. Uattlesnake, commander TroUope, 
despatched to assist the Plover, capt. Maguire 
(wbo succeeded capt. Moore), at Point Barrow 
in April ; met with it . . . Aug. 

17. The second American expedition, the Ad- 
vance, under Dr. Kane, early in . . June, 

18. The Phcenix (with the Breadalbane trans- 
port), commander Inglefield, accompanied 
by lieut. Bellot, sailed in Slay : he returned, 
bringing despatches from sir E. Belcher, &c. 

Oct. 



FKA 



321 



FRA 



FRANKLIN'S EXPEDITION, continued. 

The IiivrMigator and sir E. Belcher's squadron 
were safe ; bnt no traces of Franklin's party 
had boon mot with. Lieut. Bellot* was unfor- 
tunately dro\\^lcd in August while voluntarily 
convej-ing despatches to sir E. Belcher Capt. 
M'Clure had left the Herald (lo) at Cape 
Lisbunic, July 31, 1S50. On Oct. 8, the ship 
was frozen in, and so continued for nine 
months. On Oct. 26, 1850, while on an ex- 
cursion party, the captain discovered an 
entrance into Barrow's Straits, and thus 
established the existence of a N.E — N.W. 
passage. In Sejat. 1851, the ship was again 
fixed in ice, and so remained till lieut. Pim 
and a party from capt. Kollett's ship, the 
liesolute (11), fell in with them in April, 1S53. 
The position of the Enterprise (4).was still un- 
known. 

Dr. Rae, in the spring of 1853, again proceeded 
towards the magnetic pole ; and in July, 1854, 
he reported to the Admiralty that he had 
purchased from a party of E6C[uimaux a num- 
l>er of articles which had belonged to sir J. 
Franklin and his party — namely, sir John's 
star or order, part of a watch, silver spoons, 
and forks with crests, <tc. He also reported 
the statement of the natives, that they had 
met with a party of white men about four 
winters previous, and had sold them a seal ; 
and that four mouths later, in the same 
season, they had found the bodies of thirty 
men (some buried), who had evidently 
perished by starvation ; the place appears, 
from the description, to have been in the 
neighbourhood of the Great Fish river of 
Back. Dr. Rae arrived in England on Oct. 
22, 1854, with the melai)choly relics, which 
have since been depo.sited iu Greenwich hos- 
pital. He and his companions were awarded 
10.000?. for their discovery. 

iq. The Pkcenix, North Star, and Talbot, under 
the command of capt. Inglefield, sailed in 
May, and returned in ... Oct. 1854 

Sir E. Belcher (Xo. 11). after mature delibera- 
tion, in April, 1S54, determined to abandon 
his ships, and gave orders to that effect to all 
the captains luider his command ; and capt. 
Kellett gave similar orders to capt. M'Clure, 
of the Investigator. The vessels had been 
abandoned in Junet when the crews of the 
Phcenix and Talbot (under capt. Inglefield) 
arrived (19). On their return to England the 
captains were all tried by court-martial and 
honourably acquitted . . Oct. 17-19, ,, 

Cajit. Collinson's fate was long uncertain, and 
another expedition was in contemplation, 
when intelligence came, in Feb. 1855, that 
he had met the Rattlesnake (16) at Fort 



Clarence in Aug. 21, 1854, and had sailed 
imniediately, in hopes of getting up with 
capt. Maguire in the Placer (i\ which had 
sailed two days previously. Cai^t. CoUinson 
having failed in getting through the ice in 1850 
with capt. M'Clure, returned to Hong- Kong to 
winter. In 1851 he passed through Prince of 
Wales's Straits, and remained in the Arctic 
regions without obtaining any intelligence of 
Franklin till July, 1854, when, being once 
more released from the ice, he sailed for Foit 
Clarence, where he an-ived as above men- 
tioned. Captains CoUinson and Maguire 
arrived in England in . . . . May, 1855 

20. The third American expedition in search of 
Dr. Kane, in the AJvance, consisted of the 
Release and the steamer Arctic, the barque 
Erinrto, and another vessel under the com- 
mand of lieut. H. J. Hartstene, accompanied 
by a brother of Dr. Kane as surgeon, May 31, ,, 

[On May 17, 1855, Dr. Kane and his party 
quitted the Advance, and journeyed over the 
ice, 1300 miles, to the Danish settlement ; on 
their way home in a Danish vessel, they fell 
in with lieut. Hartstene, Sept. 18 ; and 
arrived with him at Xew York, Oct. 11, 1855. 
Dr. Kane visited England in 1856 ; he died in 
1857.] 

The Hiidson's Bay Company, under advice of 
Dr. Rae and sir G. Back, sent out an overland 
expedition, June, 1855, which returned Sept. 
following. Some more remains of Franklin's 
party were discovered. 

21. The 18th British expedition (equipped by 
lady Franklin and her friends, the govern- 
ment having declined to fit out another) — 
the Fox. screw steamer, under capt. (since 
sir) F. L. M'Clintock, R.N. (see No. 11)— 
sailed from Aberdeen July i, 1857 ; returned 

Sept. 22. 1859 
On M;iy 6, 1859, lieut. Hobson found at Point 
Victorj', near Cape Victoria, besides a caini, 
a tin case, containing a paper, signed April 
25, 1848, by captain Fitzjames, which certi- 
fied that the ships Erebus and Terror, on Sept. 
12, 1846, were beset in lat. 7o°o5'N., and 
long. 98° 23' W. ; that sir John Franklin died 
June II, 1847; and that the ships were de- 
serted April 22, 1848. Captxin M'CUntock 
continued the search, and discovered skele- 
tons and other relics. His journal was pub- 
lished in Dec. 1859 ; and on May 28, i860, 
gold medals were given to him and to lady 
Franklin by the Royal Geogr;iphical Society. 
Mr. Hall, the arctic explorer, reported, in Aug. 
1865, circumstances that led him to hope 
that capt. Crozier and others were surviving. 



FRANKS (or freemen), a name given to a combination of the North-western German 
tribes about 240, which iuvaded Gaul and other parts of the empire soon after with various 
success. See Gaul and France. 

FRATRICELLI (Little Brethren), a sect of the middle ages, originality Franciscan monks 
of the stricter sort. Their numbers increased, and they were condemned by a papal bull iu 
1317 ; and suffered persecution ; but were not extinct till the i6th century. They resembled 
tlic " Brethren of the Free Spirit." 



♦ A monument tn his memory was erected at Greenwich. His "Journal" was published in 1854. 

\ Capt. Kt-lk-tt's ship, the Resolute, was found adrift 1000 miles distant from where she was left by a 
Mr. George Henry, coniiuanding an American whaler, who brought her to New York. The British 
government having abandoned tlieir claim on the vessel, it was bought by order of the American congress, 
thoroughly repaired and equii>iieil, and entrusted to capt. H. J. Hartstene, to be presented to queen 
"Victoria It arrived at Suuthanjpton Dec. 12, 1856; was visited by her Majesty on the i6th ; and formally 
surrendered on the 30th. 



FRA 322 FEE 

FRAUDULENT TRUSTEES ACT, 20&21 A^ict. c. 54, was passed in 1857, in conse- 
quence of the delinquencies of sir John D. Paul, the British ]3ank frauds, &c. It was brought 
in by sir R. Bethell, then attorney-general, and is very stringent. 

FRAUNHOFER'S LINES. See Sjjcdniyn. 

FREDERICKSBURG (Virginia, N. America). On Dec. 10, 1862, general Burnside 
and the federal army of the Potomac crossed the small deep river Rappahannock. On Dec. 
II, Fredericksburg Avas bombarded by the federals and destroyed. On the I3tli com- 
menced a series of most desperate yet unsuccessful attacks on the confederate works, 
defended by generals Lee, Jackson, Longstreet, and others. General Hooker crossed the 
river with the reserves, and joined in the conflict, in vain. On Dec. 15 and 16 the federal 
army recrossed the Rappahannock. The battle was one of the most severe in tliewar. 

FREDERICKSHALD (Norway), memorable by Charles XII. of Sweden being killed by 
a cannon-shot before its walls, while examining the works. He was found with his hand 
upon his sword, and a prayer-book in his pocket, Dec. 11, 1718. 

FREE CHURCH (of Scotland*) was formed by an act of secession of nearly half the 
body from the national church of Scotland, May 18, 1843. The ditference arose on the 
question of the right of patrons to nominate to livings. The Free Church claims for the 
parishioners the right of a veto. Much distress was endured the first year liy the ministers 
of the new church, although 366,719^. 14s. ;^d. had been subscribed. In 1853 there were 
850 congregations. A large college was founded in 1846. In 1856 the sustentation fund 
amounted to 108,638/., from which was paid the sum of 138/. each to 700 ministers. 

FREEHOLDEPiS. Those ^mdcr forty shillings per annum were not qualified to vote for 
members of ])arliament by 8 Hen. VI. c. 7, 1429. Various acts have been passed for the 
regulation of the franchise at different periods. The more recent were, the act to regulate 
polling, 9 Geo. IV. 1828 ; act for the disqualification of freeholders in Ireland, which deprived 
those of forty shillings of this privilege passed April 13, 1829 ; Reform Bill, 2 & 3 Will. IV. 
1832. County elections act, 7 Will. IV. 1836. See Chandos Clause. 

FREE TRADE principles, advocated.by Adam Smith in his "Wealth of Nations " (1776), 
triumphed in England when the corn laws were abolished in 1846, and the commercial 
treaty with France was adopted in i860. Mr. Richard Cobden, who Avas very instrumental 
in passing these measures, has been termed " The Apostle of Free Trade." Since 1830 the 
exports have been tripled. 

FREEMASONRY. Writers on masonry, themselves masons, affirm that it has had a 
being "ever since symmetry began, and harmony displayed her charms." It is traced by 
some to the building of Solomon's temple ; and it is said the architects from the African 
coast, Mahometans , brought it into Spain, about the 6th century. Its introduction into 
Britain has been fixed at 674 ; manj' of our Gothic cathedrals are attributed to freemasons. 
The grand lodge at York was founded 926. Freemasonry was interdicted in England, 
1424. In 1 71 7, the grand lodge of England was established ; that of Ireland in 1730 ; and 
that of Scotland in 1736. Freemasons were excommunicated by the pope in 1738; again 
condemned, Sept. 30, 1865. The Freemasons' hall, London, was built 1775 ; the charity 
was instituted 1788. 

FRENCH LANGUAGE is mainly based on the rude Latin which prevailed in the nations 
subjugated by the Romans. German was introduced l)y the Franks in the 8th century. 
In the 9th the Gallo-Romanic dialect became divided into the Langue d'oc of the south and 
the Lancjuc d'oil of the north. The French language as written by Froissart assimilates 
more to the modern French, and its development was almost completed when the Academic 
Frangaise, established, by Richelieu in 1634, published a dictionary of the language in 1674. 
The French language, laws, and customs were introduced into England by William I. 1066. 
Law pleadings were clianged from French to English in the reign of Edward HI. 1362. 
Stoiv. 

PRINCIPAL FKENCII AUTIIORS. 
Born Died I Born Died 

Joiuville, thirteenth century. | Marot . . . . 1465 1544 

Froissart . . . 1337 — 1400? Rabelais . . . 1483 1553 
Monstrelet . . . 1453 Montaif^ne . . . 1553 1592 

Comines . . . 1509 | JIalherbe . . . 1556 1628 





Bom 


Died 


Des Cartes . 


■ 1596 


1650 


Pascal 


• 1623 


1662 


Molifere . 


. 1622 


1673 


Rochefoucault . 


• 1613 


16S0 



* The rev. H. Hampton, one of the curates of Islington, having been dismissed, a part of his congre- 
ion erected a temporary church. Tl ' " " 
congregation declared itself to be 
hood, and re-entered the establishment, 



gation erected a temporary church. The bishop of London, after inquiry, refused to license it. On this 
the congregation declared itself to be the Fri.e Church of EvQl-inO.. Eventually, he left the neighbour- ' 



FKE 



323 



FEI 



FRENCH LANGUAGE, conlimicd. 



Corneillc 
La Fontaine 
La Bruyere . 
Racine 
Bossuet 
Bayle 
Boileau 
Fenijlon 
Rollin . 
Le Sage 
Montesquieu 
Voltaire 



Sorn 


Died 




Earn 


Died 


i6o5 


1684 


J. J. Rousseaii 


. 1712 


177S 


1621 


1695 


D'Alembert 


• i7'7 


17S3 


1644 


1696 


Buffon . 


• 1707 


178S 


1639 


1699 


Jtarmontel 


• 1723 


1799 


1627 


1704 


De Stael 


. 1766 


1S17 


1647 


1706 


Dc Genlis . 


• T746 


18:50 


1636 


1711 


Sisniondi 


• 1773 


1S42 


i6=;i 


1715 


Cliateaubriand . 


• 17C9 


1848 


1 66 1 


1 741 


Augustin Thierry 


• 1795 


1856 


166S 


1747 


Berauger 


. 1780 


i8s7 


16S9 


1755 


Eugene Sue, aged 


53 


ISS7 


1694 


177S 


Eugene Scribe, aged So 


1S61 



A. G. De Barante 
F. Guizot . 
A. F. Villemain 
A. De la JIai-tine 
Victor Cousin 
Am^dt'e Thierry 
L. A. Thiers 
Jules Michelet 
Victor Hugo 
P. MiSrimfie 
Louis Blanc 



Bom 

17S2 

1787 

1790 

1790 

1792 

1797 

1797 

1793 

1802 

1S03 

1813 



Died 



FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY CALENDAR. In 1792, the French nation adopted a 
new calendar professedly founded on philosophical principles. The first year of the era of 
the republic began at midnight, between Sept. 21 and 22, 1792 ; but its"establishraent was 
not decreed until the 4th Frimaire of the yeat II., Nov. 24, 1793. The calendar existed 
until tlie lotli-Nivose year of tlie republic XIV., Dec. 31, 1805, when the Gregorian mode 
of calculation was restored by Napoleon. 



Vendemiaire 
Brumaire 
Frimaire . 



Nivose. 
Pluviose , 
Ventose 



Les Vertus 
Le G^nie . 
Lo Travail 



AUTUMN. 

. Vintage month, Sept. 22 to Oct. 21. 

. Fog month . . Oct. 22 to Nov. 20. 

Sleet month . Nov. 21 to Dec. 20. 

WINTER. 

Snow njonth . Dec. 21 to Jan. 19. 
Rain month . Jan. 20 to Feb. 18. 
Wind mouth . Feb. 19 to Mar. 20. 



Germinal 

Floreal 

Prairial 



Messidor . 
Fervidor, or 
Thermidor 
Fructidor 



BPEINQ. 

Sprouts' month, Mar. 21 to April 19. 
Flowers' month, April 20 to May 19. 
Pasture month, May 20 to June 18. 

SUMMER. 

Harvest mouth, June 19 to July 18. 

Hot month . . July 19 to Aug. 17. 
Fruit month . Aug. 18 to Sept. 16. 



SANSCULOTIDES, OR FEASTS DEDICATED TO 



The Vb-tues 
Genius 
Labour . 



Sejit. 17. 
Sept. 18. 
Sept. ig. 



L'Opinion . 

Les Recompenses . 



. Opinion 
. Rewards. 



Sept. 20. 
Sept. 21. 



FRENCH TREATY, the term given to the treaty of commerce between Great Britain. 
and France, signed Jan. 23, i860, at Paris by lord Cowley and Mr. Richard Cobden and by 
the ministers MM. Baroche and Rouher. The beneficial results of this treaty compensated for 
the depression of trade occasioned by the civil war in North America (1861-5). 

FRENCHTOWN (Canada), was taken from the British by the American general 
Winchester, Jan. 22, 1813, during the second war with the United States of America. It 
was retaken by the British forces under general Proctor, Jan. 24, and the Americau com- 
mander and troops were made prisoners. 

FRESCO PAINTINGS are executed on plaster while fresh. Very ancient ones exist in 
Egypt and Italy, and modern ones in the British houses of parliament, at Berlin, and other 
places. The fresco paintings by Giotto and others at the Campo Santo, a cemetery at Pisa, 
executed in the 13th century are justly celebrated. See Stereochromy. 

FRIDAY, the sixth day of the week ; so called from Friga, the Scandinavian Venus. 
She was the wife of Thor, and goddess of peace, fertility, and riches ; and with Thor and 
Odin composed the supreme coimcil of the Gods. See Good Friday. 

FRIEDLAND (Prussia), Here the allied Russians and Prussians were beaten by the 
French, commanded by Napoleon, on June 14, 1807. The allies lost eighty pieces of 
cannon and about 18,000 men ; the French about 10,000 men. The peace of Tilsit followed, 
by which Prussia was obliged to surrender nearly half her dominions. 

FRIENDLY ISLES, in the Southern Pacific, consist of a group of more than 150 
islands, forming an archipelago of very considerable extent. These islands were discovered 
by Tasman, in 1642 ; and visited by Wallis, who called them Keppel Isles, 1767 ; and by 
captain Cook, who gave them their present name on account of the friendly disposition of 
the natives, 1773. Subsequent voyagers describe them as very ferocious. 

FRIENDLY SOCIETIES originated in the clubs of the industrious classes, about 1793, 
and have been regulated by various legislative enactments. In 1850, preceding acts were 
consolidated, and other acts have since passed. 

FRIENDS. See Quakers. 



FRI 



324 



FRO 



FRIENDS OF THE People associated to oUain parliamentary reform, 1792.. 

FRIESLAND : East (N. Germany), formerly governed by its own counts. On the death 
of its prince Charles Edward, in 1744, it became subject to the king of Prussia ; Hanover 
disputed its possession, but Prussia prevailed. It was annexed to Holland by Bonaparte, in 
1806, and afterwards to the French empire ; but was awarded to Hanover in 1814. The 
English language is said to be mainly derived from the old Frisian dialect.— Feiesland, 
West, in Holland, was part of Charlemagne's empire in 800. It passed under the counts of 
Holland about 936, and was one of the sevenprovinces which renounced the Spanish yoke iu 
1580. The term Chcvaux de Frise (sometimes, though rarel)', written Cheval de Frise, a 
Friesland Horse) is derived from Friesland, where it was invented. 

FROBISHER'S STRAITS, discovered by sir Martin Frobisher, who tried to find a north- 
west passage to China, and after exploring the coast of New Greenland, entered this strait, 
Aug. II, 1576. He returned to England, bringing with him a quantity of black ore, 
supposed to contain gold, which induced queen Elizabeth to patronise a second voyage. 
The delusion led to a third fruitless expedition. He was killed at the taking of Brest 
in 1594. 

FRONDE, Civil Wars of the, in France, in the minority of Louis XIV. (1648-53), 
during the government of the queen Anne of Austria and cardinal Mazarine, between the 
followers of the court and the nobility, and the parliament and the citizens. The latter were 
called Frondcurs (slingers), it is said, from an incident in a street quarrel. In a riot on 
Aug. 27, 1648, barricades were erected in Paris. 

FROSTS. The following are some of the most remarkable : — 



401 



764 



The Euxine Soa frozen over for 20 days . . 
A frost at Constantinople, when the two seas 

there were frozen a hundred miles from the 

shore Oct. 763— Fe6. 

A frost in England on Midsummer-day is said 

to have destroyed the fruits of the earth . 1035 
Thames frozen for 14 weeks .... 1063 
Dreadful frosts in England from Nov. to April, 1076 
The Categat entirely frozen . . . . ' . 1294 
Baltic passable to travellers for six weeks . 1323 
The Baltic frozen from Pomerania to Denmark, 1402 
In England, when all the small birds perished, 1407 
The ice bore riding upon it from LilKeck to 

Prussia 

Severe frost, when the large fowl of the air 

sought shelter in the towns of Germany 
The river frozen below London-bridge to 

Gravescnd, from Nov. 24 to Feo. 10 . . . 
The Baltic frozen, and horse passengers crossed 

from Denmark to Sweden .... 
The winter so severe in Flanders that the wine 

distributed was cut by hatchets. . . . 
Carriages passed over from Lambeth to West- 
minster ....<•... 
Wine in Flanders frozen into solid lumps . . 
Sledges drawn by oxen travelled on the sea 

from Rostock to Denmark .... 
Diversions on the Thames . . Dec. 21, <5:c. 1564 
The Scheldt frozen to hard as to sustain loaded 

waggons 1565 

The Rhine, Scheldt, and Venice frozen . . 1594 
Fires and diversions on the Thames . . . 1607 
The rivers of Europe and the Zuyder Zee frozen ; 

ice covers the Hellespont .... 1622 
Charles X. of Sweden crossed the Little-Belt 

over the ice from Holstein to Denmark, with 



1426 



1433 



1434 
1460 



1515 
1544 



1548 



1658 



his whole army, horse and foot, with large 
trains of artillery and baggage . . . . 

The forest trees, and even the oaks in England, 
siilit by the frost ; most of the hollies were 
killed ; the Thames was covered with ice 
eleven inches thick ; and nearly all the birds 
perished* 1684 

The wolves, driven by the cold, entered Vienna, 
and attacked the cattle, and even men . . 1691 

Tliree months' frost, with heavy snow, from 
Dec, to March, 8 Anne 1709 

A fair held on the Thames, and oxen roasted; 
tbis frost continued !rom Nov. 24 to Feb. 9 . 1716 

One which lasted 9 weeks, when coaches plied 
upon the Thames, and festivities and diver- 
sions of all kinds were enjoyed upon the ice. 
This season was called the "hard winter " . 1740 

From Dec. 25 to Jan. 16, and from Jan. 18 to 
22 ; most terrible in its effect .... 1766 

One general throughout Europe. The Thames 
was passable opposite the Custom House, irom 
Nov. to Jan. 1789 

One from Dec. 24, 1794, to Feb. 14, 1795, with 
the intermission of one day's thaw Jan. 23, 1795 

Intense frfists all Dec. ..... 1796 

Severe frost in Russiaf 1812 

Booths erected on the Thames ; the winter very 
severe in Ireland ..... Jan. 18 14 

The frost so intense in p.arts of Norway, that 
quicksilver' freezes, and persons exposed to 
the atmosphere lose their breath . Jan. 2, 1849 

Very severe frost in London, Jan. 14 to Feb. 24; 
and very cold weather up to June 26} . . 1855 

Very severe frost from Dec. 20, i860, to Jan. 5, 

i86i.t See Cold. . ■ 



* " The frost this year was terrible. It began in the beginning of Dec. 1683. The people kept trades 
on the Thames as in a fair, till Feb. 4, 1684. About forly coaches daily plied on the Thames as on drye 
land. Bought this book at a shop upon the ice in the middle of the Thames." — Entry in the memoranda of 
a Citizen. 

t The frost in Russia in 1812 surpassed in intenseness that of any winter in that country for many 
preceding years, and was very desti-uctive to the French army in its retreat from Moscow, at the close of 
that memorable year. Napoleon commenced his retreat on the 9th Nov. when the frost covered the 
ground, and the men perished in battalions, and the horses fell by hundreds on the roads. What with the 
loss in battle, and the effects of this awful and calamitous frost, France lost in the campaign of this year 
more than 400,000 men. 

t On Feb. 22, fires wore made on the Serpentine, Hyde Park. A traffic on the ice of 35 miles long, 
was estabUshed in Lincoln.'-hiro — D\n-ing the frost of 1S60-1, bonfires were lit on the Serpentine, dancing 
took place, fireworks were let off, i-c. 



FKO 



325 



FUN 



FROST'S INSURRECTIOX. See Ncu-jmrt. 

FRUITS. Several varieties of fruit are said to have been introduced into Italy, 70 B.C. 
ct scq. Exotic fruits and flowers of various kinds, previously unknown in England, were 
brought thither between the years 1500 and 1578. See Gardmiiig and Flowers. 



Almond-tree, Barljary, about 1548 
Apples, Syria. 
Apple, custard, N. America 
Apple, osage, ditto 
Apricots, Epirus 
Cherry-trees, Pontus 
Cherries, Flanders . 
Cornelian cherry, Austria __,_,_ 
Currant, the hawi;hn., Canada 1705 
Fig-tree, S. Europe, before . 154S 
Gooseberries, Flanders, be- 
fore 1540 

Grapes, Portugal . . . 152S 
Lemons, Spain . . . . 1554 



1522 
1736 
1818 

1540 

100 

1540 

1596 



Limes, Portugal . 
Lime, American, before 
Melons, before 
Mulberry, Italy. 

Mulberry, white, China, abt. 1596 
Mulberry, the red, N. Ame- 
rica, before .... 
Mulberry, the paper, Japan, 

before ly^^^ 

Nectarine, Persia . . . 1562 
Olive, Cape .... 1730 
Olive, the sweet scntd. China 1771 

Oranges 1595 

Peaches, Persia . , . . 1562 



1554 
1752 
1540 
1520 



1629 



I Pears, uncertain . 

Pine-apple, Brazils 

Pippins, Netherlands . . 

Plums, Italy . . . . 

Pomegranate, Spain, before . 

Quince, Austria. . . . 

Quince, Japan 

Raspberry, the Virginian, be- 
fore 

Strawberry, Flanders . . 

Strawberry, the Oriental, Le- 
vant 

Walnut, the black, N. Ame- 
rica, before .... 



156S 
1525 
1522 
1548 

1573 
1796 



1724 
1629 



FUCHSIA, an American plant named after the German botanist Leonard Fuchs, about 
1542. The fuchsia fulgens, the most beautiful variety, was introduced from Mexico, about 1830. 

_ FUENTES D'ONORE (Central Spain). On May 2, 1811, Massena crossed the Agueda, 
with 40,000 infantry, 5000 horse, and about 30 pieces of artillery, to relieve Almeida. He 
expected every day to be superseded in his command, and wished to make a last effort for 
his own military character. Wellington could muster no more than 32,000 men, of which 
only 1200 were cavalry. He however determined to fight rather than give up the blockade 
of Almeida. After much fighting, night came on and put an end to the battle. Next day, 
Massena was joined by Bessieres with a body of the Imperial guard ; and on May 5, the 
enemy made his grand attack. In all the war there was not a more dangerous hour for 
England. Tlie fight lasted until evening, when the lower jiart of the town was abandoned 
by both parties — the British maintaining the chapel and crags, and the French retiring a 
cannon-shot from the streain. Napier. 

FUGGER, a illustrious German family (the present head being prince Leopold Fugger 
Cabenhauser), derives its origin from John Fugger, a master weaver in Augsburg in 1370 ; 
and its wealth by trade, and by money-lending to monarchs, especially the emperors. 

FUGITIVE SLAVE BILL, pas.sed by the American legislature in 1S50. It imposed a 
fine of 1000 dollars and six montlis' imprisonment on any person harbouring fugitive slaves 
or aiding in their escape. This law was declared to be unconstitutional by the judges of the , 
superior court on Feb. 3, 1855. It was carried into effect with great difficulty, and was not 
received by Ma.ssachu.sett3. It was repealed June 13, 1864. See Slaver 1/ in America. 

FULDA (\V. Germany), the seat of an abbey, founded by St. Boniface, the apostle of 
Germany, in 744. It was made a bishopric in 1752, and a principalit}'- in 1803. Napoleon 
incorporated it with Frankfort in 1810 ; but in 1815 it was ceded to Hesse-Cassel. 

FUJMIGATION. Aci'on, a ph3'sician of Agrigentum, is said to have first caused great 
fires to be lighted and aroraatics to be thrown into them to purify the air ; and thus to have 
stopped the plague at Athens and other places in Greece, about 473 B. c. 

FUNDS. See Stocks and Sinkiiig Fund. 

FUNERALS. A tax was laid on funerals in England, 1793. The Romans pronounced 
harangues over their dead, when eminent for rank, great deeds, and virtues. Theopompus 
obtained a prize for the best Funeral Oration in praise of Mausolus, 353 B.C. Popilia was 
the first Roman lady who had an oration pronounced at her funeral, which was done by her 
son, Crassus ; and it is observed by Cicero that Julius Cffisar did the like for his aunt Julia 
and his wife Cornelia. In Greece, Solon was the first who pronounced a funeral oration, 
according to Herodotus, 580 B.C. David lamented over Saul and Jonathan, 1056 b c, and 
over Abner, 1048 B.C. 2 Sam. i. and iii. — Funeral Games, among the Greeks, were chiefly 
horse-races ; and among the Romans, processions, and mortal combats of gladiators around 
the fmieral pile. These games were abolished by the emperor Claudius, a.d. 47. 



Public FaNEii.vLs voted by parliament : — 
Duke of Rutland, in Ireland . . Nov. 17, 
Lord Xelson (see Sclson) . . . Jan. 9, 

Wm. Pitt Feb. 22, 

Chas. J is. Fo.K Oct. 10, 



I Richard Brinslcy Sheridan . . . July 13, 1816 

1787 : George Canning .... Aug. 16, 1827 

180S , Uuke of WelUngton .... Nov. 18, 1852. 

„ Viscount Palmerston (at Her majesty's re- 

„ 1 quest; Oct. 27, 1865 



FUR 826 GAL 

FUERUCKABAD (N. India), a province acquired by the East India Company, in June, 
1802. Near the capital of the same name, on Nov. 17, 1804, lord Lake totally defeated 
the Mahratta chief Holkar, and about 60,000 cavalry, himself losing 2 killed and about 20 
wounded. 

FURS were worn by Henry I., about 1125. Edward III. enacted that all persons who 
could not spend lool. a 3-ear, should be prohibited this species of iinery. March 28, 1336-7. 

G. 

GABELLE (from Gabe, a gift), a term, applied to various taxes, but afterwards restricted 
to the old duty upon salt, first imposed by Philip the Fair on tlie French in 1286. Duruy. 
Our Edward III., termed Philip of Valois, who first levied the tax, the author of the Salic 
law (from sal, salt). The assessments were unequal, being very heavy in some provinces and 
light in others ; owing to privileges and exemptions purchased from the sovereigns in early 
periods. The tax produced 38 millions of francs in the reign of Louis XVI. It was a 
grievous burden, and tended to hasten the revolution ; during which it was abolished (1790). 

GAELIC is the northern branch of the Celtic languages, Irish, Erse, or Highland Scottish, 
and Manx. The "Dean of Lismore's boolc" (written 151 1-5 1) contains Gaelic poetry; speci- 
mens were published with translations in 1862, by rev. T. M'Lachlan. 

GAETA (the ancient Cajeta), a strongly fortified Neapolitan seaport, has undergone 
several remarkable sieges. It was taken by the French in 1799 and 1806, and by the 
Austriansin 1815 and 1821. Here the pope, Pius IX., took refuge in 1848, and resided more 
than a year. Here also Francis II. of Naples, with his queen and court, fied, when Garibaldi 
entered Naples, Sept. 7, i860 ; and here he remained till the city was taken by the Sardinian 
general Ciahlini, Feb. 13, 1861, after a severe siege, uselessly prolonged by a French fleet 
remaining in the harbour. Cialdini was created duke of Gaeta. 

GAGGING BILL, properly so called, meant to protect the king and government from 
the harangues of seditious meetings, was enacted in 1795, when the popular mind was much 
excited. In Dec. 1819, soon after the Manchester atl'ray, a bill for restraining public 
meetings and cheap periodical publications was popularly called "a gagging bill." Statutes 
coercing popular assemblies, particularly in Ireland, have been also so designated. 

GALAPAGOS, islands ceded to the United States by Ecuador, Nov. 3, 1854, the British, 
French, and other powers protesting against it. 

GALATIA, an ancient province of Asia Minor. In the 3rd century B.C. the Gauls under 

' Brennus invaded Greece, crossed the Hellespont, and conquered the Troas 278 ; were checked 

by Attains in a battle about 239 ; and then settled in what was called afterwards Gallogrtecia 

and Galatia. The country was annexed to the Roman empire b.c. 25, on the death of the 

king Amyntas. Paul's Epistle to the Galatians was probably written a. D. 58. 

GALICIA, a province, N.W. Spain, was conquered by D. Junius Brutus, 136 B.C., and 
by the Vandals, a.d. 419 ; and was frequently subdued by successive invaders. In 1065, on 
the death of Ferdinand I. king of Castile and Leon, when his dominions were divided, his 
son Garcia became king of Galicia. Ruling tyrannically, he was expelled by his brother 
Sancho ; returned at his death in 1072 ; was again expelled by his brother Alfonso, 1073 ; 
and died in prison in 1091. Alfonso, son of Urraca, queen of Castile, was made king of 
Galicia by her in 1 109. He defended his mother, a dissolute woman, against her husband, 
Alfonso VII., and at her death in 1126, acquired Castile, and once more re-united the 
kingdoms. — Galicia in Poland. East Galicia was acquired by the emperor of Germany at 
the partition in 1772 ; and West Galicia at that of 1795. The latter was ceded to the grand- 
duchy of Warsaw in 1809 ; but recovered by Austria in 1815. See Poland, note. 

GALLERIES. See National, Louvre, and Versailles. 

GALL, ST. (in Switzerland). The abbey was founded in the 7th century, and was sur- 
rounded by a town in the loth. St. Gall became a canton of the Swiss confederation 
in 1815. 

GALIjEYS with three rows of rowers, iri-remes, were invented by the Corinthians, 786 
B.C. Blair. The terms "galley slave," and "condemned to the galle}'s," arose from these 
sea vessels ha^-ing from 25 to 30 benches on each side, manned by four or five slaves to each 
bench. In France they had a general of galleys, of whom the baron de la Garde Avas the 
first, 1544. He'TiauU. 



A 



GAL 



327 



GAO 



GALLIPOLI, a sea-port iu Turkuy in Europe, 128 miles wciitof Constantinople. It was 
taken by the Turks in 1357, and fortified by Bajazet I. The lirst division of the French 
and English armies proceeding against the Russians landed here in March and April, 1854. 

GALOCHES, Frcncli for overshoes, formerly of leather ; but since 1843 made of \mlcanised 
India rubber. The importation of Galochcs was prohibited by 3 Edw. IV. c. 4 (1463). 

GALVANISM and GALVANO-PLASTICS. See under EJcctricitij. 

GALWAY (W. Ireland). The ancient settlers here were divided into thirteen tribes, a 
distinction not yet forgotten. It was taken by Richard de Burgo in 1232. In 1690 Galway 
declared for king James, but it was invested and taken by general Ginckcl immediati^y after 
the decisive battle of Aughrim, July 12, 1691. Here is one of the new colleges, endowed by 
government for the advancement of learning in Ireland, pursuant to act 8 & 9 Vict. c. 66 
(1845), inaugurated Oct. 30, 1849. See Colleges* 

GAMBOGE, a medicine and pigment, brought from India by the Dutch, about 1600. 
Hermann in 1677 announced that it was derived from two trees of Ceylon, since ascertained 
to belong to the order Guttiferiu. 

GAME LAWS are a remnant of the forest laws imposed by AVilliam the Conqueror, who, 
to preserve his game, made it forfeiture of property to disable a Avild beast ; and loss of eyes, 
for a stag, buck, or boar. The clergy protested against ameliorations of these laws, under 
Henry III. The first Game act passed in 1496. Game certificates were first granted with a 
duty in 17S4. Several statutes to prevent the destruction of game have been passed. The 
Game act (i & 2 Will. IV. c. 32) greatly modifying all previous laws, was passed in 183 1. 
By it the sale of game is legalised at certain seasons. By the Game Poaching Preventive 
act, passed in 1S62, greatl}' increased powers were given to the county police. 

GAMES. The candidates for athletic games in Greece were dieted on new cheese, dried 
figs, and boiled grain, with warm water, and no meat. The games were leaping, foot-races, 
darting, quoits, wrestling, and boxing. See Capitoline, Isthmian, Olympic, Pythian, Secular 
games, &c. 



Three ladies of quality convicted in penalties of 
5oi. each for playing at Faro . March n, 1797 

Gaming houses were licensed in Paris initil . 1836 

Any person losing, by betting or playing, more 
than lool. at any one time, is not compellable 
to pay the same, 16 Chas. II 1663 

Bonds or other securities given for money won 
at play not recoverable ; and any person 
losing more than lol. may sue the winner to 
recover it back, 9 Anne 1710 

Amended laws respecting games and wagers, 
8 & 9 Vict. c. 109 (1S45) ; by 3 Geo. IV. c. 114, 
a gaming-house keeper is to be imprisoned 
with hard labour ; and by 2 & 3 Viet, gaming- 
houses may be entered by the police, and all 
persons j^reseut taken into custody. 

Betting-houses suppressed .... 1853 

Public gaming-tables suppressed at Wiesbaden 
and other places in Germany . . . 1861-2 



Gaming was introduced into England by tho 

Saxons ; the loser was often made a slave to 

the winner, and sold in traffic Uke other mer- 
chandise. Camden. 
Act iirohibiting gaming to all gentlemen (and 

interdicting tennis, cards, dice, bowls, <&c., to 

inferior people, except at Christmas time), 

33 Hen. VIII 1541 

Gaming-houses licensed in London . . . 1620 
Act to prevent excessive and fraudulentgaming, 

when aU jsi-ivate lotteries and the games of 

Faro, Basset, and Hazard were supi^ressed, 

13 Geo. II 1739 

The profits of a well-known gaming-house in 

London for one season have been estimated 

at 150,000^ In one night a million of money 

is said to have changed hands at this place. 

Leiah. The lord chancellor refused a bank- 
rupt his certificate because he had lost 5;. at 

one time in gaming . . . July 17, 17S3 

GAMUT. The invention of the scale of musical intervals (commonly termed do or ut, 
re, mi, fa, sol, la, to which si was added afterwards), for which the first seven letters of the 
alphabet are now employed, is mentioned by Guido Aretino, a Tuscan monk, about 1025. 

GANGES CANAL, for irrigating the country between the Ganges and the Jumna. The 
main line (525 miles long) was opened April 8, 1854. When completed, it will be 900 mUes 
in leno-th, and will irrigate not less than 1,470,000 acres. It is the greatest work of the 
kind in the world. Its estimated cost is 1,555,548/. The immense diftieultiesin its execution 
were overcome by the skill and perseverance of its engineer, sir Proby Cautley. In Oct. 1864, 
sir Arthur Cotton asserted that the work was badly done, and the investment only paid 
3 per cent. 

GAOL DISTEMPER. See Old Bailey. 

* In 1858 tho sailing of mail steam packets from Galway to America begim ; but tho s\ibsidy ceased iu 
May 1S61 through the company's breach of contract, which occasioned much discussion in parUament. In 
July 1863 the contract for the conveyance of mails from Galway to America was renewed, 75,ooo(. having 
been voted for tho purpose. The scheme was not suoces.sful. On Xov. 9 the steamer Anylta struck ou 
the Black ro'-k and the mails wore taken to Dublin. The last packet sailed in Feb. 1864. 



GAR 



328 



GAS 



GARDENING. The first garden, Eden, was planted by God. See Gen. ii. Gardening 
was one of the first arts that succeeded tlie art of building houses. WaJpoIc. Gardens 
were highly valued by the ancients. Tlie Scriptures abound with allusions to them, particu- 
larly the Song of Solomon and the Prophets ; and Christ's agony took place in a garden. 
Xeiiophon describes the gardens at Sardis ; and Epicurus and Plato taught in gardens. ^ 
Theophrastus's History of Plants was written about 322 B.C. Horace, Vu-gil, and Ovid | 
derive many images from the garden (50 b. c. to a.d. 50) ; and Pliny's Tusculau villa is circum- ■ 
stantially described (about a.d. 100). The Romans doubtless introduced gardening into 
Britain (about a.d. 100), and it was kept up afterwards by the various religious orders. Its 




lished in 1804 : Loudon's valuable Encycloptedia of Gardening was first published in 1822, 
and his Eacyclopa;dia of Plants in 1829. See Botany, Floioers, Fruits. An act for the 
protection of gardens, and ornamental grounds in cities was passed in 1863. 

GAROTTE, a machine for strangling criminals, used in Spain. The term "garotters" 
was applied to the attempts to strangle made by thieves, very prevalent in the winter of 
1862-63. An act was passed in 1863 to punish these acts by flogging. 

GARTER, Order of the, owes its origin to Edward III., who, with a view of recovering 
France, was eager to draw the best soldiers of Europe into his interest, and thereupon, 
projecting the revival of king Arthur's round table, he proclaimed a solemn tilting, to invite 
foreigners and others of quality and courage to the exercise. The king, upon New Year's 
day, 1344, published royal letters of protection for the safe coming and returning of such 
foreign knights as had a mind to venture their reputation at the joust and tournaments 
about to be held. A table was erected in Windsor castle of 200 feet diameter, and the 
knights were entertained at the king's expense. In 1346 Edward gave his garter for the 
signal of a battle that had been crowned with success (supposed to be Cressy), and being 
victorious on sea and land, and having David, king of Scotland, a prisoner, he, in luemory of 
these exploits, is said to have instituted this order, April 23, 1349. The following were the 



ORIGINAL KNIOHT.S, 1350. 

Edward, prince of Wales 
(called the Black Prince). 
Henry, duke of Lancaster. 
Thomas, earl of Warwick. 
Piers, captal de Buch. 
Balph, earl of Stafford. 
William, earl of Salisbviry. 
Roger, earl of Mortimer. 



Sir Jtihn Lislo. 
Barth, lord Burghersh. 
Johu, lord Boauchamp. 
John, lord Jlohun, of Uunstar. 
Hugh, lord Courtenay. 
Thomas, lord Holland. 
Lord Grey, of Codnore. 
Sir Richard Fitz-Simoii. 
Sir Miles Stapleton. 



Sir Thomas Wale. 
Sir Hugh Wrottesley. 
Sir Nele Lorin. 
John, Lord C'handos. 
Sir James Andley. 
Sir Otho Holland. 
Sir Henry Eam. 
Sir San Daubrichcourt. 
Sir Walter Paveley. 



Edward gave the garter pre-eminence among the ensigns of the order ; it is of blue velvet 
bordered with gold, with the inscription in old French — '' Tloni soil qui mal y jkiisc,'" — Evil 
be to him who evil thinks. The knights are installed at Windsor ; and were styled Equitea 
aurece Periscclidis, knights of.tiie golden garter. Bcatson. The honour was conferred on the 
sultan of Turkey in 1856. The office of Garter King at ARM.swas instituted by Henry V. 
in 1420, and is one of considerable honour ; he carries the rod and sceptre at every feast of 
St George.* Sjxlman. The order of the garter in Ireland was instituted in imitation of that 
of England, by Edward IV. in 1466 ; but was abolished b}' an act of parliament, 10 Hen. VII. 
1494. AshmoWs Instil. The number of knights was increased in 1786. Many knights 
were admitted in 18 14. 

GASCONY (S.W. France) a duchy, part of Aquitaine {which see). 

GAS-LIGHTS : the inflammable aeriform fluid, carburetted hydrogen, evolved by the 
combustion of coal, was described by Dr. Clayton in 1739. Phil. Trans. 



Application of coal gas to the purposes of illumi- 
nation tried by Mr. Murdoch, in Cornwall . 1792 

Gaslight introduced at Boultion and Watt's 
foundry in Birmingham in ... . 1798 

Permanently used at the cotton-mills of Phillips 
and Leo, Manchester (1000 burners lighted) 1805 

Introduced in London, at Golden-lane, Aug. 16, 



i'8o7 ; Pall Mall, 1809; generally through 
London 1814 

Mr. David Pollock, father of the chief baron, 
was governor of the first "chartered" gas 
company 1812 

Lyceum Theatre lit with gas as an exijcriment 
by Mr. Winsor, 1803 ; the Haymarket not till 1S53 



■* The patron saint of England. The order, until king Edward VL's time, was called the order of St. 
George. His figure on horseback, presented as holding a spear, and killing the dragon, was first worn by 
the knights of the institution. It is suspended by a blue ribbon across the body from the shoulder. — St. 
George was a tribvmo in the reign of Diocletian ; and being a man of great courage, was a favourite ; but 
comjUaining to the emperor of his severities towards the Christians, and arguing in their defence, he was 
put in prison, and beheaded, April 23, 290. — On that day, in 1192, Richard I. defeated Saladin. 



GAS 



329 



GAU 



GAS-LIGHTS, continued. 

Gas first used in Dublin, 1818 ; the streets gene- 
ruUy lighted Oct. 

Gas-lighting introduced in Paris, 1819 ; ten gas 
cum panics in Paris .... July 

Sydney, in Au.straha, was lit with gas May 25, 

The gas-pipes in and round London extend up- 
wards of 2000 miles, and are daily increasing. 
It was said in i860, that of the gas supply of 
Loudon a leakage of g per cent, took place 
through the faulty joints of the pipes. — The 
sale of gas is regulated by acts passed in 



Processes to obtain illuminating gas fi-om water 
have been ijatented by Cruickshanks (1839), 
AVhite (1S49), and others. 

Gas-meters patented by John Malam (1820), sir 
W. Congreve (1824"), Samuel Clegg (1830), Na- 
than Defries (1S38), and others. 

Explosion of a large gasometer at the London 
Gas-light Company's works at Nine-elms : 10 
persons killed, and many injured (first acci- 
dent of the kind; . . . . Oct. 31, 1865 



GASES, iu chemistry, permanently elastic aeriform fluids. See OxTjgen, Hydrogen, and 
Nitrogen. Prof. TIios. Graham's paper on the law of the diffusion of gases appeared in 1834. 
Furnaces in which gases are used as fuel were devised by Mr. 0. W. Siemens, and employed 
in glass works, &c., in 1861. Ijcuoir's gas-engine, in which the motive power is obtained by 
the ignition of combined gases by electricity, was patented by him in 1861. In Dec. 1864, 
143 of these engines were working in Paris. They were introduced into England in 1864. 

GASTEIN (Salzburg, Austria). The long discussion between Austria and Prussia 
respecting the disposal of the duchies conquered from Denmark, was closed by a provisional 
convention signed here by their ministers (Blum for Austria and Bismarck for Prussia), 
Aug. 14, 1865.* This convention was severely censured by the other powers. 

GATESHEAD, a borough in Durham, on the Tyne, opposite Newcastle. At Gateshead- 
fell, "William I. defeated Edgar Atheling in 1068. It was made a parliamentary borough by 
the reform bill in 1832. Between twelve and one o'clock, Oct. 6, 1854, a fire broke out in 
a worsted manufactory here, which shortly after set fire to a bond warehouse containing a 
gi-cat quantity of nitre, suljihur, &c., causing a terrific explosion, felt at nearly twenty miles' 
distance, and totally destroying many building.s, and burying many persons in the ruins. 
At the moment of tlie explosion, large masses of blazing materials flew over the Tyne and 
set fire to many warehouses in Newcastle. About fifty lives were lost, and very many persons 
were seriously wounded. The damage was estimated at about a million pounds. 

GAUGES (in railways). Much discussion (termed "the battle of the gauges") began 
among engineers about 1833. Mr. I. M. Brunei approved of the broad, adopted on the 
Great Western railway ; and Mr. R. Stephenson, Jo,seph Locke, and others, of the narrow, 
that now almost universally adopted, even by the Great Western. 

GAUGING, measuring the contents of any vessel of capacity, with respect to wine and 
other liquids, was established by a law 27 Edw. III. 1352. 

GAUL, Gallia, the ancient name of France and Belgium. The natives, termed by the 
Greeks Galatfe, by the Romans Galli or Celtfe, came originally from Asia, and invadino' 
Eastern Europe, were driven westward, and settled in Spain (in Gallicia), North Italv (Gallia 
Cisalpina), France and Belgium (Gallia Transalpina), and the British isles (the lands of the 
Cymry or Gaels). 



The Phocjeans found MassUia, now Marseilles 

B.C. 600 
The Gauls under Brenn\is defeat the Romans 
at the river AUia, and sack Rome ; are de- 
feated and expelled by Camillus, July 13, B.C. 390 
The Gauls overrun Northern Greece, 280 B.C. ; 
are beaten at Delphi, 279 ; and by Sosthenes, 

king of Macedon 277 

They assist Hannibal 218, &c. 

The Romans conquer Gallia CLsalpina, 220 ; in- 
vade GaUia Transalpina, with various success, 

121-58 
They colonise Aix (123 B.C.); and Narbonne . 118 
Juliu.': Cwsar subdues Gaul iu 8 campaigns . . 58-50 
Lyons founded ....... 41 

Druids' religion proscribed by Claudius a.d. 43 
Adrian visits and favours Gaul, hence called 

Restorer of the Gauls 120 

Introduction of Christianity .... 160 
Christians persecuted . . 177, 202, 257, 286, 28S 
The Franks and others defeated by AureUan . 241 



And by Probus ad. 275, 

Who introduces the culture of the vine 

Maximi.an defeats the Franks . . . . 

Constantine proclaimed emperor in Gaul . 

Julian arrives to relieve Gaul, desolated by bar- 
barians ; defeats the Alemanni at Strasburg . 

Julian proclaimed emi:)eror at Paris, 360; dies 

Gaul harassed bj- the Alemanni . . . 365- 

Invasion and settlement of the Burgundians, 
Franks, Visigothsj &c. .... 378 

Clodion, chief of the Salian Franks, invades 
Gaul ; is defeated by Aetius . . . . 

The Huns tmder Attila defeated by Aetius near 
Chalons 

JEgidius, the Roman commander, murdered . 

Cliilderic the Frank takes Paris . . . . 

All Gaul, west of the Rhone, ceded to the 
Visigoths 

End of the Roman empire of the West, and 
establishment of the kingdom of the Franks 
(bee France.) 



281 
306 

357 
363 
377 

450 

447 

451 
464 
>> 

475 

476 



• Au.stria was to have the temporary government of Holstein, and Prussia that of Sleswig ; the 
establishment of a German fleet was proposed, with Kiel as a federal harbour, held by Prussia ; Lauen- 
hurg was absolutely ceded to Prussia, and the king was to pay Austria as a compensation 2,500,000 
L)ani:?h dollars. 



GAU 



330 



GEN" 



GAUNTLET, an iron glove, first introduced in the 13th century, perhaps about 1225. 
It was a part of the full suit of armour, being the armour for the hand. It was commonly 
thrown down as a challenge to an adversary. 

GAUZE, a fabric much prized among the Eoman people. "Brocades and damasks 
and tabbies and gauzes, have been lately brought over " (to Ireland). Dean Sioift, in 1698. 
The manufacture of gauze and articles of a like fabric at Paisley, in Scotland, was commenced 
about 1759. 

GAVEL-KIND. The custom of dividing paternal estates in land equally among male 
children, without any distinction, is derived from the Saxons about 550. This usage is 
almost universal in Kent, where it was first practised. By the Irish law of gavel-kind, even 
bastards inherited. JDavics. Not only the lands of the father were ecjually divided among 
all his sons, but the lands of the brother also among all his brethren, if he had no issue of 
his own. Latv Diet. 

GAZETTES. See NcwspcqKrs. 

GAZA, a city of the Philistines, of which Samson carried off the gates about 1 120 B.C. 
{Judges xvi.) It was taken by Alexander after a long siege, 332 ; and near to it Ptolemy 
defeated Demetrius Poliorcetes, 312 B.C. It was taken by Saladiu a.d. 1170; and by 
Bonaparte, March 1799. 

GEMS. The ancient Greeks excelled in cutting pi'ecious stones, of which many speci- 
mens are extant. The art was successfully revived in Italy in the I5tli century. In Feb, 
i860, Herz's collection of gems was sold for 10,000^. The rev. C King published his 
"Antique Gems "in i860, and the "Natural History of Precious Stones and Gems "in 
1865. Artificial gems have been recently produced by chemists (Ebelmen, Deville, Wiihler, 
and others), 1858-65. 

GENEALOGY (from the Greek genea, birth, descent), the art of tracing pedigrees, &c. 
The earliest pedigi-ees are those contained in the 5th, loth, and nth chapters of Genesis. 
The first book of Chronicles contains many genealogies. The pedigree of Christ is given 
in Malt. i. and Luke iii. ]\Iany books on the subject have been published in all European 
countries ; one at Magdeburg, Theatrum Genealogicum, by Henninges, in 1598. Anderson, 
Eoyal Genealogies, London, 1732. — Sims' ^Manual for the Genealogist, &c., 1856, will be 
found a useful guide. The works of Collins (1756 ct scq.), Edmondson (1764-84), and Nicolas 
(1825 and 1857), on the British peerage, are highly esteemed. The Genealogical society, 
London, was established in 1853. 

GENERAL ASSEMBLY. See ChurcJi of Scotland. 

GENERAL COUNCILS. See Councils. 

GENERAL WARRANTS. See Warrants. 

GENERALS. Matthew de Montmorency was the first officer honoured with the title of 
general of the French armies, 1203. Ilcnault. It is observed by M. Balzac that cardinal 
Richelieu first coined the word Generalissimo, upon his taking the supreme command of the 
French armies in Italy, in 1629. See Commanders-in-Chief. 

GENEVA, a town of the AUobroges, a Gallic tribe, 58 B.C. ; became part of the empire 
of Charlemagne, about A.D. 800 ; and capital of the kingdom of Burgundy 426. 



The Republic founded in 1512 

Emancipated" from Savoy 1526 

Allied to the Swiss Cantons in . . . . 1584 
Calvin settling here, and obtaining much in- 
fluence, Geneva was termed the ' ' Rome of 

Calvinism" about 1533 

Through him Servetus burnt for heresy . . 1553 
Insurrection, Feb. 17 81 : about 1000 Genevese, 
in consequence, applied, in 1782, to earl 
Temple, lord-heutenant of Ireland, for jjer- 
mission to settle in that country : the Irish 
parliament voted 50,000?. to defray the ex- 
l^enseof their journey, and to purchase them 
lands near Waterford. Many of the fugitives 



came to Ireland in July, 1783, but they soon 
after abandoned it ; many Genevese settled 

in England 1784 

Another revolution .... July, 1794 
Geneva incorporated with France . April 26, 1798 
Admitted into the Swiss Confederation, Dec. 30, 1813 
Revolution, through an endeavour of the Catho- 
lic cantons to introduce Jesuits as teachers ; 
a provisional government set up . Oct. 7, 1848 
[The scheme was withdrawn.] 
Election riots, with loss of life, through the 

indiscretion of M. Fazy . . Aug. 22, 1864 
49th annual meeting of the Helvetic Society of 
Natural Sciences held . . Aug. 21-23, 1865 



GENOA (N. Italy). Its ancient inhabitants were the Ligures, who submitted to the 
Romans 115 B.C. It underwent the revolutions of the Roman empire till a.d. 950. 



J 



GEN 



331 



GEO 



GENOA, continued. 

Genoa becomes a free commercial state, about . looo 

Wars with Pisa iug-1284 

Frederic II. captures 22 galleys, and vainly 

besieges Genoa ....... 1241 

The families of Doria and Spinola obtain as- 
cendancy about 1270 

The Genoese destroy the naval xiower of Pisa at 

Melora Aug. 13, 1284 

■War with Venice 1293-99 

Rafaele Doria and Galeotto Spinola, appointed 

captains 1335 

Simon Boccanegra made the first doge, 1339 ; 

set aside by the nobles, 1344 ; re-appointed . 
Groat discord ; many doges appointed . 
Genoa successively under the protection of 

France, 1396 ; of Naples, 1410 ; of Milan, 1419 ; 

it loses and regains its freedom frequently, 

1421 
Taken and sacked by the Spaniards and Italians 

under Prosper Colonna 1522 

Andrew Doria, with the fleet, restores the inde- 



1356 
1394 



■151 = 



I pendence of his country 

Genoa bombarded by the French, 1684 ; by the 

British, 1745; taken by the imperiahsts, wlio 

I are soon after expelled, Nov. 9, 1746 ; another 

j siege raised June 10, 

The celebrated bank failed 

Genoa made the Ligurian republic . 
The city, blockaded by a British fleet and Aus- 
trian army, until literally starved, was evacu- 
ated by capitulation, May and June : but it 
was surrendered to the French soon after 
their victory at Marengo . . June 14, 
Genoa annexed to the French empire, June, 
1805 ; sui-renders to the EngUsh and Sicilians 
April iS, 
United to the kingdom of Sardinia . . Dec. 
The city seized by insurgents, who, after a 
murderous stmggle, drove out the garrison 
and proclaimed the Li£>-urian republic, April 
3, but surrendered to general La Marmora, 
April II, 



1747 
1750 
1796 



GENS-D'ARMES were anciently the king's horse-guards only, but afterwards the king's 
gardcs-du-corps ; the niusqueteers and light-horse were reckoned among them. There was 
also a company of gentlemen (whose number was about 250) bearing this name. Scots 
guards were about the person of the kings of France from the time of St. Louis, who 
reigned in 1226. They were organised as a royal corps by Charles VII. about 1441. The 
younger sons of Scottish nobles were usually the captains of this guard. The name gens- 
d'arraes was afterwards' given to the x'olice ; but becoming obnoxious was changed to 
"municipal guard " in 1830. 

GENTLEMAN (from gentiles, of a gens, a race or clan). The Gauls observing that during 
the empire of the Romans the Scutarii and Gentiles had the best appointments of all the 
soldiers, applied to them the tavvnii ecuyers and gentilshom7nes. This distinction of gentlemen 
was much in use in England, and was given to the well descended about 1430. Sidney. 
Gentlemen by blood were those who could show four descents from a gentleman who had been 
created by the kiug by letters patent. 

GENTLEMEN-AT-ARj\IS (formerly styled the Band of Gentlemen Pensioners) is the 

, oldest corps in England, with the exception of the Yeoman of the Guard. The band was 

instituted by Henry VIII. in 1509, and was originally composed entirely of gentlemen of noble 

blood, whom he named his pensioners or spears. William IV. commanded that it should be 

called his Majesty's Honourable Corps of Gentlemen-at-Ann-s, March 7, 1834. Curling. 

GEOGRAPHY. The first records we have of geographical knowledge are in the Penta- 
teuch, and in the book of Joshua. Homer describes the shield of Achilles as representing 
the earth surrounded by the sea, and also the countries of Greece, islands of the Archipelago, 

: and site of Troy. Ilicul. The priests taught that the temple of Apollo at Delphos was the 
centre of the world. Anaximander of Miletus was the inventor of geographical map.s, about 
568 E.c. Hippai'chus attempted to reduce geography to a mathematical basis, about 135 B.C. 
It was first brought to Europe by the Moors of ]3arbary and Spain, about a.d. 1201. Lenglet. 
The invention of the mariner's compass is the important connecting link between ancient 
and modern geography. The modern maps and charts were introduced into England by 
Bartholomew Columbus to illustrate his brother's theory respecting a western continent, 
A. D. 1489. Geogi-aphy is now divided into mathematical, physical, and political. The study 
has been greatly promoted during the pi-esent century by expeditious at the expense of various 

: governments and societies. The Royal Geographical Society of London was established iu 

', 1830 ; that of Paris in 182 1. 

( GEOLOGY, the science of the earth, has been the subject of philosophical speculations 
from the time of Homer ; and it is said to have been cultivated in China many years before 
; the Christian era. It occupied the attention of Pliny, Avicenna, and the Arabian writers. 

certain tokens of antiquity than coins or medals, 
and, though difficult, it would not be imijossible 
to raise a clironoloijy out of tliaii." 

Burnet's " Theory of the Earth," appeared in 1690, 
Whiston's in 1696. 

Buffon's geological views (1749) were censured by 
the Sorbounein 1751, and recanted in consequence. 
The principle he renounced was that the present 



In 1574 Mcrcati wrote concerning the fossils in the 
pope's museum : Ccsalpino, Jlajoli, and others 
(1S97), Steno (1669), Scilla (1670), Quirini (1676), 
Plot and Lister (1678), Leibnitz (1680) recorded 
observations, and put forth theories on the various 
changes in the crust of the earth. 

Hooke (1668), in his work on Earthquakes, said that 
fossils, "as monuments of nature, were more 



GEO 



332 



GEO 



GEOLOGY, continued. 

condition of the earth is due to secondary catises, 

and that these same causes will produce further 

changes. His more eminent fellow-labourers and 

successors were Gesner (1758), Michell (1760), 

Raspe (17^2-73), Pallas and Saussure (i 793-1800). 
Werner (1775) ascribed all rocks to an 'iqaeous origin, 

and even denied the existence of volcanoes in 

primitive geological times, and had many followers, 

Kirwat), De Luc, &c. — Hutton (17S8) supported 

bj' Playfair(i8oi), warmly opposed Werner's views, 

and asserted that the principal changes in the 

earth's crust are due to the energy of fire. The 

rival parties were hence termed Neptunists and 

Vulcanists. 
William Smith, the father of British geology (who 

had walked over a large part of England; drew up 

a Tabular View of British Strata, in 1799, and pub- 
lished it and his Geological Map of England and 

Wales, 1812-15. 
In 1803 the Royal Institution possessed the best 

geological collection in London, collected by II. 

Davy, C. Uatchett, and others ; the jsroposal of 

su- John St. Aubyn, sir Abraham Hume, and the 

right hon. C. F. Greville, to aid the government in 

The strata composing the earth's crust inay be divided into two great classes : ist, those generally 
attributed to the agency of water; 2nd, to the action of fire, which may be subdivided as follows : 

( Sedementary or Fossiliferous rocks. 
( Metamorphic or UnfossiUferous. 



establishing a school of mines there in 1804-7, was 
declined. 

In 1807 the Gjological Society of London was estab- 
lished, which by callecting a great miss of new 
data greatly tended to check the disjiosition to 
theorise, and led to the introduction of views 
midway between those of Werner and Hutton. 

In 183s Mr. (afterwards sir Henry) Da la Beohe 
suggested the csfcibli.shment of the present Museum 
of Geology, which began at Craig's Court, and 
which was removed to its present position in 
Jermyn-street. To him is also due the valuable 
geological m ips formed on the ordnance survey. 
The building was erected by Mr. Pennethorne, and 
opened in 1851. Attache! to the museum ai-e the 
Mining Records office, a lectvu-c theatre, labora- 
tories, (fee. Sir H. De la Bechc, the first director, 
died April 13, 1855, and was succeeded by sir R. 
I. Murchison. A similar institution was estab- 
lished at Calcutta, in 1840, by the E. I. Company. 

The English standard works on Geology at the 
present time are ,those of Lyell, Phillips, De la 
Beche, Murchison, Mantell, and Ansted (1865). 



Aqueous formation, stratified, rarely crystalline 

Igaeous formations, unstratified, crystalline . . -^ piutonic, as Granite, &c. 
Fossiliferous, or Sedimentary, rocks are divided into three great series : — ■ 



J Volcanic, as Basalt, &c. 
1" . - . - 



The Palaeozoic (most ancient forms of life), or 

Primary. 
The Mesozoic (middle life period), or Secondary. 



The Neozoic or Cainozoic (more recent forms of Hfe), 
or Tertiary. 



NEOZOIC ; 
I. Post Tertiary : 

A. Post-Pliocene : 

1. Recent: Marine strata; with human 

remains; Danish peat; kitchen-mid- 
dens ; bronze and stone implements ; 
Swiss lake-dweUings ; temple of Serapis 
at Puzzuoli. 

2. Post- Pliocene: Brixham cave, with flint 

knives, and bones of living and e.xtinct 
quadrupeds ; ancient valley gravels ; 
glacial drift ; ancient Nile mud ; post 
glacial N. American deposits ; remains 
oi mastodo n ; Australian breccias. 

II. Tertiabv or Cainozoic Series: 

B. Pliocene : 

3. Neioer Pliocene{or Pleistocene) Mammalian 

beds, Norwich Crag, lilarine shells.] 

4. Older Pliocene : Red and Coralline Crag 

(Suffolk, Antwerp). 

C. 5, 6, iVftoce»!e.- Upper and Lower ; Bordeaux; 

Virginia sands and Zouraine beds ; 
Pikerm^ deposits near Athens ; vol- 
canic tuff and limestone of the Azores, 
&c. ; brown coal of Germany, &c. 
[Mastodon, Gigantic Elk, Salaman- 
der, (fee] 

D. 7, 8, 9. Eocene : Upper, Middle, and Lower ; 

Freshwater and Marine beds ; Barton 

Clays ; Bracklesham Sands ; Paris 

Gyp-um ; London Plastic, and Thanet 
Clays. [Palms, Birds, (Sic] 

III. Secondary or Mesozoic Series: 

E. 10. Cr-taceous: Upper; British Chalk; 

JIaestricht beds. — Chalk with and with- 
out Flints, Chal|i Marl, Upper Green 
Sand, Gault, Liwer Green Sand. [Meso- 
saurus: Fish, Mollusks, (fee] 
II. Ijowsr (ov NeocomiaM or Wea'den); Kentish 



TABULAR VIEW OF FOSSILIFEROUS STRATA. 

rag ; Weald Clay ; Hastings Sand. 
[Iguanodon, Hylceosaurus, &c.] 

12. Oolite : Upper ; Purbei;k beds, Portland 
Stone and Sand, Kimmeridge Clay ; 
Lithogi-aphic Stone of Solenhofen with 
Archceopteryx. [Fish.] 

13. Middle : Calcareous Grit, Coral Rag, 
Oxford Clay, Kelloway Rock. [Selem- 
11 ites and A mmonites.] 

14. Lower: Cornbrash, Forest Marble, Brad- 
ford Clay, Great Oolite, Stonesfield Slate, 
Fuller's Earth, Inferior Oolite. [Ichthyo- 
saurus, Plesiosaurus, Pterodactyl.] 

15 Lias: Lias Clay and Marl Stone. [Ammo- 
nites, Equisctum, Amphibia, Laby- 
rinthodon.] 

16. Trifis : UiJper ; White Lias, Red Clay, 
with Salt in Cheshire, Coal Fields in 
Virginia, N. A [Fish, Droniatherium.] 

17. Middle or Muschelkalk (wanting in 
England). [Encrinus; Placodus 
gig as,] 

18. Lower : New Red Sandstone ofjLanca- 
shire and Cheshire. [Labyrinthod on ; 
Footprints of Birds and Reptiles.] 



G. 



H. 



IV. Primary or Palaeozoic Series : 

I. 19. Permian : Magnesian Limestone, Marl 

Slates, Red Sandstone and Shale, Dolo- 
mite ; kupferschiefer. [Firs, Fishes, 
Amphibia.] 

K. 20,21. Carboniferous, Upper and Lower : 

Coal Measures, Millstone Grit, Mountain 
Limestone. [Ferns, Calamites, Coal.] 

L. 22, 23, 24. Devonian, Upper, Middle, and 

Lower : Tilestones, Cornstones, and 
Marls, Quartzose Conglomerates. 
[Shells, Fish, Trilobites.] 

M. 25, z6, 27. Silurian,, Upper, Middle and 

Lower : Ludlow Shales, Aymestry 
Limestone, Wenlock Limestone, Wen- 



GEO 



333 



GER 



GEOLOGY, continued. 

lock Shale, Caradoc Sandstone, Llan- 
deilo Flags ; Niagara Limestone. 
[S}ionffes, Corals, Trilobites, 
Shells.] 
28, 29. Cambrian, Upper and Lower : Bala 
Limestone, Festiniog Slates, Bangor 
Slates and Grits, Wicklow Rock, 
Hasleets Grits, Huronian Series of 
Canada. [Zoophytes, Li7igula, Ferns, 
Sigillaria, Stigmaria, Calamites, 



and Cryptoffamia.'] 
LourenHum, Upper Gneiss of the Heb- 
rides (?) : Labradorite Series, N. of the 
St. Lawrence ; Adirondack Mountains, 
New York. 
. Lower : Gneiss and Quartzites, with 
Interstratified Limestones, in one of 
which, 1000 feet thick, occurs a fora- 
ttinifer, Eozolin Canadense, the 
oldest known fossil. 



GEOMETEY, so termed from its original application to measuring the earth. Its origin 
is ascribed to the Egyptians ; the annual inundations of the Nile having given rise to it 
by carrying away the landmarks and the boundaries of farms. Thales introduced geometry 
into Greece, about 600 B.C. Euclid's Elements -were compiled about 300 B.C. The doctrine 
of curves originally attracted the attention of geometricians from the conic sections, Avhicli 
•were introduced by Plato about 390 B.C. The conchoid curve was invented by Nicomedes, 
220 B.C. The science of geometry was taught in Europe in the 13th century. Books on 
geometry and astronomy were destroyed in England as infected with magic, 7 Edw. YI. 
1552. Stoiv. Simson's celebrated edition of Euclid first appeared in 1756. 

GEORGE. A gold coin current at 65. Sd. in the reign of Henry YIII. Leake. 

GEORGE, ST. The tutelary saint of England, and adopted as patron of the order of 
the garter by Edward III. His day is April 23. See Knighthood. 

GEORGES' CONSPIRACY, in France. General Moreau, general Pichegru, Georges 
Cadoudal, who was commonly known by the name of Georges, and others, were arrested at 
Paris, charged with a conspiracy against the life of Bonaparte, and for the restoration of 
Louis XYIIL, Feb. 1804. Pichegru was found strangled in prison, April 6. The con.spirators 
were tried, June 9, when seventeen were sentenced to death, and many to imprisonment. 
Moreau was suffered to leave France, and was escorted from the Temple to embark for 
America, June 22. In 1813 lie was killed before Dresden [which see). 

GEORGIA, the ancient Iberia, now a province of S. Rus.sia, near the Caucasus, submitted 
to Alexander, 323 B.C., but threw off the yoke of his successors. It was subjugated to Rome 
by Pompey, 65 B.C., but retained its own sovereigns. Christianity was introduced into it in 
the 3rd century. In the 8th century, after a severe struggle, Georgia was .subdued by the 
Arab caliphs ; by the Turkish sultan Alp-Arslan, 1068 ; and by the Tartar hordes, 1235. 
From the 14th to the iStli centuries, Georgia was successively held by the Persian and 
Turkish monarchs. In 1740 Nadir Shah established part of Georgia as a principality, of 
which the last ruler, Heraclius, surrendered his territories to the czar in 1799 ; and in 1802 
Georgia was declared to be a Russian province. — Georgia, in North America, was settled 
by gen. Oglethorjie, in 1732, Separating from tlie congress of America, it surrendered to 
the British, Dec.ji778 ; and its possession was of vast importance to the royalists in the then 
war. Count d'Estaing joined the American general Lincoln, and made a desperate attack on 
Georgia, which failed, and the French fleet returned home ;.the colony was given up to the 
Union by the British in 1783. It seceded from the Union, by ordinance, Jan. 18, 1861, and 
was overrun by Sherman in 1864-5. See United States. — Georgia, in the Pacific, was visited 
by captain Cook in 1775. 

GEORGIUM SIDUS, the first name of the planet Uranus (u-hich sec). 

GERMAINS, ST. near Paris, where James II. of England resided in state after his abdi- 
cation, in 1689, and where he died, Sept. 16, 1701. 

GERMANIC CONFEDERATION, constituted by the Allies, 1S15, in jilace of the 
Confederation of the Rhine (ivhich see), now consists of— 

The empire of Austria ; the kingdoms of Pnissia, Liibock) ; the late Danish duchies CSchlcswig and 

Hanover, Bavaria, Saxony, and Wurtemberg ; 7 Holstein) ; the duchies of Luxemburg and Lem- 

grand-duchies (Baden, Hesse, &c.); 8 duchies burg belonging to Holland. Population of the 

(Bnmswick, &c.) ; 12 principalities and i lordship ; whole, in 1853, about 43i millions. — Baron Kubeck, 

4 free cities (Frankfort, Hamburg, Bremen, and President since May 29, 1859. 

GERMANY (Germania Alemania), anciently, as now, divided into several independent 
states. The Germans long with.stood tlio attempts of the Romans to subdue them ; and 
although that people conquered some parts of the country, they were expelled before the close 
of the 3rd century. In the 5th century the arms of the Huns and other tribes prevailed 
over the greater portion of Germany. Tliese were subjugated liy Charleimgne in the latter 



GER 



334 



GER 



part of the 8th centiir}^ He took the title of emperor, entailing the dignity npon his family ; 
bnt after his race became extinct in 911, the rank was made electi\'e. A member of the 
house of Austria was elected (almost uninterruptedly) from 1437 until 1S04. Germany was 
divided into circles in 1512 ; formed into the Confederation of the Rhine, in 1804, and into 
the Germanic Confederation iw 1815. See both articles, Austria, &c. 



911 



■-934 



The Teutones united with the Cyniry, defeat 

the Romans in Illyria . . . . b.c. 113 
After varying success are defeated by Marius . 102 
Hermann or Arminius, the German hero, 

destroys the Roman legion under Varus a.d. 9 
Great irruption of Germanic tribes into Gaul 450, &c. 
Charlemagne after a long contest subdues the 

Saxons, who become Christians . . 772-785 

He is crowned empei'or of the West at Rome . 800 
He adds a second head to the eagle to denote 
that the empires of Rome and Germany are 

united in hini 802 

Louis {le Dc'honnaire) separates Germany from 

France 839-840 

The German princes assert their independence, 

and C^onrad I. of Pranconia reigns . . . 

[The electoi-al character assumed about this 

time. See Electors. ] 
Reign of lienry I. [king], sumamed the Fow- 
ler ; he vanquishes the Huns, Danes, Vandals, 

and Bohemians 91 

Otho I. extends his dominions, and is crowned 

emperor by the pope 962 

Henry III. conquers Bohemia .... 1042 
Contest between Henry IV. and Gregory VII. . 1075 
Henry's humihation at Canossa (which see) . . 1077 
He takes Rome, 1804 ; and Gregory dies in 

exile at Salerno 1085 

Disputes relating to ecclesiastical investitures 

with the pope 1073-1123 

The Guelph and the Ghibeline feuds begin . 1140 
Conrad III. leads an army to the holy wars ; 

it was destroyed by Greek treachery . .1147 

Frederick Barbarossa's wars with the Italian 

republics 1154-77 

He destroys Milan 1162 

He ruins Henry the Lion (see Bavaria) . .1180 
He is drowned during the crusade in Syria . . 11 90 
Teutonic order of Knighthood . . . . ,, 

Hanseatic league established 1245 

Reign of Rodolph, count of Hapsburg, chosen 

by the electors 1273 

The famous edict, called the Golden Bull, by 

Charles IV 1356 

Sigismund, king of Bohemia, elected emperor. 
He betrays John Huss and Jerome of Prague, 
who are ijurned alive (see Bohemia) . 1414-16 

Sigismund being driven from the throne, Albert 

II., duke of Austria, succeeds . . . . 1437 
Era of the Refoi-mation, (see iirf/ier) . . . 1517 
German bible and liturgy published by Luther 1522-46 
Luther excommunicated by the diet at Worms, 

April 17, 1 52 1 
War -with the pope — the Germans storm Rome 1527 

Diet at Spires 1529 

Confession of Augsburg published . Jan. 25, 1530 
Protestant League of Smalcalde .... 1531 
The anabaptists seize Munster, 1534 ; but are 
suppressed, and John of Leyden slam . 1536 

Death of Luther 1546 

War with protestants ..... 1546-52 

Who are helped by Henry II. of France — Peace 

of Religion at Passau . . . July 31, 1552 
Abdication of Charles V. . . Aug. 27, 1556 

The thirty years' war begins between the 
Evangelic union under elector palatine, and 
the Catholic league under the duke of Bavaria 1618 
Battle of Plague, which ruined the elector 
palatine ... ... Nov. 8, 1620 

Gustavus-Adolphus of Sweden invades Germany 

June, 1630 
Death of Gustavus-Adolphus, victor at Lutzen 

Nov, 16, 1632 
End of the thirty years' war : treaty of Westpha- 
lia, establishing religious toleration Oct. 24. 164S 



John Sobieski, king of Poland, after defeating 
the Turks obUges them to raise the siege of 
Vienna Sept. 12, 

The peace of Carlowitz (with the Turks) Jan. 26, 

War with France, &c. ; Marlborough's victory 
at Blenheim Aug. 13, 

Peace of Utrecht .... April 11, 

The Pragmatic Sanction (which see) . . . 

Francis I., duke of Lorraine, marries the 
heiress of Austria, Maria-Theresa, queen of 
Hungary (1736;. She succeeds her father, 
and becomes queen of Hungary . . Oct. 20, 

The elector of Bavaria elected emperor as 

Charles VII. Jan. 22, 1742 ; he dies, Jan. 20; 

Francis I. duke of Lorraine, elected emperor 

Sept. 15, 

The seven years' war between Austria and 
Prussia and their respective allies begins, Aug. 
1756; ends with the peace of Hubertsburg 

Feb. 15, 

Joseph II. extends his dominions by the dis- 
memberment of Poland, 1772 ; many civil 
reforms and liberal changes .... 

Francis I. joins in the second partition of Poland 

[In the ruinous wars between Germany and 
France, the emperor loses the Netherlands, 
all his territories west of the Rhine, and his 
states in Italy, 1793, et seq.] 

Francis II. assumes the title of emperor of 
Austria Aug. 11, 

Napoleon establishes the kingdoms of Bavaria 
and Wurtemberg, 1805 ; and of WestjihaUa, 
1807 ; dissolution of the German empire ; 
formation of the confederation of the Rhine 

July 12, 

Commencement of the war of independence 

March, 

Congress of Vienna . . Nov. i, 1814 — Jlay 25, 

The Germanic confederation (which see) formed 

June 8, 

The Zollverein (which see) formed 

InsuiTection at Vienna and throughout Ger- 
many (see Austria, Hanriary, (fee.) . . . 

The king of Prussia takes the lead as an agitator, 
to promote the reconsolidation of the German 
empire, by a proclamation . March 27, 

German national assembly meet at Frankfort, 

May 1 8, 

Revolt in Schleswig and Holstein (see Denmark) 

March, 

German national assembly elects the king of 
Prussia emperor of Germany . March 28, 

He declines the honour . . . April 3, 

He recalls the Prussian members of the assem- 

. bly May 14, 

'The Frankfort assembly transfers its sittings 
to Stutgardt . . . , . May 30, 

Treaty of Vienna between Austria and Prussia 
for the formation of a new central power for 
a limited time ; appeal to be made to the 
governments of Germany . . Sept. 30, 

Protest of Austria against the alliance of Prus- 
sia with some of the smaller German states 

Nov. 12, 

Treaty of Munich between Bavaria, Saxony, 
and Wurtemberg, for a revision of the Ger- 
man union Feb. 27, 

Parliament meets at Erfurt . . . March, 

The king of Wurtemberg denounces the insi- 
dious ambition of Pnissia . March 15, 

German diet meets at Frankfort . May 10, 

Hesse-Cassel refuses to send a rei^resentative to 
Erfurt Jiuie 7 

Hesse-Darmstadt withdraws from the Prussian 
league ...... June 20, 



1683 
1699 

1704 
1713 
1722 



1763 

1782 
1795 



i8o5 



1813 
1S15 



1850 



GER 



335 



GEK 



GERMANY, continued. 

Austria calls an assembly of the German con- 
federation at Frankfort . . . July 19, 

■Which meets at Frankfort . . Sept. 2, 

Austrian, Bavarian, and Prussian forces enter 
Ilesse-Cassel. See Hessf-Cansel . Nov. 12, 

Conferences on German affairs at Dresden 

Dec. 23, 1S50, to May 15, 

Conference of the diet of Nuremberg relative to 
a general code of commerce for Germany 

Jan. 15, 

Great excitement in Germany at the French 
successes in Lombardy ; warlike preparations 
in Bavaria, ifec May and June, 

Meeting of new liberal party in Eisenach, in 
Saxe- Weimar. Seven resolutions put forth 
recommending that tlie imperfect federal 
constitution be changed ; that the German 
diet be replaced by a strong central govern- 
ment ; that a national assemlily be sum- 
moned ; and that Prussia be invited to take 
the initiative Aug. 14, 

This proposal not accepted by Prussia, and 
warmly opposed by Hanover . . Sept. 

The Axistrian minister, Rechberg, severely cen- 
suring the duke of Saxe Gotha, for a liberal 
speech, Sept. 4 ; and accusing the Prussian 
government of favouring the liberals, meets 
with cutting retorts .... Sept. 

The Federal diet maintain the Hesse-Cassel con- 
stitution of 1852 against Prussia . March 24, 

Meeting of the French emperor and tlie Ger- 
man sovereigns at Baden, June 16, 17; and 
of the czar and the emperor of Austria and 
the regent of Prussia at Tojilitz July 26, <tc. 

Meeting at Coburg in favour of German unity 
against French aggression . . Sept. 5, 

Dispute with Denmark respecting the rights of 
Holstem and Schleswig . . . Nov. 

First meeting of a German national shooting 
match at Gotha .... July 8-n, 

Meeting of the German National Association at 
Heidelberg; it decides to form a German 
fleet ... ... Aug. 23, 

Subscriptions received for the fleet 

Sept. and Get. 



1S51 
1S57 



The National Association meet at Berlin ; they 
recommend the formation of a united Federal 
government, with a central executive, under 
the leadership of Prussia . . March 13, 1862 

Meetings of plenipotentiaries from German 
states respecting Federal reform 

July 8 — Aug. 10, ,, 

De]3uties from the German states meet at 
Weimar, and declare that the greatest want 
of Germany is its formation into one Federal 
state Sept. 28, 2g, „ 

Congress of deputies from German states on 
national reform .... Aug. 22, 1863 

The emperor of Austria invites the Gemian 
sovereigns to a congress at Frankfort, Jvdy 
31 ; kuig of Prussia declines, Aug. 4 ; nearly 
all the sovereigns meet, Aug. 16, 17 ; they 
definitively approve the Austrian plan of 
Federal reform, Sept. i ; which is rejected by 
Prussia Sept. 22, 

The diet determine to have recourse to federal 
execution in Holstein if Denmark does not 
fulfil her obligations . . . Oct. i, 

50th anniversary of the battle of Leipzig cele- 
brated Oct. i8, 

Death of Frederick VII. king of Denmark 

Nov. IS, 

German troops enter Holstein as " Federal exe- 
cution." (See Denmark for foUovraig events.) 

Dec. 23, 

Death of Maximilian II. king of Bavaria 

March 10, 1864 

Prussia retains the duchies ; discussion be- 
tween Austria and Prussia ; the diet adopt 
the resolution of Bavaria and Saxony request- 
ing Austria and Prussia to give up Holstein 
to the duke of Augustenburg ; rejected, 

April 6, 1865 

The Gastein convention {v:hich see) signed, 

Aug. 14, „ 

Severely censured by the diet at Frankfort, 

Sept. „ 

See Austria, Denmark, Prussia, &c. 



KINGS A^D EMPERORS OF GEKMANY. 



CARLOVINGIAN RACE. 

800. Charlemagne. 

814. Louis le Debonnaire, king of France. 

840. Lothaire, or Lother, son of Louis ; died in a 

monastery at Treves. 
853. Louis II., son of Lothaire. 
875. Charles II., called the Bald, king of France; 

poisoned by his physician, Zedechias, a 

Jew. Henault. 
877. [Interregnum.] 
S80. Cliarles III. le Gros, crowned king of Italy ; 

deposed ; succeeded by 
887. Arnulf , or Amoul ; crowned emperor at Kome 

in 8g6. 
899. Louis III. called IV. ; the last of the Carlo- 

vingian race in Germany. 

SAXON DYNASTY. 

911. Otho, duke of Saxony ; refuses the dignity on 

account of his age. 
,, Conrad I. duke of Franconia. 
918. Henry I., surnamed the Fowler, son of Otho, 

duke of Saxony ; king. 
936. Otho I., styled the Great, son of Henry. Many 

writers 'withhold the imperial title from 

him until crowned bypope John XII. in 962. 
973. Otho II., the Bloody, so stigmati.scd for his 

ca'uelties ; massacred his chief nobility at an 

entertainment to which he had invited them; 

wounded by a poisoned aiTow. 
983. Otho III., surnamed the Ked, his sou, yet in 

his mmox-ity ; poisoned. 



1002. Henry II., duke of Bavaria, surnamed the 
Holy and the Lame. 

1024. Conrad II. , surnamed the Sahque. 

1039. Henry III., the Black, son of Conrad II. 

1056. Henry IV. , son of the preceding ; a minor, 
under the regency of his mother Agnes ; de- 
posed by his son and successor. (Several 
emperors nominated by the pope.) 

1 106. Henry V. ; married Maud or Matilda, daughter 
of Henry I. of England. 

1 125. Lothaire II., surnamed the Saxon. 

1 138. [Interregnum.] 



1152 



1190. 



HOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN, OR OF StTABIA. 

Conrad III., duke of Franconia. 
Frederick I. Barbarossa ; one of the most splen- 
did reigns in the German annals ; drowned 
by his horse throwing him into the river 
Saleph. 
Henry VI. , his son, surnamed Asper, or the 
Sharp ; it was this emperor that detained 
Richard I. of England a prisoner in his 
dominions; died 1197. Interregnum and 
contest for the throne between Philip of 
Suabia and Otho of Brunswick. 

1198. Philip, brother to Henry; assassinated at 
Bamberg by Otto of Wittelsbach. 

1208. Otho IV., surnamed the Superb, recognised as 
king of Germany, and crowned as emperor 
the next year ; excommunicated and de- 
posed. 

1215. Frederick II., king of Sicily, the son of Henry 



GER 



3D6 



GET 



GERMANY, continued. 

VI. ; deposed by his subjects, who elected 
Henry, landgrave of Thuringia. Frederick 
died in 1250, naming his son Conrad his 
successor, but the pope gave the imperial 
title to William, earl of Holland. 
1250. Conrad IV.* son of Frederick. " 

1256. [Interregnum.] 

1257. Richard, earl of Cornwall, and Alphonso, of 

Castile, nominated emperors. 

HOUSES OF HAPSBURO, LUXEMBIRO, AND BAVARIA. 

1273. Rodolph, count of Hapsburg. 

1291. [Interregnum.] 

1292. Adolphus, count of Nassau, to the exclusion 

of Albert, son of Kodolph ; deposed ; slain 

at the battle of Spires. 
1298. Albert, duke of Austria, Rodolph's son ; killed 

by his nephew at Rheinfels, May i, 1308. 
1308. Henry VII. of Luxemburg. 

1313. [Interregnum.] 

1314. Louis IV. (III.) of Bavaria, and Frederick III. 

of Austria, son of Albert, rival emperors ; 
Frederick died in 1330. 

1330. Louis reigns alone. 

1347. Charles IV. of Luxemburg. In this reign was 
given at Nuremberg, in 1356, the famous 
Golden Bull, which became the fundamental 
law of the German emjjii'e. 

1378. Wenceslas, king of Bohemia, son of Charles ; 
twice imprisoned, and at length forced to 
resign ; but contmued to reign in Bohemia. 

1400. Frederick III. duke of Brunswick ; assassi- 
nated immediately after his election, and 
seldom placed in the list of emperors. 
,, Rupert, count palatine of the Rhiiie ; crowned 
at Cologne ; died in 1410. 

1410. Jossus, marquess of Moravia ; chosen by a 
party of the electors ; died the next year. 
,, Sigismund, king of Hungary ; elected by 
another i>iwty. On the death of Jossus he is 
recognised by all parties ; king of Bohemia 
in 1419. 

H0T;.?E of AUSTRIA. 

1438. Albert II., surnamed the Great, duke of 
Austria, and king of Hungary and Bohemia ; 
died Oct. 27, 1439. 



1439. [Interregnum.] 

1440. Frederick IV. (or III.) surnamed the Pacific; 

elected emperor Feb. 2, but not crowned 

until June, 1442. 
1493. Maximilian I. son of Frederick ; died in 1519. 

In 1477 he married Mary of Burgundy. — 

Francis I. of France and Charles I. of Spain 

became competitors for the empire. 
1519. Charles V. (I. of Spain) son of Joan of Castile 

and Philip of Austria, elected ; resigned both 

crowns, 1556 ; and retired to a monasterj-, 

whei-e he died soon after. 
1556. Ferdinand I. brother to Charles; succeeded 

by his son, 
1564. Maximilian II. king of Hungary and Bohemia ; 

succeeded by his son, 
1576. Rodolph II. 

1612. Matthias, brother of Rodolph. 
1619. Ferdinand II. his cousin, son of the archduke 

Charles ; king of Hungaiy. 
1637. Ferdinand III. son of the preceding emperor ; 

succeeded by his son, 
1658. Leopold I. 

1705. Joseph I. son of the emperor Leopold. 
1711. Charles VI. brother to Joseph; succeeded by 

his daughter, 
1740. Maria-Theresa, queen of Hung.iry and Bohe- 
mia, whose right to the empire was sustained 

by England. 
1742. Charles VII. elector of Bavaria, whose claim 

was supported by France ; rival emperor, 

and contested succession. 

[This competition for the throne of Germany 
gave rise to an almost general war. Charles 
died in Jan. 1745.] 

1745. Francis I. of Lorraine, grand-duke of Tuscany, 
consort of Maria-Theresa. 

1765. Joseph II. son of the emperor Francis and of 
Maria-Theresa. 

1790. Leopold II. brother to Josejih ; succeeded by 
his son, 

1792. Francis II. In 1804 this prince became empe- 
ror of Austria only, as Francis I. 

See Auilria, 



PEINCIPAL GERMAN AUTHOES. 



Born 
Ulfilas (Gothic bible) 

about A.D. 360. 
Martin Luther(Gcrm. 

bible, &c. 1522-34). 1483 
Hans Sachs . . 1494 
Godf. Leibnitz . . 1646 
G. F. GeUert . . 1715 
G. E. Lessing . . 1729 
G. A. Btlrger . . 174S 



Died 


Born 


Died 




Born 


Died 




J. G. von Herder . 1744 


1803 


B. G. Niebuhr . . 


1776 


1831 




Fred. T.Klopstock . 1724 


1803 


J. W. von Goethe 


1749 


1832 




Im. K.ant . . . 1724 


1804 


Wm. von Humboldt 


1767 


1835 


1546 


J.C.Fred, von Schiller 1759 


1805 


A. Wm. Schlegel . . 


1767 


1845 


1578 


Ch. M. Wieland . . 1733 


1813 


L. Tieck . 


1773 


1S53 


1716 


C. T. KoiTier . . 1791 


1S13 


H. Heine . . . 


1797 


1856 


1769 


Jean Paul Richter . 1763 


1825 


Alex, von Humboldt 


1769 


1859 


1781 


J. H. Voss . . . 1 751 


1S26 


Chr. Carl J. Bunsen 


1 791 


i860 


1794 


F. Schlegel . . . 1772 


1829 


F. C. Schlosser. 


1776 


1861 



GERONA (N.E. Spain), an ancient city, frequently besieged and taken. In June, 1808, 
it successfully resisted the French, but after suftering much by famine, surrendered 
Dec. 12, 1809. 

GETTYSBURG (Philadeli^hia). Here three days' severe fighting took place on July 1—3, 
1863, between the invading confederate anny under generals Lee, Longstreet, and Ewell, 
and the federals under general G. Meade. The confederates were long successful, but 
eventually were compelled to retire from Pennsylvania and Maryland. The killed and 
wounded on each side were estimated at about 15,000. 



* His son Conradin was proclaimed king rif Sicily, which was, however, surrendered to his uncle 
Manfred, 1254 ; on whose death it was given by the pope to Charles of Anjoii in 1263. Conradin, on the 
invitation of the Ghibeline party, entered Italy with a Large army, and was defeated at Taghacozzo, Aug. 
23, 1268, and beheaded at Naples Oct. 29, thus ending the Hohens'taufen family. 



GHE 



337 



GIB 



GHENT, an ancient city in Belgium, built about tlie 7th century. During the middle 
ages it became very rich. John, third son of Edward III. of England, v/as boru here in 1340 
(hence named John of Gaunt), during the revolt under Van Artevelde, a brewer, against the 
earl Louis, 1379-83. Ghent rebelled against the emperor, Charles V., 1539, forwhich it was 
severely puni.shed in 1540. The "Pacification ot Ghent" (when the north and south 
provinces of the Netherlands united against Spain) was proclaimed, Nov. 8, 1576, and broken 
up in 1579. Ghent was taken by Louis XIV. of France, March 9, 1678, and by the duke of 
ilarlborough in 1706, and afterwards several times taken and retaken. The Peace of Ghe:n"1'i 
between Great Britain and America, was signed Dec, 24, 1814. 

GHIBELINES. See Guclphs. 

GHIZNEE, or GHUZNEE (East Persia), the seat of the Gazuevides, who founded the 
city, 969. They were expelled by the Seljuk Tartars in io38._ The British under sir J. 
Keane, attacked the citadel of Ghiznee, at two o'clock in the morning, July 23, 1839 ; it was 
one of the stronge.st fortresses in Asia, and was commanded by a son of the ex-king of Cabul, 
At three o'clock the gates were blown in by the artillery, and under cover of a heavy fire, 
the infantry forced their way into the place and succeeded at five o'clock in fixing the British 
colours on its towers. — It capitulated to the Afghans, March I, 1842, who were defeated 
Sept. 6, 1842, and general Nott re-entered Ghiznee iiext day. 

GHOSTS are now produced by optical science. Mr. Dircks described his method at the 
British Association meeting in 1858. Dr. John Taylor exhibited scientific ghosts in March, 
1863. Mr. Pepper exhibited the ghost illusion at the Royal Polytechnic institution, 
July, 1863. See Cock-lane Ghost, 

GIANTS. Giants' bones, 17, 18, 20, and 30 feet high were once reported to have been 
found ; but geologists now prove them to be the remains of colossal animals. — The battle of 
Marignauo (15 15) has been termed the "battle of the Giants.''' 



Og, king of Bashan, of the remnant of the giants : 

his bedstead was g cubits long (about 16^ feet). 

B.C. 1451. {Dent. iii. n.) 
Goliath of Gath's "height was 6 cubits and a span." 

about 1063 B.C. (i Sam. xvii. 4.) 
The emperor Maximin (a.d. 235) was 85 feet in 

height, and of great bulk. Some say between 7 

and 8 feet ; others above 8. 
" The tallest man that hath been see:i in our age was 

one named Gabara, who, in the days of Claudius, 

the late emperor, was brought out of Arabia. He 

was 9 feet 9 inches high." Plmy. 
John Middleton, of Hale, in Lancashire, bom in 

1578, was 9 feet 3 inches high.* 
Patrick (Jotter, the celebrated Irish giant, bom in 

1761, was 8 feet 7 inches in height ; his hand, from A giant styled 

the commencement of the palm to the extremity of ; Nov. 1865. 

GIAOUE, TurkLsh for infidel, a term applied to all who do not believe inMahomedanism. 
—Byron's poem, " The Giaour," was published in 18 13. 

GIBRALTAR. The ancient Calpe (which, with Abyla, on the opposite shore of Africa, 
obtained the name of the Pillars of Hercules), a town on a rock in South Spain, on which is 
placed a British fortress, considered impregnable. The height of the rock, according to 
Cuvier, is 1437 English feet. It was taken by the Saracens tfnder Tarik, whence its present 
name (derived from Gibel-cl-Tarik, Mountain of Tarik), in 711. 



the middle finger, measured 12 inches, and hia 
shoe was 17 inches long ; he died in Sept. 1806, iu 
his 46th year. 

Big Sam, the porter of the prince of Wales, at Carl- 
ton-paiacc, was near 8 feet liigh, and performed as 
a giant in the romance of " Cymon,''at the Opera- 
house, while the Drury-lane company had the Uhe 
of that theatre until their own was rebuilt in 1809. 

M. Brice, a native of the Vosges, in Loudon in Sept. 
1862, 7 feet 6 inches high. 

Robert Hales, the Norfolk giant, died at Great Yar- 
mouth Nov. 22, 1863 (aged 43). He was 7 feet 6 
inches high, and weighed 452 lb. 

Chang-Woo-Gow, a Chinese, aged ig, 7 feet 8 inches 
high, exhibited himself in London in Sept. &c. 1865. 
Auak" was exhibited iu London, 



It was taken from the Moors in 1309 ; retaken by 
them, 1333 ; and finally taken from them by 
Henry IV. of Castile, in . . . . . 1462 

Gibraltar attacked by the British under sir 
George Rooke, the prince of Hesse-Darni- 
8t:idt, sir John Leake, and admiral Byug, 
July 2ist, and taken on the 24th . . . 1704 



Besieged by the Spanish and French ; they lose 
10,000 men, and the victorious English but 400 

Oct. II, 1704 
6edcd to Great Britain by the treaty of Utrecht 

April II, 1713 
The Spaniards again attack Gibraltar, and are 
repulsed with great loss 1720 



* It is reported that one of the Irelands took him to London, and introduced him, dressed up in a 
very fantastic style, to king James the First. On his return from London, a portrait was taken of him, 
which is j>re£erved in the library of Brazenose college, at Oxford ; and Ur. Plot gives the following 
account of him : — " John Jliddleton, commonly called the child of Hale, whose hand, from the carpus to 
the end of his middle finger, was 17 inches long ; his palm 8^ inches broad ; and his whole height 9 feet 
3 inches, wanting but 6 inches of the size of Goliath."— iVa<. Hist, of Slu£'ordshire, p. 295. 



GIB 



338 



GLA 



GIBRALT2VR, continued. 

Theya!?ain attack it with a force of 20,000 men, 
and lose 5000, while the loss of the English is 
only 300 ..... Feb. 22, 1727 

Memorable siege by the Spaniards and French, 
whose prodigious armaments* (the greatest 
ever brought against a fortress) were wholly 
overthrown . July 16, 1779, to Feb. 5, 1783 

Koyal battery destroyed by fire . . Nov. 1800 

Engagement between the French and English 
fleets in the bay ; H.M.S. Hannibal, 74 guns, 
lost July 6, 1801 

The Royal Carlos and St. Hevineniglldo Spanish 



ship.s, each of 112 guns, blew up, with their 
crews, at night-time, in the straits here, and 
all on board perished . . . July 12, 1801 
A mahgnant disease caused a great mortality 

here in 1804 

A dreadful plague raged 1803 

A malignant fever raged . . . Aug. 1814 
Again, when a proclamation issued for closing 
the courts of justice and places of public 

worship Sept. 5, 1828 

The fatal epidemic ceased . . Jan. 12, 1829 



GILDING wa.s practised at Rome, about 145 B.C. The capitol was the first biiilJiug on 
whicli this enricliment was bestowed. Pliny. Of gold leaf for gilding the Romans made but 
750 leaves, four fingers square, out of a whole ounce. Pliny. It consequently was more 
like our plating. Trusler. A single grain of gold may now be stretched out under the 
hammer into a leaf that will cover a house. Dr. Uallcy. Gilding with leaf gold on hole 
ammoniac was first introduced by Margaritone in 1273. Gilding on wood formed part of the 
decorations of the Jewish tabernacle {Exod. xxv. 11.); and was improved in 1680. See 
Electrotype. 

GIN, ardent spirit, flavoured with the essential oil of the juniper berry. The " gin act," 
laj'ing an excise of 5s. per gallon upon it, passed July 14, 1736, when it had been found, in 
the preceding year, that in Loudon alone 7044 houses sold gin bj'' retail ; and it was so cheap 
that the poor could intoxicate themselves for one penny. Salmon. About 1700 gin-shops 
were suppressed in London in 1750. Clarke. 

GIPSIES. See Gypsies. 

GIRAFFE, or Camelopard, a native of the interior of Africa, was well known to 'the 
ancients. In 1827 one was brought to England for the first time as a present to George IV. 
It died in 1829. On May 25, 1835, four giratfes, obtained by M. Thibaut, were introduced 
into the Zoological gardens. Regent's park, where a young one was born in 1839. 

GIRONDISTS, an important party during the French revolution, principally composed of 
deputies from the Gironde. At first they were ardent republicans, but after tlie cruelties of 
Aug. and Sept. 1792, they laboured to restrain the cruelties of the Mountain party, to which 
they succumbed. Their leaders, Brissot, Vergniaud, and many others, were guillotined 
Oct. 31, 1793, at the instigation of Robespierre. Lamartiue's "Histoire des Gii'ondins," 
published in 1847, tended to hasten the revolution in 1848. 

GISORS, Battle of (France), on Sept. 20, 28, or Oct. 10, 1198, between the armies of 
France and England. The former was signally defeated by Richard I., wlio commanded 
the Engli.sh, and his parole for the day, "Dieii et vion droit" — " God and my right," after- 
wards became the motto to the arms of England. 

GLADIATORS were originally malefactors, who fought for their lives, or captives who 
fought for freedom. They were exhibited at the funeral ceremonies of the Romans, 263 B.C., 
probably following the Greek custom of sacrificing to the manes of deceased warriors, the 
prisoners taken in battle. Gladiator fights afterwards exhibited at festivals, about 215 B.C. 
When Dacia was reduced by Trajan, 1000 gladiators fought at Rome in celebration of his 
triumph, for 123 days, a.d. 103. These combats were suppressed in the East by Constantine 
the Great, a.d. 325, and in tlie West by Theodoric in 500. LengJet. 

GLANDELAGH, Bishopric of (Ireland), has been united to the arch-prelacy of Dublin 
since the year 12 14. St. Keiven seems to have been the founder of this see ; he resigned in 
612. Glendalagh is now commonly known by the name of the Seven Churclies, from the 
remains of so many buildings contiguous to the cathedral. 



^ In one night their floating batteries were destroyed with red-hot balls, and their whole line of works 
annihilated by a sortie fi-om the garrison, commanded by general Elliot, Nov. 27, 1781. The enemy's loss 
in munitions of war, on this night alone, was estimated at upwards of 2,ooo,ooo2 sterling. Tbe army 
amounted to 40,000 men. But their grand defeat by a garrison of only 7000 British occurred Sept. 13, 
1782. The duke of Crillon commanded 12,000 of the best troops of France. 1000 pieces of artillery were 
brought to beai- against the forti-ess, besides which there were 47 sail of the line, all three-deckers ; 10 great 
floating batteries, esteemed invincible, carrying 212 guns ; innumerable frigates, xebeques, bomb-ketches, 
cutters, and gun and mortar boats ; while small craft for disembarking the forces covered the bay. For 
weeks together 6000 shells were daily thrown into the town ; and on a single occasion 8000 barrels of 
gunpowder were expended by the enemy. 



GLA 



339 



GLA 



GLASGOW (Lanarkshire), the largest city in Scotland. Its prosperity was immensely 
increased after the union in 1707, in consequence of its obtaining some of the American 
trade. Population in 1707 about 12,000 ; in 1861, 394,857. 



The cathodval or higli church, dedicated to St. 

Keutigeni or Mungo, was built in the nth 

century. 

Erected into a burgh 1180 

Charter was obtained from James II. . . . 1451 
Univer.sity founded by bishop TurnbuU about 1454 
Made a royal burgh by James VI. . . .1611 

Town wasted by a great fire 1652 

Charter of William and Mary .... i6yo 

Glasgow Cov.raid published 1715 

First vessel sailed to America for its still great 

impart, tobacco 1718 

Great Shaw field riot 1725 

Calico printing begim 1742 

Plundei-ed by rebels 1745 

Theatre o])ened 1 764 

Power-loom introduced 1773 

Theatre burnt 1782 

Chamber of commerce formed . ... 1783 

Trades' hall built 1791 

Spinning machinery by steam introduced . 1795 
Anderson's university founded . . . . 1796 
New college buildings erected .... i8ii 
Great popular commotion . . . April, ,, 
Trials for treason followed. . . July, ., 

Theatre again burnt .... Jan. 1829 
The royal exchange, a most sumptuous edifice, 

opened Sejit. 3, ,, 



Great fire, loss 150,000?. . . Jan. 14, 

The Glasgow lottei-ies, the last drawn in Britain, 
were gi-anted by licence of parhament to the 
commissioners for the improvement of Glas- 
gow. The third and final Glasgow lottery 
was drawn in London, at Coopers' Hall, Aug. 
28, 1834. Their repetition was forbidden tay 
4 Will. IV. c. 37 

British Association meet hero . . . . 

Wellington's statue erected . . Oct. 8, 

False alanu of fire at the theatre, when 70 
persons are crushed to death . Feb. 17, 

Failure of Western Bank of Scotland, and City 
of Glasgow banks, and other firms . Nov. 

In which great frauds were discovered Oct. 

New water-works at Loch Katrine opened by 
the queen ..... Oct, 14, 

[To supply 50,000,000 gallons daily : engineer, 
J. F. Bateman ; cost about i,ooo,oooL inde- 
pendent of the jirice paid for old works. ] 

First self-supjjorting cooking estabhshments 
for working classes begun by Mr. Thos. Cor- 
bett Sept. 21, 

Glasgow visited by the empress of the French 

Nov. 27, 

Theatre burnt again .... Jan. 31, 

Visited by lord Palmcrston . . March, 



1834 
1840 



1S58 
1859 



GLASGOW, Bi.SHOPKic of. Kennot, in his Antiquities, says it was founded by St. 
Kentigern, alias Mungo, in 560 ; while others affirm that Mungo was a holy man who had a 
cell here, whose sanctity was held in such veneration that the church was dedicated to him. 
Dr. Heyliu, speaking of the see of St. Asaph, in Wales, says that that see was founded by 
St. Kentigern, a Scot, then bishoi) of Gla.sgow in 583. This prelacy became archiepiscopal 
in 1491, and ceased at the Eevolution. Glasgow is now a post-revolution bishopric. The 
cathedral was commenced in 1121, and has been beautihed and improved at various periods 
since. It has a noble crypt. See Bishops. 

GLASITES (in Scotland) and Sandemakian.s (in England), names given to a .small body 
of Christians, whose tenets (jirofessedly derived from the Holy Scriptures alone) are set forth 
in the "Testimony of the King of Martyrs" published by John Glas, a minister of the 
Church of Scotland in 1727, and in his son-in-law, Robert Sandeman's " Letters on Therou 
and Aspasio " (1755). Churches were fir.st formed by them on what were considered the 
primitive models, in Scotland, about 1728, and in England about 1755, some of which still 
exist. They hold that true faith is the gift of God, and not to be taught or acquired by man ; 
and that it produces love to God and good works. They partake weekly of the Lord's 
supper and love-feasts (see Agapw), avoid eating blood, and maintain the primitive disci- 
jdiue. They erected a new meeting-house at Barnsbury, London, N., in 1862. 

GLASS. The Egyptians are said to have been taught the art of making glass by Hermes, 
The discovery of glass took place in Syria. Pliny. Glass-houses were erected in Tyre, 
where glass was a staple manufacture for many ages. This article is mentioned among the 
Eomans in the time of Tiberius ; and \\'e know from the ruins of Pompeii, that windows 
were formed of glass before 79. Italy had the fir.st glass windows; next France, whence 
they came to England. 



Glass is said to have been brought to England 
by Benedict Biscop, abbot of Wearmouth, in 676 

The manufacture established in England at 
Crutched-friars, and in Savoy in (Sto^D) . . 1557 

Groat improvements have been made in the 
manufacture, through the immense increase 
of chemical knowledge in the present cen- 
tury. Professor Faraday published his re- 
searches on the manufacture of glass for 
optical purposes in 1830 

Tlie duties on glass, first imposed 1695, were 
finaUy remitted 1S45 



Painting on Glass, a very early art, was prac- 
tised at Marseilles in a beautiful style, about 1500 

It reached to a state of great perfection about 1530 

Glass-Plate, for coach-windows, mirrors, &c., 
luade at Lambeth by Venetian artists, under 
the patronage of ViUiers duke of Buckingham 1673 

The manufacture was imj^roved by the French, 
who made very large plates ; and further 
improvements in it were made in Lancashire 
in 1773, when the British Plate Glass Com- 
pany was established. 

Mamifacture of British sheet glass introduced 
by Messrs. Chance, of Birmingham, about . 1S32 

z 2 



GLA 



340 



GLO 



GLASTONBtTRY, said to have been the residence of Joseph of Ariniathea, and the site 
of the first Christian church in Britain, about 60. A churclr was built here by lua about'718. 
The town and abbey were burnt, 1184. An earthquake did great damage in 1276. Eichard 
Wlaiting, the last abbot, who had 100 monies and 400 domestics, was hanged on Tor-hill in 
his poutifieals, with the abbots of Reading and Colchester, for refusing to take the oath of 
supremacy to Henry VIII. , Nov. 1539. 

GLENCOE MASSACRE of the unsuspecting inhabitants, the Macdonalds, merely for 
not surrendering before the time stated in King William's proclamation, Dec. 31, 1691. 
Sir John Dalrymple the master, afterwards earl of Stair, their inveterate enemy, obtained a 
decree "to extirpate that set of thieves," which the king is said to have signed without 
perusing. Every man under 70 was to be slain. This mandate was executed with the 
blackest treachery. The I20 soldiers were hospitably received by the Higlilanders. On 
Feb. 13, 1692, the massacre began. About 60 men were brutally slain ; and many women 
and children, their wives and oft'spring, were turned out naked in a dark and freezing night, 
and perished by cold and hunger. This black deed was jierpetrated by a part of tlie earl of 
Argyle's regiment. It excited great indignation in England ; and an inquiry was set 011 
foot in 1695, but no capital punishment followed. 

GLOBE. The globular form of the earth, the five zones, some of the principal circles of 
the sphere, the opacity of the moon, and the true causes of lunar eclipses, were taught, and 
an eclipse predicted, by Thales of Miletus, about 640 B.C. Pythagoras demonstrated, from 
the varying altitudes of the stars by change of place, that the earth must be round ; that 
there might be antipodes on the opposite part of tlie globe ; that Venus was the morning and 
evening star ; that the universe consisted of twelve spheres — the sphere of the earth, the 
sphere of the water, the sphere of the air, the sphere of fire, the spheres of the moon, the; 
sun ; Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the sphere of the stars; about 506 B.C. — 
Aristarchns, of Saraos, maintained that the earth turned on its own axis, and revolved about 
the sun ; which doctrine was held by his contemporaries as so absurd, that the philosopher 
nearly lost his life by his theory, 2S0 B.C. To determine the figure of the earth, a 
degree of latitude has been measured in diff'erent parts of the world by eminent philosophers ; 
for this purpose Bouguer and La Condamine were sent to Peru, and Maupertuis and others 
to Lapland, in 1735. France and Spain were measured by Mechain, Delambre, Biot, and 
Arago, between 1792 and 1821. Measurements were made in India by col. (now sir George) 
Everest, and published in 1830. Experiments have been made by pendulums to demonstrate 
the rotation of the earth by Foucault in 1851 ; and to determine its density by Maskeljme, 
Bailly, and others ; and in 1826, 1828, and 1854, by Mr. G. B. Airy, the astronomer Royal. 
See Circumnavigators. 



Artificial Globes. It is .said that a celestial 
globe was brought to Greece from Egypt, 368 B.C., 
and that Archimedes constructed a planetarium 
about 212 B.C. 

The globe of Gottorp is a concave sphere, eleven feet 
in diameter, containing a table and seats for 
twelve persons, and the inside representing the 
visible surface of the heavens, the stars and con- 
stellations all distinguished according to their res- 
pective magnitudes, and being turned by means of 
curious mechanism, their true position, rising, 
and setting, are .=hown. The outside is a terrestrial 
globe. This machine is called the globe of Gottorp, 
from the original one of that name, which, at the 
expense of Frederick II. duke of Holstein, was 
erected at Gottorp, under the direction of Adam 



Olearius, and was planned after a design found 
among the papers of the celebi-ated Tycho Brahe. 
Frederick IV'. of Denmai-k presented it to Peter 
the Great in 1713. It was nearly destroyed by fire 
in 1757 ; but it was afterwards reconstructed. 
Cuxe. 

The globe at Pembroke-hall was erected by Dr. 
Long ; it far surpasses the other, being eighteen 
feet in diameter, and thirty persons can sit con- 
veniently within it while it is in motion. 

In 1851 Mr. Abrahams erected in Leicester-square, 
for Mr. Wyld, a globe 60 feet 4 inches in diameter, 
lit from the centre by day, and by gas at night. It 
was closed in July, 1861 ; the models were sold, 
and the building eventually taken do's\Ti. 



GLOBE THEATRE, Bankside (London). See Shakespeare's Tlicatrc. 

GLOIRE, French steam frigate. See Navy, French. 

GLORY, the nimbus drawn by painters round the heads of saints, angels, and holy men, 
and the circle of rays on images, adopted from the Ciesars and their flatterers, were used 
in the 1st century. The doxology of the prayer Gloria Patri was ordained in the church 
of Rome, and was called doxology because it began with cloxa, glory, 382. 

GLOUCESTER, a Roman colony (Glevum), built by Arviragus, 47, in honour of Claudius 
Cresar, whose daughter he had married. In 1278-9 the statutes of Gloucester were passed at 
a parliament held by Edward I. This city was incorporated by Henry III. ; it was fortified 
by a strong wall, which was demolished after the Restoration, in 1660, by order of 
Charles II., as a punishment for the obstinate resistance of the city to Charles I., in 1643, 



GLO 341 GOD 

mulor col. Massey. The Gloucester and Berkeley canal was completed in April, 1827. 
<!ross bribery took jilace here at the election for the parliament in 1859. — It was one of 
the six bishoprics erected by Henry VIII. in 1541, and was formerly part of Worcester. It 
was united to that of Bristol in 1836. The church, which belonged to the abbey, and its 
revenues, were appropriated to the maintenance of the see. The abbey, which was founded 
by king Wulphere about 700, was burnt in 1102, and again in 1122. In it are the tombs 
of Robert, duke of Normandy, and Edward II. In the king's books, this bishopric is valued 
at 315^. 17s. 2d. per annum. Present income, 5000Z. 

REGENT BISHOPS OF GLOUCESTER. 



1802. George Isaac Huntingford, translated to Here- 
ford, June, 1815. 
1S15. Hon. Hen. Ryder, translated to Lichfield, 1824. 
1824. Christopher Betbell, translated to Exeter, 1830. 
1830. James Heury Monk, died. 



1856. Charles Baring, translated to Durham, Sept. 

1861. 
1861. Wm. Thomson, translated to York, 1862. 
1863. Charles J. Elhcott (present bishop, 1865). 



GLOVES. In the middle ages, the giving a glove was a ceremony of investiture in 
bestowing lands and dignities ; and two bishops were put in possession of their sees by each 
receiving a glove, 1002. In England, in the reign of Edward II. the deprivation of gloves 
was a ceremony of degradation. The Glovers' company of Loudon was incorporated in 
1556. Embroidered gloves were introduced into England in 1580, and are still presented to 
judges at maiden assizes. 

GLUCINUM (from ghikus, sweet). In 1798 Vauquelin discovered the aaxth. glucina (so 
termed from the sweet taste of its salts). It is found in the beryl and other crystals. From 
glueina Wcililer and Bussy obtained the rare metal glucinum in 1828. Gynelin. 

GLUCOSE. See Sugar. 

GLUTEN, an important ingredient of grain, particularly wheat, containing nitrogen, 
and termed the vegeto-auimal principle. Its discovery is attributed to Beccaria in the 
1 8th century. 

GLYCERINE, discovered by Scheele, about 1779, and termed by him the "sweet principle 
of fats," and further studied by Chevreul, termed the "father of the fatty acids." It_ is 
obtained pure by saponifying olive oil or animal fat with oxide of lead, or litiiarge. Glycerine 
is now much employed in medicine and the arts. 

GNOSTICS (from the Greek gnosis, knowledge), a sect who soon after the preaching of 
Christianity, endeavoured to combine its principles with the Greek philosophies. Among 
their teachers were Saturnius, lii ; Basilides, 134; and Valentine, 140. Friscillian, a 
Spaniard, was burnt at Thebes as a heretic, in 384, for endeavouring to revive Gnosticism. 

GOA (S.W. Hindostan), was taken by the Portuguese under Albuquerque in 1510, and 
made their Indian capital. 

GOBELIN-TAPESTRY, so called from a house at Paris, formerly possessed by wool- 
dyers, whereof the ciiief (Giles Gobelin) in the reign of Francis I., is said to have found the 
secret of dyeing scarlet. This house was purchased by Louis XIV. for a manufactory of 
works for adorning palaces, under the direction of Colbert, especially tapestry, designs for 
which were drawn by LeBruu, about 1666. 

"GOD BLESS YOU!" We are told that in the time of pope Pelagius II. a plague 
raged at Rome of so ftital a nature, tliat persons seized with it died sneezing and gaping ; 
wiience came the custom of saying " Gocl hlcss you .'" when a person sneezes, and of Roman 
C^atholics making the sign of the cross upon the mouth when any one gapes ; 582. 
Nouv. Diet. 

" GOD SAVE THE KING." This melody is said to have been composed by John Bull, 
Mus. D., in 1606, for a dinner given to James I. at Merchant Taylor.s' Hall ; others ascribe it 
to Henry Carey, about 1743. It has been claimed by the French. The controversy on the 
subject is summed up in Chappell's " Popular Music of the Olden Times" (1859). 

GODERICH ADMINISTRATION. Viscount Goderich* (afterwards earl of Ripon) 
became first minister on the death of Mr. Canning, Aug. 8, 1827 ; resigned Jan. 8, 1828. 

* Bom 1782 ; held various inferior appointments from 1809 to 1818, when he became president of the 
board of trade; wa'< chancellor of' the e.xchequer from 1818 to April, i8-.i7, when he became colonial 
secretary, which office he belt in the Grey cabinet, Nov. 1830 ; created earl of Ripon, 1S33 ; died 1859. 



GOD 



34-2 



GOL 



GODERICH ADMINISTRATION, continued. 



Viscount Goderich, first lord of the treasury. 

Duke of Portland, president of the council. 

Lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor. 

Earl of Carlisle, lord privtj seal. 

Viscount Dudley, Mr. Huskisson, and the marquess 
of Lansdowne, foreign, colonial, and home secre- 
taries. 



Lord Palmerston, secretary-at-ioar. 

Mr. Wynn, president of the India board. 

Mr. Charles Grant (afterwards lord Glenelg), hoa.rd 

of trade. 
Mr. Herries, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Mr. Tieroey, master of the mint, &c. 



GODFATHERS and Godjiothers. The Jews are said to have had godfatliers in the 
circumcision of their sons ; but tliere is no mention of them in scripture. The custom 
was first ordained, according to some by pope Alexander ; according to others by Sixtus ; 
others refer it to Telesphorus, about 130, and others to Hyginns about 140. In Roman 
Catholic countries bells have godfathers and godmothers at their baptism. 

GODOLPHIN ADMINISTRATIONS, 1684 and 1690. The earl of Godolphin became 
prime minister to queen Anne, May 8, 1702 ; received the treasurer's staff two days after- 
wards ; resigned Aug. 8, 1710 ; and died 171 2. See Administrations. 



Sidney, lord (afterwards earl) Godolphin, treasury. 
Thomas, earl of Pembroke and Montgomery, lord 

presitltnt. 
John Sheffield, marquess of Normanby (afterwards 

duke of Noi'manby and Buckingham), privy seat. 



Hon. Henry Boyle, chancellor of the exchequer. 

Sir Charles Hedges and the earl of Nottingham (the 
latter succeeded by the right hon. Robert Harley, 
created earl of Oxford in 1704), secretaries of state, 
.fee. 



GODWIN'S OATH. " Take care you are not .swearing Godwin's oath." This caution, 
to a person taking a voluntary and intemperate oath, or making violent protestations, had 
its rise in the following circumstance related by the monks : Godwin, earl of Kent, was tried 
for the murder of prince Alfred, brother of Edward the Confessor, and pardoned, but died at 
the king's table while protesting with oaths his innocence of the murder ; supjjosed by the 
historians of those times to have been choked with a piece of bread, as a judgment from 
Heaven, having prayed it might stick in his throat if he were guilty of the murder ; 1053. 

GODWIN SANDS, sand-banks off the east coast of Kent, occupy land which belonged 
to Godwin, earl of Kent, the father of king Harold II. This gi'ound was afterwards given to 
the monastery of St. Augustin at Canterbury ; but the abbot neglecting to keep in repair 
the wall that defended it from the sea, the tract was submerged in iioo, leaving these sands, 
upon which many ships have been wrecked. Salmon. 

GOLD.* The purest and most ductile of all the metals, for which reason it has, from 
the earliest ages, been considered by almost all nations as the most valuable. It is too soft 
to be used pure, and to harden it it is alloyed with copper or silver : our coin consists of 
twenty-two carats of pure gold, and tvv'o of copper. In the early ages no metals were used 
but those found pure, as gold, silver, and copper. By 17 & 18 Vict. c. 96 (1854), gold 
Avares are allowed to be manufactured at a lower standard than formerly ; wedding rings 
excepted, by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 60 (1855). The present stated price is 3?. 17s. lo^d. per oz. 
See Coin of England and Guineas. 



GOLD coiw. 

First certain record of gold coined in England, 1257 

First regular gold pieces sti-uck .... 1344 

The florin struck, and the method of assaying 
gold established, 1354; the standard altered, 1527 

All the gold money called in, and re-coined, and 
the first window-tax imposed to defray the 
expense and deficiency in the re-coinage, 
7 Will. Ill 1695 

Guineas first coined in 1673 ; reduced in ciu'- 
rency value from 22s. to 21s. in . . . 1717 

Broad-pieces called in, and re-coined into 
guineas 1732 

The gold coin brought into the Mint by pro- 
clamation in 1773-6, amounted to about 
15-563,593'. ; the expense of collecting, melt- 
ing, and re-coining ic, was 754,019?. 



Act for weighing gold coin passed . . June 13, 1774 
Proclamation for issuing gold js. pieces Nov. 20, 1797 

"The quantity of gold that passed through the 
Mint, since the accession of queen Elizabeth to the 
throne, in 1558, to the beginning of 1840, is 3,353,561 
pounds weight, troy. Of this, nearly one-half was 
coined in the reign of George III., namely, 1,593,078 
pounds weight, troy. The value of the gold coined 
in the reign of that sovereign was 74,501, 586(." 
Professor Faraday, 

The weight of gold coined in Victoria's reign, from 
June, 1837 to Jan. 1848, was 746,452 lb. ; the value 
of this amoimt coined was 29,886,457?. Gold 
coined in 1853 (when Australian gold came in), 
12,664, 125^. ; i"^ 1854, 4,354,201?.; in 1855, 
9,245,264?. ; in 1856, 6,476,060?. 



* The amalgamation of gold is described by Pliny (about 77) and Vitruvius (about B.C. 27I. The 
alchemist Basil Valentine (in the 15th century) was acquainted with the solution of the chloride of gold and 
fulminating gold. Andreas Cassius in 1685, described the preparation of gold purple, which was then 
adapted by Kunkol to make red glass, and to other purposes. Gmelin. Gold has been subjected to the 
researches of eminent chemists, such as Berzelius and Faradaj^, up to the present u.iy. 



GOL 343 GOO 

GOLD, continued. 

Gold Mines. Gold was found most abundantlj- in i Gold discovered in New Zealand, and in Novo 

Africa, Japan, and South America, in which last Scotia in 1861. 



gold was discovered by the Spaniards in 1492, from 
which time to 1731 they imported into Europe 
6000 millions of pieces of eight, in register gold 
and silver, exclusively of what were unregistered. 

A piece of gold weighing ninety marks, equal 
to sixty pounds troy (the mark being eight 
ounces;, was found near La Paz, a town of Peru, 
1730. 

Gold was discovered in Malacca in 1731 ; in New 
Andalusia in 1785 ; in Ceylon, 1800 ; 2887 oz. of 
gold, value gggil., obtained from mines in Britain 



Gold Wire was first made in Italy about 1350. An 
ounce of gold is sufficient to gild a silver wire 
above 1300 miles in length ; and such is its tenacity 
that a wire the one-eighteenth part of an inch 
will bear the weight of 500 lb. without breaking. 
I'ourcrop. 

A single grain of gold may be extended into a 
leaf of fifty-six square inches, and gold leaf can 
be reduced to the 300,000 part of an inch, and 
gilding to the ten-millionth part. Kelly's Cambist. 

Gold Robbery. Three boxes, hooped and sealed. 



and Ireland in 1864 ; has been found in Cornwall, '< containing gold in bars and coin to the value of 

and in the county of Wicklow in Ireland. I between i8,ooo(. and 20,000?. were sent from Lon- 

The Ural or Oural mountains of Russia long pro- don. May 15, 1855. On their arrival in Paris, it 

duced gold in large quantity. | was found that ingots to the value of 12,000?. hal 

Gold discovered in California, 1847 ; and in Aus- ; been abstracted, and shot substituted, although 

tralia, 1851. On April 28, 1858, a nugget, said to ! the boxes bore no marks of violence. Many per- 

wcigh 146 po\mds, was shown to the queen. It is sons were apprehended on suspicion ; but the 

estimated that between 1851 and 1859 gold to police obtained no trace till Nov. 1856. Three men 

the value of 88,889,435?. was exported from named Pierce, Burgess, and Tester, were tried and 

Victoria alone. See California and Australia convicted Jan. 13-15, 1857, on the evidence of 

severally. Edward Agar, an accomplice. They had been pre- 

Gnld discovered in what is now termed New paring for the robbery for eighteen months pre- 

Columbia in 1856; much emigration there in 1858. , vious to its perpetration. 

GOLD FISH. Brought to England from China in 1691 ; hut not common till 1723. 

GOLDEN BULL. See Bulls. 

GOLDEN FLEECE (see Argonauts). Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, in 1429, 
instit*ited the iiiilitary order of " Toison d'or'" or "golden fleece." The number of knights 
was thirty-one. The king of Spain afterwards became grand master of the order, as duke of 
Burgundy, It was said to have been instituted on account of the immense profit the duke 
made by wool. The first solemnities were performed at Burgos, at this duke's marriage 
with Isabel of Portugal. The knights wore a scarlet cloak lined with ermine, with a collar 
opened, and the duke's cipher, iu the form of a B, to signify Burgundy, together with flints 
striking fire, with the motto '^Antefeyit, quam fiamma viicat." At the end of the collar 
hung a golden-fleece, with this device, " Pretium non vile laborum.'" The order afterwards 
became common to all the. princes of the hou.se of Airstria, as being desceuded from Mary, 
daughter of Charles the Bold, last duke of Burgundy. The order now belongs to both. 
Austria and Spain, in conformity with a treaty made iu 1725. 

GOLDEN HORDE, a name given to the Mongolian Tartars who established an empire 
in Kaptchak (or Kibzak), now S. E. Russia, about 1224, their ruler being Baton, grandson 
of Gengis Khan. They invaded Russia, and made Ale.xander Newski grand-duke, 1252. 
At the battle of Bielavvisch, in 1481, they were crashed by Ivan III. and his allies the Nogai 
Tartars. 

GOLDEN NUMBER, the cycle of nineteen years, or the number which .shows the years 
of the moon's cycle ; its invention is ascribed to Meton, of Athens, about 432 b. c. Pliny. 
To find the golden number or year of the lunar cycle, add one to the date and divide by 
nineteen, then the quotient is the number of cycles since Christ, and the remainder is the 
golden number. The golden number for 1865, is 4 ; for 1866, 5 ; for 1867, 6 ; for 1868, 7. 

GOLDSMITHS' COMPANY (London) began about 1327, and incorporated 16 Rich. 11, 
1392. The mark or date of the Goldsmiths' company wherewith to stamp standard silver 
and gold wares is made by letters from A to U, changed every year, commenced iu 1 796. 
The old hall was taken down in 1829, and the present magnificent edifice was opened in 
1835. See Assay, and Slandard, The first bankers were goldsnuths. 

GOOD FRIDAY (probably God's Friday). From early time this has been held as a 
solemn fast, in remembrance of the crucifixion of our Saviour on Friday, April 3, 33, or 
April 15, 29. Its appellation oi good appears to be peculiar to the church of England ; our 
Saxon forefathers denominated it Long Friday, on account of the great length of the ofEces 
observed and fastings enjoined on this day. Good Friday, 1866, March 30 ; 1867, April 19 ; 
1 868, April 10. 

GOODWIN. See Godwin. 



GOO 344 GOT 

GOOJERAT (N. India). Near this place, on Feb. 21, 1849, lord Gough totally defeated 
the Sikhs after a very severe conflict. Some of the enemy's suns, and the whole of their 
ammunition and camp equipage, fell into the hands of the British. Shere-Singh escaped 
with only 8000 men. Goojerat was taken. 

GOOSE. See Michaelmas. 

GORDIAN KNOT. The knot is said to have been made of the thongs that served as 
harness to the waggon of Gordius, a husliandman, afterwards king of Phrygia. Whosoever 
loosed this knot, the ends of which were not discoverable, the oracle declared should be ruler 
of Persia. Alexander the Great cut away the knot with his sword until he found the ends of 
it, and thus, in a military sense at least, interpreted the oracle, 330 B.C. 

GORDON'S "NO POPERY" RIOTS, occasioned by the zeal of lord George Gordon, 
June 2 — 5, 1780.* 

GOREE, a station near Cape Verd, W. coast of Africa, planted by the Dutch, 161 7. It 
was taken by the English admiral Holmes in 1663 ; and was ceded to France by the treaty 
of Nimeguen in 1678. Goree was again taken by the British in 1758, 1779, 1800, and 
1804. Governor Wall, formerly governor of this island, was hanged in London, Jan. 28, 
1802, for the murder of sergeant Armstrong, committed while at Goree in 1782. 

GOREY (S. E. Ireland). Near here the king's troops under colonel Walpole were 
defeated, and their leader slain, by the Irish rebels, June 4, 1798. 

GORGET, the ancient breast-plate, was very large, A'arying in size and weight. The 
present diminutive breast-plate came into use about 1660. See Armour. 

GORILLA, a powerful ape of West Africa, from about five feet six, seven, or eight 
inches high. It is a match for the lion, and attacks the elephant with a club. It is con- 
sidered to be identical with the hairy people called Gorullai by tlie navigator Hanno, in his 
Periplus, about 400 or 500 B.C. In 1847 a sketch of a gorilla's cranium was sent to Professor 
Owen by Dr. Savage, then at the Gaboon river. Preserved specimens have been recently 
brought to Europe, and a living one died on its voyage to France. In 1859 Professor Owen 
gave an able summary of our knowledge of this creature at the Royal Institution, London ; 
and in 1861 several .skins and skulls were there exhibited by M. Du Chaillu, who stated that 
he killed 21 of them in his travels in Central Africa. The gorilla was not known to Cuvier. 

GOSPELLERS, the name given to the followers of Wickliffe, who first attacked the 
errors of popery, about 1377. Wickliffe opposed the authority ol^ the ^o-pe, the temporal 
jurisdiction of bishops, &c., and is called the father of the Reformation. 

GOSPELS (Saxon god-Sj^eU, good story). Matthew's and Mark's are conjectured to have 
been written between a.d. 38 and 65 ; Luke's, 55 and 65 ; John's, about 97. Dr. Robert 
Bray was one of the authors of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign 
Countries, incorporated in 1701. A body termed "Bray's Associates" still exists; its 
object being to assist in forming and supporting clerical parochial libraries. Irenfleus in the 
and century refers to each of the gospels by name. 

GOSPORT (Hampshire), contains the Royal Clarence victualling yard, the bakery in 
which can turn out ten tons of biscuit in an hour. The great Haslar hospital, near Gosport, 
was built in 1 762. 

GOTHA, capital of the duchy of Saxe Coburg-Gotha. Here is published the celebrated 
Almanack de Gotha, which first appeared in 1764, in German. 

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE began about the 9th century after Christ, and spread over 
Europe. Its great feature is the pointed arch ; hence it has been suggested to call it the 
pointed style. ' ' Gothic " was originally a term of reproach given to this style by the 

* On Jan. 4, 17S0, he tendered the petition of the Protestant Association to lord North, and on June 
2, headed the mob of 40,000 persons who assembled in fit. George's Fields, nnJer the name of the Pro- 
testant Association, to cany up a petition to parliament for the repeal of the act-which granted certain 
indulgences to the Roman Catholics. The miOo once raised could not be dispersed, but proceeded to the 
most daring outrage, pillaging, burning, and imlling down the chapels and houses of the Roman Catholics 
first, but afterwards of several other persons ; breaking open prisons and setting the persons free ; even 
attempting the Bank of England ; and in a word totally overcoming the civil power for nearly six days. 
On June 3rd, the Roman Catholic chapels and numerous mansions were destroyed, the Bank attempted, 
the gaols opened, — among these were the King's Bench, Newgate, Fleet, and Bridewell prisons ; on the 
5th, thirty-six fires were seen blazing at one time. At length by the aid of armed associations of the 
citizens, the horse and foot guards, and the militia of several counties, then embodied and marched to 
London, the riot w.as quelled. In the end, 210 of the rioters were killed, and 24S wcunded, of whom 75 
died afterwards in the hospitals. Many were tried, convicted, and executed. Lord George was tried for 
high treason, Feb. 5, 17S1, but was acquitted. Ho died a prisoner for libel, Nov. i, 1793. 



GOT 345 GRA 

renaissance architects of the i6th century. Its invention has been claimed for several 
nations, particularly for the Saracens. The following list is from Godwin's Chronological 
Table of EuLclish Architecture : — 



Florid Pointed— a.d. 1377 to 1509— Westminster 
Hall : King's College, Cambridge ; St. Geurge's 
chapel, Windsor ; Henry VII. 's chapel, Westmin- 
ster. 

Elizabethan — a.d. 1509 to 1625 — Northumberland 
House, Strand ; Windsor Castle, Hatfiuld House, 
schools at Oxford. 

Revival of Grecian architecture about 1625, Ban- 
queting House, Whitehall, <tc. 

The revival of Gothic architectvire commenced about 
1S25, mainly through the exertions of A. W. 
Pugin, The controversy as to its exiiediency was 
rife in 1 860-1. 



Anolo-Roman — B.C. 55 to about a.d. 250 — St. Mar- 
tin's church, Canterbury. 

ANaLO-SAXo:^ — a.d. 800 to 1066 -Earl's Barton 
church ; St. Peter's, Lincolnshire. 

Gothic Anolo-Roman — a.d. io65 to 1135 — Roches- 
ter cathedral nave ; St. Bartholomew's, Smithfield ; 
St. Cross, HantS; (fee. 

Early English, or Pointed — a.d. 1135 to 1272 — 
Temple church, London ; parts of Winchester, 
Wells, Salisbury, and Durham cathedrals, and 
Westroinster Abbey. 

Pointed, called Pure Gothic — a.d. 1272 to 1377 — 
E.fetor cathedral, Waltham Cross, &c., St. Ste- 
phen's, Westminster. 

GOTHLAND, an isle in the Baltic Sea, was conquered by the Teutonic knights, 1397-8 : 
given up to the Danes, 1524 ; to Sweden, 1645 ; conquered by the Danes, 1677, and restored 
to Sweden, 1679. 

GOTHS, a warlike nation that inhabited the country between the Caspian, Pontus, 
Euxine, and Baltic seas. They entered M(esia, took Philippopolis, massacring thousands of 
its inhabitants ; defeated and killed the emperor Decius, 25 1 ; but were defeated by 
Claudius, 320,000 being slain, 269. Aurelian ceded Dacia to them in 272 ; but they long 
troubled the empire. After the destruction of the Roman empire by the Heruli, the 
Oslrogoths, under Theodoric, became masters of the greater part of Italy, where they retained 
their dominion till 553, when they were finally conquered by Narses, Justinian's general. 
The Visigoths settled in Spain, and founded a kingdom, which continued until the countiy 
was subdued by the Saracens. 

GOVERISrESSES' BENEVOLENT INSTITUTION, was established in 1843, and incor- 
porated in 1848. It affords to aged governesses annuities and an as3dum ; and to governesses 
in distress a temporary home and assistance. 

GOVERNMENT ANNmTiE.s Act. See Annuities. The building of the new Govern- 
ment Offices began in 1861. 

GOWRIE CONSPIRACY. A young- Scotch nobleman, John, earl of Gowrie, in 1600, 
reckoning on the support of the burghs and the kirk, conspired to dethrone James VI. and 
seize the government. For this purpose lie decoyed the king into Gowrie house, in Perth, 
on Aug. 6, 1600. The plot was frustrated, and the earl and his brother, Alexander Ruthven, 
were slain on the spot. At the time, many per.sons believed that the young men were rather 
the victims than the authors of a plot. Their father, William, was treacTierously executed 
in 1584 for his share in the Raid of Ruthven, in 1582 ; and he antf his father, Patrick, were 
among the assassins of Rizzio in 1566. 

GRACE AT Me.-vt. The ancient Greeks would not partake of any meat until they had 
first offered part of it, as the first fruits, to their gods. The short prayer said before, and by 
some i)ersons after meat, in all Christian countries, from the earliest times, is in conformity 
with Christ's example, John yi. ii, &c. 

GRACE, a title as.sumed by Henry IV. of England, on his accession, in 1399. Excellent 
Grac£ was assumed by Henry VI. about 1425. Till the time of James I. 1603, the king was 
addressed bj^ that title, but afterwards by the title of Majesty only. " Your Grace " is the 
manner of addressing an archbishop and a duke in this realm. — The tenn " Grace of God " is 
said to have been taken by bishops at Ephesus, 43 1 (probably from i Cor. xv. 10), by the 
Carlovingian princes in the 9th century, by popes in the 13th century ; and about 1440 it 
was assumed by kings as signifying their divine right. It was taken by the king of Prussia 
in Oct. 1 86 1, and created much adverse comment. 

-GRiECIA, j\IAGNA, colonies planted by the Greeks, 974 — 748 b.c. See Italy. 

GRAFTON'S, Duke of. Administration, succeeded that of lord Chatham, Dec. 1767. 
Terminated by lord North becoming prime minister in 1770. See North's Administration. 

Augustus Henry, duke of Grafton, first lord of the I Sir Edward Hawke, Jjrsi lord of the admiralty. 



treasur II [horn, 1735; died, iSii]. 
Frederick, lord North, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Earl Gowcr, lord prcudent. 
Earl of Chatham, lord privy seal. 
Karl of Shelburue and viscount Weymouth, secrela- 



Marquc'^s of Granby, master-gmeral of the ordnance. 
Lords Sandwich and Le Despencer jotnc poxtmasters- 

general. 
Lords Hertford, duke of Ancastcr, Thomas Town- 

shend, (fee. 



riei of state. Lord Camden, lord chancellor. 



GRA 346 GRA 

GRAFFITI, a term given to the scribblings found on the walls of Pompeii and other 
Roman ruins : selections were published by Wordsworth in 1837, and by Garrucci in 1856. 

GRAHAM'S DIKE (Scotland). A wall built in 209 by Severus Septimus, the Roman 
emperor, or, as others say, by Antoninus Pius. It reached from the Frith of Forth to the 
Clyde. The eminent historian Buchanan relates that there were considerable remains of this 
wall in his time ; and some vestiges of it ai"e to be seen even to this day. 

GRAIK. Henry III. is said to have ordered a grain of wheat gathered from the middle 
of the ear to be the original standard of weight : 12 grains to be a pennyweight ; 12 penny- 
weights one ounce, and 12 ounces a pound Troy. Lawson. 

GRAMMARIANS. Anciently, the most eminent men in literature were denominated 
grammarians. A society of grammarians was formed at Rome so early as 276 B.C. Blair. 
ApoUodorus of Athens, Varro, Cicero, Messala, Julius Casar, Nicias, Jilius Donatus, Rem- 
miiis, Palemon, Tyrannion of Pontus, Athenteus, and other distinguished men, were of this 
class. A Greek grammar was printed at Milan in 1476 ; Lily's Latin grammar (Brevis 
Institutio), 1513 ; Lindley Murray's English grammar, 1795; Cobbett's English grammar, 
1818. — Harris's Hermes was published in 1750, Home Tooke's Epea Pteroenta, or the 
"Diversions of Purley," in 1786, both excellent treatises on the plilosophy of language and 
grammar. Cobloett declared J\lr. Canning to have been the only purely grammatical orator 
of his time ; and Dr. Parr, speaking of a speech of Mr. Pitt's, said, " We threw our whole 
grammatical mind upon it, and could not discover one error." 

GRAMMAR SCHOOLS. See Education. 

GRAMME. See Metrical System. 

GRAMPIAlSr HILLS (central Scotland). At Ardoch, near the Mons Grampius of 
Tacitus, the Scots and Picts under Galgacus were defeated by the Romans imder Agri- 
cola, 84. 

GRAMPOUND (Cornwall). For bribery and corrupt practices in this borough, in 1819, 
several persons were convicted, among them sir Manasseh Lopez, who was sentenced by the 
court of king's bench to a fine of io,oooZ. and two years' imprisonment. Grampound was 
disfranchised in 1821. 

GRANADA, a city, S. Spain, was founded by the Moors in the 8th century, and formed 
at first part of the kingdom of Cordova. In 1236, Mohammed-al-Hamar made it the capital 
of his new kingdom of Granada, which was highly 'prosperous till its subjugation by the 
'■great captain," Gonsalvo de Cordova, in 1492. In 1609 and 1610, the industrious Moors 
were expelled from Spain, by the bigoted Philip III., to the lasting injury of his countiy. 
Granada was taken by marshal Soult iu 18 10, and held till 1812. See New Granada. 

GRANARIES were formed by Joseph in Egypt, 1715 B.C. {Genesis xli. 48.) There were 
three hundred and twenty-seven granaries in Rome. Univ. Hist. Twelve new granaries 
were built at Bridewell to hold 6000 quarters of corn, and two storehouses for seacoal to hold 
4000 loads, thereby to prevent the sudden dearness of these articles by great increase of 
inhabitants, 7 James I. 1610. Stow. 

GRAND ALLIANCE between England, the emperor, and the States-General (principally 
to ju'event the union of the French and Spanish monarchies in one person), signed at Vienna, 
May 12, 1689, to which Spain and the duke of Savoy afterwards acceded. 

GRANDEES. See Spanish Grandees. 

GRAND-DUKE. See DuJce. 

GRAND JUNCTION CANAL (central England), joins several others, and forms a 
water communication between London, Liverjiool, Bristol, and Hull. The canal commences 
at Braunston, on the west borders of Northamptonshire, and entei's the Thames near London. 
Executed 1793-1S01. 

GRAND PENSIONARY, a chief state functionary in Holland, in the i6th century. 
In the constitution given by France to the Batavian republic, previously to the erection of the 
kingdom of Holland, the title was revived and given to the head of the government, April 
29, 1805, Rutger Jan Schimmelpenninck being made the Grand Pensionary. See Holland. 

GRAND REMONSTRANCE. See Remonstrance. 

GRANICUS (a river, N.W. Asia Minor), near which on May 22, 334 B.C., Alexander the 
Great signally defeated the Persians. The Macedonian troops (30,000 foot and 5000 horse), 



GRA 347 GKE 

crossed the Granicus in the face of the Persian army (600,000 foot and 20,000 horse). Justin. 
The victors lost fifty-fivg foot sohliers and sixty horse. Sardis caj'itulated, Miletns and 
Halicaruassus were taken by storm, and other great towns submitted to the conqneroi'. 

GRANSON, near tlie hike of Nenfehatel, Switzerland, where Charles the Bold, duke of 
Burgundy, Avas defeated by the Swiss, April 5, 1476. 

GRAPES. Previously to the reign of Edward VI. grapes were brought to England in 
large quantities from Flanders, where tliey were first cultivated about 1276. The vine was 
introduced into England in 1552 ; being first planted at Bloxhall, in Suftblk. In the gardens 
of Hampton-court palace is a vine, stated to surpass any in Europe ; it is 72 feet by 20, and 
has in one season produced 2272 bunches of grapes, weighing 18 cwt. ; the stem is 13 inches 
in girth ; it was planted in 1769. Leigh. 

GRAPHITE (from the Greek grapkcin, to write), a peculiar form of mineral carbon, with 
a trace of iron, improperly termed black lead and plumbago. In 1809 sir Humphry Davy 
investigated into the relations of three forms of carbon, the diamond, gTaphite, and charcoal. 
A rude kind of black lead pencil is mentioned by Gesner in 1565. Interesting results of sir 
B. C Brodie's researches on graphite appeared in the International Exhibition of 1862. 

GRATES. There were arched hearths among the Anglo-Saxons, and chafing-dishes were 
most in use until the general introduction of chimneys about 1200. See Ckimneijs and 
Stoves. 

GRAVELIISrES (N. France). Here the Spaniards, aided by an English fleet, defeated the 
French on July 13, 1558. 

GRAVITATION, as a supposed innate power, was noticed by the Greeks, and also by 
Seneca, who speaks of the moon attracting the waters, about 38. Kepler investigated the 
sul)ject about 1615 ; and Hooke devised a system of gravitation about 1674. The principles 
of gravity were demonstrated by Galileo at Florence, about 1633 ; but the great law on this 
subject was laid down by Newton in his " Principia," in 1687. 

GREAT BETHEL. See Big Bethel. 

GREAT BRITAIN, the name given in 1604 to England, Wales^ and Scotland (which see). — 
The stupendous iron steam vessel. Great Britain, commanded by captain Hosken, formerly 
a naval officer, sailed from the Mersey, Liverpool, July 26, 1845, and arrived at New York, 
Aug. 10. She sailed to the same place in the forenoon of Sept. 22, 1846, with a large cargo 
of goods and 185 passengers, the greatest number that had ever sailed to America by steam. 
The same evening the passengers were suddenly alarmed by a concussion, as if the vessel had 
struck upon a rock, and soon discovered that she was aground in Dundrum bay, in Ireland. 
They were landed in sai'et}'', but all attempts to get the vessel off were ineffectual, and she 
lay stranded until Aug. 27, 1847, when Messrs. I. Brunei, jun., and Bremner, the engineers, 
succeeded in getting her off, she having sustained little damage from the shock, or from the 
waves rolling over her for nearly a year, 

' GREAT EASTERN, &c. See under Steam, The Eastern Counties Railway assumed the 
|name of Great Eastern in 1862. The Great Northern Railway Comjiany was incorpo- 
rated in 1846. Their station at King's-cross, London, was opened in Oct. 1852. The Great 
Western Railway, between London and Bristol, was opened June 30, 1841. 

GREAT SEAL of ENGLAND. The first seal used by Edward the Confessor was called 
the broad seal, and affixed to grants of the crown, 1048. Baker's Chron. The most ancient 
seal with arms on it is that of Richard I. James II., when fleeing from London in 1688, 
dropped the great seal in the Thames. The great seal of England was stolen from the 
house of lord chancellor Thurlow, in Great Ormond-street, into which some thieves broke, 
and (-arried it away, with other property, March 24, 1784, a day before the dissolution of 
parliament ; it M-as never recovered. It was re]daced on the next day. A new seal was brought 
into use on the union with Ireland, Jan. i, 1801. Anew seal for Ireland was brought into 
use and the old one defaced, Jan. 21, 1832. 

GREECE, anciently termed Hellas. The Greeks are said to have been the progeny of 
Javan, fourth son of Japheth. Greece was so called from a very ancient king named Grsecus ; 
and from another king, Hellen, the son of Deucalion, the peo]ile were called Hellenes. From 
Helleu's sons, Donis and iEolus, came the Dorians and iEolians ; another son Xuthus was 
father of Acha.'us and Ion, the jirogenitors of the Acha'ans and lonians. Homer calls the 
inhabitants indifferently Myrmidons, Hellenes, and Achaians. They were termed Danai, 
from Danaus, king of Argos, 1474 B.C. Greece anciently consisted of the penin.sula of the 
Peloponnesus, Greece outside of the Peloponnesus, Thessaly, and the islands. The principal 



GRE 



348 



GRE 



states of Greece were Athens, Sjiarta, Corinth, Thebes, Arcadia, and afterwards Macedon 
{all ichich see). The* limits of niodern Greece are much more confined. Greece became 
subject to tlie Turkish empire in the 15th century. The population of the kingdom, 
established in 1829, 96,810 ; in 1S61, with the Ionian isles (added in 1864), 1,326,000. 



Sicyon founded (Eusehius) . . . .B.C. 2089 
Uranu.s arrives iu Greece (Lenglet) . . . 2042 
Revolt of the Titan.s ; War of the Giants . . * * 
Inachus king of the Argives .... igio 
Kingdom of Argos begun (Euaebius) . . . 1856 
Reign of Ogyges in Boeotia (Eusebiu.'<) . . 1796 
Sacrifioes to the gods first imi-oduced in Greece 

by Phoroiieus 1773 

The Pelasgi hold the Peloponnesus 1700- 15 50; 

succeeded by the Hellenes . . . 15 50- 1300 
According to some authors, Sicyon was now 
begun (Ltnglet) ....... 1773 

Deluge of Ogyges (w/iic7j «ee) .... 1764 

A colony of Arcadians emigrate to Italy under 
CEnotrus : the country first called (Eautria, 
afterwards Magna Grcecia {Euaebius) . . . 1710 
Chronology of the Anmdelian marbles com- 
mences (Eo.sebius) ...... 1582 

Cecrops arrives from Egypt . . . about 1550 
Deluge of Deucalion (Easebius) .... 1503 

Panathenwan games mstitutcd . . . . 1495 

Cadmus with the Phoenician letters settles in 

Bceotia, and founds Thebes . . about 1493 
Lelex, first king of Laconia, afterwards called 

Sparta 1490 

Daiiaus said to have brought the first ship into 
Greece, and to have introduced pumps (see 
Argos) ......... 1485 

Reign of Hellen (Eusebius) 1459 

First Olympic games celebrated at Elis, by the 
Jdwi DlicIi/U, 1453 : who are said to have dis- ' 
covered iron ........ 1406 

Corinth re-built and so named .... 1384 

Eleusinian mysteries iustitutSd by Eumolpus 
(1356) and Isthmian games . . . . 1326 

Kingdom of Mycenas created out of Argos. . 1313 
Pelops, from Lydia, settles in south Greece, 

about 1283 
Argonautic expedition (which see) . . . . 1263 

The Pythian games begun by Adrastus . . ,, 
War of the seven Greek captains against Thebes 1225 

The Amazonian war 1213 

Rape of Helen by Theseus , 

Rape of Helen by Paris 1198 

Commencement of the Trojan war . . .1 193 
Troy taken and destroyed on the night of the 
7tli of the month ThargeUon (27th of May, or 

nth June) 1184 

.ffine. IS said to arrive in Italy . . about 1182 
Migration of iEolians who build Smyrna, &c. . 1123 
Return of the Heraclidie . . . about 1103 
Settlement of the lonians in Asia Minor . . 1044 
The Rhodians begin navigation laws . . 916 

Lycurgus flourishes ..... 924-840 

Olympic games revived at Ellis, 884 ; the first 

Olympiad 776 

The Messenian wars 743-669 

Sea-fight, the first on record, between the Corin- 
thians and the iuhabitants of Corcyra . . 664 

Byzantine built 657 

Seven sages of Greece (Solon, Periander, Pit- 
tacus, Chilo, Thales, Cleobulus, and Bias) 

flourish 593 

Persian conquests in Ionia 544 

Sybaris in Magna Gracia destroyed : 100,000 

Crotonians under Milo defeat 300,000 Syljarites 508 
Sardis burnt by the Greeks, which occasions 
the Persian invasion, 504 ; Thrace and Mace- 
donia conquered 496 

Athens and Sparta resist the demands of the 

king of Persia 491 

Tlie Persians defeated at Marathon {ichieh see), 

Sejjt. 28, 490 
Xerxes invades Greece, but is checked at 
Thermopylse by Leonidas . . . Aug. 480 



Battle of Salamis (ichich see) . Oct. 20, B.C. 480 
Mardonius defeated and slain at Platiea ; Per- 
sian fleet destroyed at Mycale . . Sept. 22, 479 
Battle of Eurymedon Cend of Persian war) . . 466 
Athens begins to tyrannise over Greece . . 459 
The first .sacred war begun . . ... 448 
War between Corinth and its colony Corcyra . 435 
Leads to the Peloponnesian war . . 431-404 
Disastrous Athenian expedition to SjTacuse 415-413 
Retreat of the 10,000 under Xenophon . . 400 

Death of Socrates 399 

The sea-fight at Cnidus 394 

The peace of Antalcidas 387 

Rise and fall of the Theban power in Greece 370-360 
Battle of Mantinea ; death of Epaminondas . 362 
Ambitious designs of Philip of Macedon . . 353 
Sacred war ended by Philip, who takes all the 

cities of the Phoceans 348 

Battle of Chasronea (jcA/cA see) . . . -338 
Philip assassinatejl by Pausanias . . . . 335 
Alexander, the son of Philip, enters Greece ; 
subdufs the Athenians, and destroys the city 

of Thebes ,, 

Alexander conquers the Pei-sian empire . 334-331 
Greece harassed by his successors ; the jEtolian 

and Achaian leagues revived . . . 284-280 
Greece invaded by the Gauls, 280 ; they are 

defeated at Delphi, 279 ; and expelled . . 277 
Dissensions lead to the intervention of the 

Romans 200 

Greece conquered by Mummius and made a 
Roman province 147-146 



Greece visited and favoured by Augustus, 
B.C. 21 ; and Hadrian .... a.d. 122-133 

Invaded by Alaric 396 

Plundered by the Normans of Sicily . . .1146 
Conquered by the Latins, and subdivided into 

small governments 1204 

The Turks Tinder Mahomet II. conquer Athens 

and part of Greece 1456 

The Venetians hold Athens and the Morea . 1466 
All Greece subject to the Turks . . . . 1540 
Great struggle for independence with Russian 
help ; fruitless insurrection of the Suliotes . 

1 770- 1 803 
Secret Society, the Hetairia, established . . 181 5 
Insurrection in Moldavia and Wallachia, in 

which the Greeks join, suppressed . . . 1821 
Proclamation of prince Alexander to shake off 
the Turkish yol^e, March, 1821 ; he raised the 
standard of the cross against the crescent 
and the war of independence began April 6, ,, 
The Greek patriarch put to death at Constanti- 
nople April 23, ,, 

Independence of Greece proclaimed . Jan. 27, 1822 
Siege of Corinth by the Turks . . . Jan'. ,, 
Bombardment of Scio ; its capture ; most 
horrible massacre recorded in modem history 

(see Chios) April, ,, 

The Greeks victors at Thermopylse, &c. July, ,, 

Massacre at Cyprus July, ,, 

National congress at Argos . . . April 10, 1823 
Victories of Marco Botzaris . . . June, ,, 
Lord Byron lands in Greece to devote himself 

to its cause Aug. ,, 

Fir-st Greek loan Fob. 1824 

Death of lord Byron at Missolonghi . April 19, ,, 
Defeat of the Capiran Pacha, at Samos, Aug. t6, „ 
Provisional government of Greece set up, Oct. 12, „ 
Ibrahim Pacha lands, Feb. 25 ; takes Navarin 

and ravages Greece .... May, 1825 
The Greek fleet defeats the Capitan Pacha, 

JunCj ,, 



GRE 



349 



GRE 



GREECE, continued. 

Tho provisiiinal government invite the protec- 
tion of Eng:l:md July, 

Ibr:ihim Pjicha takes Missolonghi by assault, 
after a lonp: heroic defence . . April 23, 

70,000^. raised in Europe for the Greeks . 

Reschid Pacha takes Athens . . June 2, 

Treatyof London, between GreatBntain, Russia, 
and I'rance, on behalf of Gro jce, signed July 6, 

Turkish fleet destroyed at Navariuo (which see), 

Oct. 20, 

Count Capo d' (stria president of Gi-eece, Jan. 18, 

The I'aiihelleuion or Grand Council of State 
estabhshed Feb. 2, 

National bank founded . . . Feb. 14, 

Convention of the viceroy of Egypt with sir 
Edward Codrington, for the evacuation of 
the Morea, and delivefy of captives . Aug. 6, 

Patras, Navarino, and Modon surrender to the 
French Oct. 6, 

The Turks evacu.ate the Morea . . Oct. 

Missolonghi surrenders . . . May 16, 

Greek National Assembly commences its sit- 
tings at Argos .... July 23, 

The Porte acknowledges the independence of 
Greece in the treaty of Adrianople Sept. 14, 

Prince Leopold declines the sovereignty May 21, 

Count Capo de'Istria, president of Greece, assa.s- 
sinated by the brother and son of Mavromi- 
chaelis, a Mainote chief whom he had im- 
prisoned* Oct. 9, 

Otho of Bavaria elected kmg of Greece May 7, 

Colocotroni's conspiracy . . . Sept. 

Otho I. assumes the government. . 

tfniversity at Athens established, 1837 ; build- 
ing commenced ..'... 

A bloodless revolution at Athens is consum- 
mated, establishing a new constitution, en- 
f(jrcing ministerial responsibility and na- 
tional representation . . . Sept. 14, 

The king accepts the new constitution March, 

Admiral Parker, in command of the British 
MediteiTanean fleet, blockades the harbom- 
of the Pirneus, the Greek government having 
refused the payment of monies due to British 
subjects, and to svirrender the islands of 
Sapienza and Caprera . . . Jan. 18, 

France interj^oses her good offices, and the 
blockade is discontinued . . March i. 

Negotiations terminate, and the blockade of 
Athens is renewed . . . April 25, 

Dispute with France accommodated June 21, 

InsuiTCctions against Turkey in Thessaly and 
Epiriis, favoured by the Greek court Jan. 
and Feb. ; lead to a rupture between Greece 
and Turkey March 28, 

After many remonstrances, the English and 
French governments send troops which 
arrive at the Piraius ; change of ministry 
ensues, and the king promises to observe a 
strict neutraUty . . . May 25, 26, 

A newspaper in the modem Greek language 
printed in London, beginning . . July 9, 

Great Britain, France, and Russia remonstrate 
with the Greek government respecting its 
debts Oct. 18, 

Agitation in the Ionian isles for annexation to 
Greece ; the parliament prorogued . March, 

The king retires to Bavaria . . . July, 

Attempted assassination of the queen by Darios, 
an insane student .... Sept. 18, 

Great earthquake in the Peloponnesus, Dec 26, 

Leopold of Bavaria proposed as heir to the 
throne Jan. 

JliliUuy revolt begins at Nauplia . Feb. 13, 



Ib2S 

1326 



1031 
1832 

1835 



1854 



Blockade of the coast decreed . March 9, 

The insurgents demand reforms and a uevv 

succession to the throne . . . April, 

The royal troops enter the citadel of Nauplia ;' 

insurgents transported to other stations, 

April 25 
Change of ministry: Colocotroni becomes 

premier June 7, 

Insurrection begins at Patras and Missolonghi, 
Oct. 17 ; aprovi.sionalgovemment, estabhshed 
at Athens, deposes the kiny, Oct 22 ; he and 
the queen fly ; arrive at Corfu, Oct. 27 ; the 
great European powers neutral ; general sub- 
mission to the provisional government 

Oct. 31,' 

Great demonstrations in favour of prince 
Alfred, who is proclaimed king at Lamia in 
Pbthiotis, Nov. 22 ; great excitement in his 
favour at Athens .... Nov. 23. 

The provisional government establish universal 
suffrage Doc. 4, 

The national assembly meets at Athens Dec. 22, 

The national assembly elects M. Balbis presi- 
dent, Jan. 29 ; and declares prince Alfred of 
England elected king of Greece by 230,016 
out of 241,202 votes .... Feb. 3, 

Military revolt of lieut. Canaris against Bul- 
garis and others, who resign, Feb. 20 ; the as- 
sembly appoint a new ministry under Balbis, 

Feb. 23, 

The assembly decides to offer the crown to 

prince William of Schleswig-Holstein, March 

J 8, and proclaim him as king George I. 

March 30, 

Protocol between the three protecting powers 
France, England, and Russia, signed at 
London, consenting to the offer of the crown 
on condition of the annexation of the Ionian 
isles to Greece .... June 5, 

The king of Denmark accepts from the aged 
admiral Canai-is the Greek crown for prince 
William, and advises him to adhere to the 
constitution and endeavour to gain and pre- 
serve the love of his people . . June 6, 

Mihtary revolt at Athens, suppressed June 30', 

July 9, 

The king an-ives at Athens, Oct. 30 ; takes the 
oath to the constitution . . . Oct. 31, 

The Balbis ministry fomied . . April, 

Protocol annexing tho Ionian isles to Greece', 
signed by M. Zaimis and sir H. Storks, May 
28 ; the Greek troops occujiy Corfu, June 2 : 
the king an-ives there . , . June 6, 

New ministry under Canaris formed . Aug. 7, 

The assembly recognises the debt of 1824, 5 Sept! 

After much delay, and a remonstrance from the 
king, Oct. 19, a new constitution (with no 
upper house) is passed by the assembly. Nov. 
I ; and accepted by the king . .• Nov. 28, 

New ministry formed under Coumoundouros 

March 29, 

The anniversary of the beginning of the war of 
independence (April 6, iS2i;kept with enthu- 
siasm April 6, 

The king visits the eastern provinces ; general 
tranquillity April 20, 

The king opens the chamber of deputies 

June 9, 

Death of Alexander Mavrocordato, one of the 
early patriots Aug. i8. 

The king gives up one-thhd of his civil list to 
relieve the treasury . . . Sept. 25, 

An economical financial policy proposed ; a 
new ministiy formed Nov. 



1863 



:86s 



* The wretched asRas.sins (Oct. 29, 1831) were immured within close brick walls, built around them up 
to their chins, and supplied \\ith food in this lingering torture until they died. 



GRE 



350 



GEE 



GREECE, contimied. 



KINGS OF GREECE. 



Otho I., prince of Bavaria, bom June i, 1815 ; 
elected king, May 7, 1832 ; under a regency 
till June I, 1835; married Nov. 22, 1836, 
to Maria Frederioa, daughter of the gi-and- 



duke of Oldenburg : deposed, Oct. 23, 1862. 
George I., king of the Hellenes, born Dec. 24, 
1845 ; accejited the crown June 5, 1863 ; 
declared of age, June 27. 



GREEK ARCHITECTURE, ^ee Architecture. 

GREEK CHURCH, or Eastern clrarch, claims priority, as usiug the language in wWcli 
the Gospel was first promulgated. Some of its forms and ceremonies are similar to those of 
the Roman church ; but it disowns the supremacy of the pope, and is strongly opposed to 
many of tlie doctrines and practices of its rival. It is the established religion of Russia. 
The Greek orthodox confession of faith appeared in 1643. See Fathers of the Church. 



Catechetical school at Alexandria (Origeu, 

Clemens, <irc.) 180-254 

Rise of Monachism about 300 

Foundation of the churches of Armenia, about 

300 ; of Georgia or Iberia . . . .318 

First council of Nice (See Cnv.ncili) . . . 325 
Ulijhilafi preaches to the Goths . . about 376 
Nestorius condemned at the council of Ephesus 431 
Monophysite controversy ; churches of Egypt, 
Syria, and Armenia, separate from the church 

of Constantinople 461 

Close of the school of Athens ; extinction of 

the Platonic theology 529 

The Jacobite sect established in Syria by 

Jacobus Baradaius 541 

The struggle with the Mahometans begins . 634 
The Maronite sect begins to prevail . about 676 



The Paulicians severely persecuted . 

Iconoclastic controversy begins . . about 

Pope Gregory II. excommunicates the emperor 
Leo, which leads to the separation of the 
Eastern (Greek) and Western (Roman) 
churches 

Foundation of the church in Russia : conver- 
sion of princess Olga, ^55 ; of Vladimir . 

The Marouites join the Roman church . . . 

Re-union of the churches at the council of 
Lyons, 1274 ; again separated 

The patriarchate of Moscow established, 1582 ; 
suppressed in 

The archimandrite Nilos, representing Constan- 
tinople and 4 patriarchates, visits London on 
behalf of the Greek clergy in the Danubian 
priucixwlities, in 



690 
726 



729 

9S8 
1182 

1277 

1762 



GREEK FIRE, a combustible composition (now unknown, but thought to have been 
principally naphtha), thrown from engines, said to have been invented by Callinicus, an 
ingenious engineer of Heliopolis, in Syria, in the 7th century, in order to destroy the 
Saracens' shi[is, which was eft'ected by the general of the ileet of Constantine Pogonatus, and 
30,000 men were killed. A so-called " Greek Fire," pi'obably a solution of iiho.sphorus in 
bi-sulphide of carbon, was employed at the siege of Charleston, U.S., in Sept., 1863. 

GREEK LANGUAGE. It was first studied in Europe about 1450 ; in France, 1473 ! 
William Grocyn, or Grokeyn, a learned English professor of this language, travelled to 
acquire its true pronunciation, and introduced it at Oxford, about 1491, where he had the 
honour to teach Era.smus, who himself taught it at Cambridge in 15 10. Wood' s Athen. Oxon. 
England has produced many eminent Greek scholars, of whom may be mentioned Richai'd 
Bentley, died 1742 ; professor Person, who died in 1808 ; Dr. Parr, who died in 1S25 ; and 
Dr. C. Burne}', who died in 181 7. 



30 
96 
118 

147 
148 
194 



EMINENT GEEEK AUTHORS. (Sce slso Fathers and PMloso2)Jii/.) 

Strabo . . . . a.d. 
Dionysius Halicaniassus, abt. 
Plutarch . . . about 
Epictetus , . about 
Appian . . . about 
Arrian . . about a.d. 
Athenasus . . aboiit 
Lucian . . about 120-200 
Herodian . . about 204 

Longinus . . dies 273 

Julian, emperor . . 331-363 
(See Fathers of the Church.) 

GREENBACKS, a name given, from the colour of some, to the paper currency first 
issued by the United States government, in 1862. They represented sums as low as i\d., 
^\d., and 5^., &c. — the precious metals being exceedingly scarce. 

GREEN-BAG INQUIRY took its name from a Green Bag, full of documents of alleged 
seditions, laid liefore parliament by lord Sidmouth, Feb. 181 7. Secret committees presented 
their reports, Feb. 19 ; and bills were brought in on the 21st to suspend the Habeas Corpus 
act, and prohibit seditious meetings then frecjuent. 



Homer flourished abt. B.C. 962-927 


Plato . 


B.C. 429-347 


Hesiod 


about 850 


Isocrates . 


. 436-338 


jEsop 


• ■ 572 


Aristotle 


. . 384-322 


Anacreon . 


about 559 


Demosthenes 


. 382-322 


.^schylus 


• • 525-456 


Menander 


, about 321 


Herodotus . 


about 443 


.Slschines . 


. 389-314 


Pindar . 


. . 522-439 


Theocritus 


. about 272 


Aristophanes 


427 


Epicurus . 


. 342-270 


Euripides 


. . 480-406 


Theophi-astus 


. . 287 


Sophocles . 


. 495-405 


Archimedes 


. 287-212 


Thucydides . 


. . 470-404 


Polybius 


. . 207-122 


Xenophon . 


• 443-359 


Diodorus . 


. B.C. 50-A.D. 13 



GEE 



351 



GEE 



GEEEN-CLOTH, Board of, in the department of the lord-st sward of the household, 
included an ancient court (abolished in 1849), which hui junsiliction of all offences com- 
uiitted in the verge of the court. 

GREENLAND (an extensive Danish colony in North America) was discovered by some 
Icelanders, under Eric Eaude, aboun 980, and so named from its verdure, superior to that 
of Iceland. It was visited by Frobisher in 1576. The first ship from England to Greenland 
was sent for the whale- lisiiery by the Muscovy company, 2 James I. 1604. In a voyage 
performed in 1630, eiglit men were left behind by accident, who suffered incredible hardships 
till the foUowi ig year, when the company's ships brought them home. Tindal. The Green- 
land Fishing company was incorporated in 1693. — Hans Egede, a Danish missionary, 
founded a new colony, called Godhaah, or Good Hope, in 1720-3 ; and other missionary 
stations have been since established. Scoresby surveyed Greenland in 1821 ; and capt. Graah, 
by order of the king of Denmark, in 1829-30. 

GREENOCK (W. Scotland). Charters were granted in 1635 and 1670 to John Shaw, of 
the barony of Greenock. Prior to 1697, it was an inconsiderable fishing station ; but during 
tliat year the Scottish Indian and African company resolved to erect salt-works in the Firth, 
and thus drew the attention of sir John Shaw, its superior, to the maritime advantages of 
its situation. It was made a burgh of barony in 1757, and a parliamentary burgh in 1832. 
The erection of the new quay was entrusted, about 1773, to James Watt, who was born here 
in 1736. Tlie East India harbour was built 1S05-19, and Victoria harbour 1840-50. 

GREEN PARK (near Buckingham palace, London), forms a part of the ground enclosed 
by Henry VIII. in 1530, and is united to St. James's and Hyde parks by the road named 
Constitution-hill. Over the arch at the entrance, the Wellington statue was placed in 
1846. On the north side was a reservoir of the Chelsea water-works, wdiich was filled up in 
1856. 

GREENWICH HOSPITAL stands on the site of a royal residence in the time of 
Edward I. (1300) much enlarged by his successors. Here were born Henry VIII. and his 
daughters Mary and Elizabeth, and here his son Edward VI. died. The palace was the 
favourite summer residence of queen Elizabeth, and Charles II. intended to build a new 
palace here on a very grand scale, and accordingly erected one wing of this grand edifice, 
but died before any other part of the design was finished. In this state it remained till 
Mary and William III. formed the plan of making the palace useful to the kingdom, as an 
hospital, which was instituted in 1694. 100 disabled seamen were admitted in 1705. The 
forfeited estate of the attainted earl of Derwentwater (beheaded in 17 16) was bestowed upon 
it. Sixpence per month was to be contributed by every seaman, and the payment was 
advanced to one shilling, from June, 1797. The payment was abolished in 1829, and that of 
"the Merchant seamen's" sixpence also in 1834. This hospital lodged 2710 in 1853, and 
possessed a revenue of about 150,000?. per annum.* A charter was granted to it in 
Dec. 1775. The chapel, the gi'eat dining-hall, and a large portion of the buildings appro- 
jiriated to the pensioners, were destroyed by fire, Jan. 2, 1779. The chapel was rebuilt in 
1789. — Greenwich fair was discontinued, April 1857. 

GREENWICH OBSERVATORY was built at the solicitation of sir Jonas Moore and 
sir Christopher Wren, by Charles II., on the summit of Flamsteed-hill, so called from the 
great astronomer of that name, the first astronomer-royal here. The English began to 
compute the longitude from the meridian of this place, 1675 ; some make the date 1679. 
This ol)servatoiy contains among other instruments a transept circle by Trougliton ; a transit 
instrument of eight feet by Bird ; two mural quadi'ants of eight feet, and Bradley's zenith 
sector. The telescopes are forty and sixty inch achromatics, and a six-feet reflector. In 
1852, an electric telegraph signal ball in the Strand was completed, and put in connection 
with Greenwich observatory. 

ASTRONOMERS-ROYAL. 



John Flamsteed 1675 

Dr. Halley 1719 

Dr. Bradley 1742 

Dr. N. Bliss 1762 

Dr. Nevil Ma.sk elyiie 1764 



John Pond iSii 

George Biddell Airy 1833 

(The PRESENT Astronomer Royal, under * 
whose able superintendence the apparatus have 
been greatly increased and improved.) 



* Important ch.anges were made in October, 1865, in consequence of an act of parliament passed ni 
that year, based upon the report of a commission. About 900 of the in-door pensioners received additions 
to their pay, and were permitted to reside wherever they pleased outside the ho.spital, which, in future, 
will be rather an infirmary than a residence. 



CxKE 



352 



GKE 



GREGORIAN CALENDAR (see Calendar, and Neio Style.) 

GREGORIAN CHANT received its name from pope Gregoiy I., who improved the 
Ambrosian chant, about 590. 

GRENADA. See Granada and Neio Granada. 

GRENADES, a powerful missile of war, so named from Granada, Spanish, invented in 
1594. It is a small hollow globe, or ball, of iron, about two inches in diameter, which being 
filled with fine powder and set on fire by a fusee at a touchhole, the case flies into shatters, 
to the damage of all who stand near. 

GRENADIERS. The Grenadier corps was a company armed with a pouch of hand- 
grenades, established in France in 1667 ; and in England in 1685. Broivn. 

GRENVILLE ADJIINISTRATIONS. The first succeeded the Bute administration, in 
April, 1763 ; and resigned in July, 1765. 



George Granville (born 1712, died zjjo),fint lord of 
the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer. 

Earl Granville (succeeded by the duke of Bedford), 
lord president. 

Duke of Marlborough, j^rivy seal. 

Earls of Halifax and Sandwich, secretaries of .state. 

Earl Gower, lord chamberlain. 

Lord Egmont, admiralty. 



Marquess of Granby, ordnance. 

Lord Holland (late Mr. Fox), jiaymaster. 

Wei bore Ellis, secretary -at-war. 

Viscount Barrington, treasurer of the navy. 

Lord Hillsborough, fr-it lord of trade. 

Lord Henley (afterwards earl of Northiugton), lord 

chancellor. 
Duke of Rutland, lords North, Trevor, Hyde, &c. 



The Second Grenville administration was formed after the death of Mr. Pitt, on Jan. 23, 
1806. From the ability of many of its members, their friends said it contained '^ All the 
Talents,'" a term which was afterwards applied to it derisively by its opponents. The death 
of Mr. Fox, Sept. 13, 1806, led to changes, and eventually the cabinet resigned, March 25, 
1806. 



Loi-d Grenville, .;?r«< lord of the treasury. 

Lord Henry Petty (afterwards marquess of Lans- 

down), chaiictllor oftlie excliequer. 
Earl Fitzwilliani, lord president. 
Viscount Sidmouth (late Mr. Addington), i^rivy seal. 
Charles James Vox.,fornffn secretary. 
Earl Spencer, home secretary. 
William Windham, colonial secretary. 
Lord Erskine, lord chancellor. 



Sir Charles Grey (afterwards viscount Howick and 

earl Grey), admiralty. 
Lord Minto, board of co-ntrol. 
Lord Auckland, board of trade. 
Lord Moira, master-^ieneral of the ordnance. 
R. B. Sheridan, treasurer of the navy. 
Richard Fitzpatrick, <Src. 
Lord EUenborough (lord chief justice), had a seat in 

the cabinet. 



GRESHAM COLLEGE (London), founded by sir Thomas Gresham, in 1575. He was 
the founder of the Royal Exchange, and left a portion of his property in trust to the City 
and the Mercers' Company to endow this college for, among other uses, lectures in divinity, 
astronomy, music, and geometry, and readers in civil law, physic, and rhetoric, and to 
promote general instruction ; he died 1579. The lectures, commenced in Gresham's house, 
near Broad-street, June 1597 (where the Royal Society first met in 1645), and continued, 
with intenu])t'on, till 17 10. The buildings were pulled down in 1768, and the Excise-office 
erected on its site. The lectures were then read in a room over the Royal Exchange for 
many years : on the rebuilding of the present exchange, the Gresham committee erected the 
present building in Basinghall-street, which was designed by G. Smith, and opened for 
lectures, Nov. 2, 1843. It cost above joool. 

GRETNA-GREEN MARRIAGES. Gretna is the nearest and most accessible point in 
Scotland from the sister kingdom ; and in its neighbourhood fugitive marriages were long 
contracted. The practice was begun by a tobacconist named John Paisley, who lived to a 
great age, and died in 1814. His first residence was at Megg's Hill, on the common or green 
betwixt Gretna and Springfield, to the last of which villages he removed in 1782. A man 
named Elliot was lately the principal officiating person. The General Assembly, in 1826, 
vainly attempted to suppress this system, but an act, passed in 1856, made these marriages 
illegal after that year, unless one of the persons married had lived in Scotland 2 1 days. 

GREY ADMINISTRATION succeeded the Wellington administration, in Nov. 1830. 
It carried the Reform bill {tvhich see), and terminated July, 1834. 



GRE 



853 



GUE 



Sir James Graham, admiralty. 

Lord Auckland and Mr. Charles Grant (afterwards, 

1830, lord Glenelg), board of trade and control. 
Lord Holland, du.chv of Lancaster. 
Lord John Russell, paymaster of the forces. 
Duke of Richmond, earl of Carlisle, Mr. Wynne, etc. 



GREY ADMINISTRATION, continued. 

Eai-1 Grey,* /irsi lord of the treasury. 
Lord Brougham, lord chancellor. 
Viscount Althorpo, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Marquess of Lansdowne, president 0/ the council. 
Earl of Durham, p-.-ivy seal. 

Viscounts Melbourne, Palmerston, and Goderich, 
home, foreign, and colonial secretaries. 

GREYTOWK See Mosquito Coast. 

GROAT, from the Dutch groat, value of fourpence, was the Largest silver coin in England 
until after 1351. Fourpenny pieces were coined in 1836 to the value of 70,884?. ; in 1837, 
16,038?. None have been coined sif5ce 1861. 

GROCERS anciently meant " ingrossers or monopolisers," as appears by a statute 
37 Edw. III. 1363: "Les Marchauntz nomez engrossent totes maners de merchandises 
vendables." The Grocers' company, one of the twelve chief companies of London, was 
established in 1345, and incorporated in 1429. 

GROCHOW, Battle of, near Praga, a suburb of Warsaw, between the Poles and 
Russians, Feb. 25, 1831. After an obstinate contest, continuing the whole of one day and 
great part of the next, the Poles remained masters of the field of battle. The Russians 
shortly after retreated, having been foiled in their attempt to take Warsaw, They are said 
to have lost 7000 men, and the Poles 2000. See Poland, 1861. 

GROG, sea-term for rum and water, derived its name from admiral Edward Vernon, who 
wore grogram breeches, and was hence called "Old Grog." About 1745, he ordered his 
sailors to dilute their rum with water, f 

GUADALOUPE, a West India island, discovered by Columbus in 1493. The French 
took possession of it in 1635, and colonised it in 1664. Taken by the English in 1759, and 
restored in 1763. Again taken by the English in 1779, 1794, and 1810. The allies, in 
order to allure the Swedes into the late coalition against France, gave them this island. It 
wa.s, however, by the consent of Sweden, restored to France at the peace in 18 14. 

GUAD-EL-RAS (N.W. Africa). Here the Spaniards signally defeated the Moors, 
March 23, i860, after a severe conflict : general Prim manifested great bravery, for which he 
was ennobled. The preliminaries of peace were signed on the 25th. 

GUANO, or Huano (the Peruvian term for manure), the excrement of sea-birds that 
swarm along the coasts of Peru and Bolivia, and also of Africa and Australia. Humboldt 
was one of the first by wliom it was brought to Europe, in order to ascertain its value in 
agriculture. The importation of guano into the United Kingdom appears to have com- 
menced in 1839. 283,000 tons were imported in 1845 (of which 207,679 tons came from the 
western coast of Africa) ; 243,016 tons in 185 1 (of which 6522 tons came from Western 
Australia), and 131,358 tons in 1864. 

GUARDS. The custom of having guards is said to have been introduced by Saul, 
1093 B.C. 



Body guards were appointed to attend the kings of 
England, 2 Hen. VIL 1485. 

Horse Guards were raised 4 Edw. VI. 1550. 

The three regiments, ist, 2nd, and 3rd Foot Guards 
were raised in 1660, and the command of them 
given to colonel Russell, general Monk, and lord 
Linlithgow. The 2nd regiment, or Coldstream, 
was the first raised. See Culdslrtam. These 



guards were the beginning of our standing army. 

The Horse Grenadier guards first troop, raised iu 
1693, was commanded by general Cholmondely ; 
the second troop was raised in 1702, and was com- 
manded by lord Forbes ; this corps was reduced in 
1783, the officers retiring on full pay. 

See Horse Guards, yeoman. National, and Imperial 
Guards. 



GUATEMALA. A republic in Central America, declared independent March 21, 1847. 
President (1862), general Raphael Carrera, elected 1S51 ; appointed for life (1854). A war 
between Guatemala and San Salvador broke out in Jan. 1863 ; and on June 16 the troops of 
the latter were totally defeated. Population, about 850,000. 

GUEBRES. See Parsees. 



* Bom March 13, 1764; M.P., as Charles Grey, in 1786 ; first lord of the admiralty and afterwards 
foreign secretary in 1806; resigned in i8o5 on account of his favouring Roman Catholic emancipation; 
died July 17, 1845. 

t He did great service in the West Indies, by taking Porto Bello, Chagre, &c. ; but by his disagreement 
vpith the commander of the land forces, the expedition against Carthagena in 1741, is said to have failed. 
He was dismissed the service for writing two pamphlets attacking the admiralty ; he died Oct. 30, 1757. 

A A 



GUE 



354 GUI 



GUELPHIC ORDER of knighthood was instituted for Hanover by the prince regent, 
afterwards George IV., Aug. 12, 1815. The king of Hanover is grand master. 

GUELPHS AND GHIBELINES, names given to the papal and f P^^^^f Jf ^/^^irv (the 
conflicts destroyed the peace of Italy from the 12th to the end of tl^« 'S^^^/^^J, "'^^S 
invasion of Charles VIII . of France in 1495)- The ongm of tl^*^;™^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^X of 
is ascribed to the contest for the imperial crown between Conrad of Hohenstau en uk^ 
Swabia, lord of Wiblingen (hence GhMin), and Henry ^^phew of Welf 01 Gueit cluke 
Bavaria, in 1 138. The former was successful ; but the popes and fcany of the Italian cit eg 
took th^ side of his rival. Hie Guclf and Hie Gihelin ai-e said to have been ^^fj^J'^;^^^ 
in 1 139. The Ghibelines were almost totally expelled from Italy "^^267, when Com aaiu 
the last of the Hohenstaufens, was beheaded by Charles of Aiijou. Guelph is the name ot 
the present royal family of England. See Brunswick. 
GUERNSEY. See Jersey. 

rUFTTX (beo-ffars) a name given by the comte de Barlaimont to the 300 Protestant 
dcputSftJm the^Low ?oun™Ls^ headed by Henri of Brederode and Loms of Nassau who 
tti oied Srgaret, governess of the Low Countries, to abolish the mqmsition, A^il 5, 56^^^^ 
The deputies at once assumed the name as honourable, and immediately organised an aimed 
resistance to the government. See Holland. 

GUIANA (N E. coast of South America), was visited by the Spaniards m the ibtli 
centurv explored by sir AValter Raleigh in 1596 and 1617. The French settlements he e 
rSrmedCi626-43 ; and the Dutch, 1627-67. Demerara and Essequibo were ceded to 
Great Britain in 18 14. See Demerara. 

GUIENNE, a French province, was part of the dominions of He^^'^ ""^ff y^JJ.JeW 
Eleanor, 11 =52. Philip of France seized it m 1293, winch led to war. it ^J^s alte naie y 
held by England and France till i453, when John Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury, in vam 
attempted to retake it from the latter. 

GUILDHALL (London), was built in 141 1- When it was rebuilt (in .1669), after the 
crreat fire of 1666 10 part of the ancient building remained, except the interior of the poich 
?nd the wdls of the hall. The front was not erected until 1789 : a new roof was built m 
1864 B nea h he w^st window are the colossal figures of Gog and Magog said to 
i-epitsent a Saxon and an ancient Briton. The hall can contam 7000 Persons and xs iised 
foJ city feasts. Here were entertained the allied sovereigns m 1814, and Napoleon ill., 

April 19, i855- , , .. 

GUILDS (of Saxon origin), associations of inhabitants of towns for ^"tual beneht, 
resembling 01 r friendly socteties, chartered by the sovereign ^mce the_ time of Hen y I. 
Tl e '' Gmld of Literature and Art" (including sir E. B. Lytton, C. Dickens, an othe,s) 
founded an institution (on ground given by sir E. B. lytton. at Ste^;enage),cons^^^^^^^ 
thirteen dwellings, retreats for an artist, scholar, and man of letters, which were compietea 
in July, 1865. _ 4. n • • 

GUILLOTINE invented (about 1785) by Joseph Ignatius Guillotin (^^3 f """f ,*^n^'|Xl 
and senator, esteemed for his humanity), designed to render capital P^^^^^^^^^^^^^J^?^ J^aX 
bv decapitation. During the revolution he ran some hazard of being subjected to its deadly 
opeSn but (contrary to a prevailing opinion) escaped, and lived to become one of the 
Eders ^f the Acadeniy of Medicine at Paris, and died in 1814, S^^^tlj respe ted A 
somewhat similar instrument maybe seen in an engraving '-^^f f^^^f^g.^^^^f^S 
Qwslioncs (called the Mannaia). It is said to have been used in Italy, at Halifax in England 
Jee Halifax), and in Scotland, there called the Maiden and the Widow. 

GUINEA (AV. coast of Africa) was discovered by the Portuguese about 1460 /™™ their 
trade with the Moors originated the slave trade. Sir John Hawkins was the first Enghshman 
who mil; a merchandise of the human species Bell. He was assisted m h^^^iterpnse^^^^ 
a number of English gentlemen, who subscribed money for the purpose. He sailed horn 
En™d in Oct."i562, with three ships, proceeded to the coast of Guinea, purchased or 
forcS seized 300 negn-oes, sold them profitably at Hispaniola, and returned home rich y 
laden with hides, sugar, ginger, and other merchandise, in Sept. 1563. This voyage led to 
similar enterprises. HaUuyt. See Slave Trade. 

GUINEAS, English gold coin, so named from having been first coined of gold brought 
bv the African company from the coast of Guinea in 1663, valued then at 20s. ; but worth 
SAiteoT Reduced at various times ; in 1717 to 21s. In 1810 gumeas were so d for 
22s 6d • ini8i6, for 27s. In 181 1 an act was passed forbidding their exportation, and their 



GUI 355 GUT 

sale at a price above the current value, 21s. The first guineas bore the impression of an 
elephant ; having been coined of this African gold. Since the issue of sovereigns in July i, 
181 7, guineas have not been coined. 

GUINEGATE, Battle of. See Spurs. 

GUISE, a French ducal family: — 

Claude of Lorraine, first duke, a brave warrior, | revenged liis father's deatli ; assassinated by 

favoured by Francis I. ; died . . April, 1350 Hemy III Dec. 23, 1588 

Francis, the great general, born, 1519 ; assas- Chai-les, first opposed, and then ,submitted to, 

sinatcd Feb. 24, 1563 Henry IV. ; died 1640 

Henry, head of the Catholic league ; bom 1550; | Henry, died without issue 1664 

GUN-COTTON, a highly explosive substance, invented by professor Schonbein, of Basel, 
and made known in 1846. It is purified cotton, steeped in a mixture of equal parts of nitric 
acid and sulphuric acid, and afterwards dried, retaining the appearance of cotton wool. Dr. 
Bcettger and others also claim the discovery.* See Collodion. 

GUNPOWDER. The invention of gunpowder is generally ascribed to Bertholdus or 
Michael Schwartz, a Cordelier monk of Goslar, south of Brunswick, in Germany, about 
1320. But many writers maintain that it was known much earlier iu various parts of the 
world. f Some say that the Chinese possessed it a number of centuries before. Its com- 
position, moreover, is expressly mentioned by Roger Bacon, iu his treatise De Nullitate 
Magicc. He died in 1292 or 1294. 

GUNPOWDER PLOT. The memorable conspiracy known by this name, for springing 
a mine under the houses of parliament, and destroying the three estates of the realm — king, 
lords, and connnons — there assembled, was discovered on Nov. 4, 1605. It was projected by 
Robert Catesby, and several Romau Catholic persons of rank were leagued in the enterprise. 
Guy Faux was detected in the vaults under the house of lords preparing the train for being 
fired on the next day. Catesby and Percy (of the family of Northumberland) were killed ; 
Guy Faux, sir Everard Digby, Rockwood, Winter, and others, died by the hands of the 
executioner, Jan. 30, 31, 1606. Henry Garnet, a Jesuit, was executed as an accomplice. 
May 3, following. An anonymous letter sent to lord Monteagle led to the discovery. It 
contained the following woixls, " Though there be no appearance of any stir, yet I say thej' 
shall receive a terrible blow this parliament, and yet they shall not see who hurts them. " 
The vault called Guy Faux cellar, in which the conspirators lodged the barrels of 
gunpowder, remained in the late houses of parliament till 1825, when it was converted 
into offices. 

GUNS. See Artillery. 

GUNTER'S CHAIN, used in measuring land, invented by Edmund Gunter, in 1606. 

GUTTA PERCHA. This highly usefid substance is procured from the sap of the 
Isonandi-a Gutta, a large forest tree, growing in the Malayan ]ieninsula and on the islauds 
near it. It was made known iu England by Drs. D. Almeida and Montgomery, at the 

* The diet of Frankfort voted, Oct. 3, 1846, a recompense of 100,000 florins to professor Schonbein and 
Dr. Bcettger, .as the inventors of the cotton powder, provided the authorities of Mayence, after seeing it 
tried, pronounced it supei-if>r to gunjiowder as an explosive ; but its use, as a substitute for gunpowder, in 
gunnery, is still a matter of uncertainty, as the ignition pf the cotton is not under the same control. Of its 
utility, "however, in blasting and mining operations, not the slightest doubt can exist. Improvements were 
made in the manufacture of gun-cotton by an Austrian oSicer, Baron Von Lenk, about 1852, and it was 
tried by a part of the Austrian army in 1855, but did not obtain favour. In 1862 details of the manufacture 
were commvmicated by the Austrian government to our own government, and Mr. Abel, our war-office 
chemist, was directed to experiment on the constitution and desirability of gun-cotton. The British 
Association also appointed a scientific committee to consider its merits. A complete decision has not been 
arrived at. The first trial of English-made gun-cotton was made in the spring of 1864, at the manufactory 
at Stowmarket, Suffolk, by Messrs. Prentice. 

t A scientific inquirer, W. Hunter, after a careful examination of the question, in 1S47, thus states tho 
result: — "July and August, 1346, may therefore be .safely assumed to be the time when the explosive 
force of gunpowder was first brought to bear on the military operations of tbe English nation." On Jan. 
16, 1864, above 11 tons of gunpowder on board the Lottie Sleigh, in the Mersey, exploded ; much damage 
w;us done in Liverpool and Birkenhead, but no lives were lost. On Oct. i, 1864, about 104,000 lbs. of 
giuipowder exploded at the Belvedere powder magazines of Messrs. Hall & Co., at Plumstead, near 
Woolwich ; 13 jiersons perished, and the shock was felt at 50 miles' distance. Searching inquiries were 
made into tho circumstances, and new regulations for the keeping and transmission of powder issued in 
November. See Dart ford. Mr. Gale, a blind gentleman of Plymouth, on June 22, 1865, patented his 
method of rendering £,auipowdcr uninflammable by combining with it finely powdered glass which can be 
readily separated by a sieve when tbe powder is required for use. Successful public experiments were 
made, and Gale's Protected Gunpowder Company was formed (Oct. 1S65). Mr. Gale exhibited his process 
before the Queen at Windsor, Nov. 10, 1S65. The attainment of perfect security is still doubted. 

A A 2 



GUZ 356 HAB 

Society of Arts, in 1843. As a non-conductor of electricity it has become an invaluable aid 
in constructing the submarine telegraph. 

GUZERAT, a state in India, founded by Mahmoud the Gaznevide, about 1020, was con- 
quered by Akbar in 1572 ; and became siibject to the Mahrattas 1732 or 1752. 

GUY'S HOSPITAL, London. Thomas Guy, a wealthy bookseller, after bestowing 
large sums on St. Thomas's, determined to be the sole founder of another hospital. At the 
age of seventy-six, in 1721, he commenced the erection of the present building, and lived to 
see it neaily completed, it costing him 18, 793Z. In addition, he endowed it with 219,499/. 
In 1829, 196,115/. were bequeathed to this hospital by Mr. Hunt, to provide accommodation 
for 100 additional patients. 

GWALIOR, a state in Central India ; since 1803, under British protection. The maha- 
rajah remained faithful during the revolt of 1857. 

GYMNASIUM, a place where the Greeks performed public exercises, and where also 
philoso])hers, poets, and rhetoricians repeated their compositions. In wrestling and boxing 
the athletes were often naked {gymnos), whence the name. A London gymnastic societ}^ 
formed 1826, did not flourish. In 1862, M. Eavenstein setup another gymnastic association. 
The German Gymnastic Institution, in St. Pancras-road, London, was opened on .Ian. 29, 1865, 
and a large and perfect gymnasium at Liverpool was inaugurated by lord Stanley, 
Nov. 6, 1S65, 

GYMNOSOPHIST^E, a sect of philosophers in India, who lived naked, as their name 
implies. Alexander (about 324 B.C.) was astonished at the sight of men who seemed to 
despise bodily pain, and who inured themselves to the greatest tortures without uttering a 
groan or expressing any fear. Pliny. 

GYPSIES, or Egyptians (French, Bohemes ; Italian, Zinqari; Spanish, Gitanos ; German, 
Zigemier) ; vagrants, supposed to be descendants of Hindoos expelled by Timour, about 
1399- They a])peared in Germany and Italy early in the 15th century. In England an act 
was made against their itinerancy, in 1530 ; and in the reign of Charles I. thirteen persons 
were executed at one assizes for having associated with gypsies for about a month, contrary 
to the statute. The gypsy settlement at Norwood was broken up, and they were treated as 
vagrants, May, 1797. There were in Spain alone, previously to 1800, more than 120,000 
gypsies, and many communities of them yet exist in England. Notwithstanding their inter- 
course with other nations, they are still, like the Jews, in their manners, customs, visage, 
and appearance, almost wholly unchanged, and their pretended knowledge of futurity still 
gives them power over the superstitious. Esther Faa was crowned queen of the gypsies at 
Blyth, on Nov. 18, i860. The Bible has been translated into gypsy dialects. 

GYROSCOPE (from gyrerc, to revolve), the name of a rotatory apparatus popular in 
1859, invented by Fessel of Cologne (1852), and improved by professor AVheatstone and 
M. Foucault of Paris. It is similar in princi]>le to the rotatory apparatus of Bohnenberger 
of Tubingen (born 1765, died 183 1). — The gyroscope exhibits the combined effects of tlie 
centrifugal and centripetal forces, and the remarkable results of the cessation of either, and 
thus illustrates the great law of gravitation. 

H. 

HAARLEM, an ancient town, once the residence of the counts of Holland, was taken by 
the duke of Alva, in July, 1573, after a siege of seven months. He violated the capitulation 
by butchering half the inhabitants. The lake was drained in 1849-51. 

HABEAS CORPUS. The subjects' Writ of Right, passed " for the better securing the 
liberty of the subject," 31 Charles II. c. 2, May 27, 1679.* This act (founded on the old 
common law) is next in importance to Magna Charta, for so long as the statute remains in 
force no subject of England can be detained in prison, except in cases wherein the detention 

* By this act, if any person be imprisoned by the order of any court, or of the queen herself, he may 
have a writ of habeas corpus, to bring him before the court of queen's bench or common pleas, wliich shall 
determine whether his committal be just. The constitution of the United States provides that "the 
privilege of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public 
safety may require it;" but does nut specif}' the department of the gnvernment having tbe power of 
suspension. A series of contests on this subject between the legal and milit.arj' authorities began in Mary- 
land, May, 1861. In consequence of the affair of John Anderson (see Slavery in England, note), an act was 
passed in 1862, enacting that no writ of Habeas Corpus should issue out of England into any colony, &c., 
having a court with authority to grant such writ. 



HAC 



357 



HAL 



is shown to be justified by the law. The Habeas Corpus act cau alone be suspended by the 
authority of parliament, and then for a short time only, and when the emergency is extreme. 
In such a case the nation jiarts with a portion of its liberty to secure its own permanent 
welfare, and suspected persons may then be arrested without cause or purpose being 
assigned. Blackstone. 



Act suspendc(1 for a shorf. time in 1689, 1696, 1708 
Suspended for Scots' rebellion . . . 17156 
Suspended for twelve months .... 1722 
Suspended for Scots' rebellion in . . . 1744-5 
Suspended for American war . . . 1777-9 
Ag-ain by Mr. Pitt, owing to French revolution 1794 
Suspended in Ireland, on account of the great 
rebellion 1798 



Suspended in England, Aug. 28, 1799 ; and 

April 14, 1 801 
Asain, on account of Irish insun-eotion . . 1803 
Again, owing to alleged secret meetings (see 

Green Bag) Feb. 21, 1817 

Bill to restore the Habeas Corpus brought into 

parliament Jan. 28, 1818 

Suspended in Ireland (insurrection) July 24, 1848 
Restored there March i, 1849 



HACKNEY COACHES (probably from the French coche-a-liaquenee, a vehicle with a 
hired horse, haqucnee. Their supposed origin in Hackney, near Loudon, is a vulgar error. 
See Cab7-iolets anA Omnibuses. 



1711 

1782 
178s 



1815 



Four were sot up in London by a capt. Bailey 
in 1625 : their number soon increased. 

They were limited by the star-chamber in 1635 ; 
restricted to 200 in 1637 and in . . . 1652 

The number was raised to 400, in 1662 ; to 700, 
in 1694 ; to 800, in 1715 ; to 1000, in 1771 ; to 
1 100, in 1814 ; and finally, to 1300, in . . 1815 

One-horse hackney carriages (atterwards cab- 
riolets) permitted to be licensed . . . ,, • 

All restriction as to number ceased, by 2 Will. 
IV., 1831. (The original fare was is. a mile/ 1833 

HADRIANOPLE. See Adrianople. 

HAGUE, capital of the kingdom of Holland, once called the finest village in Europe ; 
the place of meeting of the States-General, and residence of tlie former earls of Holland 
since 1250, when William II. built the palace here. 



Two hundred HackneT/ Chairs were licensed . . 

Office removed to Somerset-house 

Cuach-makers made subject to a license . . 

Lost and Found Office for the recovery of pro- 
perty left in hackney coaches, established by 
act 55 Geo. III. 

All pubUc vehicles to be regulated hy the act 
16 &. 17 Vict. cc. 33, 127, by which they are 
placed under the control of the commissioners 
of poUce .... June and Aug. 1853 



Here the states abrogated the authority of 
Philip II. of Spain, 1580, and held a confer- 
ence upon the live articles of the remon- 
strants, which occasioned the .synod of Dort. 1610 

Treaty of the Hague (to preserve the equilibrium 
of the North;, signed by England, Irauce and 
Holland May 21, 1659 

Witt torn in pieces here . . . Aug. 20, 1762 



The French took possession of the Hague, Jan. 
1795 ; favoured by a hard frost, they marched 
into Holland, where the inhabitants and 
troops declared in their favour, a general 
revolution ensued, and the stadtholder and 
his family were compelled to leave the 
country and escape to England . . . . 

The Hague evacuated in . . . . Nov. 

The stadtholder returned here . . Dec. 



179s 
1813 



HAINAULT, a province in Belgium, anciently governed by counts hereditary, after 
Kegnier I., who died in 916. The count John d'Aresnes became coimt of HoUand in 1299. 
Hainault henceforth partook of the fortunes of Flanders. 

HAINAULT FOREST (Essex), a celebrated forest, in which stood the ancient Fairlop 
oak (ivJiich see) ; was disafforested in 1851. 

HAIR. In Gaul, hair was much esteemed, and hence the appellation Gallia comaf.a ; and 
cutting off the hair was inflicted as a punishment among the Gauls. The royal family of 
France held it as a particular mark and privilege of the kings and princes of the blood to wear 
longhair artfully dressed and curled. "The clerical tonsure is of apostolic institution ! " 
Jsidorus UisimUnsis. Pope Anicetus forbade the clergy to wear long hair, 155. Long hair 
was out of fashion during the protectorate of Cromwell, and hence the term Round- heads ; 
in 1795 ; and also 1801. Hair-powder came into use in 1590 ; and in 1795 atax was laid upon 
persons using it, which yielded atone time 20,000/. per annum. The tax is now il. 3s. 6d. 
lor each person annually. See Beard. 

HAITI. See Hayti. 

HALEYBURY COLLEGE (Herts), wherein students were prepared for service in India ; 
it was founded by the East India Company in 1806, and was closed in 1858. 

HALICARNASSUS, Caria (Asia Minor) ; reputed birth-place of Herodotus, 4S4 B.C. ; 
the site of the tomb of Mausolus, erected 352 ; taken by Alexander, 334. See Mausoleum. 



HAL 



358 



HAN 



HALIDON HILL, near Berwick, where, on July 19-20, 1333, the English defeated the 
Scots, the hitter losing upwards of 14,000 slain, among Avhom were the regent Douglas and 
a large number of tlie nobility, while a comparatively small number of the English sutfered. 
Edward 111. placed Edward Balliol on the throne of Scotland. 

HALIFAX (Yorkshire). The woollen manufactory was established here in the 15th 
century, prodigious quantities of cloth, &c., being on the tenters. The town, at its incor- 
poration, was empowered to punish ca]iitally (by a peculiar engine, which beheaded the 
offender in a moment) any criminal convicted of stealing to the value of upwards of thirteen 
pence halfpenny. King James I. in 1620 took this power away. See Gicillotine. In 1857, 
Mr. J. Crossley announced his intention of founding a college here, and Mr. F. Crossley pre- 
sented the town with a beautiful park. 

HALIFAX ADMINISTRATION. The earl of Halifax became minister, Oct. 1714, and 
died in 1715. This ministry was succeeded by Robert Walpole's. 



Charles, earl of Halifax, first lord of the treasury 
(succeeded on his death by the earl of Carlisle). 

William, lord Cowper, afterwards earl Cowper, lord 
chancellor. 

Daniel, earl of Nottingham, lord president. 

Thomas, marquess of Wharton, privy seal. 



Edward, earl of Oxford, admiralty. 

James StanhoiDe, afterwards earl Stanhope, and 

Charles, Viscount Townshend, secretaries of state. 
Sir Richard Onslow, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Dukes of Montrose and Marlborough, lord Berkeley, 

Robt. Walpole, Mr. Pulteney, &,c. 



HALL, principal apartment in mediseval mansions. Westminster and Eltham halls are 
fine examples. See Westminster Hall. 

HALL MARK. See Goldsmiths, and Btan(iarcl. 

HALLELUJAH and AMEN {Praise the Lord, and So he it), expressions used in the 
Hebrew hymns ; said to have been introduced by Haggai, the prophet, about 520 B.C. Their 
introduction into the Christian church is ascribed to St. Jerome, about a.d. 390. 

HALTS, a river (Asia Minor), near which a battle was fought between the Lydians and 
Medes. It was interrupted by an almost total eclipse of the sun, which occasioned a 
conclusion of the war between the two kingdoms, May 28, 585 B.C. (the fourth year of the 
48th Olympiad). Pliny, Nat. Hist. ii. Others give the date 584, 603, and 610 B.C. 
This eclipse is said to have been predicted many years before by Thales of Miletus. 
Herodotus i. 75. 

HAMBURG, a free city, N. W. Germany, founded by Charlemagne, about 809. It 
joined the Hanseatic League in the 13th century, and became a flourishing commercial city. 
Population in i860, 229,941. 



It obtained the title of a free imperial city by 
permission of the dukes of Holstein, 1296; 
was subject to them till 1618 ; purchased its 
total exemption from thoir claims . 

France declared war upon Hamburg for its 
treachery in giving up Napper Tandy (see 
Tandy) Oct. 

British property sequestrated . . March, 

Hamburg taken by the French after the battle 
of Jena, in 

Incorporated with France 

Evacuated by the French on the advance of the 



Russian.? into Germany 1813 

Restored to independence by the allied sove- 
reigns May, 1814 

1768 Awful fire here, which destroyed numerous 
churches and public buildings, and 2000 
houses ; it continued for three daj-s . May 4, 1842 
1799 Half the city inundated by the Elbe . Jan. i, 1855 
A new constitution demanded by the citizens, 

and granted by the senate . . . July, i860 
The new assembly (of 191 members) first met, 

Dec. 6, ,, 
The constitution began . . . Jan. 1, 1861 



HAMPTON-COURT PALACE (Middlesex), built by cardinal Wolsey on the site of the 
manor-hoiise of the knights-hospitallers, and in 1525 presented to Henry VIII.; perhaps the 
most splendid offering ever made by a subject to a sovereign. Here Edward VI. was born, 
Oct. 12, 1537; here his mother, Jane Seymoiu-, died, Oct. 24, following; and here Mary, 
Elizabeth, Charles, and others of our sovereigns, resided. Much was pulled down, and the 
grand inner court built by William III. in 1694, when the gardens, occupying 40 acres, were 
laid out. Here was held, Jan. 14-16, 1604, the conference between the Puritans and the 
clergy of the Established church, which led to a new translation of the Bible. See 
Conference. 

HANAPER OFFICE (of the court of Chancery), where writs relating to the business 
of the subject, and their returns, were anciently kept in hanaperio (in a wicker hamper) ; 
and those relating to the crown, in parva laga (a little bag). Hence the names Hanaper 
and Petty Bag Office. The office was abolished in 1842, 



HAN 



359 



HAN 



HANAU (Hesse-Cassel), where a division of tlie combined armies of Austria and Bavaria, 
of 30,000 men, under general Wrede, encountered tlie French, 70,000 strong, under 
Nai)olc()n I., on their retreat from Leipsic, Oct. 30, 1813. The French suffered very severely, 
though the allies were compelled to retire. 

HANDEL'S COMMEMORATIONS. Theirs;! was held in Westminster abbey, May 26, 
1784; king George III. and queen Charlotte, and above 3000 persons being present. The 
band contained 268 vocal, and 245 instrumental performers, and the receipts of three 
successive days were I2,746Z. These concerts were repeated in 1785, 1786, 1790, and 1791. 



Second great commemoration, in the presence of 
king William IV. and queen Adelaide, when 
there were 644 performers, June 24, 26, and 28, 
1S3/). This oomraemoratiou led to the formation 
of the Sacred Harmonic Society at Exeter Hall. 

This society, in conjunction with the Crystal Palace 
Company, projected the Festival of 1859. 

Grand Rehearsal at the Crystal Palace, June 13, 17, 
19, 1857, and on July 2, 1858. 

Great Handel festival (at the Crystal Palace) 
on the centenary of his death. Performances : 
Messiah, June 20 ; Selections, 22 ; Israel in Egypt, 
24, 1S59, when the prince consort, the king of the 
Belgians, and 26,827 persons were present. There 



were 2765 vocal and 393 instrumental performera 
and the performance was highly successful. The 
receipts amounted to about 33,ooo(., from which 
there were deducted 18,000?. for expenses ; of the 
residue (15,0000, two parts accrued to the Crystal 
Palace Company, and one part to the Sacred Har- 
monic Society. Handel's harpsichord, original 
scores of his oratorios, and other interesting 
relics, were exhibited. 

Handel festival (at the Crystal Palace) : 4000 per- 
formers ; highly successful ; June 23, 25, 27, 
1862. 

Handel festival (at the Crystal Palace) : very suc- 
cessful : June 26, 28, 30, 1865. 



HANDKERCHIEFS, wrought and edged with gold, used to be worn in England by 
gentlemen in their hats, as favours from young ladies, the value of them being from five to 
twelve pence for each in the reign of Elizabeth, 1558. Stow's Chron. Paisley handkerchiefs 
were first made in 1743. 

HANDS, imposition of, was performed by Moses in setting apart his successor Joshua 
{Num. xxvii. 23), and in Christian ordination by the apostles (i Tim. iv. 14). 

HANGING, Drawing, and Quartering, said to have been first inflicted upon William 
Marise, a pirate, a nobleman's sou, 25 Hen. III., 1241. Five gentlemen attached to the 
duke of Gloucester were arraigned and condemned for treason, and at the place of execution 
were hanged, cut down alive instantly, stripped naked, and their bodies marked for quar- 
tering, ami then pardoned, 25 Hen. VI. 1447. Stow. The last execution in this manner in 
England was that of the Cato-street conspirators {which see), May i, 1820. Hanging in 
chains was abolished in 1834. See Death. 

HANGO BAY (Finland). On June 5, 1855, a boat commanded by lieut. Geneste left 
the British steamer Cossack, with a flag of truce to land some Russian prisoners. They were 
11 red on by a body of riflemen, and five were killed, several wounded, and the rest made 
prisoners. The Russian account, asserting the irregularity to have been on the side of the 
English, has not been substantiated. 

HANOVER, a kingdom, formerly an electorate, N. W. Germany. Hanover is composed 
of territories which formerly belonged to the dukes of Brunswick {which see). Population in 
1859, 1,850,000 ; in 1861, 1,888,070. 

Visited by George IV. ... Oct. 1S21 

Ernest, duke of Cumberland, king . June 20, 1837 
He granted a constitution with electoral rights, 
1848 ; which was annulled in obedience to 
the decree of the Federal diet . April 12, 1855 
The king claims from England crown jewels, 
which belonged to George HI. (value about 
i2o,oooi.) ........ 1857 

.'Vrbitration : the jewels given up . . Jan 1858 
The Stade dues given up for compensation, 

June 12, 1861 



Hanover became the ninth electorate . a.d. 1692 
Suffered much during the seven years' war, 1756-63 
Seized by Prussia .... April 3, 1801 
Occupied by the French . . June 5, 1803 

Delivered to Prussia in 1805 

Part of it annexed to Westphalia . . . . 1810 
Kegaiued for England by Beruadotte, Nov. 6, 1813 
Erected into a kingdom . . . Oct. 12, 1814 
The duke of Cambridge appointed lieutenant- 
governor, and a representative government 
established Nov. 18 16 



ELECTORS AND KINGS OF HANOVER. 



1692. Ernest- Augustus, youngest son of George, 
that son of William, duke of Bruuswick- 
Lvnioburg, who obtained by lot the right to 
m.arry (see Brantwick). He became bishop of 
0snal)vu-g in 1662, and in 1679 inherited the 
possessions of his uncle John, duke of Calen- 
berg ; created Ei.kutor of Hanover in 1692. 
[He married, in 1659, the princess Sophia, 
daughter of Frederick, elector palatine, and 
of Elizabeth, the daughter of James I. of 
England. In 1701, Sophia was declared next 



heir to the British crown, after WilUam III., 
Anne and their descendants.] 
George-Lewis, son of the preceding ; married 
his cousin Sophia, the heiress of the duke 
of Brunswick-Zcll. Became king of Great 
Britain, Aug. i, 1714, as Georoe 1. 
George- Augustus, liis son (Georoe II. of 
England), June 11. 
1760. George,- William - Frederick, his grandson 
(George III. of England), Oct. 25. 



1727. 



HAN 3G0 HAR 



HAlSrOVER, continued. 

KINGS OF HANOVER. See Accesswi. 

1814. George-William-Frederick (the preceding so- 
vereign), first king of Hanover, Oct. 12. 

1S20. George-Augustiis-Frederick, his son (George 
IV. of England), Jan. 29. 

1830. William-Henry, his brother (William IV. of 
England), June 26. 
[Hanover separated from the crown of Great 
Britain. ] 



1837. Ernest-Angustus, duke of Cumberland, brotber 
to William IV. of England, on whose demise 
he succeeded (as a distinct inheritance) to 
the throne of Hanover, June 20. 

1851. George V. (born May 27, iSig), son of Ernest : 
ascended the throne on the death of his 
father, Nov. 18. The present (1865) king of 
Hannver. 
Heir : Prince Ernest-Augustus, born Sept. 21, 
1845. 

HANSE TOWNS. The Hanseatic League (from hansa, association), formed by a number 
of port towns in Germany, against the piracies of the Swedes and Danes : began about 
1140 ; the league was signed 1241. At first it consisted only of towns situate on the coasts 
of the Baltic sea, but in 1370 it was composed of sixty-six cities and forty-four confederates. 
They proclaimed war against "Waldeniar, king of Denmark, about the year 1348, and against 
Eric in 1428, with forty ships and 12,000 regular troops, besides seamen. This gave umbrage 
to several princes, who ordered the merchants of their respective kingdoms to withdraw their 
effects. The Thirty years' war in Germany (1618-48) broke \\\) the strength of the association. 
In 1630 the only towns of note of this once powerful league, retaining the name, were Liibeck, 
Hamburg, and Bremen. The league suttered also by the rise of the commerce of the Low 
Countries in the 15th century. The many privileges they enjoyed by treaty in England were 
abolished by Elizabeth in 1578. 

HAPSBURG (or Habsburg), Hoit.se of, the family from which the imperial house of 
Austria .sprang in the 7th century. Hapsburg was an ancient castle of Switzerland, on a 
lofty eminence near Schintznach. Rodolph, count of Hap.sburg, became archduke of Austria, 
and emperor of Germany, 1273. See Austria and Gc7~many. 

HARBOURS. England has many fine natural harbours ; the Thames (harbour, dock, 
and depot), Portsmouth, Plymouth, &c. Acts for the improvement of harbours, &c., were 
passed in 1847, 1861, and 1862. 

HARFLEUR (seaport, N. W. France, was besieged by Henry V., and taken Sept. 
22, 1415. 

HARLAW (Aberdeenshire), the site of a desperate indecisive battle between the earl of 
Mar, with the royal army, and Donald, the lord of the Lsles, July 24, 141 1. This conflict 
was very disastrous to the nobility, some houses losing all their males. 

HARLEL4.N LIBRARY, containing 7000 manuscripts, liought by secretary Harley, after- 
wards earl of Oxford and Mortimer, is now in the British Museum. A large portion of his 
life and wealth was spent on the collection. He died ]\lay 21, 1724. The Harleian 
Miscellany, a selection from the MSS. and T'-acts of his library, was published in 1744 
and 1808. 

HARMONIC STRINGS, said to have been invented by Pythagoras through hearing four 
blacksmiths working with hammers, in harmony, whose weights he found to be ^ix, eight, 
nine, and twelve ; or rather by squares, as thirty-six, sixty-four, eighty-one, and one hundred 
and forty-four. — The Harmonica, or musical glasses, were first "arranged" by an Irish 
gentleman named Puckeridge, and improved by Dr. Franklin in 1760. 

HARMONISTS, a sect, founded in Wiirtemburg by Rapp, about 1780. Not much is 
known of their tenets, but they held their property in common, and considered marriage a 
civil contract. Not finding toleration, they emigrated to America, and built New Harmony 
in Indiana in 1815. Robert Owen purchased this town about 1823 ; but failed in his scheme 
of a "social" community, and returned to England. See Socialists. The Harmonists removed 
to Pittsburg in Pennsylvania in 1822. 

HARMONIUM, a keyed wind instrument, resembling the accordion in the tones being 
generated by the action of' wind upon metallic reeds. The Chinese were well acquainted 
with the effects produced by vibrating tongues of metal. M. Biot stated, in 1810, that they 
were used musically by M. Greni^ ; and in 1827-29, free reed stops were employed in organs 
at Beauvais and Paris. The harmoniums best known in England are those of Alexandre and 
Debain, the latter claiming to be the original maker of the French instrument. In 1841, 
however, Mr. W. E. Evans, of Cheltenham, produced his English harmonium, then termed 
the Organ-Harmonica. By a succession of improvements he has produced a fine instrument, 
with diapason quality, and great rapidity of speech, without loss of power. English 
Cyclopcedia. 



HAR 361 HAS 

HARNESS, the leathern dressings used for horses to draw chariots, and also chariots, 
are said to have been the invention of Ericlitlionius of Athens, who was made a constellation 
after his death, under the name of Bootes, about 1487 B.C. 

HARO, Cry of (Clamcur dellaro), derived from Raoul, or Rollo, ancestor of our Norman 
]irinces of Ent^hmd. Rollo had administered justice with such exactness, that those who had 
injury done them used to call out A Raoul ! This obliged the person who met an adverse party 
in the streets to go before the judge, who decided their differences, at least provisionally. 
Henault. 

HARP. Invented by Jubal, 3875 B.C. {Gai. iv. 21). David played the harp before Saul, 
1063 B.C. I Sam. xvi. 23. The Cimbri, or English Saxons, had this instrument. The cele- 
brated Welsh harp was strung with gut ; and the Irish harp, like the more ancient harps, 
with wiie.* Erard's improved harps were first patented in 1795. 

HARPER'S FERRY (Virginia). See United States, 1859-62. 

HARRISON'S TIME-PIECE. Mr. John Harrison, of Foulby, near Pontefract, was the 
inventor. In 17 14, the government otfered rewards for methods of determining the 
longitude at sea ; Harrison came to London, and ju'oduced his first time-piece in 1735 ; his 
second in 1739 ; his third in 1749 ; and his fourth, which procured him the reward of 20,oooZ. 
offered by the Board of Longitude, a few years after. He obtained 10,000^. of his reward in 
1764, and other sums, more than 24,000^. in all, for further improvements in following years. 

HARROGATE (Yorkshire). The first or old spa in Knaresborough forest was discovered 
by capt. Slingsby in 1571 : a dome was erected over the well at the expense of lord Rosslyn 
in 1786. There are two other chalybeate springs, called the Alum well and the Towit spa. 
The noted sulphureous well was discovered in 1783. The theatre was erected in 1788. The 
Bath hospital was erected by subscription in 1825. 

HARROW-ON-THE-HILL SCHOOL (Middlesexf), founded and endowed by John Lyon 
in 1571. To encovu'age archery, the founder instituted a prize of a silver arrow to be shot 
for annually on the 4th of August ; but the custom has been aboli-shed. Lord Palmerston, 
sir R. Peel, the statesman, and lord Byron, the poet, were educated here. 

HARTLEY COAL MINE (Northumberland). On Jan. 16, 1862, one of the beams at 
the mouth of the ventilating shaft broke, and a mass of iron weighing about 12 tons fell 
down the shaft, destroyed the brattice, divided the shaft, and carried down sufficient timber 
to kill two men who were ascending the shaft, and buried alive 202 persons, men and 
boys. Several days elapsed before the bodies could be removed. Much sympathy was shown 
by the public, from the queen to the humblest classes ; and about 50,000^. were collected on 
behalf of the bereaved families. The coroner's verdict expressed the necessity of there being 
two shafts to coal mines, and recommended that the beams of colliery engines should be of 
malleable instead of cast-iron. 

HARTWELL (Buckinghamshire), the retreat of Louis XVIII., king of France, 1807-14. 
He landed in England at Yarmouth, Oct. 6, 1807, took up his residence at Gosfield hall, 
in Essex, and afterwards came to Hartwell, as the count de Lille. His consort died here in 
1810. On his restoration, lie embai'ked at Dover for France, April 24, 1814.- See France. 

HARUSPICES, priests or soothsayers, of Etruscan origin, who foretold events from 
observing entrails of animals. They were introduced to Rome by Romulus (about 750 B.C.), 
and abolished by Constantine, A.D. 337, at which time they were seventy in number. 

HARVARD COLLEGE (Massachusetts, North America) was founded by the general 
court at Boston, on Oct. 28, 1636. It derived its name from John Harvard, who bequeathed 
to it a library and a sum of money in 1638. 

HASTINGS (Sussex). At Battle, near this place, more than 30,000 were slain in the 
conflict between Harold II. of England and William duke of Normandy, the former losing 
his life and kingdom, Oct. 14, 1066. The day of this battle was also the anniversary of 
Harold's birth. He and his two brothers were interred at Waltham abbey, Essex. 

* One of the most ancient harps existing is that of Bryan Boiroimhe, monarch of Ireland : it was 
given by his son Donagh to Pope John XV II I., together with the crown and other regalia of his father, in 
order to obtain absolution for the murder of his brother Teig. Adrian IV. alleged this as being one of his 
principal titles to the kingdom of Ireland in his bull transferring it to Henry II. ThLs harp was given 
by Leo X. to Henry VIII., who presented it to the first earl of Clanricarde : it then came into possession 
of the family of De Burgh ; next into that of MacMahon of Clenagh, county of Clare ; afterwards into that 
of MacXamara of Limerick ; and was at length deposited by the right hon. William Conyngham in the 
College Museum, Dublin, in 1782. 

t Charles II. cut short some theological discussion relative to the claims for the title of the visible 
church, by declaring that it " was the parish church of HaiTow, which could be seen everywhere." 



HAS 



362 



HAY 



HASTINGS' TRIAL. Warren Hastings,* governor-general of India, was tried by the 
peers of Great Britain for high crimes and misdemeanors. Among other charges was his 
acceptance of a present of 100,000/. from the nabob of Oude (see C'/mnar, Treat}/ of).^ The 
trial lasted seven years and three months ; commencing Feb. 13, 1788, terminating in his 
acquittal, April 25, 1795. Mr. Sheridan's speech on the impeachment excited great 
admiration. 

HATFIELD'S ATTEMPT on the Life of George III. On May 11, 1800, during a 
review in Hyde-park, a shot from an undiscovered hand was fired, which wounded a young 
gentleman who stood near the king. In the evening, when his majesty was at Drury-lane 
theatre, Hatfield fired a pistol at him ; upon his trial he was sentenced to be confined as a 
lunatic during his life. He died Jan. 23, 1841, aged 69 years. 

HATS. See Caps. First made by a Swiss at Paris, 1404. When dearies VII. made g 
his triumphal entry into Rouen, in 1449, he wore a hat lined with red velvet, and surmounted | 
with a rich plume of feathers. Henceforward, hats and caps, at least in France, began to 
take place of chaperons and hoods. Heiumlt. Hats were first manufactured in England by 
Si:)aniards in 15 10. Stoio. Very high-crowned hats were worn by queen Elizabeth's 
courtiers; and high crowns were again introduced in 1783. A stamp-duty laid upon hats 
in 1784, and in 1796, was repealed in 181 1. Silk hats began to supersede beaver 
about 1820. 

HATTERAS EXPEDITION. See United States, 1861. 

HAU-HAU FANATICS. See Neio Zealand, 1865. 

HAVANNAH (capital of Cuba, West Indies). Founded by Velasquez, 151 1 ; was taken 
by lord Albemarle, Aug. 14, 1762 ; restored, 1763 ; the remains of Columbus were brought 
from St. Domingo and deposited in the cathedral here, 1795. 

HAVRE-DE-GRACE (N.W. France) was defended for the Huguenots by the English in 
1562 ; who, however, were expelled in 1563. It was bombarded by Rodney, July 6 to 9, 
1759 ; by sir Richard Strachan, May 25, 1798 ; and blockaded, Sept. 6, 1803. The attempts 
of the British to burn the shipping here failed, Aug. 7, 1804. 

HAWAII. See Owhyhee. 

HAWKERS and Pedlars were first licensed in 1697. Licensing commissioners were 
appointed in 1810. The expense of licensing was reduced in 1862. 

HAYMARKET (Westminster), opened in 1664, was removed to Cumberland-market, 
Jan. I, 1 83 1. The Haymarket theatre was opened in 1702. See Theatres. 

HAYTI, OR Haiti, Indian name of St. [Domingo, a West Indian island, discovered by 
Columbus in Dec. 1492, and named Hispaniola. Before the Spaniards fully conquered it, 
they are said to have destroyed, in battle or cold blood, 3,000,000 of its inhabitants, including 
women and children. General Fabre Gefirard became president of the republic of Hayti, 
Jan. 15, 1859. Population in 1859, about 572,000. 



Hayti seized by the filibusters and Frencli 

buccaneers 1630 

Tiie French government took possession of the 

whole colony 

The negroes revolt against France . Aug. 23, 

And massacre nearly all the whites . 

The French directory recognise Toussaint I'Ou- 

verture as general in-chief 

The eastern part of the island ceded to France 

by Spain 

Toussaint establishes an independent republic 

in St. Domingo .... May 9, 1801 
He surrenders to the French . . May 7, 1802 
And is conducted to France, where he dies . 1803 
A new insurrection, under the command of 

Dessalines ; the French quit the island, Nov. 1803 
Dessalines proclaims the massacre of all the 

whites, March 29 ; crowned -emperor as 

Jacques I Oct. 8, 1804 



1677 
1 791 
1793 



1795 



He is assassinated, and the isle is divided, 

Oct. 17, 1806 

Henry Christophe, a man of colour, president 
in Feb. 1807 ; crowned emperor by the title 
of Henry I., while Pethion rules as president 
at Port-au-Prince .... March, 1811 

Numerous black nobility and prelates created . „ 

Pethion dies, and Boyer is elected president, 

May, 1818 

Christophe commits suicide, Oct. 1820 ; the 
two states tmited under Boyer as regent for 
life, Nov. 1820 ; who is recognised by France 
in 1825 

Revolution : Boyer deposed 1843 

St. Domingo declares itself an independent 
republic, Feb. 1844; recognised by France . 1848 

Hayti proclaimed an empire under its late 
president Solouque, who takes the title of 
Faustin I., Aug. 26, 1849; crowned, April 18, 1852 



* He was boi-n in 1732; went to India as a writer in 1750; became governor-gener.al of Bengal in 
1772 ; of India, 1773; governed ably, but, it is said, imscrupulou.sly and tyrannicallj^ till he resigned in 
1785.' The expenses of his trial (70,000^.) were paid by the East India Company. He died a privy-coun- 
cillor in i8i8. 



HAY 3G3 HEG 



Sixteen persons executed for a conspiracy 
against Gctfrard Oct. 1859 

Great fire at Port-au-Prince ; 600 houses de- 
stroyed Feb. 23, 1865 

President Geffrard compelled to resign, Sept. 2, ,, 
See Domingo. 



HAYTI, continued. 

Fau.stin attacking the republic of St. Domingo 
repulsed Feb. i, 1856 

Revolution in TIayti : general Geffrard pro- 
claimed pre.sideut of the republic of Hayti, 

Dec. 22, 1858 

Faustin abdicates Jan. 1859 

HEAD ACT. See note to article Ireland, 1465. 

HEALTH, General Board of, was appointed by the act for the promotion of the 
pulilic health, passed in 1848. See Sanitary Legislation. This board was reconstnicted in 
Aug. 1854, and sir B. Hall was placed at its head, with a salary of 2000/. ; succeeded by 
"W. F. Cowper, Aug. 1855, and by Ch. B. Adderley in 1858. The expenses for the year 
1856-7 were 12,325^. In 1858 this board was incorporated into the privy council establish- 
ment ; Dr. Simon being retained as medical officer. 

HEARTH, OR CHIMNEY, TAX, on every fire-place or hearth in England was imposed 
by Charles II. in 1662, when it produced about 20o,oooZ. a year. It was abolished by William 
and Mary at the Revolution in 1689 ; but was imposed again, and again abolished. 

HEAT (called by French chemists Caloric). Little progi'ess had been made in the study 
of the phenomena of heat till about 1757, when Joseph Black put forth his theory of latent 
heat (which heat he said was absorbed by melting ice), and of specific heat. Cavendish, 
Lavoisier, and others, continued Black's researches. Sir John Leslie put forth his views on 
radiant heat in 1804. Count Rumford espoused the theory that heat consists in motion 
among the particles of matter, which view he sujiported by experiments on friction (recorded 
in 1802). This theory (now called the dynamical or mechanical theory of heat, and used 
to explain all the phenomena of physics and chemistry; has been further snb.stantiated by 
the independent researches of Dr. J. Ma}'er of Heilbronn and of Mr. Joule of Manchester 
(about 1840), who assert that heat is the equivalent of work done. In 1854, profe.s.sor "Wm. 
Thomson, of Glasgow, published his researches on the dynamical power of the sun's ra3's. 
The minds of philosophers are still engaged on this subject.* See Caloresccnce. Thermo- 
electricitj', produced by heating pieces of copper and bismuth soldered together, was dis- 
covered by Seebeck in 1823. A powerful thermo-electric battery was constructed by Marcus 
of Vienna, in 1865. 

HEBREWS. See Jews. 

HEBRIDES (the Ebudcs of Ptolemy and the Eebudcs of Pliny), Western isles of Scotland, 
long subject to Noi'way ; ceded to Scotland in 1264 ; and annexed to the Scottish crown in 
1540 by James V. 

HEBRON (in Palestine). Here Abraham resided, i860 B.C. ,• and here David was made 
king of Judah, 1048 B.C. On Aj^ril 7, 1862, the prince of Wales visited the reputed cave of 
Machpelah, near Hebron, said to contain the remains of Abraham and his descendants. 

HECATOMB, an ancient sacrifice of a hundred oxen, particularly observed by the Lace- 
demonians when they possessed a hundred cities. The .sacrifice was subsequently reduced 
to twenty-three oxen, and goats and lambs were substituted. 

HECLA, MOUNT. Its first eruption is recorded as having occurred 1004. About 
twenty-two eruptions have taken place, according to Olasson and Paulson. The most 
dreadful and multiplied convulsions of this great volcanic mountain occurred in 1766, since 
when a visit to the top in summer is not attended with great difficidty. For particulars of 
an eriiption in 1784-5, see Iceland. The mount was in a state of \'iolent eruption from 
Sept. 2, 1845, to April, 1846. Three new craters were formed, from which pillars of fire rose 
to the height of 14,000 English feet. The lava formed several hills, and pieces of pumice 
stone and scoriae of 2 cwt. were thrown to a distance of a league .and a half ; the ice and 
snow wliich had covered the mountain for centuries melted into prodigious floods. 

HEGIRA, Era of the, dates from the flight (Arabic liejra) of Mahomet from Mecca to 
Medina, on the night of Thursday, the i5tli July, 622. The era commences on the i6th. 
Some compute this era from the 15th, but Cantemir proves that the i6tli was the first day. 
33 of its lunar years were equal to 32 of those of the vulgar era. 

* Captain Erlcson constructed a ship, in which caloric, or heat, was the motive-power. On Jan. 4, 
1853, it sailed down the bay of New York, at the rate of 14 miles an hour, it is said at a cost of 80 per cent, 
less than steam. Although caloric engines wore not .successful, captain Ericson continued his experi- 
ments, and patented an improved enguie in 1856. 



HEI 364 HEL 

HEIDELBERG (Germany) was capital of the Palatiuate, 1362-1719. The protestant 
electoral house becoming extinct in 1693, a war ensued, in which the castle was ruined, and 
the elector removed his residence of Manheim. It was annexed to Baden in 1802. Here 
Avas the celebrated tun, constructed in 1343, when it contained twenty-one pipes of wine. 
Another was made in 1664 which held 600 hogsheads. It was destroyed by the French in 
1688 ; but a larger one, fabricated in 1690, wliich held 800 hogsheads, and was formerly kept 
full of the best Rhenish wine, is now mouldering in a damp vault, quite empty. 

HELDER POINT (Holland). The fort and the Dutch fleet lying in the Texel surrendered 
to the British under the duke of York and sir Ralph Abercrombie, for the piince of Orange ; 
540 British were killed, Aug. 30, 1799. The place was left in Oct. See Bergen. 

HELEN, a Grecian princess, according to mythology, daughter of Jupiter and Leda, and 
sister of Castor and Pollux. She was demanded in marriage b}' several Greek princes. She 
chose Menelaus, king of Sparta ; but eloped from him with Paris, son of Priam, king of 
Troy. This led to the Trojan war, which lasted 1193 to 1183 B.C. 

HELENA, St. (an island in the South Atlantic Ocean), was discovered by the Portuguese 
under Juan de Nova Castilla, on the festival of St. Helena, May 21, 1502. The Dutch 
afterwards held it until 1600, when they were expelled by the English. The British East 
India Company settled here in 165 1 ; and the island was alternately possessed by the English 
and Dutch until 1673, when Charles II., on Dec. 12, assigned it to the comjiany once more. 
St. Helena was made the place of Napoleon's captivity, Oct. 16, 1815 ; and of his death, 
May 5, 1821. His remains were removed in 1840, and interred at the Hotel des Invalides, 
Paris. See France, 1840. The house and tomb have been purchased by the French 
government. 

HELIGOLAND, an island in 'the North Sea, taken from the Danes by the Briti.sh, 
Sept. 5, 1807 ; made a depot for British merchandise ; confirmed to England by the treaty 
of Kiel, Jan. 14, 1814. Though a mere rock, it is an important possession. 

HELIOGRAPHY (from hclios, the sun). See Photography. 

HELIOMETER, &c., an instrument for measuring the diameters of the sun, moon, 
planets, and stars, invented by Savary, in 1743 ; applied by M. Bouguer, in 1747. 

HELIOSCOPE (a peculiar sort of telescope, prepared for observing the sun so as not to 
affect the eye), was invented by Christopher Scheiner in 1625. 

HELIOSTAT, an instrument invented to make a sunbeam stationary, or apparently 
stationary, invented by Gravesande about 1719, and greatly improved by Mains and others. 
One constructed by MM. Foucault and Duboscq, was exhibited at Paris in October, 1862. 

HELLAS, in Thessaly, the home of the Hellenes and the Greek race, which supplanted the 
Pelasgians from the 15th to the nth century B.C., derived their name from Helen, king of 
Phthiotis, about 1600 B.C. They separated into the Dorians, ^Eolians, lonians, and Achaians. 
The present king of Greece is called ' ' king of the Hellenes. " See Greece. 

HELLESPONT, a narrow arm of the sea betwixt Europe on the west, Asia on the east, 
the Propontis, or Sea of Marmora, northward, and the ^gean Sea, now the Archipelago, 
southward. The present name is the Strait of the Dardanelles. The Hellespont took its 
original name from Helle, daughter of Athamas, king of Thebes, who was drowned here. It 
is celebrated for the loves of Hero of Sestus, and Leander of Abydos : Leander was 
drowned in a tempestuous night as he attempted to .swim across the Hellespont, and Hero, 
in desjiair, threw herself into the sea, 627 B.C. See Xerxes. 

HELL-FIRE CLUBS. Three of these associations Avhich existed for some time, were 
suppressed by an order in council, 1721. They met at Somerset-house, and at houses in 
Westminster, and in Conduit-street. 

HELMETS, among the Romans, were provided with a vizor of grated bars, to raise above 
the eyes, and beaver to lower for eating ; the helmet of the Greeks was round, that of the 
Romans square. Richard I. of England wore a plain round helmet ; but most of the English 
kings had crowns above their helmets. Alexander III. of Scotland, 1249, had aflat helmet, 
with a square grated vizor, and the helmet of Robert 1. was surmounted by a crown, 1306. 
Gwillini. 

HELOTS, cajitives, derived by some from the Greek helein, to take ; by others from 
Helos, a city which the Spartans hated for refusing to pay tribute, 883 B.C. The Spartans, 
it is said, ruined the city, and reduced the Helots to slavery ; and called all their slaves and 



HEL 365 HER 

the prisoners of war, Helotce. The number of the Helots was much enlarged by the conquest 
of Messenia, 668 B.C., and is considered to have been four-tifths ot the inhabitants of Sparta. 
In the Pehiponnesian war the Helots behaved with uiconnnou ])ravery, and were rewarded 
with tlieir libert)', 431 B.C. ; but the sudden disai)])earance of 2000 manumitted slaves was 
attributed to the Lacedemonian treachery. Herodotus. 

HELVETIAN REPUBLIC. Switzerlaml havinp; been conquered by the French in 1797, 
a republic was established in 1798 with this title. See Sivitzcrland. 

HELYETII, a Celto-Germanic people, who inhabited what is now called Switzerland. 
Invading Gaul, 61 B.C., they were opposed and beaten by Julius Ciesar, 58 B.C., near Geneva. 

HEMP AND FLAX. Flax was first planted in England, when it was directed to be sown 
for hshing-nets, 1533. "Bounties were paid to encourage its cultivation in 1783 ; and every 
exertion should be made by the government and legislature to accomplish such a national 
good. In 1785 there were imported from Russia, in British ships, 17,695 tons of hemp and 
flax." Sir John Sinclair. The annual importation of these articles now amounts to about 
100,000 tons. The cultivation of flax was revived at the dearth of cotttni dui'ing the 
American civil war, 1861-4. More than 180,000 lbs. of rough hemp were used in the cordage 
of a first-rate man-of-war, including rigging and sails. 

HEPTARCHY * (or government of seven kings) in England was gradually formed from 
455, when Hengist became the king of Kent. It terminated in 828, when Egbert became 
sole monarch of England. See Britain and Octarchy. 

HERACLIDjE, descendants of Hercules, who were expelled from the Peloponnesus about 
1200 B.C., but reconquered it in 1 103-4 or 1109 B.C., a noted epoch in chronology, all the 
history preceding being accounted fabulous. 

HERALDRY. Marks of honour were used in the first ages. Nishef. The Phrygians 
had a sow ; the Thracians, Mars ; the Romans, an eagle ; the Goths, a bear ; the Flemings, a 
bull ; the Saxons, a horse ; and the ancient French, a lion, and afterwards the fleur-de-lis 
{which see). Heraldry, as an art, is ascribed first to Charlemagne, about 800 ; and next to 
Frederick Barbarossa, about 1152 ; it began and grew with the feudal law. Mackenzie. The 
threat English works on heraldry are those of Barcham or Barkham, published by Gwillim 
'1610), and Edmondson (1780). 

heralds' COLLEGE. 
Edward III. appointed two heraldic kings-at- I This college has an earl marshal, 3 kings of 



arms for the south and north (Surroy, Norroy) 1340 
Richard III. incorporated and endowed the 

college ...•■•.. 1484 
Philip and Mary enlarged its privileges, and 

confirmed them by letters patent . July 15, 1554 
Formerly, in many ceremonies, the herald re- 
presented the king's pei-son, and therefore 
wore a crown, and was always a knight. 



arms (Garter, Clarencieux, and Norroy), 
6 heralds (Richmond, Lancaster, Chester, 
Windsor, Somerset, and York), 4 pursuivants, 
and 2 extra heralds. See Earl Marshal, and 
Khipa-at-A'nns. 
The building in Doctors' Commons, London, 
was erected by sir Christopher Wren, after 
the great fire in 1666 1683 



HERAT, on the confines of Khorasan, a strong city called the key of Afghanistan, 
capital of a state formed by Shah Mahmoud, in 181 8. Population in 1830, 100,000. The 
Persians were bafiled in an attempt to take it in 1838 ; but took it Oct. 25, 1856, in violation 
of a treaty made in 1853. In consequence, war ensued between Great Britain and Persia. 
Peace was made in April, 1857 (see Persia). Herat was restored July 27 following. See 
Afghanistan. 

HERCULANEUM, an ancient city of Campania, overwhelmed, together with Pompeii, 
by an eniption of lava from Vesuviu.s, Aug. 23 or 24, 79. Successive eruptions laid them 
still deeper imder the surface, and all traces of them were lost until excavations began in 
171 1 ; in 1713 many antiquities were found. In 1738 excavations were resumed, and 
works of art and monuments and memorials of civilised life, were discovered. 150 volumes 
of MSS. were found in a chest, in 1754; and many antiquities were purchased by sir 
William Hamilton, and sold to the British Museum, where they are deposited ; but the 
principal relics are preserved in the museum of Portici. The " Antichita di Ercolano," 
8 vols, folio, were published by the Neapolitan government, 1757-92. 

* There were at first nine or ten Saxon kingdoms, but Middlesex soon ceased to exist, and Bernicia 
and Deira were generally governed by one ruler, as Xorthumborlaud. 



HEll 



86i 



HER 



HEREFORD was made the seat of a bishopric about 676, Putta being first bishop. 
The cathedral was founded by a nobleman named Milfride, in honour of Ethelbert, king of 
the East Saxons, who was treacherously slain by his intended mother-in-law, the queen of 
Mercia. The tower fell in 1786, and was rebuilt by Mr. Wyatt. The cathedral was 
reopened after very extensive repairs, on June 30, 1862. The see is valued in the king's 
books at 768^. 2)67- annum. Present income, 4200Z. 



RECENT BISHOPS OF HEREFORD, 
Cornwall, translated to Wor 



1803. Folliott H. W. 
cester, 1808. 

1808. John Luxmoore, translated to St. Asaph, 1815. 
1815. George Isaac Huntingford, died April 29, 1832. 



1832. Hon. Edward Grey, died June 24, 1837. 

1837. Thomas Musgrave, translated to York, Dec. 

1847. 
1847. Eenn D. Hampden (the present bishop, 1865). 



HEREIIA (Arragoia). Here don Carlos, of Spain, in his struggle for his hereditary right 
to the throne of that kingdom, at the head of 12,000 men, encountered and defeated general 
Buerens, who had not much above half that number of the queen of Spain's troops. Buerens 
lost about 1000 in killed and wounded, Aug. 24, 1837. 

HERETICS (from the Greek hairesis, choice). Paul says, "After the way they call 
heresy, so worshij) I the God of my fathers," 60 {Acts xxiv. 14). Heresy was unknown to 
the Greek and Roman religions. Simon Magus is said to have broached the Gnostic heresy 
about 41. This was followed by the Manichees, Nestorians, Arians, &c. Formerly the term 
heresy denoted a particular sect ; now, heretics are those who propagate their private opinions 
in opposition to the Roman Catholic Church. Burnet. See Inquisition, 



Thirty heretics came from Germany to England 
to propagate their opinions, and were branded 
in the forehead, whipped, and thrust naked 
into the streets in the depth of winter, where, 
none daring to reheve them, they died of 
hunger and cold (S^;eed) 1160 



Certain laws against heretics were repealed, 
25 Hen. VIII 1534-S 

The last person executed for heresy in Britain 
was Thomas Aikenhead, at Edinburgh . . i6g6 

[The orthodox Mahommedans are Sonnites ; the 
heretics are Shiites, Druses, &c.] 



HERITABLE JURISDICTIONS (^.c, feudal rights) in Scotland, valued at 164,232?., were 
bought up in 1747 (20 Geo. II. c. 43) and restored to the crown. — Heritable and Movable 
Rights, in the Scottisli law, denote what in England is meant by real and personal property; 
real projierty in England answering nearly to the heritable rights in Scotland, and personal 
property to the movable rights. 

HERMANDAD (Spanish for brotherhood), associations of the chief cities of Castile and 
Arragon for the defence of their liberties in times of trouble ; began about the middle of the 
13th century. The brotherhood was disorganised in 1498, public order having been firmly 
established. 

HERMAS, author of "the Shepherd," a Christian apocryphal book, supposed to have 
been written about 131. Some believe Hermas to be mentioned in Romans xvi. 14. 

HERMITS. See Monachism. HERO, British Man-of-War. See Wrecks, i8i i. 

HERRING-FISHERY was largely encouraged by the English and Scotch so early as the 
8th century. The herring statute was pas.sed in 1357. The mode of preserving henings by 
pickling was discovered about 1397. Anderson. The British Herring-Fishery company 
was instituted Sept. 2, 1750.. A scientific commission in relation to the fishery was appointed 
in 1862 

HERRINGS, Battle of the, fought Feb. 12, 1429, when the English were besieging 
Orleans, obtained its name from the due de Bourbon attempting to intercept a convoy of salt 
fish, on the road to the English camp before Orleans ; he was beaten. 

HERSCHEL TELESCOPE. Sir Wm. Herschel's seven, ten, and twenty-feet reflectors 
were made about 1799. He discovered the planet Uranus {which see), March 21, 1781, and 
a volcanic mountain in the moon, in 1783 ; and about this time laid the plan of his great 
forty-feet telescope, which he completed in 1789, when he discovered two other volcanic 
mountains. In 1802, by means of his telescopes, he was enabled to lay before the Royal 
Society a catalogue of 5000 nebulae and clusters of stars. The great telescope was taken 
down in 1822, and one of 20 feet focal length erected by sir John Herschel, who afterwards 
took it to the Cape of Good Hope and with it made his observations. 

HERULI, a German tribe, which ravaged Greece and Asia Minor in the 3rd century after 
Christ. Odoacer, their leader, overwhelmed the western empire and became king of Italy, 
476. He was defeated and put to death by Theoduric the Ostrogotli, 491-3. 



HER 



867 



HIB 



llERZ EGO VINA, a province of European Turkey, N. of Montenegro. In Dec. 1861, 
an insurrection against the Turks broke out, fostered by the prince of Montenegro. It was 
subdued ; and on Sept. 23, 1862, Vucalovitch, chief of the insurgents, surrendered on behalf 
of his countrymen to Kurschid Pasha, and an amnesty was granted. 

HESSE (W. Germany), the seat of the Catti, formed part of the empire of Charlemagne ; 
from the rulers of it in liis time, tlie present are descended. It was joined to Thuringia till 
about 1263, when Henry 1. (son of a duke of Brabant and Sophia, daughter of the landgi-ave 
of Thuringia) beca.ue landgrave of Hesse. The most remarkable of his successors was 
Philip the Magnanimous (1509), an eminent warrior and energetic supporter of the Refor- 
mation, wlio signed the Augsburg Confession in 1530 and the League of Smalcald in 1531. 
At liis death, in 1567, Hesse was divided into Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Darmstadt, under 
his sons AVilliam and George. Their descendants played an eminent part in the convulsions 
of Germany during the 17th and 18th century.* In 1803, Hesse-Cassel became an electorate, 
and in 1806 Hesse-Darmstadt a gi-and duchy ; which titles were retained in 18 14. In 1806 
Hesse-Cassel was incorporated with the kingdom of Westphalia, but in 1814 the electorate 
was re-established. 

Hesse-Cassel. (Population, Dec. 1861, 738,476.) Hesse-Darmstadt. (Population, Dec. 1861, 856,907). 

1847. The elector Frederic- William l.,t Nov. 20 1848. The grand-duke Louis III., June 16 (born 
(born Aug. 20, 1802). June g, 1806). 

Heir : his son, Augustus, bom Sept. 21, 1859. Heir : his brother Charles (born April 23, 1809), 

whose son Louis married the princess Alice, 
of England, July i, 1862. 
Jssue : Victoria- Alberta, born April 5, 1863 ; 
and another princess, Nov. i, 1864. 

HESSE-HOMBURG, a landgraviate, established in the person of Frederic, son of George 
of Hesse-Darmstadt, in 1596. His descendant, Augustus Frederic, married May 7, 1818, 
Elizabeth, daughter of George III. of England, who had no issue. The landgraviate was 
absorbed into the grand duchy of Hesse in 1806, but re-established in 1815 with additional 
territories. The landgrave Ferdinand (born April 26, 1783) succeeded his brother, Sept. 8, 

1848. Population (Dec. i86i), 26,817. 

HETEROGENY. See Spontaneous Generation, 
HEWLEY'S CHARITY. See Unitaricms. 

H EX AMETER, six measures or feet, each containing two long syllables (a spondee), or a 
long one and two short (a dactyl), the form of verse in which Homer wrote his Iliad and 
Odyssey. 

HEXHAM (Northumberland). The see of Hexham was founded in the infancy of the 
Saxon church ; it had ten bishops successively, but by reason of the spoil and rapine of the 
Danes, it was discontinued ; the last prelate, appointed 810. The Battle of Hexham, in 
which the Yorkist army of Edward IV. obtained a complete victory over the Lancastrian 
army of Henry VI. was fought May 15, 1464. 

HIBERNIA, Ibernia, Ivernia, and lerne, a name given to Ireland by classical writers 
(Aristotle, Ptolemy, &c.). See Ireland. The ship Hibernia, captain Brenn, bound from 



* Six thousand Hessian troops"arrived in England, in consequence of an invasion being expected in 
1756. The sum of 47 1, coot, throe per cent, stock was transferi-ed to the landgrave of Hesse, for Hessian 
auxiliaries lost in tiic American war, at 30?. per man, Nov. 1786. The Hessian soldiers were again brought 
to this realm at the close of the last century, and served in Ireland during the rebellion in 1798. 

t The elector of Hesse had, in 1850, remodelled the constitution given to his people in 1831 (by which 
the chamber had the exclusive right of voting the taxes), and did not convene the chamber until the 
usual time for cIo.sing the session had arrived, when his demand for money for the ensuing year, 1851, was 
laid before it. The chamljcr called, unanimously, for a regular budget, that it might examine into, and 
discuss, its items. The elector dissolved the chamljer, and declared the whole of his dominions in a state 
of siege and subject to martial law, Sept. 7, 1850. In the end he was obliged to flee to Hanover, and subse- 
quently to Frankfort; and on Oct. 14, he formally applied to the Frankfort diet for assistance to re-establish 
his authority in Hesse. On Nov. 6 following, an xVustro- Bavarian force of 10,000 men, with 20 pieces of 
artilleiy, entered Hesse-Cassel, under the command of prince Thurn-und-Taxis, who fixed his head- 
quarters in Hanau ; and on the next day a Prussian force entered Cassel. The elector returned to his 
capital, Dec. 27, 1850, the taxes having been previously collected under threats of imprisonment. The 
Austro- Bavarian and Prussian troops afterwards evacuated the electorate. In 1852, the con.stitution of 1831 
was abolished, and a new one estabhshed. — The elector and his chamber are stiU in a state of disagree- 
ment. Although the Germau federal diet affirmed the constitution of 1852, on March 14, i860, the elector 
granted a new one on May 30. This, however, did not give satisfaction. Further contests ensued. In 
May, 1862, there was danger of an armed Prussian mtervention, the king having been insulted by tlio 
Hesse ministry. In June a new ministry was formed, aud the legislative chambers assembled on Oct ^7. 



HIE 368 HIP 

Liverpool to New South Wales, with 232 persons on board, of whom 208 were passengers 
going out as settlers, was destroyed at sea by fire, kindled through the negligence of the 
second mate, — in W. long. 22° and S. lat. 4°. 150 lives were lost through the insufficiency 
of the boats to contain more than a third of the people on board : Feb. 15, 1833. 

HIEROGLYPHICS (sacred engravings), picture-writing, the expression of ideas by 
representation of visible objects, used chiefly by the Egyptians ; said to have been invented 
by Aihotes, 21 12 B.C. Usher. Young, ChampoUion, Kosellini, and others (in the present 
century), have done much to elucidate Egyptian hieroglyphics. See Roseita Stone. 

HIGH AND LOW CHURCH. These sections in the Church of England began in the 
reign of Anne, and still continue. Dr. Sacheverel, preacher at St. Saviour's, Southwark, 
was prosecuted for two seditious sermons (preached Aug. 14, and Nov. 9, 1709), to rouse 
the apprehensions of the people for the safety of the church, and to excite hostility against 
tlie dissenters. His friends were called High Church and his opponents Low Church, or 
moderate men, 1720. The queen, who favoured Sacheverel, presented him with the valuable 
rectory of St. Andrew's, Holborn. He died in 1724. 

HIGH COMMISSION, Court of, an ecclesiastical court, erected by i Eliz. c. i., 1559, 
by which all spiritual jurisdiction was vested in the crown. It originally had no power to fine 
or imprison ; but under Charles I. and archbishop Laud it assumed illegal powers, was 
complained of by the parliament, and was abolished in 1641. 

HIGHLANDS (of Scotland), long held by semi-barbarous clans, were greatly improved 
by the construction of military roads by general Wade, about 1725-6 ; and by the abolition 
of heritable jurisdiction of feudal rights in 1748, and by the establishment of the Highland 
and Agricultural Society in 1784. See Regiments. 

HIGHNESS. The title of Highness was given to Henry VII.; and this, and sometimes 
Your Grace was the manner of addressing Henry VIII. ; but about the close of the reign of 
the latter-mentioned king, the title of " Highness " and " Your Grace " were absorbed in 
that of "Majesty." Louis XIII. of France gave the title of Highness to the prince of 
Orange, in 1644 ; this prince had previously only the distinction of Excellency. Henavlt. 
Louis XIV. gave the princes of Orange the title of High and Mighty Lords, 1644. Idem. 

HIGH PRIEST. See Priest. 

HIGH TREASON. In regulating the trials for this was enacted the statute, so favourable 
to liberty, the 25th of Edward III., 1352, by which two living witnesses are required : it 
arose in the refusal of parliament to sanction the sentence of death against the duke of 
Somerset. By the 40th Geo. III., 1800, it was enacted that where there was a trial for high 
treason in v;hich the overt act was a direct attempt upon the life of the sovereign, such trial 
should be conducted in the same manner as in the case of an indictment for murder.* 

HIGHWAYS. See Jtoads. 

HIMERA (Sicily), Here (in 480 B.C.) Theron and Gclon of Agrigentum defeated the 
Carthaginians ; and here the latter defeated Agathocles of Syracuse, 310 B.C. 

HINDOO ERA (see Cali-yuga) began 3101 B.C., or 756 before the Deluge, in 2348. 
The Hindoos count their months by the progress of the sun through the zodiac. The Samoat 
era begins 56 B.C. ; the Saca era a.d. 79. 

HIPPOPOTAMUS (Greek, river-horse), a native of Africa, known to, but incorrectly 
described by ancient writers. Hippopotami were exhibited at Rome by Antoninus Com- 
modus and others, about 138, 180, and 218. The first brought to England arrived May 25, 
1850, and is now in the Zoological Gardens, Regent's-park, London ; another, a female, four 
months old, was placed there in 1854. Two young ones born at Paris in Maj^, 1858, and 
June, 1859, were killed by their mother. One born at Amsterdam, July 29, 1865, was living 
in September. 

* The last two cases of persons executed for high treason were, ist, William Cundell, aHas Connell, 
and John Smith. They were tried on a special commission, Feb. 6, 1812, being two of fourteen British 
subjects taken in the enemy's service in the Isles of France and Bourbon. Mr. Abbot, afterwards lord 
Tonterden and chief justice, and sir Vicary Gibbs, attorney-general, conducted the prosecution, and Mr. 
Brough.im, now lord Brougham, defended the prisoners. The defence was, that they (the prisoners) had 
assumed the French uniform for the purpose of aiding their escape to England. Tbe two above-men- 
tioned were hanged and beheaded on the lodge of Horsemonger-lane gaol on March 16, 1812. All the 
other convicts were pardoned upon condition of serving in colonies beyond the seas. 2nd, the Cato Street 
Conspirators (which see), May 1, 1820. 



HIP 



369 



HOL 



HIPPODROME, a circus for liorse-iiding. One opened by Mr. John AV'hyte, near 
Nottinif-liill, London, on May 29, 1S37, was closed in 1841 by the Kensington vestry. 

HISPANIA, Latin name of Spain. HISPANIOLA. See Ilcujti. 

HISTOLOGY (from histof, a web), the science which treats of the tissues which enter 
into the formation of animals and vegetables ; mainly prosecuted by the aid of the micro- 
scope. Sclnvann, Valentin, KoUiker, and Robin are celebrated for their researches. Professor 
Quekett's Lectures on Histology were published in 1852 and 1854. 

HISTORY. The Bible, the Parian Chronicle, the histories of Herodotus and Ctesias, 
and the poems of Homer, are the foundations of eavly ancient history. Later ancient history 
is considered as ending wiUi the destruction of the Roman empire in Italj^, 476 ; and 
modern history dates from the age of Cliarlemagne, about 800. There was not a professor- 
ship of modern history in either of our universities until the years 1724 and 1736, when 
Regius professorships were established by George I. and George II. 

HOBART TOWiSr, or Hobartox, a sea-port and capital of Van Diemen's Land, was 
founded in 1804 by col. Collins, the first lieutenant-governor, who died here in 1810. 

HOCHKIRCHEN (Saxony), where, on Oct. 14, 1758, tlie Prussian army, commanded by 
Frederick II., was surprised and defeated by the Austrians commanded by count Daun. 
Marshal Keith, a Scotsman, in the Prussian service, was killed. The Austrian generals shed 
tears, and ordered his interment with military honours. 

HOCHSTADT, a city on the Danube, in Bavaria, near which several important battles 
have been fought : (i.) Sept. 20, 1703, when the Imperialists were defeated by the French 
and Bavarians, under marshal Villars and the elector of Bavaria. (2.) Aug. 13, 1704, called 
the battle of Blenheim (which sec). (3.) June 19, 1800, when Moreau totally defeated the 
Austrians, and avenged the defeat of the French at Blenheim, 

HOGUE. See La Ilocjue. 

HOHENLINDEN (Bavaria), Battle of, Dec. 3, 1800, between the Austrians com- 
manded by archduke John, and the French commanded by general Moreau. The 
Imperialists were defeated with great loss in this hard-fought battle, their killed and wounded 
amounting to 10,000 men, and tlieir loss in prisoners to 10,000 more. The forces opposed 
were nearly equal in numbers. The peace of Luneville followed. 

HOHENSTAUFEN. See Gcnnany and Guelfs. HOHENZOLLERN". See Prussia. 

HOLLAXD {Holloio land, or, some say. Wooded land), a kingdom, N.W. Europe, the 
chief part of the northern Netherlands, is composed of land rescued from the sea, and 
defended by immense dykes. It was inhabited by the Batavi in the time of Caisar, who 
made a league with them. It became part of Gallia Belgica, and afterwards of the kingdom 
of Austrasia. From the loth to tlie I5tli century it was governed by counts under the^ 
German emperors. In 1861, the population of the "kingdom in Europe was 3,521,416; of 
the colonies, 18,175,910; of both in 1S63, 21,805,607. 



Thierry (or Dieterich) I. , first count . . . 936 

The parties termed Hooks, (followers of Margaret 
countess of Holland,) and Codfish, (supporters 
of her son William, who endeavoured to 
supplant her,) create a civil war, which lasts 
many years 1347 

Holland united to Hainault, 1299 ; and Brabant, 
1416 ; annexed to Burgundy by duke Philip, 
who wrests it from his niece Jaqueline, of 
Holland, daughter of the last count, 1436; 
annexed to Austria through the marriage of 
Mary of Burgundy with the archduke Maxi- 
milian 1477 

Government of Philip of Austria, 1495 ; of 
Margaret of Austria and Charles V., 1506 ; 
of Philip II ISS5 

Philip II. establishes the Inquisition ; the Hol- 
landers having zealously embraced the re- 
formed doctrines : the Confederacy of Gueux 
(Beggars) formed by the nobles against it . 1566 

Commencement of the revolt under \Villiam, 
prince of Orange 1572 

The pacification of Ghent— union of the north 
and south ijroviuces 157S 



The seven northern provinces contract the 

league of Utrecht . . .... 1579 

And declare their independence . Sept. 29, 1580 
Assassination of William of Orange . July 10 

(June 30), 1584 
The ten southern provinces conquered by the 

prince of Parma ...... 1585 

The- provinces solicit help from England and 

France ; expedition of the e irl of Leicester ; 

Enghsh and Dvitch disagree . . . 1585-7 

Battle of Zutphea— sir Philip Sidney killed, 

SeiJt. 22, 1586 
Prince Maurice appointed stadtholder . . . 1587 
Death of Philip II. His .son Philip III. cedes 

the Netherlands to Albert of Austria, and 

the infanta Isabella 1598 

Campaigns of Maurice and Spinola . 1599-1604 
Maurice defeats the archduke at Nieuport July 2, 1600 
The independence of the United Provinces 

recognised ; truce for twelve years April 9 

(March 30), 1609 

Batavia in Java built 1610 

Fierce religious dissensions between the Arnii- 

uiaus and Gomarists i5io-ig 

B B 



HOL 



370 



HOL 



HOLLAND, continued. 

3Iaurice favours the latter and intrigiies for 

royal power 1616 

Synod of Dort ; persecution of the Arrainians, 1618-19 
Execution of the illustrious Barneveldt, May 13, 1619 
Henewal of the war ; Maurice saves Bergen-op- 

Zooni 1622 

His tyrannical government ; plot against him ; 

sixteen persons executed .... 1623 
His death ; his brother Frederick succeeds him 

and annuls the persecution . . . . 1625 
Manhattan, now New York. North America, 
. founded ; massacre of English at Amboyna, 

East Indies 1624 

Victories of Van Tromp, who takes two Spanish 

fleets off the Downs . Sept. 16 and Oct. 21, 1639 
Peace of Westjihalia, the republic recognised 

by Europe 

War with England — naval actions — Bl.ake de- 
feats De Ruyter, Oct. 22 ; hut is surprised by 
Van Tromp, who takes some English ships 
and sails through the channel with a broona 
at his mast-head .... Nov. 29, 1652 
Indecisive sea-fights, June 12-14 ; death of Van 
Tromp, July 21 ; peace follows . . . . 
Victorious war with Sweden .... 

Another war with England 

Indecisive sea-fights, June 1-4 ; victory of Monk 

over De Ruyter .... July 25, 

Triple alliance of England, Holland, and 

Sweden against France 

Charles II. basely deseits Holland, and unites 
with France ....... 

The French oven-un Holland 

Desiserate condition of the States — the popu- 
lace massacre the De Witts — William 111. 

made stadtholder 1672 

The French repelled by the sluices being opened , , 

Indecisive campaigns ..... 1673-7 

William marries i^rincess Mary of England . 1677 

Peace with France (Nimeguen) ... 

William becomes king of England . 

Sanguinary war with France 

Peace of Rvswick signed . . Sept, 

Death of William March 8, 

No stadtholder appointed — administration (>f 

Heinsius 

War against France and Spain ; campaigns of 
Marlborough ....... 1702-13 

Peace of Utrecht .... March 30, 1714 

Holland supports the empress Maria-Theresa 1743-8 
Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle .... Oct. 1748 

War with England for naval supremacy — Hol- 
land loses colonies ..... 1781-4 

Civil wars in tbe Low Countries. . . 1787-9 
The French republican army march into Hol- 
land ; the people declare in their favour . . 1793 



1648 



1653 
1659 
1665 

1666 

1668 

1670 
1671 



. 1678 

. 1689 

1689-96 

1697 

1702 

1702 



Unsuccessful campaign of the duke of York. . 1794 
The Batavian republic established in -alliance 

with France 1795 

Battle of Camjierdown, Duncan signally defeats 

the Dutch Oct. 11, 1797 

The Texel fleet, of twelve ships of the line, 

with thirteen Indiamen, sun-enders to the 

British admiral, Duncan, withotit firing a gmi, 

Aug. 28, 1799. 
A new constitution is given to the Batavian 

republic ; the chief officer (R. J. Schimmel- 

pennhick) takes the title of Gr.md Pen- 
sionary April 26, 1S05 

Holland erected into a kingdom, and Louis 

Bonaparte decl.ared king . . . Junes, 1806 
The ill-fated Walcheren expedition . . . 1S09 
Louis abdicates .... July i, 1810 
Holland united to France . . . July 9, ,, 
Restored to the house of Orange, and Belgium 

annexed to its dominions . . Nov. 17, 1813 
The prince of Orange proclaimed sovei-eign 

prince of the united Netherlands . Dec. 6, „ 
Religious discord between Holland and the 

southern provinces 1817, &c. 

The revohition in Belgium . . Aug. 25, 1830' 
Belgium separated from Holland . July 12, 1S31 
Holland makes war .against Belgium Aug. 3, „ 
Treaty between Holland and Belgium, signed 

in London April 19, 1839 

Abdication of William I. . . . Oct. 7-10, 184a 
Death of the ex-king William I. . Dec. 12, 1844 

Louis Bonap.arte, count de St. Leu, ex-king of 

Holland, dies of apoplexj' at Leghorn, July 25, 1846 
The king agrees to ijolitical reform, March ; a 

new constitution granted . . April 17, 1848 
Death of Williana II. . . . March 17, 1849. 
Re-establishment of a Roman Catholic hier- 
archy announced .... Jlarch 12, 1853 
Great inundations : 40,000 acres .'iubmerged 

and nearly 30,000 villagers made destitute, 

Jan. and Fob. 18G1 
Great fire at Endschede, the Manchester of 

Holland, loss about a million pounds, May 7, 1S62 
The states-general pass a law for the abohtion 

of slavery in the Dutch West Indies, Aug. 6, ,, 

[To commence July i, 1863.] 
Treaty for capitalising the Scheldt dues signed, 

May 12, 1863 
Slavery ceases in the Dutch West Indies July i, „ 
50th anniversary of the deliverance from the 

French kept Nov. 17, ,, 

Commencement of canal to connect Amsterdam 

with the North sea . . . March 8, 1865 

The government undertake a canal to connect 

Rotterdam with the sea . . . March ,, 



PRINCES OF ORANGE (see Orcmgc) STADXnOLDERS. 



1502. 
1530- 
1544- 



15 



Philibert de Chalons. 
R^ud de Nassau, his nephew. 
William of Nassau, styled the Great, cousin to 
R(5n^, recovers the jjrincijjality of Orange in 
1559. Numinated stadtholder in 1579 ; 
killed by an assassin hired by Philip IL of 
Spain, July 10, 1584. 
Philip-Willi.am, his son ; stolen away from the 
universitv of Louvain ; the Dutch would 
never suffer him to reside in their provinces : 
died in 161 8. 
i5i8. Maurice, the renowned general ; became 
STADTHOLDER in 1587 ; he was a younger son 
of William by a second marriage. 
1625. Frederick-Henry (Ijrother) stadtholder. 
1647. W^illiam II., stadtholdkr : married Mary, 
daughter of Charles I. of England, by whom 
he had a son, who succeeded in 1672. 



[1630-72. The States govern without a stadtholder ] 

1660. William-Henry : stadtholder in 1672 ; mar- 
ried Mary, eldest daughter of James II. of 
England, 1677. 

1702-47. No stadtholder. 

1702. John- William, nephew of William III., loses- 
the principahty of Orange, which is annexed 
to France. 

1747. William-Henry becomes hereditary stadt- 
holder. He married princess Anne of 
England : svicceeded by his son. 

1751. William IV. ; retired on the invasion of the 
French in 1795 ; died in 1806. 

1795. [Holland and Belgium united to the French 
republic. ] 

1S06. 'William-Frederick sucaeeded his father. 



\%3ASfi[j 



HOL 371 

HOLLAND, continued. 




KINGS OF HOT.LAXD AND THE NETIIERLANPS. 



iSoG. Louis Bonaparto, madokingof Holland by his 
brother Xajiuleon, Jime s, iSo6; abdicated, 
July I, 1810. 
iSio. [Holland again united to France ] 
1S13. House of Orani^e restored. William-Frederick, 
prince of Orangf, bom 1772 ; proclaimed 
Dec. 6, 1813 ; took the oath of fidelity as 
sovereign prince, March 30, 1S14 ; assumed 



the style of king of the Xetherland-s, 
March 16, 1815 ; formally alidicated in favour 
of his son, Oct. 7, 1840; died Dec. 12, 1S43. 

WiUiam II. ; born Dec. 6, 1792 ; succeeded on 
his father's abdication ; died March 17, 1849. 

Wilham III., son of the preceding; born 
Feb. 19, 1817. The present (1865) king. 

Hdr : Prince William, born Sept. 4, 1840. 



HOLLAND, New. ^gq Australia s.n(\. Australasia. 

HOLJIFIRTH FLOOD. On Feb. 5, 1852, the Billrary reservoir above Holmfirth, near 
Hniklersfield, in Yorkshire, burst its banks, and levelled four mills and many ranges of other 
buildings, destroying the lives of more than 90 persons, and devastating property estimated 
at from half a million to 800,000^. 

HOLSTEIN AND SCHLESWIG (KW. Germany), duchies once belonging to Denmark. 
The country, inhabited by Saxons, was subdued by Charlemagne in the beginning of the gtli 
cenhuy, and afterwards formed part of the duchy of Saxony. In 1106 or mo, Adol pirns 
of Schauonberg became count of Holstein : his descendants ruled till 1459) when Adol- 
phus VII. died without issue, and the states of Holstein and Schleswig elected Christian 
king of Denmark, his nephew, as their duke, through fear of his arms. In 1544, his 
grandson. Christian II., divided his states among.st his brothers, witli the condition that the 
duchies should remain suliject to Denmark. The eldest branch of the family reigned in 
Denmark till the decease of Frederick VII., Nov. 15, 1863. From a younger branch (the 
dukes of Holstein-Gottorp) descended, through marriage, the kings of Sweden from 1751 — 
181S, and the reigning family in Russia since 1762, when the duke, as the husband of 
Anne, became czar. In 1773, Catherine II. of Russia ceded Holstein-Gottorp to Denmark 
in exchange for Oldenburg, &c. The duchies were occupied by the Swedes in 1813, but 
restored to Denmark in 1814, and on May 28, 1831, constituent assemblies were granted 
to them. Since 1844 disputes have been rife between the duchies and Denmark, and in 
1848 the states-general of the duchies voted their annexation to the German confederacy, in 
which they were supported by Pi-ussia : war ensued, which lasted till 1850. See Denmark. 
The agitation in the duchies, encouraged by Prussia, revived in 1857. The Germans in 
Schleswig desired it to be made a member of the German confederation, like Holstein ; and 
both ducliies demanded a local government more independent of Denmark, which changes 
Avere resisted by that power. For the events of the war of 1864, see Denmark. By the 
convention signed at Gastein, Aug. 14, 1865, the government of Holstein was left with 
Austria, and that of Schleswig with Prussia. See Gastein. Population in i860, 1,004,473. 

HOLY ALLIANCE, was ratified at Paris, Sept. 26, 18x5, between the emperors of 
Russia (its originator) and Austria, and the king of Prussia, by which they ostensibly boiind 
themselves, among other things, to bo governed by Christian principles in all their political 
transactions, with a view to perpetuating the peace they had achieved. The compact was 
severely censured in this country as opposed to rational liberty. 

HOLY GHOST. See Esprit. HOLY ISLAND. See Lindisfarne. 

HOLY LEAGUE. See Leagues. 

HOLY MAID OF Kent,— Elizabeth Barton was incited by the Roman Catholic party 
to hinder the Reformation, by pretending to inspirations from heaven. She foretold that 
Heniy VIII. would die a speedy and violent death if lie divorced Catherine of Spain and 
maiTied Anne lioleyn, and direful calamities to the nation. She and her confederates were 
hanged at Tyburn, April 20, 1534. Rapin. 

HOLY PLACES in Palestine. The possession of these places has been a source of 
contention between the Greek and Latin cliurchcs for several centuries. In the reign of 
Francis I. they were plnced in the hands of the Latin monks, under the protection of the 
French government, by a treaty with the tlien sultan ; but the Greeks from time to time 
obtained firmans froin the Porte invalidating the rights of the Latins, who were at last (in 
1757) expelled from some of the sacred buiiding.s, which were committed to the care of the 
Greeks by a liatti-scheritT, or imperial ordinance. 

r. E 2 



HOL 



872 



HOM 



HOLY PLACES, continued. 

Tlie holy sepulchre partially destroyed by fire, 
and rebuilt by the Greeks, who claim addi- 
tional privileges, and cause fresh dissensions 1808 

The Russian and French governments inter- 
fered, and sent envoys (M. Dashkoff and M. 
MarcellusJ to adjust the dispute ; but an 
arrangement vcas prevented by the Greek 
revolution in 1821 

The subject again agitated, and the Porte pro- 
pose that a mixed commission should ad- 
judicate on the rival claims. M. Titoff, the 
Russian envoy, acting on behalf of the Greeks, 
and M. Lavalette, the French envoy, on that 
of the Latins, took up the question very 
warmly * . . . 1850 

A firman issued by the Porte, confirming and 
consolidating the rights previously granted 
to the Greek Christians, and declaring that 
the Latins had no i-ight to claim exclusive 
possession of certain holy places specified, but 
permitting them to possess a key of the 



church at Bethlehem, &c., as in former 
times March 9, 1852 

The French government acquiesced, withmucti 
dissatisfaction ; but the Russian envoy still 
desired the key to be withheld from the Latin 
monks. M. D'Ozeroff made a formal declara- 
tion of the right of Russia to protect the 
orthodox in virtue of the treaty of Kainardji 
in 1774, and demanded that the firman of 
March g, 1852, should be read at Jerusalem, 
although it militated against his pretensions, 
which was accordingly dt>ne. The dispute 
still continued, the Porte being exposed to 
the attacks of both the Russian and French 
governments March, 1853 

Prince Menschikoff an-ives at Constantinople as 
envoy extraordinary, and in addition to the 
claims respecting the holy places, makes 
those demands rcspiecting the protection of 
the Greek Christians in Turkey which led to 
the war of 1854-6. (Sec Rasso- Turkish War) 

Feb. 28, ,, 



HOLY ROOD OR Ceoss. A festival wa.s instituted on account of the recovery of a 
large piece of the cross ])y the emperor Heraclins, after it had been taken away, on the plun- 
dering of Jerusalem, about 615. The feast of the finding (or invention) of the Cross is on 
May 3 ; that of the exaltation of the Cross, Sept. 14. At Boxley abbej', in Essex, was a 
crucifix, called the Jiood of Grace ; at the dissolution it Avas broken in pieces as au imposture 
by Hilse}-, bishop of Rochester, at St. Paul's cross, London. 

HOLYEOOD PALACE (Edinburgh), formerly an abbey, was for several centuries the 
residence of the monarchs of Scotland. The abbej'-, of which some vestiges remain, was 
founded by David I. in 1128, and in the burial-place within its walls are interred several of 
his successors. The palace is a large quadrangular edifice of hewn stone, with a court within 
surrounded b}' jiiazzas. In the north-Avest tower is the bed-chamber which was occupied by 
queen Mary ; and fi-om an adjoining cabinet to it David Rizzio, her favourite, was dragged 
forth and murdered, March 9, 1566. The north-we.st towers were built by James V., and 
the remaining part of the palace was added during the reign of Charles IL Great improve- 
ments were made in 1857. The Queen held her court here, Aug. 30, 1850. 

HOLY SEPULCHRE, a Byzantine church in modern Jerusalem. Eergusson, Robinson, 
and others, con.sider the true site of the holy sepulchre to be the mos(|ue of Omar, termed 
the " dome of the Rock." Tlie question is still undecided, and iuvestigatious are going on 
at the expense of the Russian government. See Knujhls. 

HOLY WARS. See Cnisadcs. 

HOLY WATER is said to have been used in churches as early as 120. Aslie. 

HOLY WEEK, or, the "Week of Indulgences," is the week before Easter. 

HOMELDEN (Northumberland), where the Scots, headed by the earl of Douglas, were 
defeated by the Percies (among them Hotspur), Sept. 14, 1402. Douglas and the earls of 
Angus, Murray, Orkney, and the earl of Fife, son of the duke of AUiany, and ne^ihew of 
the Scottisli king, with many of the nobility and gentry, were taken prisoners. 

HOMER'S ILIAD and ODYSSEY, the two most perfect epic poems in the world, 
written by the greatest poet that has ever lived. The first begins with the wrath of Achilles, 
and ends with the funeral of Hector ; the second recounts the voyages and adventures of 
Ulysses, after the destruction of Troy. Various dates are assigned to these works, from 
962 to 915 B.C.* Among the thousands of volumes burnt at Constantinople, a.d. 477, are 
said to luive been the works of Homer written in golden letters on the great gut of a 
dragon, 120 feet long. 

HOMICIDE. This crime was tried at Athens by the Areopagites, 1507 B.C. He that 
killed another at any public exercise of skill, or who killed another that lay hid to do a 
person mischief of a grievous nature, was not deemed guilty. He who killed a man taken 

* The first English version of the Iliad, by Arthur Hall, appeared in 1581. Themost celebrated versions 
of Homer's works are Chapman's, t6i6 ; Hobbes', 1675; Pope's, 1715-25; Cowi^er's, 1791. The translation 
of the Iliad by the earl of Derby (1S64) is much commended. 



HOM 373 HOR 

with auotlier's wife, sister, daughter, or conculnne, or he that killed a man who, without 
just grouuds, assaulted another violently, was not deemed a homicide. Among the Jews, 
wilful mur.ler was capital ; but for chance-medley the offender was to fly to one of the cities 
of refuge, and there continue till the death of the high-priest, 145 1 b.c. {Num. xxxv.). 
9 Geo. IV. c. 31 (1828), distinguishes between justifiable homicide and homicide in its 
various degrees of guilt, and circumstances of provocation and wilfulness. See Murder. 

HOMILIES (Greek) in early Christian times were discourses delivered by the bishop or 
])resbyter, in a homely manner, for the common people. — The Book of Homilies drawn up 
by abp. Cranmer, and published 1547; and anotlier prepared by an order of convocation, 
1563, were ordered to be read in tliose churches that had not a minister able to compose 
proper discourses. — Stoiv. 

PIOMCEOPATHY, a hypothesis promulgated at the commencement of the present 
century by Dr. Samuel Hahnemann, of Leipsic (died 1843), according to which every 
medicine has a specific power of inducing a certain diseased state of the system (similia 
similibus curantur, likes are cured by likes) ,• and if such medicine be given to a person sutfer- 
ing under the disease which it has a tendency to induce, such disease disappears, because two 
similar diseased actions cannot simultaneously subsist in the same organ. Braiulc. Infini- 
tesimal doses of medicine, such as the millionth of a grain of aloes, have been employed, it is 
said, with efticacy. The real merits of the system consist in its inducing the patient to 
regulate his diet and habits according to the dictates of common sense. — The Hahnemann 
hospital was opened in Bloomsbury-square, Sejit. 16, 1850. 

_ HOMOUSION" AND HOMOIOUSION {Greek, same essence, and similar essence or 
being), terms employed with respect to the nature of the Father and the Son in the Trinity. 
The orthodox party adopted the former terra as a party cry at the council of Nice, 325 ; the 
Arians adopted the latter at Seleucia, 359. 

HOXDUE AS, one of the republics of Central America {tvhicli see). Great Britain ceded 
the Bay Islands to Honduras, Nov. 28, 1859. Its present president, general J. M. Medina, 
was elected for four years, Feb. i, 1864. Population, about 350,000 (i860). British 
Honduras, Central America, was settled by English from Jamaica soon after a treaty with 
Spain in 1667. Tiiey were often disturbed by the Spaniards and sometimes expelled, till 
1783. Balize or Belize, the capital, is a great seat of the mahogany trade. In 1S61, the 
population was 25,635, and the revenue, 35,757^. 

HONEY-MOON. Among the ancients a beverage prepared with honey, such as that 
known as mead, and as metheglin, in England. It was a custom to drink of diluted honey 
for thirty days, or a moon's age, after a wedding-feast, and hence arose the term honey-moon, 
of Teutonic origin. Attila the Hun drank, it is said, so freely of hydronicl on his marriage- 
day, that he died of suffocation, 453. 

HONG-KONG, an island off the coast of China, was taken by capt. Elliott, Aug. 23, 1839, 
and ceded to Great Britain, Jan. 20, 1841. Its chief town is Victoria, built in 1S42, and 
erected into a bishopric in 1849. Sir John Bowring, governor from 1854 to 1859, was suc- 
ceeded by sir Hercules Robinson. 

II ON I SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE, "Evil be to him who evil thinks." It is said that 
the countess of S.ilisbury, at a ball at court, happening to drop her garter, the king, 
Edward III., took it up, and presented it to her with these words, which afterwards becaine 
the motto of the order of the garter ; but this statement is unsupported by sufficient 
authority. — The order is said to have been instituted, April 23, 1349. 

HONOUR. Temples were erected to Honour by Scipio Africanus, about 197 B.C. ; and 
by C. Marius, about 102 B.C. — The Legion of Honour was created by Bonaparte in 1802. 

HOOKS AND CODFISH. See Holland, 1347. HOOPS. See Crinoline. 

HOPS. Introduced from the Netherlands, into England, about 1524, and used in 
brewing ; but tlie physicians having represented that they were unwholesome, their use was 
])rohibited in 152S. Anderson. In the year ending Jan. 5, 1853, there were 46, 157! acres 
under liojis in England and Wales, chiefly in Herefordshire, Kent, and Worcestersliire, which 
paid 447,1447. duty; the quantity yielded w'as 51, 102,494 lbs., whereof 955,855 lbs. were 
exported. The duty on hops was repealed in 1862, after many applications. 

HORATII AND CURIATII. The Romans and the Albans, contesting for superioritv, 
chose three champions on each side to determine it. Tlie three Horatii (Roman kniHifs) 
overcame the Curiatii (Albans), and thereby united Alba to Rome, about 669 b.c. 



HOll 374 HOS 

nOEN ; HORNPIPE. The liorn is tlionglit to be, next to the reed, the earliest wind 
instrument, and lias heen found among most savage nations. It was first made of horn, 
hence filename ; afterwards of brass, with keys, for the semi-tones, in the last century. — 
The dance called the Hornpipe is supposed to be so named from its having been performed 
to the ^Velsll2nb-C07•n, that is, hornpixie, about 1300. BjKnccr. 

HORNE TOOKE, &c. The trial of Messrs. Hardy, Tooke, Joyce, Thelwall, and others, 
on a charge of high treason, caused a great sensation in England. They were taken into 
custody on May 20, 1794. Mr. Hardy was the first who was put to the bar, Oct. 29, same 
year ; and, after a trial which lasted eight days, he was honourably acquitted. John Hornc 
Tooke was next tried, and was acquitted Nov. 20 ; and Mr. Thelwall also was acquitted, 
Dec. 5 ; all the other accused persons were discharged. Acts were ]>assed to prohibit Mr. 
Thelwall's political lectures in 1795. See Gagging Bills and Thelwall. 

HOROLOGY, See Clocks. 

HORSE.* The people of Thessaly were excellent equestrians, and probably were the 
first, among the Greeks at least, who rode upon horses, and broke them in for service in 
war ; whence arose the fable that Thessaly Avas originally inhabited by centaurs. " Solomon 
had 40,000 stalls of horses for his chariots, and 12,000 horsemen," 1014 B.C. i Kings iv. 26. 
The power of the horse is equal to that of five or six men. Smcaton. The Greeks and 
Romans had some covering to secure their horses' hoofs from injury. In the 9th century 
horses were only shod in the time of frost. The practice of shoeing was introduced into 
England by William I., 1066. In England there are 2,000,000 draught and pleasure 
horses, and 100,000 agricultural horses, which consume the |iroduce of 7,000,000 acres. 
The horse-tax was imposed in 1784, and was then levied on all saddle and coach horses in 
England. Its operation was extended, and its amount increased, in 1796; and again in 
180S. The existing duty upon "horses for riding" only, in England, amounts to about 
350,000^. per year (1862). t See Hacc- Horses. 

HORSE GUARDS. They were instituted in the reign of Edward VI. 1550, and revived 
by Charles II. 1661. The first troop of the Horse Grenadier Guards was raised in 1693, and 
was commanded by general Cholniondeley ; and the second troop, commanded by lord Forbes, 
was raised in 1702. There was a reduction of the Horse and Grenadier Guards, and Life 
Guards, as now established, were raised in their room, May 26, 1788. Phillips. The present 
edifice called the Horse Guards was erected by Ware about 1730. In the front are two small 
arches, where horse-soldiers, in full uniform, daily mount guard. In a jiart of the building 
is the ofiice of the commander-in-chief. 

HORSE-RACING. See Racing. 

HORTICULTURAL SOCIETIES. Horticulture, the art of cultivating gardens, is a 
late word in our dictionaries (from horlus and cuUura), and was first used by Evelyn. The 
(now Royal) Horticultural society of London was founded by sir Joseph Banks and others 
in 1804, and was incorporated April 17, 1809 ; the Edinburgh society in 1809 ; and that of 
Dublin in Jan. 1817. The transactions of the London society (1812, &c.) have attracted 
great attention. In 1822 the planting of the society's garden at Chiswick was begun. The 
annual exhibitions there date from 1S31. The society not having been prosperous, in 1859 
the library was sold. In Julj' a proposal for laying out a garden for the society, on the 
Brompton estate belonging to the Crystal Palace commissioners, received the support of the 
queen, nobility, &c., and Mr. Nesfield's design was adopted in May, i860. On June 5, i86r, 
the new gardens were opened bj- the prince consort, who jdanted a WclUiujtonia gigantca 
(ivhich scej. The queen also planted one on July 24 following. On June 10, 1863, the 
Albert memorial was uncovered in the presence of the prince and princess of Wales. 

HOSIERY. See Stoclcings and Cotton. HOSPITALLERS. See Malta. 

HOSPITALS, originally Ilospitia for the reception of travellers. That at Jerusalem, 
Ijuilt by the knights of St. John 11 12, was capable of receiving 2000 guests, and included 

* In March, 1S58, Mr. J. S. Rarey, an American, made a great sensation in London by taming vicious 
and wild horses, and even a zebra from tlie Zoological Gardens. His system is founded on a profound 
.study of the disposition of the animal, and on kindness. He initiated many illustrious i^ersons in his 
method (on March 20, 1858, lord Palmorston and twenty others), binding them to secrecy ; from which 
they were released in Juno, 185S, when his book was reprinted in England without his consent. In July, 
1859, he was engaged to instruct cav.alry officers and riding-masters of the army. On Jan. 12, i860, he gave 
a lecture to the Loudon cabmen, which was well received ; and in May same year he received a jiresent of 
20 guineas from the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. 

t Great horss-shows were held at the Agricultural Hall, Isliiigt jii, in July 1S64, r.nd July 1S65. 



HOS 



HUE 



;iii iufirmaiy for the sick. The richly endowed " five royal hospitals " under "the pious 
care of the lord-mayor of Ijoudon," &c., are Ht. Bartholomew's, St. Thomas's, Bridewell, 
Bethlehem, and Christ's. See Infirmaries. The Eoyal Dispensary in Aldersgate-street was 
the first established, 1770. 

Betlilebem (oldest lunatic 

asylum in Europe except 

one at Granada) founded . 
Cancer, Broiuptou . . . 
€liaring-cross founded 1S18; 

new bospiral built . . . 
City of London Lying-in 
Consumption, Broniptou . . 
Dreadnought ship . 

Fever 

Free, Gray's Inn-laue . 
German, IJalston . . . 
Great Northern 
Guy's (see Guy's) . . . 
Hahnemann .... 





Hospital of Surgery 


1827 




Idiots' 


1847 


1 547 


Incurables . . . . 


iSso 


1S51 


Jews' 


1747 




King's CoUcge 


i8w 


1831 


Lock 


1746 


1750 


London 


1740 


1S41 


Lying- inn, British . . . 


174Q 


1S21 


,, City-road 


i7f;o 


1S02 


,, General, Lambeth 


1765 


1S28 


„ Queen Charlotte's 


1752 


184^ 


„ Queen Adelaide's 


1824 


i8=;6 


Middlesex .... 


1745 


1721 


Lond. Ophthalmic, Finsbury 


1804 


1850 


,, ,, Gray's lun-rd. 


1^43 



OrthoiJcedic . . . . 
Samaritan Free, for women 

and children . . . 

Small Pox 

St. Bartholomew's (see Bar- 

tholomtv), St.) 
St. Georges . . . . 
St. Luke's (lunatics) 
St. Mary's, Paddington . . 
St. Thomas's Cremoved 1862). 
University College . 
Westminster . . . . 
Women's, Soho-square . 



1847 
1746 

1546 
1733 
1751 
1843 
1553 
1833 
1719 

1843 



HOST, Elevation of the, introduced into Eoman Catholic worship, and prostration 
enjoined, in 1201. Pope Gregory IX. was the first pontiff who decreed a bell to be rung as 
a signal for the people to betake themselves to the adoration of the host, 1228, which is 
done to this day. Eces. The supposed miracle of the consecrated host being visibly changed 
into the body of our Lord, is referred by Heuault to 1 290. 

HOT BLAST. See Bloioing Machine. 

HOURS. The day began to be divided into hours from the year 293 B.C., M'hen L. Papi- 
I'ius Cursor erected a sun-dial in the temple of Quiriuus at Eome. Previously to the invention 
of water-clocks (i«/iic/i sec), 158 B.C., the time was called at Konie by public criers. The 
Chinese divide the day into twelve parts of two hours each. The Italians reckon twenty- 
four hours round, instead of two divisions of twelve hours. In England, the measurement 
of time was, in early days, uncertain : one expedient was by wax candles, three inches burning 
an hour, and six wax candles burning twenty-four hours : said to have been invented bj' 
Alfred, A.D. 886. For Hours of Prayer, see Breviary. 

HOUSE DUTY was imposed in 1695. Its rate was frequently changed till its repeal in 
1S40 (3 &4 AYill. 4, c. 39). It was re-imposed as a substitute for the window tax, in 185 1. 

HOUSELESS POOR ACT (Metropolitan) was passed in 1864, and made perpetual in 1865. 
Sec Pour. 

HOUSE OF Commons, Lokd.s, &c. See Parliament, Lords, and Commons. 

HOWARD FAMILY. John Howard, son of Margaret, the heiress of the Mowbrays, 
was created earl marshal and the 7th duke of Norfolk in 1483. He was slain with his master, 
Richard III., at Bosworth, Aug. 22, 1485. His son was restored to the earldom of Surrey in 
1489, in reward for having gained the victory of Flodden, Sept. 9, 'IS 13 ; he was created the 
Jsth duke of Norfolk in 1514. Thomas, the loth duke, was beheaded for conspiracy against 
queen Elizabetli on behalf of Mary, queen of Scots, in 1572. Henry Fitzalan Howard, now 
the 2ist duke of Norfolk, and the i8th of the Howard family, in-eniier duke and earl of 
England and hereditary earl marshal, was born in 1847. 

HOWITZER, a German piece of ordnance, ranking between a cannon and a mortar, 
came into use early in the i8th centiuy. 

HUDSON'S BAY, discovered by captain Henry Hudson, when in search of a north- 
west pa.ssage to the Pacific Ocean, 1610 ; had been discovered by Frobisher in the reign of 
Elizabeth, although Hudson ventured further north. The latter, passing the winter in this 
bay on his fourth voyage, was, with four others, thrown by his sailors into a boat, and left 
to jierish. The Hudson's-Bay Company obtained a charter in 1670. Their licence cx])ired 
in 1S59. The forts were destroyed by the French in l586 and 1782. In July, 1863, the 
formation of a new company was proposed. 

HUE AND CRY. The old common-law process of inn-suing "v/ith horn and with 
voice," from hundred to hundred, and county to county, all robbers and felons. Formerly, 
tlic hundred was bound to make good all loss occasioned by the robberies therein committed, 
unless tlie felon were taken ; but by subsei^uent laws it is made answerable only for damage 
committed by riotous assemblies. The pursuit of a felon was aided by a description of 
him in the H'm and Cry, a gazette established for advertising felons in 17 10. Aslie. 



HUG 



rs 



HUN 



HUGUENOTS, a term (clerived liy some from the German Eidgenosscn, confederates ; by 
others from Hngues, a Genevese Calvinist) applied to the Reformed party in France, followers 
of Calvin. They took np arms against their persecutors in 1561. After a delusive edict of 
toleration, a great number were massacred at Vassy in 1562 (March i), when the civil wars 
began, which lasted Avith some intermission till the edict of Nantes in 1598, revoked in 1685. 
The massacre of St. Bartholomew's day, Aug. 24, 1572, occurred during a truce. See 
Calvinists, Bartholomciu, and Edict. 

HULL (E. Yorkshire), a rising commercial place in 1200, was named Kiiigston-upon- 
Hull in 1296 by Edward L, who purchased the town, formed the port, and granted a 
charter. Great fire ; damage about ioo,oooL, Aug. 15, 1864. 

HULSEAN LECTURES (on Theology), were instituted at Cambridge by the will of the 
rev. John Hulse, who died in 1790. They l)egan in 1820, when twenty lectures were given 
bj' the rev. Christopher Benson. In 1830 the number was reduced to eight. 

HUMANE SOCIETY, ROYAL (London), for the recovery of persons apparently drowned, 
W'as founded in 1774, by Drs. Goldsmith, Heberden, Towers, Lettsom, Hawes, and Cogan, 
but principally by the last three. The society has 221 receiving-houses, supplied with appar 
ratus. The principal one was erected in 1794, on a spot of ground given by George III. on 
the north side of the Serpentine river, Hyde-park. The motto of this society is ajjju'opriate 
— ^'Lateat scintillula forsan'' — "a small spark maj- perhaps lie concealed." See Drowning. 

HUMILIATI, a congregation of religious of the church of Rome, formed by some 
Milanese who had been imprisoned by Frederick I. 1162. The order had more than ninety 
monasteries; but was abolished for luxury and cruelty by pope Pius V., aiul their houses 
were given to the Dominicans, Cordeliers, and other communities, in 1570. 

HUMMING-BIRDS. ]\Ir. Goidd's beautiful collection of the skins of these birds was 
exhibited at the Zoological Gardens, London, in"i85i. His elaborate work on them in five 
folio volumes, with richly coloured plates, was completed in 1862. 

HUNDREDS, a Danish institution ; a hundred being a part or division of a shire, so 
called, as is supposed, from its having been composed of a hundred families, at the time the 
counties were originally divided by king Alfred, about 897. The hundred-court is a court- 
baron held for all the inhabitants of a hundred instead of a manor. Law Dictionary. 

HUNGARY, part of the ancient Pannonia and Dacia, was subjected to the Romans 
about 106, and retained by them till the 3rd century, when it was seized by the Goths, who 
Avere expelled about 376 by the Huns, under Attila. ^(t^ Jlmis vcvwX Attila. On his death, 
in 453, the Ostrogoths, Gepida% and Lombards at times held the country', which was how- 
ever acquired by tlie Avars about 568, and retained by them till their destruction b}' Charle- 
magne in 799. About 894 the country was settled by a Scythian tribe, named Vingours or 
Ungri (whence the German name I'ngarn), and the Magyars of Finnish origin. The chief of 
the latter, Arpad, was the ancestor of a line of kings {sec below). The progress of the Magyars 
westwnrd was checked by their defeat by the emperor Henry the Fowler, 934. The line of 
Arpad became extinct 11^1309, when Charles Robert of Anjou ascended the throne. In 1526 
it accrued to the house of Austria, in which it was made hereditary in 1687. War with 
Turkey was frequent from the 15th to the i8th century. The JMngyars have of late much 
intermingled with the German and Sclavonic races. Population (without the army) in 1857, 
9,9CX). 785. S,ee AiLstria. 



Stephen, founder of the monarchy of Hungary, 
embraces and establishes Christianity and 
subdues the slaves, &c., receives the title of 
Apostolic king from the pope .... 997 

The Polos overrun Hungary . . ... 1061 

Dreadful ravages of the Tartars under the sons 
of Genghis Khan, throughout Hungary, 
Bohemia, and Russia, 1241 et seq. 

Bela III. introduces the Greek civilisation 1174, &c. 

Gulden Bull of Andrew II. granting personal 
rights 1222 

Victories of Louis the Great in Bulgaria, Servia, 
and Dalmatia 1344-82 

He marches into Italy and avenges the murder 
of his brother, Andrev? king of Naples . . 1348 



Sanguinai-y anarchy : Elizabeth, queen of Louis, 
is drowned ; and King* JIary, the daughter, 
marries Sigismond, of Brandenburg . . . 1382 

They govern with great severity . . 13S2-92 

Sigismond's atrocious cruelties compel his sub- 
jects to invite the assistance of the Turks 

Battle of Nicopolis : Bajazet vanquishes Sigis- 
mond and a large army . . Sept. 28, 1396 

Sigismond obtains the crown of Bohemia, and 
is elected emiieror of Germany . . . 1410 

Albert of Austria succeeds to the throne of 
Hungaiy 1437 

Victoi ies of the great John Hunniades (illegiti- 
mate son of Sigismond) over the Turks . 1442-4 

Who obtained a truce for 10 years . . . 1444 



1393 



* The Hungarian people have or had an irreconcileable aversion to the name of qveen ; and conse- 
quently whenever a female succeeded to the throne of Hungary, she reigned with the title of king. Thus 
in 1382, when JIary came to the crown, she was styled King Mar//. Fray, Hitt. Regv.hi Himgariie. 



HUN' 



377 



HUN 



HUNGARY, conluiued. 

Wbicli is broken by Ladislas king of Hungary- 
Cat the instigation of the pope). He is de- 
feated and slain with a great part of his ai-my, 
and the pap:il legate at Varna . . Nov. lo, 1444 

John Hunniades escapes and becomes regent 
(for Ladislas son of Albert) . . . 1444-53 

He raises the siege of Belgrade, July 14, and 
dies Sept. 10, 1456 

The Ilimgarians insult tlie Turkish ambas- 
sadors, and war ensues : Solyman II. takes 
Buda 1526 

Disastrous battle of Mohatz {which see) Aug. 29, ,, 

Uungarj' becomes subject to the house of 
Austria (see Gerriw.uy) ,, 

Peace of Vienna, granting tolei-ation to pro- 
testants 1606 

John Sobieski defeats the Turks in several 
battles, and raises the siege of Vienna Oct. 1683 

Prince Louis of Baden defeats the Turks at 
Salonckemen Aug. 19, 1691 

Prince Eugene defeats them at Zenta Sept. 11, 1697 

The duke of Lorraine I'etakes Buda(2(;/iic7t S:e) . 1686 

Peace of Carlowitz 1699 

Pragmatic sanction, authorising female succes- 
sion to the throne 1722-3 

Servia and WalLachia ceded to Tiu-kcy at the 
peace of Belgrade 1739 

The Hungarians enthusiastically support Mai-ia- 
Theresa against France and Bavaria . . 1740 

The protestants permitted to have churches in 
Hungary 1784 

Independence of Hungary guaranteed . . 1790 

Hungarian academy established . . . . 1825 

The people, some time discontented with their 
Austrian rulers, at length break out into a 
formidable rebellion 184S 

Murder at Pesth of the recently appointed mili- 
tary governor, count Lam berg, by a mob ; 
the Hungarian diet appoint a provisional 
government under Kossuth and Batthyany, 
Sept. 28 ; the Hungarians defeat the Ban of 
Croatia . . . . ■ . Sept. 29, ,, 

The diet denounces as traitors all who acknow- 
ledge the enrperor of Austria as king of 
Hungary Dec. 8, „ 

The insurgents defeated by the Austrians at 
Szaikszo Dec. 21, ,, 

They are defeated at Mohr by the ban Jellachich, 

Dec. 29, ,, 

Buda-Pcsth taken by Windisehgriitz . Jan. 5, 1849 

Bem defeats the Austrians at Hermannstadt, 

Jan. 21 ,, 

Hungary declares itself a free state ; Kossuth 
supreme govern jr . . . April, 14, ,, 

The Hungarians defeat the Imperialists before 
Gran April iS, ,, 

March of the Russian army through Gallicia to 
assist the Austrians .... May i, ,, 

The Austro-Russian troops defeat the Hunga- 
rians, who retreat across the Waag . June 21, ,, 

Battle of Acs between the Hungarians and 
Austrians July lo, „ 

Hungarians defeat Jellachich . . July 14, ,, 

The Hungarians defeated by the Russians ; Gor- 
gey retreats after three days' battle July 15, ,, 

Battle before Komoni, between the insurgents 
and the Austro-Russian army . July 16, „ 

The insurgents under Bem enter Moldavia, 

July 23, ,, 

Again defeated by the Russians . July 31, ,, 

Utter defeat of the Hungarian army before 
Temeswar by gen. Ilaynau . . Aug. 10, ,, 



Gorgay and his army surrender to the Russians, 

Aug. 1849 

Kossuth, B-'m, ka., escape to the Turkish fron- 
tier.?, and are placed under the protection of 
Turkey at New Oi-sova (see Tarketj) Aug. 21, „ 

Komorn surrenders to the Austrians ; close of 
the war Sept. 27, „ 

Batthyanj' tried at Pesth, and .shot ; many other 
insurgent chiefs put to death . . Oct. 6, ,, 

Amnesty granted to the Hungarian insurgents, 
who return home . . . Oct. 16, 

Bem dies at Aleppo .... Dec. lo' 1850 

The country remains in an unsettled state ; 
many executions 1853-5 

Crown of St. Stephen and royal insignia dis- 
covered and sent to Vienna . . Sept. 8, 1853 

Amne.styfor political offendersof 1848-9 July 12, 1S56 

During the Italian war in 1859, an insurrection 
in Hungary was in contemplation, and com- 
munications took place between Louis Napo- 
leon and Kossuth; which circumstances it 
is said led the emperor of Austria to accede 
to the peace of Villafranca so suddenly, and 
shortly afterwards to promise many reforms 
and to grant more liberty to the protestants 
in Hungary .... Aug.-Oct. 1S59 

Recall of archduke Albert, general Benedek 
appointed governor .... April, 1S60 

Demand for restoration of the old constitu- 
tion ; re-union of the Banat and Voivodina 
with Hungary, &c Oct. ,, 

Charter restoring the old constitution promised, 

Oct. 20, ,, 

Schmerling appointed minister . . Dec. 13 ,, 

National conference at Gi-an . . . Dec. ,, 

Demand for the constitution of 1848 . . Jan. 1861 

The emperor promulgates a new liberal consti- 
tution for the empire . . . Feb. 26, ,, 

Which does not satisfy the Hungarians, March, ,, 

Hiuigarian diet opened . . . April 6, ,, 

.Meeting of the Reichsrath at Vienna : no depu- 
ties present from Hungary or Croatia April 29, „ 

Count Teleki (see Austria, i860) found dead in 
his bed at Pesth : intense excitement May 8, ,, 

The diet votes an address to the emperor, desir- 
ing restoration of the old constitution Jvdy 5, ,, 

The military begin to levy the taxes . July, ,, 

Imperial rescript refusing the entire independ- 
ence of Hungary, July 21 ; the diet protests, 
Aug. 20; and is dissolved . . Aug. 21, ,, 

The archbishop of Gran, the primate, indig- 
nantly protests against the act of the imperial 
government Sept.-Oct. ,, 

He is summoned to Vienna, but stands firm, 

Oct. 25, „ 

The magistrates in the comitat at Pesth resign ; 
military government established ; jxissive 
resistance of the nobility . . . Dec. ,, 

Amnesty declared for political offences, and ces- 
sation of prosecutions . . . Nov. 19, 1S62 

Newspapers confiscated for publishing seditious 
speeche-s Marcla 29, 1863 

The emijeror visits Buda-Pesth ; well received ; 
inauguration of a new policy ; the rights of 
Hungaiy to be restored . . . June 6-g, 1S65 

Imperial rescript, abolishing the representa- 
tive constitution of the empire, with the 
view of restoring independence of Hungary, 
&c Sept.. 21, ,, 

The Deak party demand restoration of the 
monarchy, with a responsible government, 

Nov. ir, ,, 



SOVEREiaXS OF HUNGARY. 



997. St. Stephen, diike of Hungary (son of Geisa) ; 
he establishes the Roman Catholic religion 
(1000), and receives from the pope the title 
of Apostolic King, still borne bj' the emperor 
of Austria, as kuig of Hungary. 



1038. Peter, the German : deposed. 

1041. Aba or Owen. 

1044. Peter, again : again deposed, and his eyes put 

out. 
1047. Andrew I. : deposed. 



HUN 



378 



IIUS 



HUNGARY, contiimcd. 



1061. 
1064. 
1075- 
1077. 
1095. 
1114. 
1131. 
1141. 

ii5i. 

"73- 
II 96. 
1204. 
1205. 
1235- 
1270. 
1272. 
1290. 



1342. 
1382. 
1387. 



1392. 
1437- 



1439. 
1440. 

1444. 
1445. 
1458. 



Bela I. : killed by tlie fall of a ruinous tower. 

Salamon, son of Andrew. 

Geisa I. son of Bela. 

Ladislas I. surnained the Pious. 

Colonian, son of Geisa. 

fetephen II. surnamed Thunder. 

Eela II. : had his eyes put out. 

Gei.sa II. ; succeeded by his son, 

Stephen III. : and Stephen IV. (anarcliyj. 

Bela III. : succeeded by his son, 

Emeric : succesded by his son, 

Ladislas II. ; reigned six months only. 

Andrew II. son of Bela III. 

Bela IV. 

Stephen IV. (or V.J his son. 

Ladislas III. : liilled. 

Andrew III. surnamed the Venetian, son-in- 
law of Rodolph of Hap.sburg, emperor of 
Germany. 

Charobert, or Charles-Robert (of Anjou) ; (com- 
petitors^Wenceslas of Bohemia, and Otho 
of Bavaria, who give way to him, 1309). 

Louis I. the Great ; elected king of Poland in 

1370- 
Mary, called Kinj Mary, daughter of Louis the 

Great. 
Mary and her consort Sigismond : the latter 

became king of Bohemia, and was elected 

emperor in 1410. 
Sigismond alone (on the death of Mary). 
Albert, duke of Austria ; married Elizabeth, 

daughter of Sigismond, and obtains the 

thrones of Hungary, Bohemia,and Germany ; 

dies suddenly. 
Elizabeth alone : she marries 
Ladislas IV. king of Poland, of wliich kingdom 

he was Ladislas VI. : slain at Varna. 
[Interregnum.] 
John Hunniades, regent. 
Ladislas V. postliumoua son of Albert : 

poisoned. 
Matthias-Corvinus, son of Hunniades, an able 

sovereign. 



1490. Ladislas VI. Idng of Bohemia: the emperor 

Maximilian laid claim to both kingdoms. 
1516. Louis II. of Hungary (I. of Bohemia): loses 

his life at the battle of Mohatz. 

John Zapolski, waivode of Transylvania, 
elected by the Hungarians, and supported 
by the sultan Solyman ; by treaty witli 
1526. ■{ Ferdinand, he founds the principality of 
I Transylvania, 1536. 

I Ferdinand I. king of Bohemia, brother to the 
V emperor Charles V. ; rival kings. 
1536. Ferdinand alone : elected emperor of Germany 

iu 1558. 
1561. Maximilian, son of Ferdinand ; emperor in 1564. 
T573. Bodolph, son of MaximiUan ; emperor in 1576. 
1609. Matthias II. his brother; emperor iu 1612. 
1619. Ferdinand II. his cousin, emperor. 
1625. Ferdinand III. son of the preceding ; emperor 

in 1637. 
1647. Ferdinand IV. ; died in 1654, three years before 

his father. 
1655. Leopold I. son of Ferdinand III. ; emi^eror in 

1658. 
1687. Joseph I. his son : emperor in 1705. 
1711. Charles VI. (of Germany), brother of Joseph, 

and nominal king of Spain, succeeded by his 

daughter, 
1740. Maria-Theresa, empress ; survived her consort, 

Francis I., emperor, from 1765 until 1780. 

See Germany. 
17S0. Joseph II. her son, emperor in 1765 : succeeded 

to Hungary on the death of liis mother. 
1790. Leopold II. brother of Joseph II., emperor: 

succeeded by his son, 
1792. Francis I. (Francis II. as emperor of Ger- 
many) : in 1804 he became emperor of 

Austria only. 
I S3 5. Ferdinand V. son of Francis : Ferdinand I. as 

emperor of Austria. 
1848. Francis-Joseph, nej^hew of the preceding. 

succeeded on the abdication of his uncle, 

Dec. 2, 1848. The PKESENT icing of Hung uy 

and emperor of Austria. 



HUNGERFOIID BRIDGE,* over the Thames from Hungerford-stairs to the Belvedere- 
road, Lambeth, opened May i, 1845, was taken down in July, 1S62, to make wa}' for the 
Charing Cross railway -bridge, and transferred to Clifton {which see). The market (opened 
iu July, 1833) was removed at the same time. 

HUNS, a race of warlike Asiatics, said to have conquered China, about 210 B.C., and to 
have been expelled therefrom about a.d. 90. The}' invaded Hungary about 376, and drove 
out the Goths. Marching westward, under Attila, they Avere thoroughly beaten at Chalons 
by the consul Aetius, 451. See Attila. 

HUNTING: an ancient jiastime. The "Bokys of Hawking and Huntyng," by Dame 
Julyana Barnes, was printed at St. Albans, 14S6. 

HUSSARS, light cavalry in Poland and Hungary, about 1600 : and as they were more 
fitted for a hasty enterprise than a set battle, they are supposed to have taken their name 
from the hu~zas or shout they made at their first onset. They were generally o])posed to the 
Turkish hor.se, "and were oddly clothed, having the skins of tigers and other wild beasts 
hanging on their backs against bad weather, and wore fur caps, with a cock's feather." 
Pardon. Hussars became the name of a British force in the last century (1759), very 
differently attired. 

HUSSITES. After the death of Hu.ss,+ many of his followers took up arms, in 1419, 



* It was 14 feet wide, and 1342 feet long ; tlie length of the central span, between the two piers, 676 
feet ; the heiglit of the two towers 55 feet above the footway, and 84 above higli water ; the piers were in 
the Italian style, with the chains passing through the attic of each. The cost of the masonry was 60,000?. ; 
of the ironwork, exceeding 700 tons in weight, 17,000?. ; of the approaches, 13,000?. ; total 102,245?. Archi- 
tect, I. K. Brunei. 

t The clergy having instigated the pope to issue a bull against heretics, John Huss (Ijorn in Bohemia 
in 1373), a zealous preacher of the Fkeformation, was cited to appear before a council of divines at Constance, 



HUS 



379 



HYD 



and formed a political party under John Ziska, and burnt the city of Tabor. They defeated 
the emperor Si-ismund several times, 1420-22 : but after being worsted m I434, ^^„^°f ^f '?; 
brod, they entered into negotiations, which ended in the Compact of Prague ^hey we e 
again defeated by Albert of Austria in 1438. The pacihc portion of the Hussites existed m 
the time of Luther, and were called " Bohemian Brethren. 

HUSTINGS (said to be derived from House Court, an assembly among the Anglo-Saxons), 
an ancient court of London, being its supreme court of judicature, as the court of common 
council is of legislature. The court of Ilustyngs was granted to the city of London to be 
holden and kept weekly, by Edward the Confessor, 1052. Winchester, Lincoln, \ ork, Lc, 
were also granted Hustings courts. 

HLTTCHINSONIANS included many eminent clergy, who did not form any sect but 
held the opinions of John Hutchinson, of Yorkshire ; they rejected the Newtonian system 
and contended that the scriptures contain a complete system_ of natural phUosopUy. n is 
work, ^^ Moses' Principiar was published in 1724. He derived all things from the an 
whence he said proceeded fire, light, and spirit, -types of the Trinity. In 1 7 1 2 he mv ented 
a time-piece for finding the longitude, and died in 1737. 

HYDE PAEK, W. (London), the ancient manor of Hyde, belonging to the abbey of 
Westminster, became crown property at the dissolution, 1539- It was ^«\^ .^:>' IX'^t \'L 
in i6^2 • but was resumed by the king at the restoration m 1661. It comprises about 394 
"nes,^ with a k?ge"Shig sLet of water, called the Serpentine. There are eight entrances. 



Colossal statue of Achilles, cast from camion 
taken in the battles of Salamanca, Vittoria, 
Toulouse, and Waterloo, and inscribed to 
"Arthur, Duke of Wellington, and hio bravo 
companions in arms, by their countrywomen, " 

erected on June 18, 1822 

Jlyde Park Comer Entrance erected . . . 1828 
Allirble Arch from Buckingham Palace set up at 

Cumberland Gate . . . • March 29, 1851 
Crystal Palace erected for the exhibition of 1S51 
Dirturbances in consequence of a Sunday bill 
having been brought before parliament by 



lord Robert Grosvenor, which was eventually 
withdrawn Sundiys, June 25, and July i & 8, 1^55 

Riotous meetings held here, on account of tne 
hin-h price of bread Sundays, Oct. 14, 21, 28, ,, 

Dcm°ocratic meetings on the Reform question, 

March, 1859 

The queen reviewed 18,450 volvmteers June 23, i860 

Greatmeeting of admirers of Garibaldi, Sept. 28 ; 
who are violently attacked by the Irish ; 
many persons wounded . - ■ Oct. 5, 1862 

Public meetings in the park henceforth pro- 
hibited ^o*^- 9' " 



HYDRAULIC PRESS. See under Hydrostatics. 

HYDROGEN (from %f^o>, water) under the name of combustible '^i-^ ^'^^ ^J'^^l^'J^JJf 
Paracelsus in the i6th century. In 1766 Cavendish described its P^'oP^f i^^" f.;^ ^ g ^ 
he and Watt first showed that in the combination of this gas ^ith°xygen, which t.dvS place 
when it is burnt, water is produced; subsequently Lavoisier decomposed wate^ntots 
elements. One volume of oxygen combines with two volumes of hydrogen, and foims ^^atei. 
Hydrogen is never found in the free state. Gmehn. 

HYDROGRAPHY is the description of the surface waters of the earth. The first se-a- 
charHs attributed to Henry the NaVigator, in the i6th century There js a hydrogiaphic 
department in the British Admiralty, by which a series of charts has been issued. 

HYDROMETER, the instrument by which is measured the g^''^^^;, f "f -^^^^J ^^.J;,'^ 
r,ronerties of liquids. The oldest mention of the hydrometer occurs in the 5th centui) , and 
u^ found if the letters of Synesius to Hypatia ; but it is -^^F J^S:^ " IrfhSn d 
was the inventor of it, though no proofs of it are to be found. £eclmann. Aichimedes 
was killed in 212 B.C., and Hypatia was torn to pieces, a.d. 415. 

HYDROPATHY, a term applied to the treatment of diseases by cold water, practised by 
Hippocraies in the ith centu/y^B.c, by the Arabs in the -^h century^B and i.^^^^^^^^^^^^ bj 
Dr Cnn-ie in 1797. The present system was suggested in 1825 by Vmcenz Y, ° " ion^l 
oiafeiX-iii Austrian Sil.-sia ; and though he is considered as its fonnclei- the lational 
^SS^d^iS^\^as understood and maintained by the eminent Dr. Sydenham, befoie 
1689. PriessuitzdiedNov. 26, 1851. Brandc. 

the emperor Sigismund sending him a -fe-conduct. He Pres-ted himself --J-d^'g^y, b^^ 



HYD 



380 



ICH 



HYDROSTATICS were probably first studied in the Alexandrian school about 300 B.C. 



The correct theory of fluids and oscillation of 
waves, explained by Newton . . . . 1714 

A scientific form was given to hydro-dynamics, 
by Bernouilli 173S 

Joseph Brainah's hydrostatic or hydraulic pi'ess 

patented first in 1785 



Pressure of fluids discovered by Archimedes, 

about B.C. 250 
The forcing pump and air fountain invented by 

Hero about 120 

Water-mills were known . . about a. d. i 
The science revived by Galileo . . about 1600 
The theory of rivers scientifically understood in 1697 

HYGROMETER, an in.stninient for measuring the moisture in the atmosjiherc. That 
by Saussure (who died in 1799) is most employed. It consists of a human hair boiled in 
caustic lye, and acts on the princi])le of absorption. Brandc. Daniell's hygrometer (1820) 
is much esteemed. 

HYMNS. The song of Mo.ses is the most ancient, 1491 B.C. (Exod. xv.). The Psalms 
date from about' 1060 B.C. to about 444 B.C. (from David to Ezra). The hymns of the Jews 
were frequently accompanied by instrumental music. Paul (a.d. 64) speaks of Christians 
admoni-shing one another 'J in psalms and hymns and spiritual songs " (Col. iii. 16). Hilary, 
the bishop of Aries, in France, is said to have been the first who composed hymns to be sung 
in Christian churches, about 431. The hymns of Dr. "Watts (died 1748), and of John Wesley 
(died 1 791), and his brother Charles, are much used by English dissenters. 

HYPNOTISM (Greek hypnos, slee.p) or nervous sleep, terms given by Mr. Braid (in 1843) 
to a sleep-like condition, produced in a person by steadily fixing his mind on one particulai- 
object. Minor surgical operations have, it is said, been performed without pain on persons 
in this state. 



I. 

IAMBIC VERSE. lambe, an attendant of Metanira, wife of Celeus, king of Sparta, 
when trying to exhilarate Ceres, while the latter was travelling over Attica in quest of her 
dau^diter Proserpine, entertained her with jokes, stories, and poetical effusions ; and from 
hei", free and satirical verses have been called Iambics. ApoUodoi'us. Iambic verses were 
first written about 700 B.C., by Archilochu.s, who ha<I courted Neobule, the daughter of 
Lycambes ; but after a promise of marriage the father preferred another suitor, richer than 
the poet ; whereuj'on Archilochus wrote so bitter a satire on the old man's avarice, that he 
hanged himself. Herodotus. 

IBERIA. See Georgia. 

ICE. Galileo was the first to observe ice to be lighter than the water which composed 
it, and therefore to float : about 1597.* See Congelatinn, where is noticed the ice-making 
machines of Harrison and of Siebe. In 1841 there were sixteen companies in Boston, U.S., 
engaged in exporting ice, brought from Wenham, Fresh, and Spy Ponds, about 18 miles 
from that city. The trade was begun by Mr. Tudor in 1806. 156,540 tons Avere sent from 
Boston alone in 1854. In New York, in 1855, 305,000 tons were stored up, of which 20,000 
were for exportation. 

ICELAND (North Sea), discovered by Norwegian chiefs, about S61 ; according to some 
accounts, it had been previously visited by a Scandinavian pirate. It was peopled by the 
Norwegians in 874, and has belonged to Denmark since 1397. Christianity was introduced 
about 996 ; and protestantism about I55i.t 

"ICH DIEN," I serve, the motto under the plume of ostrich feathers found in the 
helmet of the king of Bohemia after he was slain at the battle of Cressy, at which he served 
as a volunteer in the French army, Aug. 26, 1346. Edward the Black Prince, in veneration 
of his father, Edward III., who commanded that day, though the prince won the battle, 
adopted this motto, which has ever since been borne with the feathers, by the heirs to the 
crown of England ; but not as prince of Wales, which many have erroneously maintained. 



* Revelation and other properties, exhibited by professor Faraday, in 1850, are still the subject of inves- 
tigation by eminent physicists of the present day, especially Tjmckxll, J. D. Forbes, and Wm. Thomson.^ 

t In 17B4-5. there occurred here the most tremendous volcanic eruption on record ; it was accompanied 
by violent wind and rain, and a darkness of the heavens ; and it was feared that the island would faU to 
pieces. Three fire-spouts broke out on Mount Skapta, which, after rising to a considerable height in the 
air, formed a torrent of red-liot lava that flowed for six weeks, and ran a distance of 60 miles to the sea, in 
a broken breadth of nearly 12 miles ; 12 rivers were dried uji ; 21 villages totally overwhelmed by fire or 
water ; and 3-4 others were materially injured. See Ueda. 



ICH 



381 



ILL 



ICHNOLOGY, the science of footprints, treats of the impressions made in mud or sand 
hy the animals of former ages. Dr. Duncan first discovered the footprints of a tortoise in 
the sandstone of Annaudale, in 1828 ; since then numerous discoveries have been made by 
Owen, Lyell, Huxh'y, and others. 

ICHTHYOLOGY, the science of fish. Eminent writers are "Willoughby, Kay, Valen- 
ciennes, Cuvicr, Owen, Agassiz, &c. Yarrell's " Britisli Fishes" (1S36-59) is a classical 
worlv. See Fish. 

ICONIUM (Syria). Here Paul and Barnabas preached, 38. Soliman the Seljnk founded 
a kingdom here in 1074, which lasted till 1307, when it was conquered by the Turks. It had 
been subdued by the Crusaders in 1097 and 1190. See Konieh. 

ICOXOCLASTS (image-breakers). The controversy respecting images (which had been 
introduced into churches for popular instruction about 300) was begun about 726, and occa- 
sioned many insurrections in the Eastern Empire. Leo Isauricus published tivo edicts for 
demolishing images in churches in that year, and enforced them with great rigour in 736. 
The defenders of images were again persecuted in 752 and 761, when Constantine forbade 
his subjects becoming monks. The worship of images was restored by Irene in 780. Tliis 
schism was the occasion of the second council of Nice, 787. Theophilus banished all the 
painters and statuaries fronr the Eastern Empire, 832. The Iconoclasts were finally excom- 
municated in £69. This controversy led to the separation of the Greek and Latin churches. 
In the contests between the Iconoclasts and their opponents thousands perished. — Many 
images in clmrches were destroyed in England and Scotland during the Reformation and the 
Civil war, 1641-8. 

IDAHO, a northern "territory" of the United States of North America, was organised 
as such on March 3, 1863. 

IDES, in the Roman calendar, the thirteenth day of each month, except in March, May, 
Jul}', and October, in which it was the fifteenth day ; in these four it was six days before 
the nones, and in the other months four days. The Ides of March was the day ou which 
Julius Csesar was assassinated in the senate house by Brutus, Cassius, Casca, and other 
conspirators, 44 B.C. 

IDIOTS. About 1855 there were in England, exclusively of lunatics, pauper idiots, or 
idiots protected in national institutions, males, 3372 ; females, 3893 ; total, 7265. For 
laws relating to idiots, see Lunacy. The Idiot Asylum at Earlswood, near Reigate, Surrey, 
began in 1847. 

IDOLS. The public worship of idols was introduced by Ninus, king of Assyria, 2059 B.C. 
Vossias. Images arc mentioned in Gen. xxxi. 19, 30, 1739 b.c. The Jews frecjuently deserted 
the worship of God for idols till their captivity, 588 B.C. Constantine, emperor of Rome, 
ordered all the heathen temples to be destroyed, and all sacrifices to cease, a.d. 330. 
Dufrcsnoy. The Saxons re-established idolatry in 473. It gave way in Britain, after the 
coming of Augustin, 599. See Iconoclasts, Week. 

IDSTEDT (N. Germany). Here the insurgent army of Holstein and Schleswig was 
defeated by the Danes, Jirly 25, 1850. 

IDUM^EA, the coimtry of the Edomites, the descendants of Esau, the brother of Jacob : 
see Gen. xxxvi., Josh. xxiv. 4. 



The Edomites prevent the Israelites from passing 

through their coiuiti-y . . . .B.C. 1453 
They are subjugated by David . . . . 1040 
They revolt against Ahaziah, 892 ; and are se- 
verely defeated by Amaziah . . . . 827 



They join the Chaldseans against Judah, and 
are anathematized in Psalm cxxxvii. about 

John Hyrcanus, the Maccabee, subjugates and 
endeavoui-s to incorporate them with the Jews 

Herod the Great, sou of ^Viitipater an Indumwan, 
king of Judrea 



ILIUM (Asia Minor). A city was built here by Dardanus, and called Dardania, 1480 b.c, 
Tvoyiivhich see\ another citj', was founded by Troas, about 1341 B.C. ; and Ilus, his successor, 
called the country Ilium. 

ILLINOIS, a western state of North America, was settled in 1749, and admitted into the 
Union Dec. 3, 1818. Capital, Springfield. 

ILLUMINATED BOOKS. The practice of adopting ornaments, drawings, and emble- 
matical figru-es, and even portraits, to enrich MSS., is of great anti(juity. Yarro wrote the 



ILL 



3S2 



IMP 



lives of 700 illustrious Eomans, which he embellished Avith their likenesses, about 70 B.C. 
Plin. Nat. Hist. Some beautiful missals and other works were printed iu the 15th and i6th 
centuries, et scq. ; and fine imitations have lately appeared. 

ILLUMINATI, heretics who sprang np in Spain, where they were called Alurabrados, 
abont 1575. After their suppression in Spain, they appeared in France. One of their 
leaders was friar Anthony Buchet. Their chief doctrine was that they obtained grace and 
perfection by their snblinie manner of prayer. A secret society bearing this name, opposed 
to tyranny and priestcraft, was founded at Ingoldstadt, Bavaria, by Dr. Adam Weishaupt, 
in Maj', 1776, and was suppressed in 1784-5. 

ILLUSTRATED LONDON NEWS, the earliest publication of the kind, established by 
Mr. Herbert Ingram, M.P., first appeared on May 14, 1842. Mr. Ingram was drowned in 
Lake Michigan Sept. 8, i860. 

ILLYRIA (now Dalmatia, Croatia, and Bosnia), after several wars (from 230 B.C.) was 
made a Roman province, 167 B.C. In 1S09 Napoleon I. gave the name of Illyrian provinces 
to Carniola, Dalmatia, and other provinces, then part of the French emjiire, now Carinthia, 
Carniola, &c. 

IMAGE WORSHIP. See Iconoclasts. 

IMMACULATE CONCEPTION. See Conception. 

IMMORTALS (Greek, athanatoi), the flower of the Persian army, limited to 10,000 in 
number, and recruited from the nobility alone, about 500 B.C. The name was also given to 
the body-guard of the emperors at Constantinople in the 4th and 5th centuries. 

IMPEACHMENT. The first impeachment by the commons house of parliament, and 
the fir.st of a lord chancellor, Michael de la Pole, carl of Suffolk, was in 1386. By statute 
12 & 13 Will. & Mary it was enacted tJiat no pardon under the great seal shall be pleaded to 
an impeachment by the commons in parliament, 1700. 

Impeachment of 'Warren Hastings, Feb. 13, 178S, to 

April 25, 1795 : an acquitfal. 
Impeachment of lord Melville, April 29 ; acquittal, 

June 12, 1806. 
Inquiry into the charg'e.s preferred by colonel Wardle 

again-st the duke of York, Jan. 27 to March 20, 

1S09 : acquittal. 

niPEEIAL GUARD of France, was created by Napoleon from the Guard of the Con- 
A-ention, the Directory, and the Consulate, when he became emperor in 1804. It consisted 
at first of 9775 men, but was afterwards enlarged. It was subdivided in 1809 into the old 
and young guard. In Jan. 1814, it numbered 102,706. It was dissolved by Louis XVIII. 
in 1815, but revived'by Napoleon III. in 1854. It took part in the Crimean war in 1855. 

IMPERIAL PARLIAMENT. Sec Commons, Lords, Parliament, and Reform. 

IMPORTS OF MEBcnANDiSE. The vast progressive increase of our commercial inter- 
course with other countries : — 

VALUE OF IMBORTS INTO GREAT BRITAIN, FKOM ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD. 



Trial of Caroline, queen of George IV., by bill of 
pains and penalties, before the house of lords, 
commenced Aug. 16 ; Mr. Brougham entered on 
her ni.ijesty's defence, Oct. 3 ; and the last debate 
on the bill took place Nov. 10, 1820. See Queen 
Caroline. 



In 1710 . 


• £4,753,777 


In 


1820 . 


• .£36,514,564 


In 


1856 . 


. ..£172,544,154 


1750 . 


. . 7,289,582 




1830 


• 46,245,241 




1857 . 


. 187,844,441 


177s • 


. 14,815,855 




1840 


. . 62,004,000 




1859 . 


. . 179,182,355 


1800 


• . 3°, 570.605 




1845 


. 85,281,958 




1 861 


• 217.485,024 


t8io . 


. 41,136,13s 




1850 . 
1851 


. . 95,252,084 
• 103-579.582 




1S64 . 


• . 274,863,924 



IMPOSTORS. The names and pretensions of religions, political, and other impostors 
Avould fill a volume ; they have been of every country, of every age. The following are 
among the most extraordinary : — 



Aldebert, a Gaul, who, in 743, pi-etended he had a 
letter from the Redeemer, -which fell from heaven 
at Jerusalem ; he .seduced multitudes to follow 
him into woods and forests, and to live in imita- 
tion of John the Baptist. He was condemned by 
a council .it Homo in 745. 

JIahomet promulgated his creed, 604. See Mahome- 
tanism. 

Gonzalvo Martin, a Spaniard, pretended to be the 
angel Michael in 1359 ; he was burnt by the in- 
quisition in Spain in 1360. 



George D.avid, son of a watcrm.in at Ghent, styled 
himself the son of God, sent into the world to 
adopt children wortliy of heaven : he denied the 
resurrection, iireacbed against marriage, in favour 
of a community of women, and taught that the 
body only could be defiled by sin ; he had many 
followers ; died at Basle, 1556, promising to rise 
again in three years. 

Otrefief, a monk, pretended to be Demetrius the son 
of Ivan, czar of JIuscovy, whom the usurjier Boris 
had put to death ; he maintained that another 



IMP 



383 



INC 



IMPOSTORS, continued. 

child liad boon siibrtitntcd in liis place : he v.-as 
siipportcd by the arms of Poland; his siicccss 
astonished the Russians, who mvitcd him to the 
throne, and delivered into liis hands, Feodor, the 
reigning; czar, and all his family : his imposition 
being discovered, he was assassinated in his palace, 
1606. 
Sabbata Levi, a Jew of Smyrna, amused the Turks 
and Jews a long time at Constantinople and other 
jilaces, by personating our Saviour, 1666. 

IMPOSTOnS EXTRAOnDI^JARY IN BRITISH HISTORY. 

A ni.an pretending to be the Messiah, and a woman 
assmning t(j bo the Virgin Mary, were burnt, 1222. 

In 1487, Lambert Simnel, tutored by Richard Simon, 
a i>rifst, supported by the duke of Burgundy, 
personated the earl of Warwick. Simnel's army 
was defeated by Henrj- VII., and he was made a 
scullion in the king's kitchen. 

For Perkin Warbeck's imposture in 1492, see War- 
lieck. 

Elizabeth Barton, styled the Holy Maid of Kent, 
spirited up to hinder the Reformation, by pretend- 
ing to inspirations from heaven, foretelling that 
the king would have an c^irlj' and violent death if 
he divorced Catherine of Spain, and married Anne 
Boleyn. She and her;eonfedei'ates were hanged at 
Tyburn, 1534. 

I" 1553 (fir.styear of M.ary's reign, after her mariiage 
with Philip of Spain), Elizabeth Croft, a girl 18 
years of age, was secieted in a wall, and with a 
whistle, made for the purpose, uttered many 



seditious speeches again.st the queen ,and the 
jn-ince, and also against the mass and confession, 
for which she did penance. 

William llaclcet, a fanatic, personated our Saviour, 
and was executed for blasphemy, 1591. 

Valentine Greatrix, an Irish impostor, who pretended 
to cure all diseases by stroking the patient : his 
impostvire deceived the credulous, .and occasionecl 
very warm disputes in Ireland and England about 
i656. Bo.vle and Flamsteed believed in him. 

Dr. Titus Oate.s. See Oafes. 

Robert Young, a prisoner in Newgate, forged the 
hands of the eails of Marlborough, Salisburj^ and 
other nobility, to a pretended association for re- 
storing king James : the lords were imprisoned, 
but the imposture being detected, Young was fined 
1000/. , and put in the pillory, 1692. He was after- 
wards hanged for coining. 

Three French refugees pretend to be prophets, and 
raise tumults ; convicted as impostors, Nov. 1707. 

Mary Tofts of Godalmiug, by pretending she bred 
rabbits within her, so imposed upon many jiersons 
(among others, Mr. St. Andre, surgeon to the 
king), that they espoused her cause, 1726. 

The Cock-lane ghost imposture by William Parsons, 
his wife, and daughter, 1762. See Cock-lane Ohost. 

Johanna Southcote, who proclaimed her conception 
of the Jlessi.ah, and had a multitude of followers ; 
.she died. Dee. 27, 1814. 

W. Thorn. See T/iomiles. 

Joseph Smith. See Moriaoyiites. 



IMPRESSMENT of Seamkn, affirmed by sir M. Foster to be of ancient practice. The 
statute 2 Rich. II. speak-s of impressment a.s a matter well known, 1378. The tir.st com- 
luission for it was issued 29 Edw. HI. 1355. Pres.sing, either for the sea or land service, 
declared to be illegal by the British parliament, Dec. 1641. Impressment was not resorted 
to in the Russian war, 1854-5. 

IMPRISONMENT for DEBT. See Arrests, Debtors, and Fcrrars' Arrest. 

IMPROPRIATION (applying ecclesiastical property to lay purposes). On the suppression 
of abbeys in 1539, their incomes from the great tithes were distriltuted among liis courtiers 
by Henry VIII. ; and their successors constitute 7597 lay impropriators. 

INCENDIARIES. The punishment for arson was death by the Saxon laws and Gothic 
constitutions. In the reign of Edward I. incendiaries were burnt to death. This crime was 
made high treason l>y statute 8 Hen. VI. 1429 ; and it was denied benefit of clergy, 21 
Hen. VIII. 1528. Great incendiary fires commenced in and about Kent, in Augu.st, 1830; 
and in Suffolk and other counties since. The punishment of death was remitted, except in 
special cases, in 1827. The acts relating to arson were amended in 1837 and 1844. 

INCH. See Standard. The length was defined in 1824 by the declaration by act of 
parliament, that 39'I3929 inches is the length of a seconds pendulum in the latitude of 
London, vibrating in vacuo at the sea level, at the temperature of 62° Fahrenheit. 

INCOME TAX. In 15 12, parliament granted a subsidy of two-fifteenths from the 
commons, and two -tenths from the clergy, to enable the king to enter on a war with France. 
JlnpUi. In 1798, Mr. Pitt proposed and carried, amid great opposition, increased taxes 
"as an aid for the prosecution of the war" with France. On Jan. 9, 1799, this act was 
repealed, and graduated duties on income imposed, beginning with 60I. per annum. On 
Aug. II, 1803, was passed the "property tax," which levied a rate of 5 per cent, on 
ail incomes above 150/. and lower rates on smaller incomes. In 1805, it was increased to 6^ 
])er cent. ; and in 1806, was raised to 10 per cent., embracing the dividends at the bank. It 
jtroduced — 



In 1800 
In 1804 



£5,716,572 I In 1805 
4,650,000 I lu 1S06 



^5>937.5°o I Iri 1S08 
11,500,00c I In 1815 



£16,5.18,985 
14.978,557 



Tlie tax produced from lands, houses, rcntagcs, <tc., 
81657,937?. ; from funded and stock properties, 
2,885,505/.; the profits and gains of trade, 



3,831.088?. ; and s.alaries and pensions, 1,174,456?. 
Repealed Jl.arch, 1S16. 
Sir Robert Peel's bill imposing the present tax at a 



INC 



3Si 



IKD 



INCOME TAX, continued. 



rate of 7^. in the pound (2?. i8s. 4d. per cent.) per 
(nin. to subsist for three years, passed June 22, 

It produced about 5,350,0002. a-year; and enabled sir 
Robert Peel to repeal about 12,000, oooi. of indirect 

Renewed for three years in March, 1845 : and March, 
1848.* 

Continued for one year in 1851 and 1852. 

The tax of jd. limited to seven years (till 1S60) ; to 
be gradually reduced in amount ; but all incomes 
from ico'. to 150/. made liable to sd. in the pound 
for all that period : the tax also extended to 
Ireland, June, 1S53. 

In consequence of the Crimean -war, the rate was 
doubled, 1854, 14^. 

2rf. more added to the tax on incomes above 150;., 
and ijc?. on those between 100/. and i5o(. ; the 
former being is. ^d., the latter izid. in the pound, 

The 'former assessment reduced to jd., the latter to 

5<^. 1857. 
Both become 5'7., 1858. 
The former raised to gd. , the latter to 6id. ; and the 



tax on incomes, derived from lands, tenements, 

&c., raised from ^j^d. to sirf. for England, and 

from 2 it/, to 4d.. for Scotland and Ireland, July, 

1859. 
The assessment on incomes raised— to those above 

ioo(. to -/d. ; to those above 150?. to lod. 
[The oliject of the increase Wi.s to provide for a 

deficiency occasioned by extra expenditure for do- 
fending the country, April, i860.] 
A committee to inquire into the working of the 

income tax appointed, Feb. 14, 1861. 
Reduction of the last as.sessment from yd. to 6d., 

and from lod. to gd. for three-quarters of the 

financial year 1861-2. 
The rates of 6(1'. and gd. to continue, April 1862. 
The rate of yd. on all chargeable incomes ; 3^'- fw 

farms, &c., in England ; and 2^d. in Scotland and 

Ireland. Incomes under,. lool. a-year exempted ; 

those above loo^ and under 200/. allowed an 

abatement on 60I., June 8, 1863. 
The rate of 6d. on chargeable incomes, with some 

exemptions and abatement, May 13, 1864. 
The rate of 4(;. on chargeable incomes, with same 

exemptions and abatement, May, 1865. 



PRODUCE OF THE INCOME TAX. 



1842 . . . . £571,055 

1844 5.i9i>597 

1846 .... 5,395,391 

1852 5,509,637 

1855 (March 31) . . 10,642,621 



1856 (March 31) . 
1857 



£15,070,958 
16,089,933 
11,586,115 
6,683,587 
9,596,106 



1861 (March 31) 

1S62 ,, 

1863 

1864 ,, 



. £10,923,186 
10,365,000 
10,567,000 
9,084,000 
7,958,000 



INCUMBERED ESTATES. See Encumhcrcd Estates. 



INCURABLES. The Royal Hospital for incurables, fumuled by Dr. Andrew Reed, at 
Carslialton in Surrey, in 1850, lias since been removed to Putney. 

INDEMNITY BILL, by which the minister of the crown or the government generally, 
is relieved from the responsibility of measures adopted in extreme and urgent cases, without 
iMixA-ious sanction of parliament. One was passed April 19, 1801 ; another to indemnify 
min sters against their acts during the su.spension of the Habeas Conms ^.,i^j^^ '^TL'^ 
Sie commons (principal divisions, 190 to 64) ; and in the lords (93 to 27) j.^arcdi ic^^ 1818 
In 1848 and iS^y, bills of indemnity were passed for the suspension ot the bank Lliaitti 
.ct bv the ministry. See Oblivion. An indemnity bill is passed at the em of eveiT session 
of parliament for persons who transgress through ignorance ot the law. The practice began 

in 1715- 

INDEPENDENTS or Coxgregationalists, hold that each church or congi-cgation is 
independent of all others, and may govern itself in religious matters. They say there is no 
absolute occasion for synods or councils, whose resolutions may be taken to be wise and 
TCudent advice, but not as decisions to be peremptorily obeyed ; they aftirm that one eliurcli 
may advise or reprove another, but has no authority to excommunicate or cen.sure. Robert . 
Brown preached these views in 1585, but, alter 32 imy^risonmcnts, he eventually conformed 
to the Established Church. A cliurch was formed in London m 1593, when there were 
20 000 Independents. They were driven by persecution to llolland, where they fomied 
several churches; that at Ley den was under Mr. Robinson, often regarded as the author 
of Independency. In 1616 Henry Jacobs returned to England and founded a meeting-house. 
Cromwell, who was himself of their views, obtained them toleration, m opposition to the 
Presbyterians. The Independents published an epitome of their faith drawn up at a con- 
ference at the Savoy, in i6s8 ; and the Congregational Union of England and Wales formed 
in i8u, published their "Declaration of Faith, Order, and Discipline, m 1833. lu i«Si, 
they had 3244 chapels for 1,067,760 persons in England and Wales. See }\ors1np. Ihe 
first Indepenck-nts in Scotland were the Gla.sites, n-hieh see. The fir.st. Independent church 
in'Ainerica was founded by John Robinson, at Plymouth, New England, m 1620. 

INDEX EXPURGATORIUS, a catalogue of the books prohibited by the church of 
Rome, first made by the inquisitors, and approved by the council of Trent, 1559. Ihe Index 

- Larso meetings assembled in Tra'-algar-sqnare, London, March 6, 7, 1S4S (for the ostensible purpose 
of opposing the Income Tax); rioting ensued, which was soon quelled. 



IND 



385 



IND 



of heretical books, by wliich the reading of tlie Scriptures was forbidden (with certain 
exceptions) to the laity, was coufirmed by a bull of pope Clement VIII. in 1595. Most of 
the celebrated works of France, Si)aiu, Germany, and England, are prohibited. On 
June 25, 1864, Hugo's "Les Miserables" and many other books were added to the number. 

INDIA or HINDOSTAN. The Hindoo histories ascribe their origin to a period ages 
before the ordinary chronologies. A race of kings is mentioned as reigning 2300 B.C., and 
Buddhism is said to have been introduced 956 B.C. Many ancient nations, particularly the 
Tyrians and Egyptians, carried on mucli commerce with India. It was conquered by Darius 
Hystaspes, who formed an Indian satrapj', in 512 B.C., and by Alexander, 327 e.g., and sub- 
sequently the intercourse between India and the Roman empire was much increased. The 
authentic history of Hindostan is reckoned to commence with the conquests of Mahmud 
Ghazni, a. n. 1004. Rcnnell. Sqq Bengal, Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, a.\\(\.Oude, for further 
details.* For the new route to India, see Waghorn. 



Irriiption of the Mahometans, under Mahmud 

Ghazni aboxit 1004 

Extinction of the house of Ghazni, 1186; rule 
of the slave-kings of Delhi, 1206-1288 ; of the 
Khilgis and house of Toghlak, 1288-1412 ; of 
the Syuds, 1412 50 ; of the house of Lodi, 1450-1526 
Patna, or Afghan empire, founded . . . 1205 
Invasion of Genghis Khan, one of the most 
bloody conquerors of the world ; 14,000,000 
of the human race perish by his sword under 
the pretence of establishing the worship of 

one god, 1222 : he died 1237 

The Mogul Tartars, under the conduct of the 
celebrated Timour, or Tamerlane, invade 
Hindostan, and take Delhi ; defeat the Indian 
army, 1397 ; conquer Hindostan, and butcher 

■" 100,000 of its people 1398-9 

The pasage to India discovered by Vasco de 

Gama 1497 

The first European settlement (Portuguese) 

established by him at Cochin (S. coast) . . 1502 
Conquest of the country completed by the 

sultan Baber, foimder of the Mogul empire . 1525 
Reign of his sun Humayun .... 1530-56 
Reign of the illustrious Akbar, the greatest 

prince of Hindostan .... 1556-1605 
Arrival of the English in India .... 1589 

Reign of .Jehanghir 1605-27 

Reign of Shah Jthan 1627-58 

Sevajee establishes the Mahratta power . 1660-80 
Aurungzebe dethrones his father : his dominions 
extend from 10 to 35 degrees in latitude, and 
nearly as much in longitude, and his revenue 
amounts to 32,000,000?. sterling . . 1658-1707 
Shah Alum succeeds Aurungzebe, 1707; killed, 1712 
Jehaunder Shah dethroned and killed . . ,, 

Feruk Shere assassinated 

Invasion of the Persian Nadir Shah or Kouli 
Khan : at Delhi he orders a general massacre, 
and 150,000 persons perish ; carries away 
treasure amounting to i25,ooo,ooo(. sterlmg, 

Mahomed hihah dies 

Defeat of the last impeiial army by the RohiUas, 
[The Mogvil empire now besame merely nominal, 
distinct and independent sovereignties being 
formed by numerous petty princes. The em- 
perors were of no political consequence from 
this period. In 1761, Shah Alum II. attacking 
the English was defeated at Patna. In 1764, 
after the battle of Buxar, he was thrown upon 
the protection of the English, who established 
him at Allahabad. After the victory at Delhi 
in 1803, gen. Lake restored the aged monarch 
to a nominal sovereignty, which descended at 
his death to his son, Akbar Shah. Akbar 



1717 



1739 
1747 
1749 



died in 1837, and was succeeded by the last 
king of Delhi (his .son), who received a pen- 
sion of about 125,000?. per annum. He joined 
the mutiny in 1857 ; was tried in 1858, and 
tran.sported to Rangoon ; died there, Nov. 11, 
1862.] 

BRITISH POWER IN INDI.V 

Attempt made to reach India by the north-east 

and north-west passages 1528 

Sir Francis Drake's expedition . . . . 1579 
Levant company make a land expedition tu 

India 1589 

First adventure from England . . . . 1591 
First charter to the London company of mer- 
chants. (See India Company.) . . . 1600 
Factories established at Surat . . . . 161 2 
Sir Thomas Roe, fii-st English ambassador, 

arrives 1615 

Madras made a presidency 1652 

Bombay becomes an English possession . . 1662 
French company estabhshed . . . . . 1664 
They settle at Pondicherry .... 166S 

Calcutta purchased 1698 

War between the English and French in India 1746-9 
English besiege Pondicherry, the seat of the 
French Government, without success . . 1748 

Clive takes Arcot 1751 

Peace made 1754 

Severndroog and other strongholds of the pirate 

Angria taken .... Feb. 11, 1756 
Capture of Calcutta by Surajah Dowla. (See 

Calcutta and Blackhole) . . . June, ,, 
Calcutta retaken by Clive ; he defeats the 

Soubah at Plassey . . . June 20, 1757 
[Colonel Clive's force was but 3000 men, and 
the Soubah's 50,000. By this victory he ac-j 
quired all Bengal, and numerous conquests 
followed.] 
Fort William, the strongest fort in India, built, ,, 

French successful under Lally . . . 1758 
But lose nearly all their power . . . . 1759 
The French under Lally defeated by sir Eyre 

Coote near Wandewash . . . July 2, 1760 
Hyder Ali acquires the sovereignty of Mysore . 1761 
Conquest of Patna .... Nov. 6, 1763 
Battle of Buxar (if/ac/i s«) . . . Oct. 23, 1764 
The nabob becomes subject to the English . 1765 
Lord Clive obtains the Dewanny by an imperial 
grant, which constitutes the company the 
receivers of the revenue of Bengal, Bahar, 
and Orissa, and gives the British the virtual 
sovereignty of these countries . Aug. 12, ,, 
Treaty with Nizam Ali : the English obtain the 
Northern Cu'cars . . . Nov. 12, 1766 



Hyder Ali ravages the Camatic 



Jan. 1769 



* British India extends from 8° to 34° N. lat. and from 70° to 90° E. long, (exclusive of the Burmese 
additions). The population is about 50 millions ; that of the whole peninsula about 176 millions. Cotton 
was planted in 1839, and the tea-plant in 1834. Railways and the electric telegraph are being rapidly 
constructed, and canals for irrigation. See Ganges Canal. The Indian revenue in the year 1854-5 '^^'■^ 
20,371, 45o(. The expenditure, 22,915,160?. In 185S-9, the revenue was 36,060,78s?. ; expenditure, 49,642,359?. 

C C 



IND 



386 



IND 



INDIA, continued. 

Frightful famine in Bengal 1770 

Warren Hastings governor of Bengal, April 13, 1772 

Treaty with Bhootau 1774 

India Bill : supreme court established. (See 

India Bills) 1773 

Accusations commence against Warren Has- 
tings ; he is accused of taking a bribe from a 
concubine of Meer JaflBer. (See Hastings ) 

May 30, 1775 
Nuncomer, a Brahmin, accuses Warren Has- 
tings of receiving bribes . . March II, 1776 
Is hanged for forgery . . . Aug. 5, ,, 
Pondicherry taken . . , . Oct. 11, 1778 
The strong fortress of GwaUor taken by Major 

Popham Aug. 4, ,, 

Hyder Ali overrun the Carnatic, and defeats 

the Bi-itish Sept. 10, 1780 

He takes Arcot Oct. 31, ,, 

Hyder Ali defeated by sir Eyre Coote, July i, 1781 
Warren Hastings accused of taking more bribes. 

(See Clianar) .... Sept. ig, ,, 

Bussy lands with a French detachment, March, 1 782 
War with Hyder Ali aided by the French . . „ 
Hyder Ali overthrown by Coote . . June 2, ,, 
Death of Hyder, and accession of hi.s son, 

Tippoo Saib Dec. 11, ,, 

Tippoo, who had taken Cuddalore, now takes 

'' Bednore April 30, 17S3 

Pondicherry restored to the French, and Trin- 

comalee to the Dutch ,, 

Peace with Tippoo . . . March 11, 17S4 

War with Tippoo renewed ... . . 1790 
Coniwallis defeats him at Arikera . May 15, 1791 
Bangalore taken. (See Bangalore) March 21, „ 
Definitive treaty with Tippoo ; his two sons 

hostages March 19, 1792 

Civil and criminal courts erected . . . 1793 

Pondicherry again taken „ 

Tippoo's sons restored . . March 29, 1794 

First dispute with the Burmese ; adjusted by 

general Erskine 1795 

Government of lord Moruington, afterwards 

marquess Wellesley . . . May 17, 1798 
Seringapatam stormed by general Baird ; 
Tippoo Saib killed .... May 4, 1799 

Mysore divided June 22, „ 

Victories of the British ; the Carnatic con- 
quered 1800 

The nabob of Furruckabad cedes his ten itories 

to the EngUsh for a pension . June 4, 1802 

Mahrattawar. Victories of sir Arthur Wellesley 

and general Lake 1803 

WeUesley's first great victory, at Assaye, 

Sept. 23, ,, 
Pondicherry (restored 1 801) retaken . Dec. ,, 

War with Holkar 1804-5 

Capture of Bhurtpore, and complete defeat of 

Holkar April 2, 1805 

The marquess dies .... Oct. 5, ,, 
The Mahratta chief, Scindiah, defeated by the 

Briti-sh ; treaty of peace . . Nov. 23, ,, 
Treaty with Holkar .... Deo. 24, ,, 
Sepoy mutiny at Vellore ; 800 executed, July, 1806 
Cumoona surrenders . . . Nov. 21, 1807 

Mutiny at Seringapatam quelled . Aug 23, 1S09 

Act opening the trade to India . . Julj', 1813 

War with Nepaul 1814-15 

Holkar defeated by sir T. Hisloj} . Dec. 21, 1817 
Pindaree war. English successful . . 1817-18 
Peace with Holkar .... Jan. 6, 1818 
Murmese var. The British take Rangoon, May 5, 1824 
Lord Combermere commands in India . . . ,, 
Jlalacca ceded, and Sincapore purchased . . „ 



Mutiny at Barrackpore, many sepoys killed, 

-Nov. 1824 
General Campbell defeats the Burmese near 

Proome Dec. 25, 1825 

Bhurtpore stormed by Combermere, Jan. 18, 1826 
Peace with the Bumiese . . . Feb. 24, ,, 
[They pay i,ooo,oooL sterling, and cede a gi-eat 

extent of territory.] 
Abolition of svittees, or the burning of widows. 

(See Suttees) Dec. 7, 1829 

Act opening the trade to India, and tea trade, 

&.C., to China, forming a new era in Britisli 

commerce Aug. 28, 1835 

Rajah of Coorg deposed ; Coorg annexed, 

April 10, 1834 
The natives first admitted to the magistracy, 

May I, „ 
The Nawab Shunsoodden put to death for the 

murder of Mr. Frazer, British resident, Oct. 8, 1835 

AFGHAN WAR. 

Proclamation against Dost Mahomed . Oct. i, 183S 
The British occupy Candahar . April 21, 1839 
Battle of Ghiznee ; victory of sir John (now 

lnrd)Keane. (fee Ghiznee) . . July 23, ,, 
Wade forces the Khyber pass . . July 26, 1839. 
Shah Soujah restored to his sovereignty, and 
he and the British army enter Cabul, Aug. 7, 
English defeat Dost Mahomed . Oct. 18, 1840 
Kun-ock Singh, king of Lahore, dies ; at his 
funeral his successor is killed by accident, 
and Dost Mahomed, next heir, surrenders to 

England Nov. 5, ,, 

General rising against the British at Cabul ; 
sir Alexander Burnes and other officers mur- 
dered Nov. 2, i84r 

Sir William Macnaghten treacherously assassi- 
nated Dec. 25, „ 

The British under a convention evacuate Cabul, 
placing lady Sale, &c., as hostages in the 
hands of Akbar Khan ; a dreadful massacre 
ensues of about 26,000 men, women, and 
children ..... Jan. 6-13, 1842 

The British evacuate Ghiznee . . March 6, ,, 
Sortie from Jellalabad ; general Pollock forces 

the Khyber pass .... April 5, ,, 
Ghiznee retaken by general Nott . Sept. 6, ,, 
General Pollock re-enters Cabul . Sept. 16, ,,, 

Lady Sale, &c., are rescued by sir R. Shak- 
speare, and arrive at general Pollock's camp, 

Sept. 21, ,, 
Cabul evacuated after destroying the fortifica- 
tions ....... Oct. 12, „ 

SCINDE WAR. 

Ameers defeated by sir Charles Napier at 
Meanee ...... Feb. 17, 184-5 

Scinde annexed to the British empire ; sir 
Charles Nai^ier governor . . . June, , , 

GWALIOR WAP. 

Battles of Maharajpoor and Punniar : the 
strong fort of GwaUor, the " Gibraltar of the 
East," taken Dec. 29, ,, 

Danish ijossessions in India purchased . . 1845 

SIKH WAR.* 

The Sikhs cross the Sutlej river, and attack the 
British at Ferozepore . . . Dec. 14, ,, 

Sir H. Hardinge, after a long rapid march, 
reaches Moodkee ; the Sikhs (20,000) make 
an attack ; after a hard contest they retire, 
abandoning their guns (see Moodhe), Dec. i8, „ 



* Runjeet Singh, long the ruler of the Sikhs and the Punjab, lived in amity with the British. After 
his death, June 27, 1839, several of his successors (children and grandchildren) were in turn assassinated. 
During the minority of his grandson Dhuleep Singh, the favourite of the Malia Ranee, Lall Singh, ruled ; 
and finding the ai my ungovernable, sanctioned the unprovoked attack on the British, as given above. 



IND 



387 



IND 



INDIA, continued. 

Battle of Ferozesliab (tc/uV* S'-c) . Dee. 21, 22, 1845 

Battle of Aliwal ; the Sikhs defeated (see 
AUical and Sathj) .... Jmii. 28, 1S46 

Great battle of Sobraon ; the enemy defeated 
with immense Kws (.see Sobt-aoii) . Feb. 10, „ 

Citadel of Lahore occupied by sir Hugh Gough, 
and the war terminates . . . Feb. 20, ,, 

Sir It. Sale dies of his wounds received at 
Jloodkee (Doc. 18, 1845) . . . Feb. 23, „ 

The governor-general and sir Hugh Gough are 
raised to the peerage, as viscount Hardinge 
and baron Gough, and receive the thanks of 
parliament and of the East India company, 

March 2, 6, „ 

Treaty of Lahore signed . . March g, ,. 

Vizier Lall Singh deposed . . . Jan. 13, 1847 

Mr. Vans Agnew and lieut. Anderson killed 
by the troops of the dewan Moolraj, April 21, 1848 

Lieut. Edwardes joins general Courtland, and 
most gallantly engages the armj' of Moolraj, 
which he defeats after a sanguinary battle of 
nine hours, at Kennyi-ee . . . June 18, „ 

General Whish raises the siege of Mooltan 
through the desertion of Shere Singh, Sept. 22, „ 

Shere Singh, entrenched on the right bank of 
the Clienab, with 40,000 men and 28 pieces of 
artillery, major-seneral ThaeV:well crosses the 
river with 13 infantry regiments, with cavalry 
and cannon, and operates on his left flank, 

Nov. 20, ,, 

Lord Gough, meantime, attacks the enemy's 
advanced position ; the British suffered gi'eat 
slaughter, but finally defeated Shere Singh, 
who is driven out of Ramnugger . Nov. 22, ,, 

Victory of Chillianwallah (which see) . Jan. 13, 1849 

Unconditional surrender of the citadel of Mool- 
tan by Moolraj (see iV/oo/^a/i) . . Jan. 22, ,, 

Victory of Goojerat (w/iic7j sef) . Feb. 21, ,, 

Sir Charles Napier appointed commander-in- 
chief March 7, ,, 

The Sikh army surrenders unconditionally, 

March 14, ,, 

Foi-mal annexation of the Punjal) to the 
British dominions ; Dhuleep Singh obtains a 
pension of 40,0001!. .... March 29, , , 

Moolraj sentenced to death for the murder of 
Mr. Agnew and lieut. Anderson, Aug. ; com- 
muted to transportation for life . Sept. ,, 

Sir Charles Napier disbands the 66th Bengal 
native infantry, for muting' . . Feb. 27, 1S50 

Dr. Healy, of the Bengal armj-, and his at- 
tendants, murdered by the Affredis, March 20, , , 

Embassy from the king of Nepaul to the queen 
of Great Britain arrives in England (see 
Nepaul) May 25, ,, 

Resignation of his command in India by sir 
Charles Napier July 2, ,, 

His farewell address to the Indian army, Dec. 15, ,, 

BURMESE WAR. 

Death of Bajee Bao, ex-peishwa of the Mah- 
rattas. [His nephew, Nana Sahib's claim 
for continuance of the pension (8o,ooo^) 
refused.] Jan. 28, 1851 



A British naval force arrives before Rangoon, 
in the Burman enii3ire, and commodore 
Lambert allows the viceroy thirty-five days 
to obtain instructions from Ava . . Oct. 29, 1851 
The viceroy of Rangoon interdicts communica- 
tion between the shore and the British ships 
of war ; and erects batteries to prevent their 

departure Jan. 4, 1852 

[Commodore Lambert blockades the Irawaddy ; 
the Fox, Hermes, etc. , attacked by the bat- 
teries, destroy the fortifications, and kill 
nearly 300 of the enemy.] 
Martaban (April 5), Rangoon (April 14X and 

Bassein, stormed by the Briti.sh . May 19, ,, 
Pegu cap1;ured, afterwards abandoned, June 4, ,, 
Prome captured by capt. Tarleton . July g, ,, 
Pegu recaptured by general Godwin . Nov. 21, ,,, 
Pegu annexed to our Indian empire by pro- 
clamation of the governor-general . Dec. 20, ,, 
Revohition at Ava : the king of Ava dejiosed 

by his younger brother . . . Jan. 1853, 

Rangoon devastated by fire . . Feb. 14, ,, 
Capt. Lock and many officers and men killed 
in an attack on the stronghold of a robber- 
chief, Feb. 3, which is taken by sir J. Cheape, 

March 19, ,, 
First Indian railway opened (from Bombay to 

Tannah) April 16, ,, 

Termination of the war .... June, „ 
New India bill passed . . . Aug. 20, ,, 

Death of general Godwin . . Oct. 26, ,, 

Assassination of captain Latter . . Dec. 8, ,, 
Rajah of Nagpoordies, and his territories fall to 

the E. I. Company .... Dec. 11, ,, 
Opening of Ganges Canal . . ... 1S54 
Opening of the Calcutta railway . Feb. 3, 1855 
Treaty with Dost Mahomed of Cabul, March 31, ,, 
Insurrection of the Sonthals {which see), July, ,, 
AVhich is only finally suppressed . . May, 1856 
Oude annexed (see Oude) . . . Feb. 7, ,, 

MUTINY OF THE NATIVE ARMV. 

Mutinies in the Bengal Army : at Barrackpore, 
&c., several regiments disbanded . March, 1857 

" India is quiet throughout." — Bombay Gazette. 

May I, ,, 

Mutiny at Meerut* (near Delhi). The mutineers 
seize Delhi, where they commit dreadful out- 
rages, and proclaim the king of Delhi emperor 

May 10, (fee., ,, 

Three native regiments disbanded at Lahore by 
the energy of Mr. Montgomery and brigadier 
Corbett, who save the Punjab . May 12, ,, 

Martial law proclaimed by the British lieut. - 
governor, J. R. Colvin . . . May, ,, 

British troops under general Anson advance on 
Delhi ; his death .... May 27, „ 

The mutineers defeated in many attacks 

May 30 — June 23, ,, 

Mutiny at Lucknow . . . Jlay 30, ,, 

Neill suppresses the mutiny at Benares, June 3 ; 
and recovers Allahabad . . June 4, ,, 

Mutiny spreads throughout Bengal : fearful 
atrocities committedt . . . June, ,, 



* On the introduction of the improved (Enfield) musket in the Indian army, greased cartridges had 
been brought from England. These were objected to by the native soldiers, and the issue of them was 
immediately discontinued by orders in Jan. 1857. A mutinous spirit however gi-adually arose in the 
Bengal n.ative .army. In Jiarch several regiments were disbanded, followed by others, till in June the 
army had lost by disbandment and desertion, about 30,000 men. On April 5, a sepoy, and on April 20, a 
jemadar, or native lieutenant, were executed. At the end of Jlay 34 regiments were lost. In April, 85 of 
the 3rd Bengal native cavalry at Meerut refused to use their cartridges. On May 9, they were committed 
to gaol. On Sundav, the loth, a mutiny in the native troops broke out ; they fired on their officers, 
killing col. Finnis .and others. They then released their comrades, massacred many Europeans, and fired 
the public buildings. The European troops rallied and drove them from their cantonments. The muti- 
neers then fled to Delhi, w/iic/t .ste. . 

t At the end of June the native troops at the following places were in open mutiny ; Meerut, Delhi, 
Ferozoporo, Allyghur, Roorkcc, Murdaun, Lucknow, Caicnpore, Nmmrabad, Neemuch, Haim, Hixsar, Jhann, 
Mchidporc, JuUundur, Azimghur, Futtehghur, Jaunpore, Bareilhj, Shahjchanpore, Allahahail. At the 

C C 2 



IND 



388 



IND 



INDIA, co7itinued. 

Native troops disbanded at Mooltan, which is 
saved June ii. 

Ex-king of Oude arrested . . J\me 14, 

Siege of the residency at Lucknow by the 
rebels, commences . . . Julj' i, 

Sir H. Lawrence dies of his wounds at Lucknow, 

July 4, 

The liberty of the press restricted . July 4, 

Sir H. Barnard commanding before Delhi dies 
of cholera, succeeded by general Reed, July 5, 

General Nicholson destroys a large body of 
rebels at Sealcote .... July 12, 

Cawnpore surrenders to Nana Sahib, who kills 
the gaiTison, &c., June 28 ; he is defeated by 
general Havelock, July 16 ; who re-captures 
Cawnpore (See Caicnpore) . . July 17, 

Mutinies suppressed at Hyderabad, July 18; 
and at Lahore .... July 20, 

General Reed retires and Sir Archdale Wilson 
takes the command before Delhi July 22, 

Kevolt at Dinapore : the British repulsed with 
severe loss at Arrah . . . July 25, 

Heroic exertions and numerous victories of 
general Havelock and his army, although 
suffering from disease . July 29, to Aug. 16, 

Lord Canning's so-called "clemency" procla- 
mation Jnlysi) 

Victory of Neill at Pandoo Nuddee . Aug. 15, 

General Nicholson's victory at Nujuffghur [he 
dies Sept. 23] . . . . Aug. 25, 

Assault of Delhi took x)lace Sept. 14 ; the city 

taken, Sept. 20 ; the king captured, Sept. 21 ; 

his son and gi-andson slain by Colonel Hodson 

Sept. 22, 

Sir James Outram joins Havelock and serves 
under him Sept. 16, 

Havelock marches to Lucknow and reheves the 
besieged residency : retires and leaves Outram 
in command ; Neill killed . Sept. 25, 26, 

Colonel Greathed defeats the rebels at Bolund- 
shohur, Sept. 27 ; destroys a fort at Molaghur, 
Sept. 29 ; takes Allyghur, Oct. 5 ; and defeats 
rebels at Agra .... Oct. 10, 

Sir Colin Campbell (since lord Clyde) appointed 
commander-in-chief, July 11 ; arrives at 
Cawnpore Nov 3, 

Marches to Alumbagh, near Lucknow, Nov. 9 ; 
and takes Secunderabagh . . Nov. 16, 

Joined by Havelock, he attacks the rebels and 
rescues the besieged in the i-esidency . 

Nov. 18-25, 

Havelock* dies of dysentery at Alumbagh, 

Nov. 25, 

General Windham (at Cawnpore) repulsed with 
loss in an attack on the rebellious Gwalior 
contingent, who take part of Cawnpore . . 

Nov. 27, 

Sir C. Campbell arrives at Cawnpore, which he 
retakes, Nov. 28 ; and defeats the Gwalior 
rebels ' Dec. 6, 

The rebels defeated by Seaton, Dec. 14, 17, and 
27 ; at Goruckpore by Kowcroft, Dec. 27 ; and 
at Futtehghur by Sir C. Campbell . Jan. 2, 

Lucknow strongly fortified by the rebels, Jan. 

Generals Rose, Roberts, Inglis, and Grant, vic- 
torious in many encounters Jan. and Feb. 

Trial of king of Delhi ; sentenced to transpor- 
tation .... Jan. 27 to March 9, 

Sir C. Campbell marches to Lucknow, Feb. 11 ; 



1857 



the siege commences, March 8 ; taken by 

successive assaults ; the enemy retreat : 

Hodson killed .... March 14-19, 

Severe proclamation of governor-general in 

Oude t March 14, 

General Roberts takes Kotah . March 30, 
Sir Hugh Rose beats the enemy severely, and 

takes Jhansi April 4, 

General Whitelock takes Budaon . April 19, 
Death of captain sir W. Peel, of small-pox, at 

Cawnpore April 27, 

General Penny killed in Rohilcund . May 4, 

Bareilly recaptured .... May 7, 

Sir Hugh Rose defeats the rebels several times 

— at Kooneh, May 1 1, and near Calpee, which 

he retakes May 23, 

Victory of Sir E. Lugard at Jugdespore, Maj- 29, 

The rebels seize Gwalior, the capital of Scindiah, 

who escapes to Agra . . . June 13, 

The rebels defeated by Sir H. Rose (the heroic 

Ranee of Jhansi killed), June 17; Gwalior 

. retaken and Scindiah reinstated . June 19, 

Tantia Topee heads a division of the rebels 

Rajahs of Jeypore, &c., surrender ; Rohilcund 

and other provinces tranquillised . July, 

General Roberts destroys the remains of the 

Gwalior rebels ... . . Aug. 14, 

Many Oude chiefs surrender . . . Aug. 

An attempt of disbanded regiments to re-take 

their arms at Mooltan, suppressed by major 

Hamilton (300 killed on the spot, and 800 

slain or captured afterwards) . . Aug. 31, 

The government of the East India Company ceases, 

Sept. I, 

General Mitchell defeats Tantia Topee, near 
Rajghur . Sept. 15, 

The queen is proclaimed throughout India — 
lord Canning to be the first viceroy Nov. i, 

Campaign in Oude begins ; several chiefs sub- 
mit, others subdued . . Nov. 1-31, 

At Dhooden Khera lord Clyde (formerly sir ' C. 
Campbell) defeats Beni Mahdo . . Nov. 24, 

Flight of Tantia Topee — he is beaten in Guzerat 
by major Sutherland . . . . Nor. 25, 

The ex-king of Delhi sails for the Cape of Good 
Hope, Dec. 4-1 1 ; the colonists refuse to re- 
ceive him ; he is sent to Rangoon . . . 

Brigadier John Jacob dies at Jacobabad (greatly 
lamented) Dec. 6, 

Indecisive skinnishes with Ferozeshah Dec. 

Who joins Tantia Topee ; they are defeated in 
several small engagements . . . . Jan. 

Enforcement of the Disarming Act in the 
, north-west provinces .... Jan. 

The Punjab made a distinct presidency, Jan. i, 

Rebels completely expelled from Oude ; they 
enter Nepaul ..... Jan. 

Guerilla warfare continues in Rohilcund, Feb. 

Tantia Topee hemmed m ; deserted by his 
troops, about ..... Feb. 25, 

Defeat of the Begum of Oude and Nana Sahib 
by general Horsfoi-d . . . Feb. 10, 

The new Indian tariff creates much dissatisfac- 
tion March, 

Maun Singh surrenders . . . April 2, 

Tantia Topee taken, April 7 ; hanged, April 18, 

Thanksgiving in England for pacification of 
India May i. 



1859 



stations printed in italics, European women and children were massacred. — The Relief Fund for the sufferers 
in India was commenced Aug. 25, 1857. The queen, Louis Napoleon, and the sultan, gave each 1000?. In 
Nov, 1857, 280,749'. had been collected ; in Nov. 1858, 433,620?. In Dec. 1861, 140,000?. had been distributed 
to sufferers in India ; and ioo,ooo(. to those at home ; 246,069?. remained for the benefit of widows and 
orphans. A Fast was obsei-ved on Oct 7. 

* Born April 5, 1795 ; educated at the Charterhouse, London, where he was called "old Pklos ;" went 
to India, 1823 ; served in the Burmese war, 1824 ; and in the Sikh war, 1845. He was a Baptist. 

t Lord EUenborough, the minister for India, sent, unknown to his colleagues, a despatch severely 
censuring this proclamation. This despatch became public and led to his resignation and very nearly to 
the defeat of the ministry, a vote of censure being moved for in both houses of parliament, but not carried. 



IND 



389 



IND 



INDIA, continued. 

Mutinous conduct of British troops lately in 
the company's service at Meerut and other 
places ; dissatisfied on account of their trans- 
fer to the Queen's service without bounty, 

May 5, 

Sir Hope Grant defeats Nana Sahib in the 
Jorwah pass May 23, 

A court of inquiry appointed . . J une. 

Sir Charles Wood becomes secretary for India, 

June 22, 

Dissatisfaction among the troops at their trans- 
fer from the service ot the company to that 
of the crown, without a bounty, settled by 
discharge being offered to them — which about 
10,000 accept July, 

Thanksgiving day observed in India July 28, 

An income tax bill (called " The Trades' and 
Professions' licensing Bill ") passes the legis- 
lative council ; great meetings at Calcutta 
and Madras protesting against it . Sept. 

R,ijah Jey-loU Singh hanged . . Oct. i, 

Nana Sahib, in force, in Nepaul on the fron- 
tiers of Oude Oct. 

Insurgents in Nepaul dispersed . Dec. 24, 

Important financial changes made by Mr. 
James Wilson, new finance secretary . Feb. 

Company formed to obtain cotton, tlax, &c., 
from India March, 

Pajser currency determined on . March, 

Bahadoor Khan, e.x-king of Bareilly, hanged 
for murders caused by him . . March 2, 

Sir Charles Trevelyan recalled from Madras, for 
publishing a government minute against Mr. 
Wilson's commercial scheme . . May, 

Sir Hugh Rose takes command of the Indian 
army, which is amalgamated with the British 
army July, 

Lord Clyde quits India, and arrives in London, 

July 18, 

Lord Canning's recommendation that the 
adopted successors of Indian princes should 
be recognised is adopted by the home govern- 
ment July 21, 

Deatli of sir H. Ward, the new governor at 

Madras, Aug. 3 ; and of Mr. James Wilson, 

Aug. II, 

Nana Sahib, supposed to have died of jungle 
fever in Aug. 1858 ; is said to be living in 
Tibet Dec. 

Mutiny of stii European regiment at Dinapore, 
suppressed ; breaks out again, Oct. 5 ; is again 
sui^pressed, one man is shot, and the regiment 
disbanded Nov. 13, 

British troops repulsed at Sikkim . Nov. 

Agitation against the income tax suppressed at 
Bombay and other places . . . Dec. 

Great excitement against sir Charles Wood's 
grant of 520,000!. to the descendants of Tippoo 
Saib about Dec. 22, 

Jlr. Samuel Laing, successor to Mr. James 
Wilson, arrives .... Jan. 10, 

Awful famine in N. W. provinces through 
failure of the crops : immense exertions of 
the government and others to relieve the 
sufferers Jan. — June, 

E.xpedition marches against Sikkim : natives 
retire Feb. 

Disturbances in the indigo districts continue, 

March, 

Kootoob-ood-deen, grandson of Tippoo Saib, 
murdered by his servants . March 31, 

British subscriptions for relief of the famine 
couimeuce at the Mansion-house, London, 
with 4000/., March 'iS ; 52,000^ subscribed 
April 20; closes with 114,807/. . . Nov. 

Order of the "Star of India" (which see) con- 
stituted June 25, 

Excitement through the printing and circula- 
tion of " Nil Darpan," a Hindu drama libelling 
the indigo planters .... June 



The rev. James Long, the translator, sentenced 
to fine and imprisonment . . . Aug. 

New Indian council and new high court of judi- 
catvire established .... Aug. 

Mr. J. P. Grant, lieut. -governor of Bengal (who 
had authorised the translation of " Nil Dar- 
pan") and Mr. SetonKerr, his secretary (who 
had, without authority, distributed copies) are 
censured and resign .... Sept. 

Law of property in India altered ; sale of waste 
lands authorised Oct. 

Lords Harris and Clyde, sir J. Lawrence, 
Dhuleep Singh, and others invested with the 
insignia of the Star of India by the queen, 

Nov. I, 

Reported prosperity of Indian finances : licence 
tax. not to be reimposed . . . Dec. 31, 

First meeting of the new legislative council 
of India, includes several Indian princes, 

Jan. 18, 

Lord Filgin, the new governor-general, arrives 
at Calcutta March 12, 

Lord Canning arrives at Southampton, April 26 ; 
dies June 17, 

Mr. S. Laing returns to England through ill 
health ; censured by su- C. Wood ; he justifies 
himself and resigns .... July, 

High court of judicature at Bengal inaugurated 

July 12, 

Reported suspension of the sale of waste lands, 

Aug. 

Rao Sahib hanged for murders during the revolt 

Sept. 8, 

Great increase in the cultivation of cotton in 
India, reported Oct. 

Sir Charles Trevelyan, new finance minister, 
arrives Jan. 8, 

Fii'st agricultural exhibition at Calcutta, 
Jan. 19-30, 

Rise of Ram Singh, a fanatic, inN. W. provinces, 

Oct. 

War with warlike hill-tribes on the N. W. fron- 
tiers, Oct. ; severe conflict. Gen. Chamber- 
lain wounded, Nov. 20 ; war ended, Dec. 29, 

The Hindu religion deprived of government 
supjjort Dec. 

Death of Lord Elgin, Nov. 20 ; sir John Law- 
rence appointed his successor . . Dec. 

He assumes office .... Jan. 12, 

Excitement amongst the Hindoos on account 
of government suppressing funeral rites on 
sanitary grounds .... March, 

Prosperous financial statement of sir Charles 
Trevelyan April, 

Mr. Ashley Eden, envoy at Bhocrtan, seized and 

compelled to sign a treaty giving up Assam, 

about April, 

Gold cuiTency (sovereign = 10 rupees) ordered 
to be introduced at Christmas . . July, 

Terrific Cyclone — immense loss of life, property, 
and ships at Calcutta and elsewhere, Oct. 5, 

Grand durbar, held by sir John Lawrence, at 
Lahore; attendance of 604 native princes, 

Oct. 18, 

War with the BhooUmese — fortress of DhaUm- 
cote taken ..... Dec. 12, 

Much commercial speculation at Bombay, Dee. 

The Bhootanese attack on Dewangiri repulsed 
with severe loss .... Jan. 29, 

Opening of the Indo-European telegraish — a 
telegram from Kurrachee received, March i, 

W. Massey succeeds sir C. Trevelyan as finance 
minister; he an-ives at Calcutta, March 31, 

Sir Chai'les Trevelyan declares a large deficit in 
the revenue April i, 

Dewangiri (which had been abandoned) recap- 
tured by gen. Tombs . . . April 2, 

Sir Hugh Rose retires from command of the 
army ; which is a«8umed by sir Wm. Mans- 
field AprU 23, 



1864 



1S65 



IND 



390 



IND 



INDIA, continued. 

Sir Charles Trevelyan's plans reversed by sir C. 

Wood May, 1865 

Death of the able and beneficent hon. Jiiggonath 

Sunkersett, the recognised representative of 

the Hindoo community . . . July 31, „ 
Negotiation vrith the Bhootanese . . July, ,, 
Shipwreck of the Eagle Speed near Calcutta ; 

265 coolies perish through cruel neglect, 

Aug. 24, ,, 
Peace with the Bhootanese signed (telegram) 

Nov. 13, ,, 

GOVERNORS-GENERAL OF INDIA, <fec.* 

Warren Hastings assumes the government in 
India April 13, 1772 

Sir John Macpherson . . . Feb. i, 1785 

Lord Cornwallis .... Sept. 12, 1786 

Sir /ohu Shore (afterwards lord Teignmonth) 

Oct. 28, 1793 

Lord (afterwards marquess) Cornwallis again : 
he relinquished the appointment. 

Sir Alured Clarke .... 

Lord Mornington (afterwards 
WeUesley) . . . . . 

Marquess Cornwallis again 

Sir George Hilaro Barlow 

Lord Minto 



April 6, 1798 
marquess 
. May 17, ,, 

July 30, 1805 
. Oct. 10, ,, 

July 31, 1807 



Earl of Muira, afterwards marquess of Hastings, 

Oct. 4, 1813 
Hon. John Adam .... Jan. 13, 1823 
Rt. hon. George Caiming, relinquished the 

appointment 
William, lord (afterwards earl) Amherst, Aug. i, ,. 
Hon. W. Butterworth Bayley . March 13, 1828 
Lord Wm. Cavendish Bentinck . July 4, ,, 

[This nobleman became the first governor- 
general of India, under the act 3 & 4 Will. 
IV. c. 85 : Aug. 28, 1833.] 
Sir Charles Theophilus Metcalfe (afterwards lord 

Metcalfe) Marcli -o, 1835 

William, lord Heytesbury. Did not proceed. 
George, lord Auckland (afterwards earl of 

Avickland) March 4, 1836 

Edw.ard, lord EUenborough . . Feb. 28, 1842 
William Wilberforce Bird . . . June 15, 1844 
Sir Henry (afterwards viscount) Hardinge, 

July 23, ,, 
James-Andrew, earl (afterwards marquess) of 

Dalhousie Jan. 12, 1848 

Charles John, viscount Caiming, appointed 

July, 1855. (Proclaimed the first viceroy 

throughout India, Nov. i, 1808.) 
James, earl of Elgin, appointed, Aug. 1861 ; died 

Nov. 20, 1863 
Sir John Lawrence appointed . . Dec. ,, 



INDIA COMPANY. The first commercial intercoiir.se of the Engli.sh with the Ea.st 
Indies, was a private adventure of three ships fitted out in 1591. Only one of them reached 
India ; and, after a voyage of three years, the commander, captain Lancaster, Avas brought 
home in another ship, the sailors having seized on his own ; but his information gave rise to 
a mercantile voyage and the company's first charter, in Dec. 1600, which was renewed in 
1609, 1657, 1661, 1693, and 1744. Its stock in 1600 consisted of 72,000/., when it fitted 
out four ships ; meeting with success, it continued to trade. India stock sold at 500?. for a 
share of 100/. in 1683. 

A new company (the " English ") was chartered 
in 1698, and the old (the "London ") suspended 
from trading for three years ; the two were 
united in 1702 

Privileges of the company continued till 1783 . 1744 

Affiiirs of the company were brought before 
parliament, and a committee exposed a series 
of intrigues and crimes . . . Aug. 1772 

As remedial measures, two acts passed (one 
authorised a loan of 1.000,000?. to the ccmi- 
pany ; the other (celebrated as the Itidia bill) 
effected most important changes in the con- 
stitution of the company and its relations to 
India. A governor-general was appointed to 
reside in Bengal, to which the other presi- 
dencies were now made subordinate ; a su- 
premo court of judicature was instituted at 
Calcutta : the salary of the governor was 
fixed at 25,000^ per year ; that of the council 
at 10,000?. each ; and of the chief judge at 
8000'. : the affairs of the company were con- 
trolled ; all the departments were re-organ- 
ised, and all the territorial correspondence 
was henceforth to be laid before the British 
ministry) June, 1773 



1853 



Mr. Pitt's bill appointing the Board of Control 
(ichich ue), pas.sed . . . May 18, 1784 

The company's charter was renewed for 20 years 
in 1793 ; and in (the trade with India thrown 
open) 1813 

The trade to China opened and the Charter re- 
newed till 1854 1833 

The government of India was continued in the 
hands f)f the company till parliament should 
otherwise provide .... 

In consequence of the mutiny of 1857, '^'^^ the 
disappearance of the company's anny, the 
government of India was transferred to the 
crown, the Board of Control was abolished, 
and a Coimcil of State for India instituted by 
the act 21 & 22 Vict. c. 106, which received 
the roj'al assent .... Aug. 2,t 1858 

The company's political power ceased on Sept. 
I : and the queen was proclainaed as Queen 
of Great Britain and the Colonies, &c., in the 
principal places in India, amid much enthu- 
sia.sm Nov. i, 1858 

The East India-Hoqse built 1726 ; enlarged 
and a new front erected, 1799 ; sold with the 
fiiruitvu-e, 1861 ; pulled down in Sept. and 
Oct 1862 



INDIA, Council of, established in 1858 in the place of the board of control (which sec). 
It consists of 15 members (salary 1200^. a-year), eight of whom are appointed by the queen, 

* Sevei-al of these appointments are those of governors-general provisionally, having been first in rank 
in the council, and holdins? oflBce on the resignation of the governors-general, or pending their arrival and 
assumption of the government : as, for instance, sir Alured Clarke, sir George Hilaro Bai-low, hon. William 
Butterworth Bayley, Wdliam Wilberforce Bird, &C. The appoitUments of governors-general were, of course, 
of earlier date than their assumption of ofBce. 

t Lord Palmerston brought in a bill for the purpose on Feb. 12, which was accepted by the house on 
Feb. i8_. He resigned on the following day, and the bill dropped. A similar bill was introduced by Mr. 
Disraeli on March 12 ; but many of its details being objected to, it was withdrawn. On lord John Russell'-s 
proposition, the house proceeded to consider the matter by way of resolutions : on June 17, lord Stanley 
brought in the above mentioned bill, being the third on the subject introduced during the session. 



IXD 391 INF 

and seven elected bj' the directors of the East India company. The members may not sit 
in parliament. The council met first on Sept. 3, 1858, when lord Stanley, secretary of state 
for India, presided. In June, 1859, he resigned, and was succeeded by sir Charles Wood. 
The members of the iirst council arc here recorded : — 



ELECTED. 

Charles Mills. 
John Shepherd. 
Sir ,T. Weir Hogg. 
Elliot Al.aciiasfhten. 
EossD. Mangles. 



William J. Eastwick. 
Henry T. Prinsep. 

APrOINTED. 

Sir Frederick Currie. 
Sir Henry Rawliuson. 



Sir R. Hnssov Vivian. 
J. Pollard Willoughby. 
Sir John Lawrence. 
Sir Henry Montgomery. 
Sir Proby Cautley, and 
Wm. Arbuthnot. 



INDIAN" MUSEUM, The, was ]u-oposed by sir C. Wilkins and approved by the East 
India company in 1798. The valuable collections were removed from Leadeuhall-street to 
Fife House, behind the chapel royal, Whitehall, and opened July 24, 1861. 

INDIANA, a western state of North America, was settled in 1730, and admitted into 
the Union Dec. 11, 181 6. 

INDIANS occupying the south-western parts of the United States, in direct connexion 
with the government in 1861, were numbered at 239,506. The larger tribes are the 
Cherokees (22,000), the Chocktaws (18,000), the Creeks (13,550), and the Chickasaws (5000), 
A large proportion are in comfortable circumstances, and have schools and churches ; other 
tribes are the Delawares, Sacs, Foxes, Sliawnees, Sioux, and loways. AVith regard to the 
North American civil war in 1861, the Choc taws joined the Confederates, who permitted two 
Choctaw delegates to sit in congress ; the first being Sampson Folsom and Eastman Loman ; 
but the principal chief of the Clierokees, on ilay 4, 1861, issued a proclamation of neutrality, 
which was maintained with great difficulty. 

INDIA RUBBER. See Caoutchouc. 

INDICTION, a cycle of tributes orderly disposed for fifteen years, not known before 
the time of Constantine. The first examjiles in the Theodosian code are of the reign of 
Constantius, who died 361. — In memory of the great victory obtained by Constantine over 
Mezentius, 8 Cal. Oct. 312, the council of Nice ordained that the accounts of years should 
be no longer kept by the Olympiads, but by the Indiction, which has its epoclia 313, Jan. i. 
It was first used by the Latin church in 342. 

INDIGO. Its real nature was so little known in Europe, that it was classed among 
minerals, as aippears by letters-patent for erecting works to obtain it from mines in the 
principality of Halberstadt, dated Dec. 23, 1705 ; yet what Viti'uvius and Pliny called 
indicum is .supposed to have been our indigo. Bcckmann. The first mention of indigo 
occurs in English statutes in 1581. Its cultivation was begun in Carolina in 1747. The 
quantity imported into Great Britain in 1840 was 5,831,269 lbs. ; in 1845, 10, i27,4881bs. ; 
in 1850, 70,482 cwt. ; in 1859, 63,237 cwt. ; in 1861, 83,109 cwt. ; in 1864, 76,214 cwt. 
The use of coal-tar dyes will no doubt lessen the consumption of indigo. See Aniline. 

INDIUM,- a metal discovered in the arsenical- pyrites of Freiberg by F. Reich and 
T. Richter in 1863. Its name is due to its giving an indigo blue ray in its spectrum. 

INDUCTION of Electric currents, discovered by Faraday, and announced in his 
" Experimental Researches," pi;blished in 1831-2. Ruhmkorff's magneto-electric induction 
coil was constructed in 1850. 

INDULGENCES for the pardon of sin, commenced by Leo III. about 800, were granted 
in the nth century by Gregory VII., and by Urban II., and others, in the 12th century as 
rewards to the crusaders. Clement V. was the first pope who made public sale of imlul- 
fl'cnces, 1313. In 1517, Leo X. published general indulgences throughout Europe, and the 
resistance to them led to the Reformation. 

INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS ACT, 21 & 22 Vict. c. 48 (1S57) was enacted to make better 
provision for the care and education of vagrant, destitute, and disorderly children. Another 
<act was passed, 1861. Forty-seven of these schools had been certified under these acts, up 
to Sept. 29, 1864. 

INFANTICIDE, Fem.vle, was very prevalent in barbarous countries. Lord ilacartuey 
stated that 20,000 infants were killed annually ; it is now gradually decreasing in India. 
On Nov. 12, 1 85 1, j\Ir. Raikes induced the Chohan chiefs to agree to resolutions against it, 
and a great meeting in the Punjab was held for the same purpose, Nov. 14, 1853. 

INFANTRY, the modern term for foot soldiers, much ^improved during the wars of 



INF 392 mo 

Charles V. and Francis I. in the i6th century. The British army comprised 99 regiments, 
of regular infantry in 1858, when the Canadians raised a regiment ■which is termed the 
lootli. The number, now 109, includes the Indian army. 

INFANT SCHOOLS began in London in 1818. 

INFERNAL MACHINE. See France, 1800— 1835 ; and Baltic, note. 

INFIRMARIES. Ancient Rome had no houses for the cure of the sick. Diseased 
persons were carried to the temple of iEsculapilis for cure, as Christians were taken to 
churches. Institutions for the accommodation of travellers, the indigent, and sick, and the 
first infirmaries or hospitals were built close to cathedrals and monasteries. The emperor 
Louis 11. caused infirmaries situated on mountains to be visited, 855. In Jerusalem the 
knights and brothers attended on the sick. There were hospitals for the sick at Con- 
stantinople, in the i ith century. Tlie oldest mention of physicians and surgeons established 
in infirmaries occurs in 1437. Bechmann. See Hos2nfals. 

INFUSORIA. See Animalcules. 

INGOUR, a river rising in the Cauca.sus and falling into the Black Sea. Omer Pasha, 
inarching to the relief of Kars, crossed this river on Nov. 6, 1855, with 10,000 men, and 
attacked the Russians 12,000 strong, M'ho, after a struggle, retreated with the loss of 400 
men. The Turks had 68 killed and 242 wounded. Kars, however, was not saved. 

INK. The ancient black inks were composed of soot and ivory black, and Vitruvius and 
Pliny mention lamp-black ; but they had ink of various colours, as red, gold, silver, and- 
purple. Red ink was made of vermilion and gum. Indian ink was brought from China, 
and must have been in use by the people of the east from the earliest ages, most of the 
artificial Chinese productions being of very great antiquity. It is usually brought to Europe 
in small quadrangular cakes, and is composed of a fine black and animal glue. Bcckmann. 
Invisible OR Sympathetic inks, fluids which, when written with, will remain invisible until 
after a certain oj^eration, were known at early periods. Ovid (a.d. 2) teaches young women 
to deceive their guardians by writing to their lovers with new milk, and afterwards making 
the writing legible with ashes or soot. Receipts for preparing invisible ink were given by 
Peter Borel, in 1653, and by Le Mort, in 1669. Bcckmann. 

INKERMANN (Crimea). The Russian army (about 40,000) having received reinforce- 
ments, and being encouraged by the presence of tlie granddukes Michael and Nicholas, 
attacked the British (8000) near the old fort of Inkermaun, before daybreak, Nov. 5, 1854. 
The latter kept their opponents at bay for six hours till the arrival of 6000 French. The 
Russians were then driven back, leaving behind 9000 killed and wounded. The loss of 
the allies was 462 killed, 1952 wounded, and 191 missing. Sir George Cathcart, and 
generals Strangways, Goldie and Torrens, were among the slain. On Nov. 15, 1855, an 
explosion of about 100,000 lbs. of gunpowder occurred near lukermann, and caused great 
loss of life. 

INLAND REVENUE OFFICE was constituted in Feb. 1849. It comprises the excise, 
stamps, and taxes. 

INNS OF COURT, Loudon, were established at different periods, in some degree as 
colleges for teaching the law. The Temple was founded, and the church built by the Knights 
Templars, 32 Hen. II. 11 85. The Inner and Middle Temple were made inns of law in the 
reign of Edw. III. about 1340; the Outer not until tlie reign of Elizabeth, about 1560. 
Stoxvs Survey. The following inns were founded, viz. ; — 

Barnard's Inn, an inn of Cliancery , . . 1445 | Lyon's Inn 1420 

Clement's Inn, 18 Edw. IV 1478 New Inn, i Hen. VII 1485 

Clifford's Inn, 20 Edw. Ill 1345 Serjeants' Inn, Fleet street .... 1429 

Fumival's Inn, 5 Eliz 1563 Serjeants' Inn, Chancery -lane . . . . 1666 

Gray's Inn, 32 Edw. Ill 1357 Staples Inn, 4 Hen. V 1415 

Lincoln's Inn, 4 Edw. II. . . . 1310 or 1312 I Thavies' Inn, 10 Hen. VIII 1519 

INOCULATION. See Small Pox. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu introduced inocu- 
lation from small pox to England from Turkey. In 1718 she had her own son inoculated at 
Adrianople, with perfect success ; and she was allowed to have it tried, for the first time in 
England, on seven condemned criminals, 7 Geo. I. 1721. In 1722 two of the royal family 
were inoculated. The practice was preached against by many of the bishops and other 
clergy, from that period until 1 760. Dr. Mead practised inoculation very successfully up to 
1754, and Dr. Dimsdale, of London, inoculated Catherine II., empress of Russia, in 1768. 
Of 5964 who were inoculated in 1797-99, only three died. Inoculation was forbidden by 



INQ 



393 



INS 



law in 1840. Vaccuic inoculation was introduced by Dr. Jenner, Jan. 21, 1799 ; he had 
discovered its virtue in 1796, and had been making experiments during the intermediate 
three years. An hospital for inoculation was erected in 1746. See Sheep.. 

INQUISITION, ou Holy Office. Previous to Crfnstantlne (306), heresy and spiritual 
offences were punished by excommunication only ; but shortly after his death capital 
punishments were added, and inquisitors were appointed by Theodosius, 382. Priscillian 
was put to death about 385. Justinian decreed the doctrine of the four holy synods as to 
the holy scriptures and their canons to be observed as laws, 529 ; hence the penal code 
against heretics. About Soo the power of the western bishops was enlarged, and courts 
were established for trying and punishing spiritual offenders, even with death. In the 12th 
centuiy many heresies arose, and during the crusades against the Albigenses, Gregory IX. in 
1233 established by rales tlie inquisitorial missions sent out by Innocent III. some years 
previously, and committed them into the hands of the Dominicans. Pietro da Verona, the 
first inquisitor who burnt heretics, was assassinated by an accused gonfalonier, April 6, 1252, 
and was afterwards canonized. 



Never firmly established in France ; totally 
abolished by Henry IV. by the edict of Nantes, 
■iSgS. Louis XIV. revoked the edict, but re- 
fused to introduce the Inquisition, 1685. Sup- 
pressed in Spain by Napoleon, Deo. 4, 1808, 
and by the Cortes . . . Feb. 12, 1813 

Restored by Ferdinand VII. . . July 21, 1814 
Finally abolished by the Cortes . . . . 1820 

[Llorente states that in 236 years the total 
amount in Spain of persons put to death by 
the Inquisition was about 32,000; 291,000 
■wei-e subjected to other punishments. The 
last person burnt was at Seville, Nov. 7, 1781, 
being a woman accused of making a contract 
with the devil.] 



INSANITY, See Lunatics. 



The Holy Office was reinstituted in Spain by 

Ferdinand and Isabella 1480 

Nearly 3000 persons burnt in Andalusia, and 

17,000 suffer other penalties . . . . 1481 
' ' Instructions " of the new tribunal promulgated 

Nov. 29, 1484 
New articles were added . . . 1488 & 1498 
The establishment of the Inquisition was re- 
sisted in Naples, and only introduced into 

other parts of Italy with jealous limitations 

by the temporal power .... 1546-7 

New ordinances in 81 articles compiled by the 

inquisitor-general, Valdez 1561 

Camesecchi executed at Rome, 1567, and Galileo 

compelled to abjure his opinions . . . 1634 
The tribunal aboUshed in Tuscany and Lom- 

bardy 1787 

INQUESTS. See Coroner. 

INSOLVENCY. The first insolvent act was passed in 1649, but it was of limited 
operation ; a number of acts of more extensive operation were passed at various periods, and 
particularly in the reign of George III. The benefit of the act known as the Great 
Insolvent Act, was taken in England by 50, 733 insolvents from the time of its passing in 
1814, to March, 1827, a period of thirteen years. Since then the acts relating to insolvency 
have been several times amended. Persons not traders, or being traders whose debts are 
less than 300?., might petition the court of bankruptcy, and propose compositions, and have 
pro km. protection from all process against their persons and property, by 6 Vict. c. 116 
(1842). In 1861, by the New Bankruptcy Act, the business of the Insolvent Debtors' 
court was transferred to the court of bankruptcy ; and a number of imprisoned debtors 
were released in Nov. 1861. 

INSTITUTE OF France. On Oct. 25, 1795, all the Royal Academies, viz., the French 
I academy, the academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres, that of the Mathematical and 
' Physical Sciences, of the Fine Arts, and of the Moral and Political Sciences, were combined 
in one body, under the title of " Institut National," afterwards Roijal, and now Imjierial. 

INSTITUTES. See Code. 

INSTITUTION. See Royal, London, and Civil Engineers. 

INSURANCE ON Ships and Merchandise. Suetonius conjectures that Claudius was 
the first contriver of the insurance of ships, 43. 



Insurance was in general use in Italy, 1194, 

and in England 1560 

Insurance policies first used in Florence . . 1523 
The first law relating to insurance was enacted 1601 
Insurance of houses and goods against Fire, in 
London, began the year following the Great 

Fire of London 1667 

An office was set up for in.suring houses and 
buildings, principally contrived by Dr. Barton, 
one of the first .and most considerable builders 
^^ the city of London >> 



The first regular office set up in London was the 
Hand -ill-Hand . . . . \ ,' . " 

First Life Insurance office (the Amicable), estiib- 
lished 

Sun fire-office established . . . • • 

The first Marine insurance was the Royal 
Exchange Insurance, and the London In- 
surance .....-•• 

Duty first laid on insurances of is. 6d. per ioo(. 
insured, 1782 ; dvity increased . . • • 

In 1857, 1,451,110;. were paid as duty for fire 



1696 



1706 
1710 



INS 



394 



INU 



■ INSUEANCE, continued. 

insurances on property, amounting to 

72,136,585^. 
There were 33 London fire insurance offices ; 

25 country offices ; 7 Scotch, and 2 Irish . . 1859 

165 such offices in London ,, 

A new Commercial Union fire insurance, 



foiuided ill consequence of tlie increased 
charges of the companies . . . Sept. 1861 
Rate of tax on insurance, reduced from 3s. to 
IS. 6d. per cent, on stock in trade, fn^m JVIay 
13, 1864; on household goods . . . . 1865 



1782 
1802 



bi30,ooo,ooo 1022 
220,000,000 I 1842 



AMOUNT INSURED. 

. £399,000,000 I 1862 
. 652,000,000 I 



£1,007,000,000 



INSURRECTIONS. See Cons2)iracies, Massacres, Rehcllions, Riots, &c. 

INTENDMENT of Crimes^. In cases of treason, wounding, burglary, &c., wliere 
intention proved, was made as punishable as crime completed, by 7 Geo. II., 1734. The 
rio-our of this act was modified by sir Robert Peel's revision of the statutes 4 — 10 Geo. IV. 
1823-29. 

INTERDICT, OR Ecclesiastical Censure, seldom decreed in Europe till the time 
of Gregory VII., 1073, but often afterwards. Wlien a prince was excommunicated, all his 
subjects retaining their allegiance were excommunicated also, and the clergy were forbidden 
to perform any part of divine service, or any clerical duties, save the baptism of infants, 
and taking the confessions of dying penitents. In 11 70, pope Alexander put all England I 
under an interdict ; and when king John was excommunicated in 1208, the kingdom layf 
under a papal interdict for six years. England was put under an interdict, on Henry VIII. 
shaking off the pope's supremacy, 1535 ; and pope Sixtus V. published a crusade agaijast 
queen Elizabeth of England in 15S8. See Excommunication. 

INTEREST. The word was first used in an act of parliament of the 21st James I. 1623, 
wherein it was made to signify a lawful increase by way of compensation for the use of money 
lent. The rate fixed by the act was 8^. for the use of lool. for a year ; in place of usury at 
loZ. before taken. The Commonwealth lowered the rate to 61., in 1650; and by an act of 
the I3tli of queen Anne, 17 13, it was reduced to 5Z. The restraint being found prejudicial 
to commerce, it was totally removed by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 90 (1854). 

INTERIM OF Augsburg, a decree issued by the emperor Charles V. in 1548, with the 
view of attempting to reconcile the C!atholics and Protestants, in which it entirely failed. 
It was revoked in 1552. The term Interim has been applied to other decrees and treaties. 

INTERNATIONAL. See CoinjrigU and E.xhihition. 

INUNDATIONS. Tlie following are among the most remarkable : — 



An inundation of the sea in Lincolnshire"laid luider 
water many tliousand acres, a. d. 245. Camden. 

Another in Cheshire, by which 5000 persons and an 
innumerable quantity of cattle perished, 353. 

An inundation at Glasgow, which drowned more 
than 400 families, 758. Fordun. 

The Tweed overflowed its banks, and laid waste the 
country for 30 miles round, 836. 

An inundation on the English coasts, demolished a 
numljcr of sea-port towns, 1014. 

Earl Godwin's lands, exceeding 4000 acres, overflowed 
by the sea, and an immense sand-bank formed on 
the coast of Kent, now known by the name of the 
Godwin sands, iioo. Camden. 

Flanders inundated by the sea, and the town and 
harbour of Ostend totally immersed, 1108. 

More than 300 houses overwhelmed at Wmchelsea 
by an inundation of the sea, 1280. 

At the Toxel, which fii-st raised the commerce of 
Amsterdam, 1400. 

The sea broke in at Port, and drowned 72 villages, 
and 100,000 people (see Dor1), April 17, 1446. 

The Severn overflowed during ten days, and carried 
away men, women, and children, in their beds, 
and covered the tops of many mountains ; the 
waters settled upon the lands, .and were called the 
Great Waters for 100 years after, i Richard III. 
1483. HoUinahed. Again 4 James I. 1607, the 
waters rose above the tops of the houses, and 
above 100 persons perished in Somersetshire and 
Gloucestershire. Burns. 



A gener.al inundation by the failure of the dikes in 

Holland, 1530 ; the number of drowned said to 

have been 400,000. 
At Catalonia, where 50,000 persons perished, 1617. 
An inundation in Yorkshire, when a rock opened, 

and poured out water to the height of a church 

steeple, 1686. Vide Phil. Trans. 
Part of Zealand overflowed, 1300 inhabitants were 

drowned, and incredible damage was done at 

Hamburg, 171 7. 
At Madrid, several of the Spanish nobility and other 

persons of distinction perished, 1723. Du Fresnoy. 
In Yorkshire, a dreadful inundation, called Ripon 

Flood, 1771. 
In Navarre, where 2000 persons lost their lives by 

the torrents from the mountains, Sept. 1787. 
Inundation of the Liifey, which did immense 

damage in Dublin, Nov. 12, 1787. Again, Dec. 2 

and 3, 1802. 
Lorca, a city of Mercia, in Spain, destroyed by the 

bursting of a reservoir, which Inundated more 

than 20 leagues, and killed 1000 persons, besides 

cattle, April 14, 1802. 
At Pesth, near Prosburg, the overflow of the 

Danube, by which 24 villages and their inhabitants 

were swept away, April, 1811. 
In the vicinity of Salop, by the bursting of a cloud 

during a storm, many persons and much stock 

perished. May, 1811. 
Dreadful inundation in Hungary, Austria, and | 

Poland, in the summer of 1S13. | 



INU 



395 



INV 



INUNDATIONS, continued. 

Overflow of the Danvibc ; a Turkish corps of 2000 
men, on a small island near Widdin, surprised, 
and met instant death, Sept. 14, 1813. 

In Silesia, 6000 inliabitants perished, and the ruin 
of the French army under Alacdonald was accele- 
rated by the floods'; also in Poland 4000 lives were 
supposed to have been lost, same year. 

At btral>ane, Ireland, by the melting of the snow 
on the surrounding mountains, most destructive 
iloods were occasioned, Jan. 2, 1816. 

In Germany, the Vistula overflowed ; many villages 
were laid under water, and great lo.ss of life and 
property was sustained, ^arch 21, 1816. 

In England 5000 acres were deluged in the Fen 
countries, in June, iSig. 

Inundation at Dantzic, occasioned by the Vistula 
breaking through some of its dikes, by which 
10,000 head of cattle and 4000 houses were de- 
stroyed, and numerous lives lost, April 9, 1829. 

The " Moray Floods," Aug. 9, 1829, when the Spey 
and Findhom rose in some places 50 feet above 
their ordinary level, and caused great destruction 
of property. Jlany lives wei'e lost, and whole 
families who took refuge on elevated places were 
with diSiculty rescued. Si)' T. D. Lauder. 

At Vienna, the dwellings of 50,000 of its inhabitants 
laid imder water. Fob. 1830. 

10,000 houses swept away, and about 1000 persons 
perished, at Canton, in Cbina, in consequence of 
an inundation, occasioned by incessant rains. 
Equal or greater calamity was produced by the 
same cause in other ports of China, Oct. 1833. 

Awful inundation in France : the Saone poured its 
waters into the RhQne, broke through its banks. 



and covered 60,000 acres ; Lyon.s was inundated ; 
in Avignon 100 houses were swept away ; 218 
houses were earned away at La Guillotitrc ; and 
upwards of 300 at Vaise, Marseilles, and Nismes ; 
the Saone had not attained such a height for 238 
years, Oct. 31 to Nov. 4, 1840. 

Lamentable inundation at Brentford and the sur- 
rounding country ; several lives lo'st, and immense 
property destroyed, Jan. 16, 1841. 

Disastrous inundation in tlie centre, west, and 
south-west of France ; numerous bridges, with 
the Orleans and Vierzon viaduct, swept away ; the 
latter had cost 6,000,000 of francs. The damage 
done exceeded 4,000,000?. sterling. The Loire rose 
twenty feet in one night, Oct. 22, 1846. 

Lamentable catastrophe at Holmfirth. See Hohnfirth 
Flood, Feb. 4, 1S52. 

Inundation of the valleys of the Severn and Teme 
after a violent thunderstorm, Sept. 5, 1852. 

Inundations of the basins of the Rhine and the 
Rhone, overflowing the country to a great extent, 
Sept. 19, 1S52. 

Hamburg half-flooded by the Elbe, Jan. i, 1855. 

Inundations in south of France, with immense 
damage (see France), May and June, 1856. 

In Holland, nearly 40,000 acres submerged, Jan. 
1S61. 

Great inundation through the bursting of the out- 
fall sluice at St. Germain's, near King's Lynn (see 
Levels), May 4-15, 1S62. 

Another marshland sluice bursts ; many acres inun- 
dated, Oct. 4, 1862. 

Bursting of the Bradfield reservoir (see Sheffield) ; 
about 250 persons drowned, March 11, 1864. 



INVALIDES. The Hotel cles Invalides was founded in 167 1 by Louis XIV. Its chapel 
contains the body of Napoleon I., deposited there Dec. 15, 1840. 

INVASIONS OF THE Briti.sh Islands. See Britain and Danes. From the death of 
Edward the Confessor, only the following invasions (marked s) have been successful : — 



William of Normandy (s.) 
Sept. 29, 
The Irish .... 
The Scots, 1091 ; king Mal- 
colm killed . . . . 
Robert of Normandy 

The Scots 

The empress Maud 
Ireland, by Fitz-Stephen (s.) 
Ireland, by Edward Bruce . 
Isabel, queen of Ed ward 1 1, (s. ) 





Duke of Lancaster (s.) . 


• 1399 1 


1066 


The French 


. 1416 ' 


1069 


Queen of Henry VI. 


. 1462 




Earl of Warwick (s.) . 


• 1470 


1093 


Edward IV. (s.) . 


• 1471 


IIOI 


Queen of Henry VI. . 


• 1471 


II36 


Earl of Richmond (s.) . 


■ 1485 


1139 


Lambert Simncl 


■ 1487 


1 169 


Perkin Warbeok . 


• 1495 


I3I5 


Spaniards and Italians, I 


•e- 


1326 


land . . . . 


. 15S0 




Spanish Armada . 


. 1588 



Ireland, Spaniards . . . 1601 

Duke of Monmouth . . 1685 

William of Orange (.s.) . . 1688 

James II., Ireland . . . 1689 

Old Pretender . . . . 1708 

Pretender again . . . 1715 

Young Pretender . . . 1745 

Ireland (see Tkurnt) . . 1760 

Wales, the French . . . 1797 
Ireland ; the French land at ^-^i 

Killala (which see) . . 1798 



' INVERNESS (N. W. Scotland), a city of the Picts up to 843. It was taken by Edward I. ; 
retaken by Bruce, 1313 ; burnt by the lord of the Isles, 141 1 ; taken by Cromwell, 1649 ; 
and by prince Charles Edward in 1746. He was defeated at Culloden, about live mUes from 
Inverness, April, 16, 1746. 

INVESTITURE, of Ecclesiastics, was a cause of discord between the pope and temporal 
sovereigns in the middle ages ; and led to actual war between Gregory VII. and the emperor 
Henry IV. 1075 — 1085. The pope endeavoured to deprive the sovereign of the right of 
nominating bishops and abbots, and of investing them with the cross and ring. Henry V. 
gave up the right, iiii. 

INVINCIBLE ARMADA, or Spanish Armada. See Armada. 

INVOCATION OF THE Virgin and Saints. Tlie practice of the Eomi.sh church of 
invoking the intercession of saints with God, particularly the prayers to the Virgin, has been 
traceil to the time of Gregory the Great, 593- -l*'''''-'- The Eastern chiu'ch began (in the 5th 
century) by calling upon the dead, and demanding their suffrage as jiresent in the divine 
offices ; and the Western church frequently canonised persons tlie wickedness of whose 
lives gave them no title to any such honour. 



lOD 



396 



IRE 



IODINE (from tlie Greek iudes, violet-like), was discovered by M. De Ooiirtois, a manu- 
facturer of saltpetre at Paris in 1812, and investigated by M. Clement, 1813. On the appli- 
cation of heat it rises in the form of a dense violet-coloured vapour, easily evaporates, and 
melts at 220 degrees : it changes vegetable blues to yellow, and a seven-thousandth part 
converts water to a deep yellow colour, and starch into a purple. 

lONA. One of the Hebrides. In 563 St. Columba and his disciples founded a monastery 
here, which flourished till the 8th century, when it was rav^aged by the Norsemen. Other 
religious bodies afterwards were formed, and the isle was long esteemed exceedingly 
sacred. 

IONIA (in Asia Minor). About 1040 B.C. the lone.s, a Pelasgic race, emigrated from 
Greece, and settled here and on the adjoining islands. They built Ephesus, Smyrna, and other 
noble cities. Tliey wei'e conquered by the great Cyrus about 548 B.C. ; revolted in 504, but 
were again subdued. After tlie victories of Cimon, Ionia became indej^endent and remained • 
so till 387, when it was once more subjected to Persia. It formed part of the dominions of | 
Alexander and his successors ; was annexed to the Roman empire, and coni^uered by the ■ 
Turks. — Ionia was renowned for jjoets, historians, and pliilosophei-s. 

IONIAN ISLANDS (on W. coast of Greece). Corfu, the capital, Cephalonia, Zante, 
Ithaca, Santa Maura, Cerigo, and Paxo. They were colonised by the lones, and partook of 
the fortunes of the Greek people ; were subject to Naples in the I3tli century, and in the 
14th to Venice. Population iu 1862, 234, 123. 



The islands ceded to France by the treaty of 
Campo Formio Oct. 17, 1797 

Funned into the republic of the seven islands 
under the protection of Russia and Turkey, 

March 21, 1800 

Restored to the French by the treaty of Tilsit, 

July 7, 1807 

Taken by the English . . . Oct. 3-12, 1809 

Formed into an independent state under the 
protection of Great Britain (sir Thos. Mait- 
land, lord high commissioner) . Nov. 5, 1815 

A constitution ratified . . . July 11, 1817 



A university established at Corfu . . . . 1823 
The constitution liberalised during the govern- 
ment of lord Seaton ..... 1848-9 
In consequence of the discontent .and complaints 
of the islanders, Mr. W. E. Gladstone went 
out on a commission of inquiry, &c., but 
nothing important ensued . . . Nov. 1858 
Sir H. Storks, lord high commissioner, Feb. 2, 1859 
The parliament declare for annex.ation to Greece, 

March, 1861, and April, 1862 
The islands annexed to Greece, May 28 ; king 
George I. arrives at Corfu (see Greece). June 6, 1864 



IONIC ORDER OF Architecture, an improvement on the Doric, was invented by 
the lonians about 1350 B.C. Vitruvius. Its distinguishing characters are the slenderness 
and flutings of its columns, and the volutes of rams' horns that adorn the capital. 

IONIC Sect of Philosophers, founded by Thales of Miletus, 570 B.C., distinguished 
for its abstruse speculations under his successors and pupils, Anaximander, Anaximenes, 
Anaxagoras, and Archelaus, the master of Socrates. They held that water was the origin of 
all things. 

IOWA, a western .state of North America, was organised as a territory, June 12, 1838 ; 
and admitted into the Union, Dec. 28, 1846. Capital, Des Moines. 

IPSUS (Phrygia\ Battle of, 301 B.C., by which Seleucus was confirmed in his kingdom 
by the defeat and death of Antigonus, king of Asia. The latter led into the field an army 
of about 70,000 foot, and 10,000 horse, with 75 elephants. The former h.ad 64,000 infantrj^ 
besides 10,500 horse, 400 elephants, and 120 armed chariots. Plutarch. 

IPSWICH (Suffolk), the Saxon Gippcswic, was ravaged by the Danes, 991. Wolsey was 
born here, 147 1 ; founded a school in 1525. The port was greatly improved by the erection 
of wet docks, 1837-42. The railway to London was opened June 25, 1846. 

IRELAND is said to have been first colonised by Phosnicians. Some assert that the 
Partholani landed in Ireland about 2048 b. c. ; that the descent of the Damuonii was made 
about 1463 B.C. ; and that this was followed by the descent of Heber and Heremon, Milesian 
princes, from Galicia, in Spain, who conquered Ireland, and gave to its throne a race of 171 
kings. Ireland was not attacked by the Romans or Saxons. The population, by the census 
of 1861, was 5,764,543. 



Arrival of St. Patrick, about . . . a.d. 
Christianity established, about . . . . 
The Danes and Normans, known by the name 

of Easterlings, or Ostmen, invade Ireland . 
They build Dublin and other cities, about 
Brian Boroimhe totally defeats the Danes at 

Clontarf ; and is killed . . . April 23, 



[In the twelfth century Ireland is divided into 
five kingdoms, viz. : Ulster, Leinster, Meath, 
Connaught, and Munster, besides a number 
of petty principalities, whose sovereigns con- 
tinually warred with each other.] 

Adrian IV. permitted Henry II. to invade 
Ireland, on condition that he compelled every 



IRE 



397 



IRE 



IRELAND, continued. 
Irish famil}' to pay a carol us to the holy see, 
and held it as a fief of the Church . . . 1156 

Dermot Mao Murrough, king of Leinster, is 
driven from his throne fur his oppression, 
and takes refuge in England, where he takes 
an oath of fidelity to Henry II. who promises 
to restore him 1168 

Invasion of the Enghsh under FitzStephen . 1169 

Lauding of Strongljow at Waterford . . .1170 

Henry II. lands near Watcrford, and receives 
the submission of the princes of the country, 
settles the government, and makes his son 
John lord of Ireland 1171 

Ireland wholly subdued and English laws and 
customs introduced by king John . . . 1210 

Invasion of Edward Bruce, 1315, who is crowned 
king, 1316, defeated and slain at Foughart, 
near Dundalk 1318 

Lionel, duke of Clarence, third son of Edward • 
III., marries EUzabeth de Burgh, heiress of 
Ulster, which had not hitherto submitted to 
the English authority 1361 

Richard II. lands at Waterford with a train of 
nobles, 4000 men at arms, and 30,000 archers, 
and gains the affection of the people by his 
mimificence, and confers the honour of knight- 
hood on their chiefs 1394 

Richard again lands in Ireland . . . . 1399 

The sanguinary Head Act passed at Trim,* by 
the earl of Desmond, deputy .... 1465 

Apparel and surname act (the Irish to dress like 
the English, and to adopt surnames) . . . ,, 

Poynings' law, subjecting the Irish parliament 
to the English council 1494 

Gre.at rebellion of the Fitzgeralds subdued . . 1534 

Henry VIII. assumes the title of king, instead 
of ;o)-(? of Ireland 1542 

The reformed religion embraced Ijy the English 
settlers in the reign of Edward VI. . . . 1547 

Ireland fuially divided into shires . . . 1569 

Printing in Irish characters introduced by N. 
Walsh, chancellor of St. Patrick's . . . 1571 

700 Italians, headed by Fitzmaurice, laud in 
Kerry ; they are treacherously butchered by 
the earl of Ormond 1580 

O'Neal defeats the EugUsh at Blackwater 

Aug. 14, 1598 

The insurrection of Tyrone, who invites over 
the Spaniards, and settles them in Kinsale ; 
but they are defeated by the lord deputy 
Mountjoy 1601-2 

In consequence of repeated rebellions and for- 
feitures, 511,465 acres of land in the province 
of Ulster became vested in the crown, and 
James I. after removing the Irish from their 
hills and fastnesses, divides the land among 
such of his English and Scottish protestant 
subjects as choose to settle there . . 1609-12 

More and Maguire's rebellion ; the catholics 
enter into a conspiracy to exjjel the English, 
and cr\ielly massacre the protestant settlers 
in Ulster, to the number of 40,000 persons, 
commenced on St. Ignatius' day [some doubt 
the m.a.s.sacre] .... Oct. 23, 1641 

O'Neill defeats the English under Monroe at 
Benburb June 5, 1646 

Cromwell and Ireton reduce the whole island 
to obedience between . . . 1649 and 1656 



Massacre and capture of Drogheda Sept. 11, 

Landing of James II March 12, 

3000 protestauts attainted . . . 

William HI. lauds at Carrickfergus . June 14, 

Battle of the Boyne ; James defeated . July i. 

Treaty of Limerick. See Limerick . Oct. 3, 

Linen manufacture encoiu-aged . . . . 

Thurot's invasion. See Thurot .... 

Indulgences granted to the catholics . . . 

Ireland admitted to a free trade 

Released from submission to an English council 

The Genevese refugees are received in Ireland, 
and have an asylum given them in the county 
of Waterford 

Order of St. Patrick established .... 

Orange clubs, (fee, formed . . . . ■ . 

Memorable Irish rebellion commenced. May 4, 
"1798, and not finally .suppressed until the 
next year ........ 

Legislative Union of Great Britiin and Ireland, 

Jan. I, 

Emmet's insurrection . . . July 23, 

Enghsh and Irish exchequers consolidated, 

Jan. 5, 

Visit to Ireland of George IV. . . Aug. 

The currency assimilated . . . Jan. i, 

Roman catholic emancipation . . April 13, 

Customs consolidated .... Jan. 6, 

Dr. Whately, supporter of the Irish National 
School system, becomes archbishop of 
Dublin 

Poor laws introduced 

Great Repeal movement ; meeting at Trim. 
(See Repeal) .... March 19, 

O'Connell's trial. (See Trials) . Jan. 15, 

Trial of O'Conuell and others for political con- 
spiracy ; found guilty. (See Trials) Feb. 12, 

Appointment of new commissioners of charit- 
alile bequests (rank of the R. C. bishops 
recognised) Dec. 18, 

Irish National Education Society incorporated, 

Sept. 23, 

Failure of the potato croj} throughout Ireland, 

Committal of VV^illiam Smith O'Brien to the 
custody of thesergeant-at-arms, for contempt 
in not obeying an order of the house of com- 
mons to attend a comn\ittee . . April 30, 

WUliam Smith O'Brien and the " Young Ire- 
land " or physical force party, secede from 
the Repeal Association . . July 29 

O'Connell's last speech in the commons, ' 

Feb. 8. 

Grants from parliament, amounting to 
10,000,000?. made to relievo the people suf- 
fering from famine and disease 

Death of O'Connell at Genoa, on his way to 
Rome, in his 73rd year ; he had bequeathed 
his heart to Rome . . '. May 15, 

Deputation from the Irish people (?) — Smith 
O'Brien, Meagher, O'Gorman, &c. — to Lamar- 
tine and others, members of tlie provisional 
government at Paris . . . AprU 3, 

Great meeting of "Young Irelanders" at 
Dublin April 4, 

Arrest of Mitchell, editor of the United Irishman, 

May 13, 

State trials m the Irish queen's bench, 
May 15-27, 



1649 
1689 

1690 

i6gi 
1696 
1760 
1778 
1779 



1783 
1795 



i8oi 
1803 

1817 
1821 
1826 
1829 



1843 
1844 



1847 



* This act ordained, "That it shall be lawful to all manner of men that find any theeves robbing by 
day or night, or going or coming to rob or steal, or any persons going or coming, having no faithful man of 
good name and fame in their company in English apparell, that it shall be lawful to take and kill those, 
and to cut off their heads, without any impeachment of our sovereign lord the king. And of any head so 
cut off in the county of Meath, that the cutter and his ayders there to him cause the said head so cut oft 
to be brought to the jiortreffe to put it upon a stiike or spear, upon the castle of Trim ; and that the said 
portreffe .shall testif}' tlie bringing of the same to him. And that it shall be lawful for the said bringer of 
the said head to distrain and levy by his own hand (as his rewiird) of every man having one ploughland in 
the barony, two-pence ; and of every man having half a ploughland, one peny ; and of every man having 
one house and goods, value forty shillings, one peny; and of every other cottier having house and smoak, 
one half-peny," <fec. Much slaughter is said to have ensued. 



IRE 



398 



IRE 



IRELAND, continued. 

Mitchell found guilty and sentenced to trans- 
portation for 14 years . . . May 26, 

Arrest of Gavan Duffy, Martin, Jleagher, 
Doheny, &c., for felonious writings, siieeches, 



&c. 



July 

. July 26, 

July 26, 

he is con- 

Aug-. s, 

Aug. 12, 

Aug. 14, 

Sept. 



Confederate cluhs prohibited 

The Habeas Corpus act suspended 

Arrest of Smith O'Brien at Thurles 
veyed to Kilmainham gaol, Dublin 

Arrest of Meagher, O'Donoghue, &c. 

Martin sentenced to transjjortation 

Encumbeied estates act passed 

Smith O'Brien, Meagher, and the other con- 
federates tried and sentenced to death, Oct 9, 

The Irish court of queen's bench gives judg- 
ment on writs of error siied out by the pri- 
soners convicted of high treason, and con- 
firms the judgment of tlie court Ijelow Jan.' 16, 

O'Brien,* Meagher, McManus, and O'Donoghue 
transported July 9, 

Orange and catholic affray at Dolly's Brae ; 
several lives lost . . . . July 12, 

Her majesty visits Ireland, and holds her court 
at Dublin castle .... Aug. 5, 

First court under the Encumbered estates act 
(which see), held iu Dublin . . Oct 24, 

Queen's University in Ireland esablished, 

Aug. IS, 

Roman catholic university originated, and 
large sums subscribed . . . May 5, 

Death of R. Lalor Sheil, at Florence . May 25, 

McManus escapes from transportation, and 
arrives at San Francisco, in California, June 5, 

The Irish Tenant League hold a meeting on the 
site of the battle of the Boyne . June 14, 

First meeting of the " CathoUc Defence As.so- 
ciation" Oct. 17, 

Meagher escapes from Van Diemen's Land and 
arrives at New York . . . May 24, 

Cork National Exhibition . . . Jvme 10, 

Irish Industrial Exhibition set on foot; Mr. 
Dargan, a railway contractor, contributes to- 
wards it 26,000^ .... June 24, 

" Tenant Right " demonstration at Wan-ington 
dispersed by the magistrates . July 3, 

Fierce religious riots at Belfa.st . . July 14, 

Fatal election riot at Six-mile Bridge, July 22, 

Irish members of parliament fovind a 
" Rehgious Equality Association ' 

Cork Industrial Exhibition closed 

Income tax extended to Ireland 

Dublin Exhibition opens 

Qiieen visits Ireland . 

Tenant Right League conference. 

Dreadful Railway accident near Dublin Oct. 5, 

Exhibition closed .... Nov. i, 

Train wilfully upset after an Orange demon- 
stration at Londonderry, one person killed 
and many hurt .... Sept. 15, 

Rehgious riots at Belfast .... Sept. 

Progress of cardinal Wiseman in Ireland Sept. 

A packet from Gal way reaches N. America in 
six days Sept. 



1850 



1852 



Sept. 10, 
. Sept. 2, 
May, 
May 12, 
Aug 29, 
. Oct. 4, 



1853 



1854 
1857 



Proclamation against .secret societies, Nov., 
Arrests of members of Phrenix Society . Dec. 
Proposed demonstration of landlords (headed 

by marquess of Downshire) given up, Jan. 27, 
National Gallery founded . . . Feb. 
Agitation against the Irish National School 

system Sept. 

Religious revival movement in the north, par- 
ticularly at Belfast Oct. 

Great emigration to America in the spring 
Many Irishmen enlist in the service of the pope, 

May, June ; many return dissatisfied July, 
Tlie remainder taken prisoners by the S.ar- 

dinians, are released, and return to Dublin, 

where they receive an ovation . . Nov. 
Attempted revival of Repeal agitation, Dec. 
Agrarian outrages; alderman Sheehy murdered 

Oct. 23, 
Census taken — population 5,764,543 April 8, 
Suspension of jiacket service between Galway 

and America through the company's breach 

of contract May 23, 

Visit of the prince of Wales, June 29 ; and the 

queen and prince consort . . Aug. 24-31, 
Irish Law Courtcommission appointed, Dec. 13, 
Numerous agrarian murders ; Gustav Thie- 

bault, April 28 ; Francis Fitzgerald, May 16 ; 

(and others) ; Michael Hayes shoots Mr. John 

Braddell ..... July 30, 
The primate, J. G. Beresford, abp. of Armagh, 

dies, aged 89 July ig. 

An Orange demonstration at Belfast leads to 

destructive riots .... Sept 17, 
Building for the Catholic University founded, 

July 20, 
Great agricultural distress ; many murders and 

oiitrages, end of 1862, beginning of . . . 
Galway packet service restored by subsidy of 

70,000/. (See Galway) . . . Aug. 

Insignificant " Nationalist " meeting Aug. 15, 
Death of arclibishop Whately . . Oct. 8, 

Great emigration of able-bodied labourers in . 
Appearance of the Fenians (u-liich see) . Jan. 
Death of Smith O'Brien, descendant of king 

Brian Boroimhe .... June 18, 
Address of the " National Association " to 

liberate tenant capital ; recover the property 

of the Catholic church, Arc. . . Jan. 12, 
Opening of the International Exhibition at 

Dublin by the prince of Wales . May 9, 
General election favourable to the government 

and liberal party July 

Importation of cattle from England prohibited 

on account of the plague . . . Aug. 25. 
Seizure of the newspaper " Irish People "and 

30, Fenians. (See Fenians) . Sept. 15-17, 
More arrests ; 33 committed for trial up to 

Oct. 14, 
International Exhibition closed . . Nov. 9, 
James Stephens, the "head centre" of the 

Fenians in Ireland, and others, captured, 

Nov. II, 
See Dublin, f 



1858 
1859 



KINGS. 

979 or 980. Maol Ceachlin II. (Malachi) deposed, 
looi or 1002. Brian Baroniy or Boroimhe ; slain 

after totally defeating the Danes at Clontarf, 

April 23, 1014. 



KINGS AND GOVEKNOES OF IRELAND. J 

1014. Maol Ceachlin II. restored ; dies 1022 or 1023. 
[Disputed succession.] 



1058. 
1072. 



Donough, or Denis, O'Brian, son. 
Tirloch, or Turlough, nephew ; dies 10S6. 



* An amnesty was granted to O'Brien, May 3, 1856, and he shortly after returned to Ireland. 
t Paupers in Irish workhouses in 1849, 620,000; in 1S57, 65,000. 

Notes m circidation „ £3,850,450 ,, £7,150,000. 

Bullion in Irish banks ,, 1,625,000 ,, 2,492,000, 

t The list of Irish sovereigiis, printed in previous editions, has been omitted to make room for 
authentic matter. The Irish writers carry their succession of kings very high, as high as even before the 



h;e 



399 



II!E 






IRELAND, continued. 

.1086 — 1132. The kingdom divided; fierce contests 

for it. 
1132. Tordel Vach ; killed in battle. 
1166. Rodcric, or Roper, O'Connor. 
1 1 72. Henry II. king of England ; conquered the 
country, and became lord of Ireland. 
[The English monarchs were styled " Lords of 
Ireland" until the reign of Henry VIII., 
who first styled himsefii^p.] 

oovERNOKS OF lEPLAND (with vaHous titles).* 

1172. Hugucs de Lasci. 1173, Richard FitzGi.slebert, 
earl of Pembroke. 11 76, Raymond lo Gros. 
1 1 77, prince John (afterwards king), made 
lord of Ireland. 

1184 et leq. Justiciars. The changes were so frequent 
that the more important officers only are 
given. 

11S9, 1203, 1205. Hugues de Lasci. 

iigg, 1204. Meiller Fitz-Henri (son of Henry II). 

1215, 1226. Geofi'rey de JIarreis. 

1229-32-33. Maurice Fitzgerald. 

1308. Piers Gaveston, earl of Cornwall. 1312, 
Edmund le Botiller. 1316, Roger de Mortimer. 
1320, Thomas Fitzgerald. 1321, John de 
Bermingham. 1327, earl of Kildare. 1328 
and 1340, Prior Roger Uttagh. 1332, sir 
John JD'Arcj-. 1337, sir John de Cherlton. 
1344, sir Rasul d'Cfford. 1346, sir Roger 
d'Arcy ; sir John Moriz. 1348, Walter de 
Bermingham. 1355, Maurice, earl of Des- 
mond. 1356, Thomas do Rokeby. 1357, 
Almeric de St. Amand. 1359, James, earl of 
Ormond. 1361, Lionel, duke of Clarence. 
1367, Gerald, earl of Desmond. 1369 and 
1374, William de Windsor. 1376, Maurice, 
earl of Kildare, and James, earl of Ormond. 
1380, Edmxmd Mortimer, earl of March. 
1385, Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford. 1389 
and 98, sir John Stanley. 1391, James, earl 
of Ormond. 1393, Thomas, duke of Glou- 
cester. 1395, Roger de Mortimer, earl of 
5Iarch. 1398, Reginald Grey and Thomas 
de Holland. 

1 401 and 1408, Thomas, earl of Lancaster. 1413, sir 
John Stanley and sir John Talbot. 1420, 
James, earl of Oi-mond. 1423, Edmund de 
Jlortimer, earl of March. 1425, sir John 
Talbot. 1427, sir John de Grey. 1428, sir 
John Sutton, lord Dudley. 1431 and 1435, 
sir Thomas Stanley. 1438, Leon, lord de 
Welles. 1446, John, earl of Shrewsbury. 
1449, Richard, duke of York. 1461, George, 
diike C)f Clarence. 1470, earl of Worcester. 
147S, John de la Pole, earl of Suffolk. 1481, 
Ricliard, earl of Kildare. 1483, Gerald, earl of 
Kildare. 1484, John de la Pole, earl of 
Lincoln. 1485, Jasper, duke of Bedford, 
1494, Henrj-.duke of York, afterwards Hem-y 
VIII. (his deputy, .=;ir E. Poynings). 1496, 
Gerald, earl of Kildare, and in 1504. 1521, 
Thomas Howard, earl of Surrey. 1529, 
Henry, duke of Richmond. 1560, Thomas, 
earl of Sussex. 1599, Robert, earl of Essex. 

1603. Sir Charles Blount, lord Mountjoy, made earl 
of Devonshire. 1640, Thos. , viscount Went- 
worth, earl of Straffoid. 1643 and 1648, 
James, marquess of Ormond. 1647, Philip 



de Lisle. 1649, Oliver Cromwell. 1657, 
Henry Cromwell. 1662, James Butkr, duke 
of Ormond. 1669, John Roberts, lord 
Roberts. 1670, John, lord Berkeley. 1672, 
Arthur Cai)el, carl of Essex. 1677, James 
Butler, duke of Ormond. 1685, Henry 
Hyde, earl of Clarendon. 1687, Richard 
Talbot, earl of Tyrconnel. 1690, Henry 
Sydney, lord Sydney. 1695, Henry Capel, 
lord Capel. 

700. Laurence Hyde, earl of Rochester. 1703, 
James Butler, diike of Ormond. 1707, 
Thomas, earl of Pembroke. 1709, Thomas, 
earl of Wharton. 1710, James, duke of Or- 
mond, again. 1713, Charles, duke of Shrews- 
bury. 1717, Chailes, duke of Bolton. 1721, 
Charles, duke of Grafton. 1724, John, lord 
Carteret. 1731, Lionel, duke of Dorset. 
1737, William, duke of Devonshire. 1745, 
Philip, earl of Chesterfield. 1747, William, 
earl of Harrington. 1751. Lionel, duke of 
Dorset, again. 1755, William, duke of 
Devonshire. 1757, John, duke of Bedford. 
1 761, George, earl of Halifax. 1763, Hiigh, 
earl of Northumberland. 1765, Francis, eai-1 
of Hertford. 

767. George, viscount Townshend, Oct. 14. 

.772. Simon, eafl of Harcourt, Nov. 30. 

777. John, earl of Buckingham.shire, Jan. 25. 

780. Fred., earl of CarUsle, Dec. 23. 

782. Wm. Henry, duke of Portland, Ajiril 14. 
,, George, earl Temple, Sept. 15. 

783. Robert, earl of Northington, .June 3. 

784. Charles, duke of Rutland, Feb. 24 ; died Oct. 

24, 1787. 
787. George, 'marquess of Buckingham (late earl 

Temple), again, Dec. i6. 
790. John, earl of Westmorland, Jan. 5. 
795. William, earl Fitzwilliam, Jan. 4. 
,, John, earl Camden, March 31. 
798. Charles, marquess Coniwallis, June 20. 
801. Philip, earl of Hardwicke, May 25. 

806. John, duke of Bedford, March 18. 

807. Charles, duke of Richmond, April ig. 
813. Charles, earl Whitworth, Aug. 26. 
817. Charles, earl Talbot, Oct. 9. 

821. Richard, marquess Wellesley, Dec. 29. 

828. Henry, marquess of Anglesey, March i. 

829. Hugh, duke of Northimibcrland, March 6. 

830. Henry, marquess of Anglesey, again, Dec. 23. 

833. Marquess Wellesley, again, Sept. 26. 

834. Thomas, earl of Haddington, Dec. 29. 

835. Henry, marquess of Normanby, April 23. 
839. Hugh, earl Fortescue, April 3. 

841. Thomas Philip, earl de Grey, Sept. 15. 
844. William, lord Heytesbury, July 12. 

846. John William, earl of Besborough, July 9 ; 

died May 16, 1847. 

847. George William Frederick, earl of Clarendon, 

May 26. 

852. Archibald William, earl of Eglinton, Feb. 28. 

853. Edward Granville, earl of St. Gormatns, Jan. 
855. George, earl of Carlisle, March. 

858. Archibald, earl of Eghuton, again, Feb., 

resigned. 

859. George, earl of Carli.sle, again, June ; died 

Dec. 5, 1864. 
864. John, lord Wodehouse, Nov. i. 



Flood. The learned antiquary, Thomas Innes, of the Scots' College of Paris, expressed his wonder that 
" the learned men of the Irish nation have not, like those of other nations, yet published the valuable 
remains of their ancient history whole and entire, with just translations, in order to sejiarato what is 
fabulous and only grounded on the traditions of their poets and bards, from what is certain history." 
" O'Flaherty, Keating, Toland, Kennedy, and other modern Irish historians, have rendered aU uncertain, 
by deducing their liistory from the Deluge with as much assurance as they deliver the transactions of 
Ireland from St. Patrick's time." — Anderson. The "Annals of the Fomr Masters," edited by Dr. Donovan, 
were published in Iri.shand English in 1848. 

* Lord justices and deputies, and latterly LoEDS Lieutenant. It has been several times proposed 
to abolish the viceroyalty of Ireland, but without success. The last time, March 25, 1858. 



IRE 



400 



IRU 



IRELAND FORGERIES. In 1796 W. H. Ireland made public the Sliakspeaie manu- 
scripts which he had forged, and deceived many critics. The play, Vortigern, was performed 
at Drury-lane theatre on April 2, 1796. He shortly after acknowledged the forgery, and 
published his " Confessions" in 1805. He died in 1835. 

IRIDIUM AND OSMIUM. In 1804 Tennant discovered these two rare metals in the ore 
of platinum, in which, in 1845, Clans discovered a third, Ruthenium. 

IRON was found on Mount Ida by the Dactyles, owing to the forest having been burnt hy 
lightning, 1432 B.C. Arundclian Marbles. [1407, Hales; 1283, Clinton.] The Greeks 
ascribed the discovery of iron to themselves, and referred glass to the Phcenieians. Moses 
relates that iron was wrought by Tubal-Cain. Iron furnaces among the Romans were 
unprovided with bellows, but were placed on eminences with the grate in the direction of 
the prevailing winds. Swedish iron is very celebrated, and Dannemora is the greatest mine 
of Sweden. 



Belgium was an early seat of the ii-on-manufac- 

ture ; coal said to have been employed at Marchc- 

les-dames, 1340. 
British iron cast by Ralph Page and Peter Baude, in 

Sussex, 1543. Rymer's Fcedt-ra. 
Iron-mills used for slitting iron into bars for smiths, 

by Godfrey Bochs, 1590. 
Tinning of iron introduced from Bohemia, 1681. 

Till about 1730 iron ores were smelted entirely 

with wood charcoal, which did not wholly give 

way to coal and coke till 1788. 



The operation termed puddling, and other very great 
improvements in the manufacture, uivented l;>y 
Mr. Henry Cort, between 1781 and 1826, who did 
not reap the due reward of his ingenuity. 

Mr. Henry Bessemer made known his method of 
manufacturing iron and steel, wliich is considered 
to possess many advantages, 1856. 

Strike of the puddlers and look-out of the masters in 
Staffordshire, Northumberland, &c., lasted during 
March, April, and May, 1865. 



1796 
1802 
1806 



59 furnaces 

77 
121 ,, 



IROX PKODUCED IN GREAT BRITAIN. 

. 260 furnaces . . 400,000 tons. 

• • 374 ,. • • 581.367 ,. 

. 402 ,, . . 1,396,400 ,, 

. . 623 ,, . . 1,998,558 „ 

• 655 ,, . . 2,701,000 ,, 



17,350 ton.s. 

61,900 ,, 
124,789 ,, 
227,000 ,, 
250,000 ,, 



1S20 
1825 
1840 
1848 
1852 



In 185s, 3,217,154 tons of pig iron were produced ; in 1857, 3,659,447 tons ; in 1864, 4,767,951 tons. 

IRON CROWN (of Italy) is of gold, having inside a ring of iron, said to have been 
forged from the nails of Christ's cross, and was made by order of 'i'heudelinde for her 
husband, Agilulf, king of the Longobards, 591. She j^resented it (to be kept) to the church 
at Monza. Charlemagne was crowned with this crown, and after him all the emperors Avho 
wei'e kings of Lombardy ; Napoleon I. at Milan, on May 26, 1805, put it on his head, saying 
" Dicu me Va donnee; gare a qui y touchera.'" (God has given it to me ; woe to him who 
shall touch it.) He founded the order of the Iron Crown, which still continues. The crown 
was removed from Monza to Mantua by the Austrian.?, on April 23, 1859. 

IRON-MASK, THE Man with the.* A mysterious prisoner in France, wearing a mask 
and closely confined, under M. de St. Mars, at Pignerol, Sainte Marguerite, and afterwards 
at the Bastile. He was of noble mien, and was treated with profound respect ; but his 
keepers had orders to despatch him if he uncovered. M. de St. JMars himself always placed 
the dishes on his table, and stood in his presence. He died Nov. 19, 1703. 

IRON-PLATED SHIPS. See under Navy of England and United States, 1S62. 

IRUN (a frontier village of Spain). On the i6th May, 1837, the British auxiliary legion 
tinder general Evans, marched from St. Sebastian to attack Irun (held by the Carlists), 
which after a desperate resistance, was carried by assault, JMay 17. 

* Some conjecture this person to have been an Armenian patriarch forcibly carried from Constanti- 
nople (who died ten years before the mask) ; others th.athe was the count de Verrnandois, .son of Louis XIV., 
although he was reported to have perished in the camp before Dixmude. More believe him to have been 
the celebrated duke of Beaufort, whose head is recorded to have been taken off before Candia ; while still 
more assort that he was the unfortunate James, duke of Monmouth, who— in the imagination of the 
Londoners at least — was executed on Tower-hill. There are two better conjectures ; he was said to have 
been either a son of Anne of Austria, queen of Louis XIII., his father being the cardinal Mazarine (to whom 
that dowager-queen was privately married), or the duke of Buckingham : or to have been the twin 
brother of Louis XIV., whose birth was concealed to prevent the civil dissensions in France, which it 
might one day have caused. The last conjecture was received by Voltaire and many others. It has been 
more recently conjectured that Fouquet, an eminent statesman in the time of Louis XIV., was the Masque 
de Fer ; and a count Mattliioli, secretary of state to Charles III., duke of Mantua, is supposed by M. Delort, 
in a later publication, to have been the victim. The right hon. Agar EUis (afterwards lord Dover), in an 
interesting narrative, endeavours to prove Mafthioli to have been the person. The mask, it seems, was 
not made of iron ; but of black velvet, strengthened with whalebone, and fastened behind the head with 
a padlock. 



IllV 401 ITA 

IliVINGlTES, or the followers of the rev. Edward Irving,* who now call themselves the 
"Hoi}' Catiiolic Apostolic Church." They nse a liturgy (framed in 1842, and enlarged 
^^853), and have church officers named apostles, angels, prophets, &c. In 1852 lighted 
candles were ]ilaced on the magnificent altar, and burning of incense during ])rayers was 
prescribed. The Gothic church in Gordon-square was solemnly opened Jan. i, 1854. It is 
said that all who join the church offer it a tenth of their income. They had 30 chapels in 
England in 185 1. 

IJ^AURIA (a province in Asia Elinor), was retaken from the Saracens by the emperor 
Leo III., who founded the Isaurian dynasty, which ended with Constantiue VI. in 797. 

ISERNIA, S. Italy. Here the Sardinian general, Cialdini, defeated the Neapolitans, 
Oct. 17, i860. 

ISLAM, or E.SLAi[, submission to God, the name given to Mahoindanism [which sec). 

ISLE OF France. See Mauritius, Man, &c. 

ISLES, Blshopkic of. Tliis see contained not only the Hebudes, Hebrides, or Western 
Isles, but the Isle of Man, which for nearly 400 years had been a separate bishopric. The 
first bisliop of the Isles was Amphibalus, 360. The Isle of Ily was in former ages a place 
lamous for sanctity and learning, and early the seat of a bishop ; it was denominated 
Icolumkill from St. Columba, the companion of St. Patrick, founding a monastery here iu 
the 6th century, which was the parent of above 100 other monasteries in England and Ireland. 
Since the revolution (when this bishopric was discontinued) the Isles have been joined to 
Moray and Ross, or to Ross alone. In 1847, however, Argyll and the Isles were made a 
seventh post-revolution and distinct bishopric. See Bishops. 

ISMAIL (Bessarabia). After a long siege by the Russians, who lost 20,000 men before 
the ])lace, the towu was taken by storm, Dec. 22, 1790 ; when Suwarrow, the most merciless 
warrior of modern times, put the brave Turkish garrison (30,000 men) to the sword, and 
delivered up Ismail to pillage, and ordered the massacre of 6000 women. By the treaty of 
Paris in 1856 Ismail was restored to Turkey. It was ceded to Moldavia in 1856. 

ISPAHAN was made the capital of Persia by Abbas the Great, in 1590. It ceased to be 
so in 1796, when Teheran became the capital. 

ISRAEL, Kingdom of. See Jews. 

ISSUS (Asia Minor), the site of Alexander's second great battle witli Darius, whose queen 
and family were captured, Oct. 333 B.C. The Persian army, according to Justin, consisted 
of 400,000 foot and 100,000 horse ; 61,000 of the former and 10,000 of the latter were left 
dead on the spot, and 40,000 were taken prisoners. 

ISTHMIAN GAMES received their name from the isthmus of Corinth, where they were 
observed : instituted by Sisj'phus, about 1406 B.C., in honour of Melicertes, a sea-god. 
Lenglet. They were re-instituted in honour of Neptune by Theseus about 1239 B.C. ; and 
their celebration was held so sacred, that even a public calamity did not prevent it. The 
games were revived by Julian, a.d. 362. 

ISTRIA was finally subdued by the Roman.s, 177 B.C. After various changes it came 
under the rule of Venice in 1378. 

ITALY (either from Italus, an early king, or italus, a bull calf) is called the garden of 
Europe. The invading Pelasgians from Greece, and the Aborigines (Umbrians, Oscans, and 
Etruscans), combined, form the renowned Latin race, still possessing the southern part of 
Europe. The history of Italy is .soon absorbed into that of Rome, founded 753 B.C. Previous 
to the 15th centuiy it was desolated by intestine wars and the interference of the German 
emperors ; since then, Sj)ain, France, and Germany have struggled for the possession of the 
country, which has been divided among them several times. Spain jtredominated in Italy 
during the i6th and 17th centuries : but was compelled to yield to the house of Austria at 
the beginning of the iSth. The victories of Bonaparte in 1797-8 changed the government 
of Italy ; but the Austrian rule was re-established at the peace in 1814. In 1848 the Milanese 

* Edward Irving was born Aug. 15, 1792, and was engaged a.s assistant to Dr. Chalmers, at Glasgow, 
in i8ig. In 1822 he atti-acted immense crowds of most distinguished persons to his sermons at the Scotch 
church, Ilatton-garden. A new clnirch was built for him in Regent-square in 1827. Soon after he pro- 
pounded new doctrines on the human nature of Christ : and the " Utterances of Unknown Tongues " which 
beg.an in his congregation with a Miss Hall and Mr, Taplin, Oct. 16. 1831, were countenanced by liim, as of 
divine inspiration. He was expelled from the Scotch church, March 11;, 1833. His church, "recon- 
stituted with the threefold cord of a sevenfold ministry," was removed to Newman street. Ue died 
Dec. 8, 1834. 

1< I) 



ITA 



402 



ITA 



and Venetians revolted and joined Piedmont, but were snbducd by Kadetzlcy. The hostile 
feeling between Austria and Piedmont gradually increased till war broke out in April, 1859. 
The Austrians were defeated, and the kingdom of Italy, comprising Piedmont, Sardinia, 
Lombardy, Tuscany, Modena, Parma, the Eomagna, Naples, and Sicily was re-established, 
March 17, 1861, by the Italian parliament (consisting of 443 deputies from 59 provinces). 
On Oct. 29, 1861, the internal government was re-organized ; the 59 provinces were placed 
under prefects, subject to four directors-general. In 1861, the population was 21,728,529. — 
Estimated revenue, 25,000,000/. ; expenditure, 30,000,000?. For details see Home and 
the various Italian cities throughout the volume. 



Italy (Saturiiia) fabled to liave been ruled by 

Saturn during the golden age. 
AiTlvalof CEnotrus from Arcadia, 1 710 B.C. ; and 

of Evandor ..... about B.C. 1240 
iEneas the Trojan lands in Italy, defeats and 
kills Turnus, marries Lavinia, daughter of 
king Latinus, and founds Laviuium, in South 

Italy 1182 &c. 

Greek colonies (see Magna Qnecia) founded 974 — 443 

Komulus builds Rome 753 

[For subsequent history, see Rome.'] 
Odoacer, leader of the Heruli, establishes the 

Hiujdom oi \t&\y a.d. 476 

The Ostrogoths invade Italy, and rctiiin it till . 491 
They are expelled by the Imperial generals 

Narses and Belisaiius 552 

[See Kings of Italy, p. 404, and Iron Croivn.] 
Narses, governor of Italy, invites the Lombards 

from Germany, 568 ; who overrun Italy . 596 
Venice first governed by a doge . . . . 697 
Pepin gives Raveuna to the pope . . . 754 
Charlemagne invades Italy, 774 ; crowned em- 

perdr of the west at Rome by pope Leo III. . 800 
The Saracens invade Italy and settle at Bari . 842 
Genoa becomes important ..... 1000 
The Saracens expelled by the Normans . 1016-17 
Pope Gregory VIL, surnamed Hildebrand, pre- 
tends to imiversal sovereignt}^ in which he 
is assisted by JIatilda, countess of Tuscany, 
mistress of the greater part of Italy . 1073-85 

Disputes between the popes and emperors, 
relative to ecclesiastical investitm-es, begin 
about 1073, and long agitate Italy and Ger- 
many. 
Rise of the Lombard cities . . , about 1120 
Who war with each other . . . . .1144 
The Venetians obtain many victories over the 

Eastern emperors 1125 

Wars of the Guelfs and Ghibelines (which see) 

begin about 1161 

Frederic I. (Barb.arossa) interferes : his wars 1154-75 

Lombard league formed 1167 

His defeat at Leguano 1176 

Peace of Constance 1183 

Civil wars again iigg &c. 

Wars of Frederick II 1236-50 

His natural son, Manfi'ed, king of Sicily, de- 
feated and killed at the battle of Benevento. 
by Charles of Anjou . . Feb. 26, 1266 

Who also defeats Conradin, at TagUacozzo, 

Aug. 23, 1268 

The Visconti rule at Milan 1277 

The Sicilian vespers, March 30 ; the French ex- 
pelled froni Sicily 1282 

Clement V. (Pope, 1305), fixes his residence at 

Avignon in France 1308 

Louis Gonzaga makes himself master of Man- 
tua, with the title of imperial vicar . . . 1328 
First doge of Genoa appointed .... 1339 
Charles VIII. of France invades Italy, and con- 
quers Naples 1495 

But loses it in 1496 

Louis XII. joins Venice and conquers Milan 

(soon lost) 1499 

League of Cambray (1508) against Venice, 

which is despoiled of its Italian possessions . 1509 
Leo. X. pope, patron of literature and art . 1513-22 
Wars of Charles V. and Francis I. . . .1515-21 



The latter defeated and made prisoner at Pavia 1525 
Parma and Placentia made a duchy for his 

fauuly by poise Paul III. (Alexander Famese) 1545 
Peace of Cateau-Cambresis ..... 1559 
War of the M.antuan succession . . . 1627-31 
Catinat and the French defeat the duke of 

Savoy at Marsaglia .... Oct. 4, 1693 
War of Spanish succession commences in Italy 1701 

Battle of Turin Sept. 7, 1706 

Division of Italy at the peace of Utrecht . . 1713 
The Duke of Savoy becomes king of Sardinia . 171S 
Successful French campaign in Italy . . . 1745 
Milan, &c., obtained by the house of Austria, 

1706 ; confirmed by treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle 174S 
Division of the Venetian states by France and 
Austria by the treaty of Campo Formio ; Cis- 
alpine republic founded 1797 

Italy oveiTun, 1796, and Pius VI. deposed by 

Bonaparte 1798 

The Russians, under Suwarrow, defeat the 

B'renoh at Trebia, &c 1799- 

The Italian republic (Bonaparte i^resident) , 1802 
Napoleon crowned king of Italy . . May 26, 1805 
Eugfene Beanharnois made viceroy of Italy . ,, 
Au.stna loses her Italian possessions by the 

treaty of Presburg ; ratified . . Jan. i, 1806 
The kingdom ceases on the overthrow of Napo- 
leon, 1S14; the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom 
established for Austria . . . April 7, 1815 
Insurrection in Lombardy and Venice, March ; 
sui^ported by the king of S.ardinia, April; 

and the pope, Juno 184S 

The king defeated at Novara, March 23 ; and 
Lombardy reverts to Austria, May . . . 1849 
[See Sardinia and Austria.l 
"Napoleon III. et I'ltalie" published . Feb. 1S59 
The Austrian ultimatum rejected by Sardinia, . 

Ajsril 26, ,, 
The Austrians cross the Ticino, April 27 ; and 

the French enter Genoa . . . May 3, ,, 
Peaceful revolutions at Florence, April 27 ; 

Parma, May 3; Modena . . June 15, ,, 
The Austrians defeated at Montebello, May 20 ; 
Palestro, May 30-31 ; Magenta, June 4 ; 
Marignano, June 8 ; Solferiuo . June 24, „ 

Provisional governments established at Flo- 
rence, April 27 ; Parma, May ; and Modena, 
[The sovereigns retire. ] . . . June 15, ,, 
Insurrection in the P.apal States ; Bologna, 

Ferrai-a, &c. June 13-15, ,, 

Massacre of- the insurgents at Perugia by the 

Swiss troops ..... June 20, ,, 
The Allies cross the Mincio . . . July i, ,, 
Armistice between Austria and France, July 8, ,, 
Preliminaries of peace signed at Villafranca ; 

Lombardy surrendered to Sardinia, July ii, ,, 
Italy dismayed at the peace ; agitation at Milan, 
Florence, Modena, Parma, <fec., resignation 
of count Cavour as mini.ster . . July, ,, 
The pope appeals to Europe against the king of 

Sardinia July 12, ,, 

Garibaldi exhorts the Italians to ai-m . July 19, ,, 
Grand duke of Tuscany abdicates . July 21, ,, 
Constitutional assemblies meet at Florence, 

Aug. II, and at Modena . . . Aug. 16 ,, 
Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and the Romagna 
enter into a defensive alliance, Aug. 20 ; de- 
clare for annexation to Piedmont, Aug 20 — • 



ITA 



403 



ITA 



ITALY, continued. 

Sept. lo ; fiscal restrictions between them 
and Piedmont abolished . . . Oct. lo, 1859 

Assassination of col. Anviti at Parma . Oct. 5, ,, 

Garibaldi appeals to the Neapolitans ; subscrip- 
tions in Italy and elsewhere to supply anns 
for the lUilians Oct. ,, 

Tuscany, &c. , choose the prince Eugene of Carig- 
nau-Savoy, as regent of central Italy, Nov. 5 ; 
the king of Sardinia refusing his consent, 
the prince declines the office, but recom- 
mends the chevalier Buoneampagni, Nov. t.^, ,, 

Garibiildi retires from the Sardinian service, 

Nov. 18, ,, 

New Sardinian constitution proclaimed, 

Dee. 7, ;, 

The pope condemns the pamphlet " le Pape ct le 
Congres " . . . , . . Dec. 31, „ 

The emperor Napoleon recommends the pope 
to give up the legations . . Dec. 31, ,, 

The pope refuses, and denounces the emperor, 

Jan. 8, i860 

Count Cavour charged with the formation of a 
ministry Jan. 16, ,, 

Annexation to Sardinia voted for (by universal 
suffrage) in Parma, Slodena and the Ko- 
magna, Jlareh 13 ; Tuscany, March 16 ; ac- 
cepted by the king . . . March 18-22, ,, 

Treaty ceding Savoy and Nice to France signed, 
March 24; approved by the Sardinian par- 
liament May 29, ,, 

The French troops retire from Italy . May, ,, 

Vain insurrections in Sicily, April 4 ; May 2, ,, 

Garibaldi lands at Marsala in Sicily, May'ii ; 
and assumes the office of dictator. May 14 ; 
he defeats the Neapolitans at Calatifimi, 
May 15 ; and at Melazzo, July 20 ; by a con- 
vention the NeapoUtaus agree to evacuate 
Sicily (see Sicih/) .... July 30, ,, 

Garibaldi lands at Reggio in Calabria, Aug. i8 ; 
enters Naples ; the king, Fj-ancis II., retires, 

Sept. 7, „ 

Insurrection in the Papal States, Sept. 8 ; the 
Sardinians enter them, Sept. 11 ; defeat the 
papal troops at Castel-fidardo, Sept. 18 ; be- 
siege and take xVncona, Sept. 17-29; Victor- 
Enimanuel takes the command of his army, 

Oct. 4, „ 

The Sardinians enter the kingdom of Naples, 
Oct. 15 ; defeat the Neapolitans at Isernia, 

Oct. 17, „ 

Garibaldi defeats the Neapolitans at the Vol- 
tiu-no, Oct. I, i860; meets Victor- Emmanuel, 
and says, " King of Italy ! " the latter replies, 
" I th.ank you ! " .... Oct. 26, ,, 

Byunivers.al suffrage, Sicily and Naples vote for 
annex.ation to Sardinia . . . Oct. 21, ,, 

Capua bombarded ; the Neapolitans retire, Nov. 
2 ; and are defeated at the G.arigljano, Nov. 3, ,, 

Victor-Emmanuel enters Naples as king, Nov. 
7 : Garibaldi resigns the dictatorship and re- 
tires to Cajsrera Nov. g, ,, 

Victor-Emmanuel receives homage from the 
Neapolitan clergy, ic. ; gives money to en- 
courage education ; .appoints a ministry, 
including Poerio, &c. . . . Nov. ,, 

Siege of Gaeta commences ; attack by sea ■pve- 
vented by the presence of the French fleet, 

Nov. 3, <S;c. ,, 

Treaty of Zurich signed (see Zurich) Nov. 10, ,, 

Decree in honour of G.aribaldi's army, Nov. 16, ,, 

Reactionary movements suppressed, Nov. — Dec. ,, 

Prince of Carignan-Savoy appointed lieuten.ant 
of Naples Jan. 1861 

The French fleet retires from Gaeta, Jan. 19 ; 
after severe bombardment it surrenders ; 
Francis II. retires to Rome . . Feb. 13, ,, 

ilonastic establishments in N.aples aboli.shcd, 
with compensation to the inmates ; schools 
established i'eh. „ 

Assembly of the first Italian pai-liament, Feb. 



iS, which decrees Victor-Emmanuel king of 
Italy Feb. 26, 1 

Naples unsettled through reactionai-y intrigues 
of the papal party . . March and April, 

The new kingdom recognised by Great Britain, 

March 31, 

Order for the levy of 70,000 soldiers . April. 

Cavour forms a new ministry, including mem- 
bers from all parts of Italy . . April, 

The pope protests against the kingdom, 

April 15, 

Altercation in Parli.ament between Cavour and 
Garibaldi, April 18 ; reconciled . April 25, 

Boiu'bonist bands defeated . May 7, &c.. 

Prince of Cariguan resigns ; San Martiuo ap- 
pointed lieutenant .... May 13, 

Death of count Cavour, aged 52 ; intense gi'ief 
of the king and nation . . . June 6, 

Ricasoli forms a ministry to continue Cavour's 
policy June ii, 

The kingdom recognised by France . June 24, 

San Martino resigns the government of Naples ; 
active measures taken against the insurgents 
and brigands by Cialdiui, his successor, ajj- 
pointed July 16, 

The king opens the exhibition of Italian in- 
dustry at Florence . . . Sept. 14, 

The kingdom recognised by Portugal and Bel- 
gium, Oct. I ; divided into fifty-nine pre- 
fectures, (fee Oct. 13, 

Severe skirmishes in the south with brigands 
and foreign emissaries in the cause of Francis 
II Oct. 

Cialdini retires, and La Marmora becomes lieu- 
tenant-general of Naples . . . Nov. 2, 

Brigandage still prevailing in the south, aided 
by the king of Najjles ; insurgents defeatt d ; 
and many killed .... Nov. 19, 

Jos^ Borges, a Spaniard, lands in Calabria, Sept. 
15 ; calls on the people to rise for Francis II., 
Sept. ; taken and shot . . . Dec. 8, 

The reactionist warfare continues, the cruelties 
of the brigands lead to severe reprisals, Dec. 
Jan. and Feb. : 

The minister Ricasoli compelled to resign by 
court influence, March i ; RattazzL forms an 
administration .... JIarch 3, 

The kingdom recognised by Prussia March i. 

Sun-end er of Civatella del Tronto, the last 
Boui-bon fortress in Sicily . . March 14, 

Triumi^hant progi-ess of Garibaldi through Italy, 
establishing rifle clubs . March and Ai^ril, 

Mr. J. F. Bishop, an active English Bourbonist 
propagandist, captured . . . April 2, 

Conspiracy among the Neapolitan soldiers at 
Slilan suppressed . . . April 19, 

The king received at Naples with great en- 
thusiasm Ajoril 28, 

The French general Guyon aids in the suppres- 
sion of the Bourbonist brigands . . Aj^ril 

The kingdom recognised by Russia . July 3, 

Garibaldi proceeds to Sicily ; at Marsala he 
calls for volunteers, giving as his watchword 
"Rome or death !" . . . July 19, 

Calls on the Hungarians to rise . . July 26, 

The king issues a proclamation against his pro- 
ceedings, as tending to rebellion . Aug. 3, 

Garibaldi enters Catania, and organises a pro- 
visional government . . . Aug. ig, 

Sicily proclaimed to be in a state of siege, Aug. 
21 ; and jjut under general Cialdini, Aug. 22, 

Garibaldi issues his last proclamation ; embarks 
at Catania ; lands at Melito, in Calabria, and 
marches towards Reggio, Aug. 25 ; La 
Marmora proclaims a state of siege, Aug. 
26 ; Garibaldi and his followers fall in with 
the roj-alists, under Pallavicini, at Aspro- 
monte, where, .after a short skirmish, he is 
wounded and taken prisoner, Aug. 29 ; removed 
to Varignano, near Spezzia , . Sept. i, 
D D 2 



ITA 



404 



ITA 



ITALY, contimied. 

Mr. J. F. Bishop sentenced to ten years' im- 
prisonment . . . . . Sept. 6, 1SG2 

General Durando issues a diplomatic circuLir 
condemning Garibaldi's proceedings, yet as- 
serting the necessity of the Italian govern- 
ment possessing Rome . . Sept. 10, ,, 

A subscription in England enables professor 
Partridge, of King's College, London, to go to 
Garibaldi Sept. 19, ,, 

Princess Maria Pia married by proxy to the 
king of Portugal .... Sept. 27, ,, 

Garibaldi issues a rhetorical appeal to the 
English nation, urging its intervention for 
the cause of liberty . . . Sept. 28, ,, 

Inflammatory nanifesto addressed to the 
people of Italy by Joseph Mazzini . Sept. „ 

Amnesty granted to Garibaldi and his fol- 
lowers Oct. 5, ,, 

Sharp reply of M. Drouyn de Lhuys to Du- 
rando's note Oct. 8, ,, 

State of siege in Naples and Sicily abolished, 

Oct. 17, ,, 

Disorderly encounter between Italian and 
Austrian troops on the banlis of the Po, 

Nov. I, „ 

Father Passaglia and 10,000 (out of 80,000) 
Italian priests sign a declaration against the 
temporal authority of the pope . . Nov. ,, 

Garibaldi removed to Pisa, Nov. 9 ; the ball 
extracted from his foot by Dr. Zanetti, 

Nov. 23, ,, 

Meeting of parliament : determined opposition 
to Rattazzi's ministry, Nov. 18 ; he resigns, 

Nov. 30, ,, 

New ministry formed, with Farina as president 
of the council Dec. 9, ,, 

It declines further negotiations with France on 
the Roman question . . . Dec. 18, „ 

Commercial treaty with France signed, Jan. 17, 1863 

Farina resigns ; Minghetti succeeds, March 24, ,, 

Grand Cavour canal for irrigation of Piedmont 
opened ...'.. June i, ,, 

Income tax bill passed .... July, ,, 

Tristany and other bandits captured . July, ,, 

Commercial treaty with Great Britaui signed, 

Aug. 6, ,, 

Death of Farina .... Sept. 5, ,, 

Several bandits captured on board the French 
ship Aunis ; given up to France, July ; re- 
stored to Italy Sept. 12, „ 

The army of Piedmont (50,000) consolidated b.v 
La Marmora and exi^andcd into the " army of 
Italy " (250,000) , . . . . Oct. ,, 

The king visits Naples ; reviews National Guard, 
&c Nov. 11-17, ,, 

General election; triumph of the moderate 
party Jan. 1864 

Garibaldi's visit to England amidst much en- 
thusiasm April, „ 

Franco-Italian convention signed (French troops 
to quit Rome in two years [from Feb. 6, 
1865], Florence to be the capital of Italy, &c.), 

Sept. 15, ,, 

Riots at Tm-in in consequence ; many persons 
killed by the militarj' . . Sept. 21, 22, ,, 

Minghetti and his colleagues much blamed ; 
resigns ; a ministry formed by La Marmora, 

Sept. 24, „ 

The convention denounced by Garibaldi, 

Oct. 10, ,, 

Desperate state of the finances aimouuced by 
Sella, the minister ; he proposes stringent 
remedies Nov. ,, 

Railway direct from Turin to Florence opened, 

Nov. 4, ,, 



The convention approved by the chamber of 

deputies, Nov. i^ ; by the senate (after an 

able speech by Cialdini, Dec. 6) . Dec. 9, 1864 
Decree for transfer of the capital published 

Dee. II. ,, 
Prince Humbert resides at Naples . . Dec. ,, 
Demonstration against the king at Turin ; he 

goes to Florence .... Feb. 3, ,, 
xVmnesty for political oifences published; 

brigandage in the Neapolitan and Roman 

states increasing * .... March, ,, 
Fruitless negotiations with the pope respecting 

the position of bishops in Italy, April to July ,, 
The king and court proceed to Florence, May 

13 ; he opens the Dante festival, the 6ooth 

anniversary of the poet's birth . May 14, ,, 
Mr. Moens, a Britisla subject, seized and re 

tained by brigands . . . . May 15, ., 
45 monks and others arrested at Salerno on 

charge of a Bourbonist conspiracy, June 12, ,, 
Inauguration of a National Rifle Meeting at 

Florence ; the king fires the first shot June 18, ,, 
Numerous atrocities committed by brigands; 

GiarduUo and 8 brigands captured June 19, „ 
The kingdom recognised by Spain . . July ,, 
Mr. Moens released after a ransom of 5ooo^ had 

been paid Aug. 26, „ 

Bank of Italy established . . Nov. 7, 1865 
French troops leaving Italy ; general election, 

the moderate party predominate . Nov. ,, 
The new parliament meets at Florence, Nov. 18, ,, 



KINGS OF ITALY. 

476. Odoacer, king of the Heruli, invades It;ily, and 
I'ules it : he was conquered and slain by 

493. Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths ; an al)le 
prince. He put to death the philosuphers 
Boethius and Symmachus, falsely accused, 
about 525. 

526. Athalaric, his grandson dies of the plague. 

534. Theodatus elected ; assassinated. 

536. Vitiges elected. 

540. Thoodebald elected ; assassinated. 

541. Totila, or Badiula, a great prince ; killed in 

battle against the imperial army under 

Narscs. 
552. Theras falls in battle. Italy subject for a short 

time to the eastern emiiire. 
568. Alboin, king of the Lombards, with a huce 

mixed army, conquers Italy ; poisoned by 

his wife Rosamond, for compelUng her to 

drink wine out of a cup formed of her father's 

skull. 
573. Cleoph ; assassinated. 
575. Autharis ; poisoned. 
491. Agilulph. 
615. Adaloald ; pojsoned. 
625. Arioald. 
636. Rotharis ; manned the widow of Arioald ; 

pu'olished a code of laws. 

652. Rodoald (son) ; assassinated. 

653. Aribert I. (uncle). 

66i. Bertharit and Godebert (sons) ; dethroned by 

662. Grimoald, duke of Benevento. 

671. Bertharit re-established. 

685. Cunibert (son). 

700. Luitbert ; dethroned by 

701. Ragimbert. 

701. Aribert II. (son). 

712. Ansprand elected. 

712. Luitprand (son), a great prince, and a favourite 

of the church. 
744. Hildebrand (nephew) ; deposed. 
744. Rachis, duke of Friuli, elected ; became a monk. 



* In Dec. 1S64, it was stated that 346 brigands had been killed in action ; 453 taken in action, and 132 
surrendered. About 300 remained to be tracked. Many pretend to be subjects of the ex -king Francis II. 
of Naples. 



ITI 



405 



JAF 



ITALY, continued. 

749. Astoliih (brother). | 894 

756. Desideruis ; quarrelled with the pope AdrLan 921, 
who hivited Charlemagne into Italy ; by 926 

945. 

950. 



whom Desiderins was deposed, aud an end 

put to the Lombard kingdom. 
777. Pepin (sou of Charlemagne). 
812. Bernard. 
820. Lothaire (son of Louis le Debonnaire). 





EMPERORS. 




875. Charles the Bald. 






877. Carloman. 








879. Charles the Fat. 






888. Berengcrl 








889. 


and Guy. 




PRIXCirAL 




Born 


Died 




Dante 


. 1265 


1321 


Tas.so 


I'etrarca 


. . 1304 


1374 


Galileo . 


Boceaceio . 


• 1313 


1375 


Metastasio 


Ariosto . 


• • 1474 


1533 


Goldoni 


Machiavelli 


. 1469 


1527 


Parini 


Guicciardini . 


. . 1482 


1540 


Alfieri . 



Bjrcngcr I. and Lamlicrt. 

,, and Rudolph of Burgundy. 

Hugh of Provence. 
Lothaire II. 

Berenger II. ; deposed in 
961. By the emperor Otho the Great, who added 
Italy to the German empire. 

MODERN KING.? OP ITALY. 

Napoleon proclaimed king of Italy, March iS ; 

crowned at Milan, May 26 ; abdicated, 1814. 
Victor-Emmanuel II. (of Sardinia), born 

Starch 14, 1820. Heir : Humbert, prince of 

Savoy, born March 14, 1844. 



Born 


Died 




1544 


1595 


Volta . 


1564 


1642 


Leopardi 


1698 


1782 


Monti 


1707 


1795 


Gioberti 


1729 


1799 


Nicolini 


1749 


1S03 


Manzoni 



Born 


Died 


1745 


1826 


179S 


1837 


1754 


1828 


1801 


1852 


1782 


1 861 


1784 





ITINERARIES. The Roman Itineiariuni was a table of the stages between two important 
plaees. The " Itineraiia Antonini," embraeiug the whole Roman empire, ii.siially ascribed 
to the emperor Aurelins Antoninus, and his successors, a.d. 138-80, was probably based 
ujion tlie survey made by order of Julius Cresar, 44 u.c. The " Itinerarium Hierosolyrai- 
tanum" was drawn up for the use of the pilgrims about 333. • 

IVRY (near Evreux, N. W. France). Here Henry IV. totally defeated the League army, 
March 14, 1590. 

IVORY was brought to Solomon from Tarshish, about 992 B c. (i Kings x. 22). The 
colossal statues of Jupiter, Minerva, &r. , by Phidias, were formed of ivory and gold, B.C. 444. 

J. 

J was distinguished from I by the Dutch scholars of the i6th century, and introduced 
into the alphabet by Giles Beys, printer, of Paris, 1550. Dufrcunoy. 

JACOBINS, the original name of the Dominicans (ic7t/c7i see). The Jacobin dub (first 
called "club Breton ") consisted of about forty gentlemen and men of letters, who met in 
the hall of the Jacol>in friars, at Paris, in Oct. 17S9, to discuss political and other questions. 
Fraternal societies were instituted in all the principal towns of the kingdom. Burke. The 
club was closed Nov. 11, 1794. 

JACOBITES, a Christian sect, so called from Jacob Barad?eus, a Syrian, about 541. See 
Eutychians. The partisans of James II. (Latin, Jacobus II.) were so named after his expulsion 
from England in 1688. 

JACOBUS. A gold coin, so called from king James I. of England, in whose reign it was 
struck, 1603-25. 

JACQUARD LOOM. See Loom. 

JACQUERIE, a term applied to bands of revolted peasants : first given to a body of them 
(lieaded by one Caillot, called Jacques Bonhomme) which ravaged France during the captivity 
of king John in 1358. 

JAFFA, a seaport of Syria, celebrated in scripture as Joppa, whence Jonah embarked 
(about 862 B.C.), and where Peter raised Tabitha from the dead (a.d. 38) ; in mythology the 
])lace whence Perseus delivered Andromeda. Jaffa was taken by the caliidi Omar, a.d. 636 ; 

" The following terms are often used with reference to certain periods in the history of Italian litera- 
ture and art. i. Treceato (three hundred), from the birth of Dante (1265) to the deatli of Boccaccio (1375), 
which two, with Petrarca, arc styled " the triumvirate of the Trecento." 2. Qwxtlrocento (four hundred). 
from 1375 to the revival of Italian literature by Lorenzo de' Medici in the 15th century. During this period 
Latin was revived, to the prejudice of Italian. 3. Cinquecento (fixe hundred", from about 14S0 to 1590. A 
sensuous style of art, f.amdcd on the heathen mythology, began to prevail. 4. Seicento (sis hundred), 
from 1590 to" 1 700. The bad taste which prevailed during this period is ascribed to the influence of the 
Spaniards and the Jesuits tliroughout Italy. Hdccntisti is a term of reproacli. The Trecento and Cinguecento 
■were the most flourishmg periods. 



JAG 



40G 



JAN 



Ly the Crnsnders, 1090 ; and by Bonaparte, March 7-10, 1799 ; the French were driven ont 
hy the British in June, the same year. Here, according to sir Robert Wilson, were massacred 
3800 prisoners by Bonaparte ; but this is doubted. Jaffa suffered by an earthquake in Jan. 
1837, when it is said tliat 13,000 persons were killed. 

JAGELLONS, a dynasty which at times reigned over Lithuania, Poland, Hungary, and 
Bohemia, beginning with Jagellou, duke of Bohemia, 1381. It ended with Jolm II. of 
Poland, in 1668. 

JAMAICA, a W. India island, discovered by Columbus, May 3, 1494. It was conquered 
from the Spaniards by admiral Penn, with land forces commanded by Venables, May 3, 1655. 
Poxiulation in 1861, 13,816 whites ; 81,074 coloured ; 346,374 blacks. 



An awful eartliquake here . . . June 2, 

The Maroons (runaway slaves) permitted to 
settle in the north of the island . . . . 

Desolating hurricanes in 1722, 1734, and . 

In June, 179s, the Maroons rose against the 
English, and were not quelled till . March, 

Many transported to Sierra Leone . . . 

Slave trade abolished .... May i, 

Tremendous hurricane, by which the whole 
island was deluged, hundreds of houses 
washed away, vessels wrecked, and a thou- 
sand xjersons drowned .... Oct. 

Insurrection of the negro slaves ; numerous 
plantations burnt ; the governor, lord Bel- 
more, declared martial law . . Dec. 22, 

Emancipation of the slaves . , . Aug. i, 

About 50,000 die of cholera in .... 



1692 



i73» 
1751 



1796 



1831 
1834 
tSio 



In May, 1S53, the dissension between the colo- 
nial legislature and sir Charles 6rej% the 
governor, occasioned his recall ; his successor, 
sir H. Barkly, arrived .... Oct. 
Charles Henry Darling, appointed governor 
Edward John Eyre appointed governor 
Negro insurrection begins at Morant-bay, by 
resisting the capture of a negi-o criminal, 
Oct. 7 ; the court house fired on ; baron 
Ketelholdt, rev. V. Herschell. and many others 
cruelly murdered .and mutilated, Oct. 11, 12, 
Rebellion spreads, and many atrocities are 
committed ; it is suppressed by the energy 
of the governor, the military and naval 
officers, volunteers, the maroons, and the 
loyal negroes * . . . . Oct. 13 — 24, 



1857 



1865 



JAMES'S HALL, ST., near Piccadillj^, erected for public meetings, &c., was opened 
on March, 25, 1858, with a concert for the benefit of the Middlesex hospital. Mr. Owen 
Jones was the architect. 

JAMES'S PALACE, ST., London, was built by Henry VIII. on the site of an hospital 
of the same najne, 1530. It has been the official town-residence of the English court since 
the fire at Whitehall in 1695. The Paek was a marsh till Henry VIII. enclosed and laid it 
out in walks, 1530. 



Much improved by Charles II., who employed 
Le Notre to plant lime-trees, and to lay out 
' ' the mall " for the pxirpose of playing a game 
with a ball called a mall .... 1668 

AVilliatn III. gr.anted a passage into it from 
Spring gardens 1699 

A gi-and display of fireworks took place here at 
the jieace, when the pagoda bridge erected 
iere by sir W. Cougreve was bui-ut . Aug. i, 1814 



The park improved by George IV. 1827, et seq. 

The enclosure first opened to the public in Jan. 
1829 ; the opening by Carlton-steps in . 

The marble arch that fronted Buckingham 
palace removed to Cumberland-gate, Hyde- 
park March 29, 

An iron bridge over the ornamental water con- 
structed 



JANISSARIES (Turkish ieni (chert, new soldiers), an order of infitntiy iu the Turkish 
T),rmy : originally, young prisoners trained to arms ; were first organised by Orcan, about 1330, 
and remodelled by his son Amurath I. about 1360 ; their number.s were increased by later 
sovereigns. In later days they degenerated from their strict discipline, and several times 
deposed the sultan. Owing to an insurrection of these troop.", on June 14, 1826, when nearly 
3000 of them were killed, the Ottoman army was re-organised, and a firman was issued on 
June 17, abolishing the Janissaries. 

JANSENISTS, persons who embraced the doctrines of Cornelius Jansen, bishop of Yprcs, 
who died in 1638. He was a prelate of piety and morals, but his '^Augustiniis,''^ a book in 
which he maintained the Augustinian doctrine of free grace, kindled a fierce controversy on 
its publication in 1640, and was condemned by a bull of pope Urban VIII. in 1642. Through 
the Jesuits, its vehement oi^ponents, Jansenism, was condemned by Innocent X. in 1653, and 
by the bull Unigenitus, issued by Clement XI. in 1713. This bull the French church 
rejected. Jansenism still exists at Utrecht and Haarlem. See Port Boyalists. 

JANUARY derives its name from Janus, an early Roman divinity. January was added 
to the Roman calendar by Numa, 713 B.C. He placed it about the winter solstice, and made 

* The chief instigators, Geo. Wm. Gordon, a coloured member of the legislative assembly, and Paul 
Bogle, -with many others, were tried and executed in a summary manner. Above 200 rebels were shot ; 
and on Oct. 24, above 200 men and 65 women remained to be tried. These proceedings excited severe com- 
jnent in England. 



JAN 



407 



JEA 



it the first month, because Janus was supposed to preside over the beginning of all Inisiness. 
In 1 75 1 the legal year in England was ordered to begin on Jan. i, instead of March 25. 

JANUS, TE^tPLE OF, at Home, was erected by Romulus, and kept open in time of war, 
aud closed in time of peace. During above 700 years it was shut — under Numa 714 B.C. ; 
at the close of the first Punic war, 235 B.C. ; and under Augustus, 29, and 25 B.C. ; during 
tliat long period of time, the Komans were continually employed in war. 

JAPAN, an Asiatic em]iirc, composed of five large and many small islands {NipJion the 
principal). It was visited by Marco Polo, the Venetian traveller, in the 13th century ; and 
by Mendez Pinto, a Portuguese, about 1535 or 1542 ; whose countrymen shortly after obtained 
permission to found a settlement. The Jesuit missionaries who followed made a great number 
of converts, who sent a deputation to pope Gregory XIII. in 1582 ; but a fierce persecution of 
the Christians began in 1590, aggravated it is said by the indiscreet zeal and arrogance of 
the Jesuits : thousands of the converts sufiered death ; and in 1639, the Portuguese were 
utterly expelled from the empire. The Dutch trade with Japan commenced about 1600 
inider severe restrictions, and has since been frequently suspended. The learned Engelbert 
Kcempfer visited Japan in 1690, and published an account of it with plates. 



An American expedition, under commodore 
Parry, reaches Jeddo, and is favom-ably re- 
ceived ; but remains only a few days, July S, 1853 

A treaty of commercial alliance concluded be- 
tween the two countries . . . March, 1S54 

A similar treaty with the British . . Oct. ,, 

Nagasaki and Hakodadi opened to European 
commerce ....... 1S56 

Commercial treaty with Russia . Ang. ig, 185S 

Lord Elgin visits Japan, with a present of a 
steamer for the emperor, and is honourably 
received, July : obtains the treaty of Jeddo, 
opening Japan to British commerce, Aug. 26, ,, 

The secular emperor dies (aged 36) . Seirt. 16, „ 

An attempt made to assassinate tlie regent, 

March, 1S60 

A Japanese embassy visits Washington, New 
York, &c., in the United States, 

Maj- 14 — June 30, „ 

Received by Napoleon III. at Paris, April 13 ; 
in London, June ; in Holland, Prussia, <tc. 

July — Sept. 1S62 

Attack on the British embassy at Jeddo ; some 
persons wounded .... July 5, 1861 

Japan quiet Dec. ,, 

Another attack on the English charge d'affaires 
frustrated .... June 26, 27, 1S62 

Foreign ministers transfer the residence from 
Jeddo to Yokohama . . . June 27, ,, 

Mr. Kichardson miu-dered and his companions 



cruelly assailed by a Japanese noble and his 
suite ...... Sept. 14, 

The batteries and vessels of the prince of 
Nagato fire on an English and a French vessel 
at the entrance of the straits of Simonosaki, 
Nov. 15, ig, 

S3me English, French, and American vessels 
bombard his forts and his vessels, Julj' 15-ig, 

Reparation demanded ; ioo,oooi. paid by the 
government ; the prince of Satsuma resists 
jiajmient of 25,000^ , his portion ; admiral 
Kuper enters the bay of Kagosima, and is 
fired upon ; whereupon he bomb.ards the 
town azid bums the prince's steamers, 

Aug. 15, 

He pays the 25,000?. . . . Dec. 14, 

The Japanese minister announces that the 
jiorts oiJened by virtue of the ti'eaties will be 
closed ...... June 24, 

The Japanese government refuse to abide by 
the treaties ; a combined fleet enters the 
straits of Simouos.aki, Sept. 4 ; and attacks 
aud destroys the Japanese batteries, 

Sept. 5, 6, 

Major Baldwin and lieut. Bird murdered, Nov. 
20 ; for which two assassins were executed in 

Dec. 

The Japanese government are stated to be en- 
deavouring to reduce the power of the nobles 

Aug. 



1862 



JAENAC (W. France). On March 13, 1569, the duke of Anjou, afterwards Henry III. 
of France, here defeated the Huguenots under Louis, prince of Conde, who was killed in 
cold blood by Montesquieu. The victor (seventeen years of age), on account of his success 
Iicre and at Moncoutour, was chosen king of Poland. 

JAS]\IINE, OR Jessamine, Jasminum officinale, a native of Persia, &e., was brought 
hither from Circassia, before 1548. The Catalonian jasmine came from the East Indies, in 
1629, and the yellow Indian ja.smine in 1656. 

JASSY, the capital of Moldavia, frequently occupied by the Eussians ; taken by them in 
1739 and 1769. A treaty between them and the Turks was signed here Jan. 9, 1792. 

JAVA, a large island in the Eastern Archipelago, is said to have been reached by the 
Portuguese in 151 1, and Tiy the Dutch in 1595. The latter, who now possess it, built 
Batavia, the capital, about 16 19. See JJatavia. The atrocious massacre of 20,000 of the 
imarmed natives by the Dutch, sparing neither women nor children, to possess their effects, 
took place in 1740. The island capitulated to the British, Sep. 18, 181 1. The sultan was 
dethroned by the Englisli, and the hereditary i)rince raised to the throne, in June, 18 13. 
Java was restored to Holland in 1814. In Aug. i860, the Swiss soldiers aided by the 
natives here mutinied, but were soon reduced, and many sufiered death. 

JEAN DE LUZ, ST. (S. France, near the Pyrenees"). Soult's strong position here was 
taken by general Hill and marshal Beresford, Nov. 10, 1S13. 



JED 403 J Ell 

JEDDA, the port of Mecca, Arabia. On June 15, 1858, the fanatic Mahommedans rose 
and massacred tvvent,y-six of the Cliristian inhabitants, among them the English and French 
cnnsiils and part of their families ; but many ik'd to the shipping. On tlie delay of justice, 
commodore Pullen bomliarded the town, July 25 and 26. On Aug. 6, eleven of the assassins 
■were executed ; the ringleaders also were afterwards executed. 

JEDDO, OR Ykddo, the capital of Japan, on the island of Niphon, contains about 
2,000,000 inhabitants. Tlie emperor's palace is said to have a hall of audience .supported by 
]iillars of massive gold, and three towers, each nine stories high, covered with gold plates. 
On Dec. 23, 1854, and Nov. 11, 1855, severe earthquakes occurred: during the latter, 
57 temples, 100,000 houses, and about 30,000 persons were destroyed. See Japan. 

JE MAINTIENDRAI, "I will maintain." The motto of the house of Nassau. When 
"William III. came to the throne of England, he continued this, but added " the liberties of 
England and the Protestant religion," at the same time ordering that tlie old motto of the 
royal arms, ''^ Die it ct mon droit," should be retained on the great seal, i68g. 

JEMAPPES (N.W. Belgium), the site of the first pitched battle gained by the French 
republicans (under Dumouriez), in which 40,000 French troops forced 19,000 Austrians, who 
were entrenched in woods and mountains, defended by redoubts and many cannon, Nov. 6, 
1792. The number killed on each side was reckoned at 5000. 

JENA AND AuEKSTADT (Central Germany), where two battles were fought, Oct. 14, 1806, 
lietween the French and Prussians. The French were commanded at Jena b}^ Napoleon, and 
at Auerstadt by Davoust : the Prussians by prince Hohenlohe at the former place, and the 
king of Prus.sia at the latter. The Prussians were defeated, losing nearly 20,000 killed and 
wounded, and nearly as many prisoners, and 200 field-pieces ; the French lost 14,000 men. 
Napoleon advanced to Berlin, and issued the Berlin decree {which see). 

JENNERIAN INSTITUTION, founded 1803. See Vaccination. 

JERSEY. The chief island of the channel archipelago (which includes Guernsey, Sark, 
Aldernej', &c.), formerly held by the Romans in the 3rd and 4th centuries after Christ — 
Jersey being termed Cffisarca. The isles were captured by Rollo, and thus became an 
appanage of the duchy of Noimandy, and were united to the crown of England by his 
descendant, William the Conqueror. The inhabitants of the Channel Islands preferred to 
remain subjects of king John, at the period of the conquest of Normandy by Philip 
Augustus, and while retaining the laws, customs, and (until lately) the language of their 
continental ancestors, have always remained firm in their allegiance to England. Almost every 
war with Fiance has been characterised by an attack on Jersey, the most successful of which, 
under the baron de Rullecour, was defeated by the English garrison and Jersey militia, 
commanded by major Pierson, Jan. 6, 1781. Mr. J. Bertrand Payne, in his "Armorial 
of Jersey" and his "Gossiping Guide" has exhaustively treated the general and family 
history of the island. The population of the isles in 1861, was 91,147. 

JERUSALEM, called also Salem, 1913B.C. {Gen.niv. 18). Its king was slain by Joshua, 
145 1 B.C. It was taken by David, 1048 e.g., who dwelt in the fort, calling it the city of 
David. See /cics. 

The first temple founded Ijy Solomon, 1012B.C. ; Jerusalem taken from the Christians by Saladin 1187 

and solemnly dedic:ated on Friday . Oct. 30, 1004 By the Turks, who drive away the Saracens, 

Joru.salera taken and razed to the ground lay 1217 <fe 1239 
Titus : more than 1,100,000 of tlie Jews Surrendered to the emperor Frederic II. by 
perished .... a.d. Sept. 8, 70 i treaty 122S 

A city (called .Slia) built on the ruins by Julius I Taken by the Turks 1517 

Severus, in the time of Adrian . . . 130 Held bj- the French under Bonaparte Feb. 1799 

The walls rebuilt by the empress Eudoxia . 437 ■ The protestant bishopric of Jerusalem erected, 

Jerusalem taken by the Persians, 614 ; by the | under the pi-otection of Gi-eat Britain and 

Saracens, 637 ; and by the Crusaders, when | Prussia ; S. M. S. Alexander consecrated 

70,000 infidels were put to the sword ; anew | Vjishop Nov. 7, 1841 

kingdom founded . . . July 15, 1099 ' Jerusalem and the neighlwurhood was sur- 

Tb.e " assize of Jerusalem," a code of laws, es- I veyed by a party of royal engineers between 

tabhshed by Gudfrcy of Bouillon . . . iioo , Sept. 1864 & June, 1865 

rurvISTIAX KIKGS OF JERUSALEM. 

Codfi-ey of Bouillon 1099 , Sibyl, then his son Baldwin V ^185 

Baldwin I iioo Guy de Lusignan 1186 

Baldwin II 1118 : Henry of Champagne 1192 

Fulk of Anjou ....... 1131 j Amauri de Lusignan . . . . . . 1197 

Baldwin III 1144 ' Jeanne de Brienne 1210 

Amauri (or Almeric) 1162 Emperor Frederic II 1229-39 

Baldwin IV 1173 { 

"JERUSALEM DELIVEEED," the great Italian epic, by Tasso, was published in 1580. 



JES 



409 



JEW 



JESTER is described as "a witty and jocose person, kept by princes to inform tliem of 
their faults, and those of other men, \inder the disguise of a waggish story." Several of our 
kings, particularly the Tndors, kept jesters. Eayhere, the founder of St. Bartholomew's 
]iriory, West Smithfield, London, 1 133, is said to have been a court jester and minstrel. 
There was a jester at court in the reigns of James I. and Charles I., but we hear of no 
licensed jester afterwards. 

JESUITS, the .society or company of Jesus, was founded by Ignatius Loyola, a page to 
Ferdinand V. of Spain, subsetpiently an ofiieer in his aj-my, and afterwards canonised. 
Having been wounded in both legs at the siege of Pampeluna, in 1521, he devoted himself 
to theolog5% aild renounced the military for the ecclesiastical profession. He dedicated his 
life to the Blessed Virgin as her knight ; made a pilgriniage to the Holy Land, and on his 
return laid the foundation of his society at Paris, Aug. 16, 1534. He presented its insti- 
tutes, in 1539, to ]iope Paul 111., who made many objections ; but Ignatius adding to the 
A'ows of chastity, poverty,- and obedience, a fourth of implicit submission to the holy see, 
the institution was confirmed by a bull, Sept. 27, 1540 ; the number of members was not to 
exceed sixty. That restriction was taken off by another bull, March 14, 1543 ; and popes 
Julius III., Pius v., and Gregory XIII. granted great privileges. Francis Xavier, and other 
missionaries, the first brothers, carried the order to the extremities of the habitable globe, 
but it met with great ojiposition in Europe, particularly in Paris. See Paraguaij and 
Jansenists. 

Abolished by Clement XIV. (at tlie meeting of 
the Bourbon sovereigns) . . July 21, 1773 

Restored by Pius VI Aug. 7, 1814 

Expelled from — Belgium, 1818; Russia, 1820; 
Spain, 1S20, 1835 ; France, 1831, 1845 ; Por- 
tugal, 1834 : Sardinia, Austria, and other 
states, 1848 ; Italy and Sicily . . . i860 

The chief of the order appeals to the king of 
Sai-dinia for redress of grievances . Oct. 24, ,, 



The society condemned bythe Sorbonne, Paris, 
1554 ; expelled from France, 1594 ; re-ad- 
mitted, 1604 ; but after s iveral decrees is 
totally suppressed in France and its pro- 
perty confiscated . . • 1764 

Ordered by parliament to be expelled from 
England, 1579, 1581, 15S6, 1602 ; and finally 
by the Relief Act in 1829 

Expelled from — Venice, 1607; Holland, 1708; 
Portugal, 1759; Spain . . ... 1767 

JESL^IT'S BARK, called by the Spaniards fever- wood ; discovered, it is said, by a Jesuit, 
about 1535 (and used by the order). It is taken from the cinchona or chinehona tree. It.s 
virtues were not generally known till 1633, when it cured of fever the lady of the viceroy 
ttt Peru. It was sold at one period for its weight in silver, and was introduced into France 
in 1649 ; ^^^ i*' ^s ^^^^ to have cured Louis XIV. of fever when he was dauphin. It came 
into general u-se in 1680, and sir Hans Sloane introduced it here about 1700. The cinchona 
plant was largely planted in the Neilgherry hills, India, in 1861, and is thriving greatly. 
See Quinine. 

JESUS CHRIST, the Saviour of the World, .stated to have been born on Mondaj^ 
Dec. 25, A.M., 4004, in the year of Rome, 752 ; but this event should be dated four years 
before the commencement of the common era. See Nativity. The following dates are given 
by ecclesiastical writers. Christ's baptism by John,, and his first ministry, A.i>. 30. He 
celebrated the last passover, and instituted the sacrament on Thursday, April 2, 33 ; was 
crucified on Friday, April 3, at three o'clock in the afternoon ; arose April 5 ; ascended to 
heaven from Mount Olivet on Thursday, May 14 ; and the Hol\' Spirit descended on his 
(lisiiples oil Sunday, the day of Pentecost, May 24. The divinity of Christ, denied by the 
Arians, was affirmed by the council of Nice, 325. 

JEWELLERY, worn by most of the early nations. Pliny the elder, saj-^s he saw LoUia 
Paulina (the mo.st beautiful woman of her time, and wife of Caius Caesar, and afterwards of 
Caligula) wearing ornaments which were valued at 322,916/^. sterling. 'J[ewels were worn in 
France by Agnes Sorel in 1434, and extensively encouraged in Englajid about 1685. The 
standard of gold for jewellery was lowered by parliament in 1854. 

JEWISH ERA. The Jews usually employed the era of the Seleucida^ until the 15th 
century, when a new mode of computing was adopted. They date from the creation, which 
they consider to have been 3760 years and 3 months before the commencement of our era. 
To reduce Jewish time to ours, subtract 3761 years. 

JEWS, a people who derive their origin from Abraham, with whom God made a covenant, 
i8q8, B.C. • Gcii. xvii. 



CallofAbrara B.C. 

Isaac bom to Abr.aham .... 

Birth of Esau and Jacob 

Death of Abi-aliam 

oseph sold into Egypt « . 1729 



1921 
1896 
1837 



The male children of the Israelites thrown into 
the Nile; Moses born .... bc. 1571 

The Passover instituted. The'Israehtes go out 
of Egypt, and cross the Red Sea . . . 1491 

The law promulgated from Mount Sinai . . ,, 



JEW 



410 



JEW 



JEWS, continued. 

The tabernacle set up . . . . B.C. 1490 
Jo-shua leads the Israelites into Canaan . . 1451 
The first bondage (Othniel, 1405) . . . . 1413 
The second bondage (Ehud, 1325) . . . 1343 
The third bondage (Deborah and Barak, 1285) . 1305 
The fourth bondage (Gideon, 1245) , . . 1252 
The fifth bondage (Jephthah, 1187) . . . 1206 

The sixth bondage 1157 

Samson slays the Philistines . . . .1136 
Samuel governs as judge, about . . . . 1120 
Samson pulls down the temple of Dagou . . 1117 

Saul made king 1095 

Davi<l slays Goliath, about 1063 

De.ath of Saul ; David made king . . . . 1055 
David besieges and takes Jerusalem, and makes 

it his capital 1048 

Solomon lays the foundation of the temple . . 1012 

Which is dedicated 1004 

Death of Solomon ; the kingdom divided . , 975 

KINGDOM OF ISRAEL. 

Jerobo.am establishes idolatry .... 975 
Bethel taken from Jeroboam ; 500,000 Israel- 
ites slain 957 

Israel afiiicted with the famine predicted by 

Elijah 906 

The Syrians besiege Samaria . . , . 901 

Elijah' translated to heaven .... 8g6 

Miracles of Elisha the projihet . . . . 895 

The Assyrian invasion under Phul . . , 771 

Pekah besieges Jerusalem 741 

Samaria taken by the king of Assyria : the ten 
tribes are carried into captivity, and an end 
is put to the kingdom of Israel . , .721 

KINGDOM OF JUDAH. 

Shishak, king of Egypt, takes Jerusalem, and 
pillages the temple 971 

Abijah defeats the king of Israel ; 50,000 men 
are slain in battle 957 

Hazael desolates Judah 857 

Pekah, king of Israel, lays siege to Jerusalem ; 
120,000 of the men of Judah are slain in one 
day 741 

Sennacherib invades Judea, but the destroying 
angel enters the camp of the Assyrians, and 
in one night destroj's 185,000 of them . . 710 

Holofernes is killed at the siege of Bethulia by 
Judith 656 

In repaii-ing the temple, Hilkiah discovers the 
book of the law, and Josiah keeps a solemn 
Passover ........ 624 

2Cebuchadnezzar invades Judea .... 605 

He besieges Jerusalem 599 

He again invades Judea, and takes Jerusalem 
after a long siege 588 

Jerusalem fired, the temple burnt, the walls 
razed to the ground, and the city reduced to 
ashes 5S7 



KINGS. 

Saul began to reign 
David ,, 

Solomon ,, • 

B.C. KingsofJi'-dah. 

975. Kehoboam . 

958. Abijah . 

955. Asa 

953- .. 

930. „ 

■929. ,, 

^25- >. 

918. „ 

914. Jehoshaphat 

897. . 



889. Jehoram 
885. Ahaziah. 



PROPHETS. 

B.C. 1095 Samuel. 
. . 1055 Nathan. 
. 1015 



Kings of Israel. 
Jeroboam I. 

Nadab (954) • 
Baasha ,, . 
Elah „ 
Zimri . 
Omri . 
Ahab . 



. Ahijah. 

Azariah. 
Hanani. 
Jehu. 



Elijah. 



Ah.aziah . . Elisha. 



B.C. 


Kings nf Judah 




Kings of Israel 


Prophets. 


884. 


Athaliah . 




Jehu. 




878. 


( Joash or Je 
\ hoahaz. 


) 






1 


^^ 




8S7. 


,, 




Jeboahaz. 




840. 


Amaziah 




Jehoash (839) 




82 s 


. 




Jeroboam II. 


. Jonah. 


810. 


( Uzziah 01 


} 




( Ho.sea. 
\ Amas. 


\ Azariah. 




784. 


„ 




Anarchy. 




773- 


" 




Zechariah. . 
( Shallum. 
\ Menaheni. 


. Joel. 


■/J-i- 


>i 






761. 






Pekahiah. 




7W- 






Pekah. 




758. 


Jotham 




» • 


( Isaiah and 
• ( Micah. 


742. 


Ahaz. 




,, 




730. 


J) 




Hoshea. 




726. 


Hezekiah 




( [Cai^tivity, 
\ 721] 


{■ Nahum. 


6q8. 


Manasseh. 








643- 


Amon 






. Jeremiah. 


641. 


Josiah . 
(■ Jehoahaz 


i 




. Zephaniah. 


610. 


■I (Shallum), 


. 


. Habakkuk. 




( Jehoiakim. 








(■Jehoakin 


) 




. Daniel. 


soo- 


■I (Coniah), 
( Zedekiah 


y 








) 


. 


. Ezekiel. 



BABYLONISH CAPTIVITY. 

Daniel prophesies at Babylon . . .B.C. 603 
Shadrach, Mesliach, and Abed-nego, refusing 
to worship tlie golden image, are cast into a 
fiery furnace, but are delivered by the angel 587 
Obadiah prophesies . . . . . . ,, 

Daniel declares the meaning of the handwriting 

against Belshazzar 538 

He is cast into the lions' den ; he prophesies 
the return from captivity, and the conimg of 
the 3Iessiah . . ,, 



RETURN FROM CAPTIVITY. 

Cj'rus, sovereign of all Asia, publishes an edict 
for the return of the Jews and rebuilding 

of the temple . 536 

Haggai and Zechariah prophets . . . . 520 
The second temple finished . March 10, 515 

The Jews delivered from Haman by Esther . 510 
Ezra, the priest, arrives in Jerusalem to reform 

abuses 458 

Here begin the 70 weeks of years predicted by 
Daniel, being 490 years before the crucifixion 

of the Redeemer 457 

The walls of Jerusalem built ..... 445 

Malachi the prophet 415 

[The Scripture history of the Jews ends, accord- 
ing to Easebius, in 442 B.C. ; and from this 
time Josephiis and the Roman historians give 
the best account of the Jews.] 

THE GRECIAN EMPIRE. 

Alexander the Great passes out of Europe into 
Asia 333 

He marches against Jerusalem to besiege it, but 
it is said, on seeing Jaddus, the high-priest, 
clad in his robes, he declares he had seen 
such a figure in a vision in Macedonia, invit- 
ing him to Asia, and promising to deliver the 
Persian empire into his hands ; he now goes 
to the temple, and offers sacrifices to the God 
of the Jews . . . . . . . . 332 

Jerusalem taken by Ptolemy Soter . . . 320 

Ptolemy Philadelphus said to employ 72 Jews 
to translate the Scriptures 277 

Antiochus takes Jerusalem, pillages the temple, 
and slays 40.000 of the inhabitants . .170 

Government of the Maccabees begins . , . 166 



JEW 



411 



JEW 



JEWS, continued. 
Treaty with the Romans ; the first on record 

with the Jews B.C. i6i 

Judas Ilyrcamis assumes the title of "king of 

the Jews" ........ 107 

Jerusalem taken by the Roman legions under 

Pompey 63 

TIOMAN EMriRE. 

Antipater made intendant of Judsea by JuUus 

Ca-sar 49 

Ilerod, son of Antipater, marries Jlirianano, 

daughter of the king 42 

Invasion of the Parthiaus . . . . . 40 
Ilerod employs the aid of the senate ; they 

decree him to bo the king . . . . „ 
Jerusalem taken by Herod, and by the Roman 

general Sosius . . . . . ■ ■ 37 
Ilerod rebuilds the temple . . . .18 

Jescs Christ, the long-expected Messiah, is 
said to be born on Monday, Dec. 25, four years 
before the common era . . . a.d. 4 
Pontius Pilate is made procurator of Judea . 26 
John the Baptist begins to preach . . . ,, 

John the Baptist beheaded 31 

(Jln-ist's ministry and miracles .... 31-33 
The crucifixion and resurrection of the Re- 
deemer 33 

Thi^ Jews persecuted for refusing to worship 

Caligula 38 

Receive the right of Roman citizenship . . 41 
Claudius banishes Jews from Rome ... 50 
Titus takes Jerusalem ; the city and temple are 
sacked and burnt, and 1,100,000 of the Jews 
perish, multitudes destroying themselves . 70 
Adrian rebiiilds Jerusalem (calling it yElia 

Capitolina), and erects a temple to Jupiter . 130 
Rebellion of Bar-cochba ; final desolation of 
.Tudea ....... 135-136 

r>.bire than 580,000 of the Jews are slain by the 

Romans in 135-136 

[Thej- are now banished from Judea by an edict 
of the emperor, and are forbidden to return, 
or even to look back upon their once flourish- 
ing and beloved city, on pain of death. From 
this period, the Jews have been scattered 
among all other nations.] 

OE'MERAL HISTORY. 

Jews first arrive in England .... 1078 

'i'lie Raljbi Maimonides lives about . . . ,, 

The Jaws massacred in London, on the corona- 
tion day of Richard I., at the instigation of 
the priests 11S9 

500 Jews besieged in York castle by the mob, 
cut each other's throats to avoid their fury . ngo 

Jews of both sexes imprisoned ; their eyes or 
teeth plucked out, and numbers inhumanly 
butchered, by king John 1204 

They circumcise and attempt to crucify a child 
at Norwich ; the offenders are condemned in 
a fine of 20,000 marks 1235 

They crucify a child at Lincoln, for which 
18 are hanged 1255 

700 Jews are slain in London, a Jew having 
forced a Christian to pay him more than 2.'!. 
per week as interest on a loan of 20.'!. Stov;. 1262 

Statute that no Jew should enjoy a freehold, 
passed 1269 

Every Jew lending money on interest com- 
pelled to wear a plate on his breast, signi- 
fying that he was a usurer, or to quit the 
realm. Stow 1274 

^67 Jews hanged and quartered for clipping 
coin 1278 

15,660 Jews banished from England. liapin. . 1290 

Much pillaged and persecuted in France during 
the 14th and 15th centuries. 



A fatal distemper raging in Europe ; they are 
suspected of having poisoned the spring.s, and 
numbers are mas.sacred. Lenglet. . . a.d. t 

Jews are Ixmished from Spain, Portugal, and 
France (considered by them as great a cala- 
mity as the destruction of Jerusalem) . 149: 

Edicts against Jews rescinded by pope Six- 
tus V. 1 

Jews favoured in Holland ] 

After having been banished England 370 years, 
they are permitted to return by Cromwell, 
who grants a pension to Manasseh Ben Israel 1 

Statute to compel them to maintain their pro- 
testant children enacted . . . . ] 

Jews acquire right to possess land in England : 

Bill to naturalise the professors of the Jewish 
religion in Ireland (whore 200 Jews then re- 
sided) refused the royal assent . . . . : 

Statute to naturahse them passed . . . : 

This act repealed on the petition of aU the cities 
in England : 

The Jews of Spain, Portug.al, and Avignon are 
declared to be citizens of France . . . : 

Sitting of the great Sanhedrim of Paris con- 
vened by the emperor Napoleon Sejit. 18, : 

London society for promoting Christianity 
among the Jews 

Alexander of Russia gi-ants land on the sea cpf 
Azoph to converted Jews . . Sept. i, 

Mr. David Salomons elected sheriff of London 
(the first Jewish one) ; an act jDassed to enable 
him to act June 24, 

Bill for Jewish emancipation in England lost 
on the second reading by a majority in the 
commons, 228 against 165 . . May 17, : 

Moses Montefiore, esq., elected sheriff of Lon- 
don, and knighted by the queen, being the 
first Jew on whom that honour has been con- 
ferred Nov 9, 

Ukase of the emperor of Russia, permitting the 
title of citizen of tlie first class to be held by 
any Jew who renders himself worthy of it . 

Owing to the disappearance of a Greek priest, 
a persecution of the Jews began at Damascus. 
(See Damascus) ..... Feb. i, 

Act to relieve Jews elected to municipal offices 
from taking oaths, &c., 9 Vict. 

Baron Lionel de Rothschild* returned to par- 
liament for the city of London by a majority 
of 66ig votes ; his opponent, lord John Man- 
ners, polling only 3104 . . . July 3, 

Alderman Salomons* elected member for 
Greenwich June 28, 

The Jews' Oaths of Abjuration bill passed the 
liouse of commons .... July 3, 

Baron Rothschild again returned for the city of 
London at the general elections, July, 1852; 
March, 1857 ; July, 1857 ; and . July, : 

Violent outbreak against the Jews in Stock- 
holm Sejit 3, 

The Jewi.sh Oath bill passed in commons, April 
15 ; thrown out in the lords . . April 29, 

Alderman Salomons the first Jewish lord mayor 
of London Nov. 9, 

The Jewish Oath bill several times passed in 
the commons and thrown out in the lords . 18 

Edgar Mortara, a Jewish child, forcibly taken 
from his parents by order of the archbishop 
of Bologna, on the plea of having been bap- 
tized when an infant by a Roman Catholic 
maid-servant .... June 24, 

An act passed enabling Jews to sit in parlia- 
ment by resolution of the house . July, 

Baron Lionel de Rothschild takes his seat as 
M. P. for London on . . . July 26, 

The French government having in vain urged 
Mortara's restoration to his parents, sir Moses 



* Neither were permitted to sit. 

+ To commemorate this event the baron endowed a scholai-sLip in the City of London School. 



JOA 412 JUA 

JEWS, continued. 

Montefiore proceeds to Rome (but obtains no ] Oppressivelawsagaiusttbe Jews in the Austrian 



redress) Dec. 22, 1S58 

Alderman Salomons elected M P. for Greenwich, 
and baron Mej'er de Rothschild for Hythe, 

Feb. IS, 1859 
Trotest respecting the seizure of the boy Mor- 
tara signed at London by the abp. of Canter- 
bury, and bishops, noblemen, and gentlemen, 
sent to the French ambassador, Oct. ; and 
presented to lord John Russell . Nov. ,, 



empire annulled . . . Jan. 6, 
Act passed permitting Jewish M.P. 's to omit 

from the oath the words "on the faith of a 

Christian" Aug. 6, ,, 

Additional political privileges gi-a"nted" to the 

Jews in Russia, Jan. 26 ; and in Poland, June, 1862 
Jews persecuted at Rome .... Dec. 1864 
Alderman Benjamin Samuel Phillips, second 

Jewish lord mayor .... Nov. 9, 1865 



JOAN OF ARC, the maiJ of Orlean.s, was Lorn at Domremy. The English under the 
duke of Bedford closely besieging Orleans, Joan of Arc pretended tliat she had a divine 
commission to expel them, and Charles VII. entrusted her with the command of the French 
troops. She raised the siege and entered Orleans with supplies, April 29, 1429 ; and the 
English, Avho were before the place from Oct. 12 preceding, abandoned the enterprise ]\Iay 8 
following. She captured several towns in the possession of the English, whom she defeated 
in a battle near Patay, June 18, 1429. In her various achievements no unfeminine cruelty 
ever stained her conduct. She was wounded several times herself, but never shed any blood 
with her own hand. She was taken at the siege of Compiegne, May 25, 1430 ; and, to the 
great disgrace of the English, after a trial, was burnt for a witch at Rouen, May 30, 143 1. 
A .statue of Joan of Arc, chiselled by the late princess Mario of France, was inaugurated at 
Orleans, Sept. 13, 1851, and the 435th anniversary of its deliverance was celebrated in the 
same city on May 14, 1865. See Patay, Battle of. * 

JOCKEY CLUB, instituted in the reign of Charles II., is mentioned in Heber's 
" Racing Calendar," 1758. 

JOHN, ST., Knights of. See Malta. 

JOHN'S, ST. See Newfoundland, Cambridge, and Oxford. 

JOHN'S GATE, ST., St. John's-square, Clerkenwell, London, a fine vestige of monastic 
building, was the gate of the priory of St. John of Jerusalem (suppressed in 1540), and was 
the place where Wia Gentleman s Magazine was first published, March 6, 1731. The house 
was often visited by Dr. Johnson, Garrick, and their friends. 

JOHN DOE AND Richard Roe, names well known, as standing pledges for the prose- 
cution of suits. In early times real and substantial persons were required to pledge them- 
selves to answer to the crown for an amercement or fine set upon the plaintiff, for raising a 
I'alse accusation, if he brought an action \\ithout cause, or failed in it. And in 1285, 
13 Edw. 1. sheriff's and bailiffs were, before they made deliverance of the distress, to receive 
]iledges for the pursuing the suit, and for the return of the beasts, if return were awarded, 
jiut this becoming a matter of form, the fictitious names of Doe and Roe were used until the 
form was declared to be no longer necessary by the Common Law Procedure Act, 1852. 

JOHN O'GROAT'S HOUSE, an ancient house formerly situated on Duncan's Bay 
Head, the most northerly point in Great Britain, deriving its name from John of Groat, or 
(Jroot, and his brothers, originally from Holland, said to have settled here about 1489.* 

JOHNSON'S CLUB. See Literary Club. 

JOINT-STOCK COMPANIES (good and bad) have been very numerous during the 
luesent century (especially in 1825 and 1846). Many acts have been passed for their 
regulation ; the most important in 1857 and 1858.+ See Companies and Limited Liability. 

JOURNALS. See News2Mpers. 

JOURNALS, THE, of the House of Commons, commenced in 1547, first ordered to be 
]irinted in 1752, when 5CX3o/. were allowed to Mr. Hardiuge for the execution of the work. 
Tlic journals of the House of Peees (commencing 1509) were ordered to be printed in 1767. 

JUAN FERNANDEZ, an island in the Pacific, named from its discoverer in 1567. 
Alexander Selkirk, a native of Scotland, was left on shore here by his captain for mutiny in 
1705. He lived alone more than four years, till he was discovered by captain Rogers in 1709. 

' This house was of an octagon shape, being one room, with eight windows and eight doors, to admit 
eight members of the family, the heads of different branches of it, to prevent their quarrels for precedence 
at^table, which on a previous occasion had nigh proved fatal. Each came in by this contrivance at his own 
door, and sat at an octagon table, at which, of course, there was no chief place or head. 

t An important act for the incorporation, regulation, and winding-up of trading companies and other 
associations was passed in 1862. 



JUB 



413 



JUL 



From his narrative De Foe is said to have derived his Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, 
published in 17 19. 

JUBILEES. The Jews were commanded to celebrate a jubilee every fifty j'cars, 
1491 B.C. {Lev. XXV. 8). Among the Christians a jubilee every century -was instituted liy 
pope Bonitace VIIL in the year 1300. In the i6th century it was celebrated every fifty 
years by command of pope Clement VL ; and was afterwards reduced by Urban VI. to 
every thirty- third year ; and by Sixtus V. to every twenty-fifth year. 



Shakspeare's Juhilef, projected by David Gar- 
rick, was celebrated at Shakspearo's birth- 
place, Stratford-on-Avon . Sept. 6, 7, 8, 1769 

Another Shakspearo festival at Stratford, 

April 23, 1S36 

National jubilee in England on account of 



George III. entering into the 50th year of 

his reign Oct. 25, 

Jubilee in celebration of the general peace, and 
of the centenary of the accession of the 
Brunswick family .... Aug. i, 



JUDAH. See Jews. 

JUDGES appointed by God, when the Israelites were in bondage, ruled from 1402 n.c. 
till the election of Saul as king, 1095. See Jews, Justices, Circuits, Lords Justices, and Vice- 
ChanccUors. 



Jiidges punished for bribery, and Thomas de 
Weyland banished ...... 1289 

William de Thorp hanged for bribery . .1351 

John de Cavendiih beheaded by the Kentish 
rebels 1382 

Tresylian, chief justice, executed for favouring 
despotism, and other judges condemned . 1388 

The prince of Wales said to have been com- 
mitted by judge Gaseoigne for assaulting him 
on the bench . . . . . . . 1412 

Sir Thomas More, lord chancellor, beheaded, 

July 6, 1535 

Judges threatened with impeachment, and 
Berkeley taken off the bench and committed 
by the commons, on a charge of treason, 

Feb. 13, 1641 



Three judges impeached i63o 

Judge Jefferies committed by the lord mayor 

to the tower, where he died .... 1689 
The judge's oiEce made tenable for life Cduring 

good behaviour) instead of duringtbe pleasure 

of the crown (by 13 Will. III. c. 2) . . . 1702 
Their commissicns made permanent, notmth- 

standing the demise of the crown (bv i Geo. 

III. c. 23) ■ . . 1761 

Three additional judges appointed, one to each 

law court, 1784; and again in . . . . i8;o 
A new judge took his seat as vice-chancellor. 

May 5, 1813 
Two new vice-chancellors appointed . . .1841 
A third vice chancellor- and two new chancery 

judges (styled lords-justices) appointed . 1851 



JUDICIAL COMMITTEE of the Piuvy Council. See Privij Council. 

JUDICIAL SEPAEATION of married persons may now be decreed by the Divorce 
court, established by act of parliament in 1857. The persons separated may not 
marry again. 

JUGGERNAUT, or "Lord of the AVorld," one of the incarnations of Krishna, is an idol 
formed of an irregular pyramidal black stone, with two rich diamonds to represent eyes ; 
the nose and mouth are painted vermilion. The number of pilgrims that visit the god is 
stated at 1,200,000 annually ; some are crushed by the wheels of the car (so lately as Aug. 
1864) ; a great many never return ; and, to the distance of fifty miles, the way is strewed 
with human bones. The temple of Juggernaut has existed above 800 years. The state 
allowance to the temple was suspended by the Indian government in June, 185 1. 

JUGURTIIIXE WAR. Jugurtha murdered his cousin Hiempsal, king of N'umidia, 
and usurped his tlinme, 118 B.C. He gave him a share in the government, but killed him 
in 112. He then provoked the Romans to war. Crecilius Metellus was first sent against 
him, and defeated him in two battles ; and Marius brought him in chains to Rome to 
adorn his triumph, 106 B.C., where he was put to death in 104. This war has been 
immortalised by the pen of Sallust. 

JULIAN PERIOD (invented by Joseph Scaliger, about 15S3), a term of years produced 
by the multiplication of the lunar cycle 19, solar cycle 28, and Roman indiction 15. It 
consists of 7980 years, and began 4713 years before our era. It has been employed in 
computing time to avoid the puzzling ambiguity attendant on reckoning any period 
antecedent to our era, an advantage which it has in common with the mundane eras 
Tised at dilTerent times. By subtracting 4713 from the Julian period, our era is found; 
if before Christ, subtract the Julian period from 4714. For Julian era, see Calendar 
and Year. 

JULIERS, a Pru-ssian province; was made a duchy in 1356; became the subject of 
contention on the extinction of the ruling family in 1609 ; was allotted to Neuburg in 
1659 ; seized by the French in 1794 ; and ceded to Prussia in 1S15. 



JUL 414 JUS 

JULY, tlie seventh, originally fifth, Roman mouth, named by llarc Antony from Julius, 
the surname of Cffisar, the dictator of Rome, who was born in it. 

JUjSTE, the sixth month, owes its name to Junius, which some derive from J%ino, and 
others from Juniorcs, this being for the j'oung, as the month of May was for aged persons. 
Ovid, in his Fasti, introduces Juno as claiming this month. 

JUNIUS'S LETTERS began in the Public Advertiser, Jan. 21, 1769.* 

JUNKER PARTY {Junker, German for young nolle), a term applied t6 the aristocratic 
party in Prussia, now in power under Otho von Bismarck-Schbuhausen, appointed prime 
minister Oct. 9, 1862. Their political organ is the Kreuz-Zcitung. 

JUNO, the planet, discovered by ]\L Harding, of Lilienthal, near Bremen, Sept. i, 1S04. 
Its distance from the sun is 254 millions of miles, and it accom]ilishes its revolutions in lm;r 
years and 12S days, at the rate of nearly 42,000 miles an hour. Its diameter is estimated 
by German astronomers at 1424 English miles. 

JUNONIA. Festivals in honour of Juno, celebrated at Rome, and instituted 431 B.C. 

JUPITER, known as a planet to the Chaldeans, it is said 3000 B.C. The discovery of 
the satellites is attributed to Simon Mayr (Marius) in 1609, but more generally to 
GalUeo on Jan. 8, 1610. See Planets. Jupiter Am.mon's celebrated temple in Libya 
was Aisited by Alexander, 332 B.C. Cambyses' army sent against this temple perished 
miserably, 525 b.c. 

JURIDICAL SOCIETY was established in Feb. 1855, and opened with an address by 
sir R. Bethell on May 12 following. 

JURIES. Trial by jury was introduced into England during the Saxon heptarchy, 
mention being made of six "Welsh and six Anglo-Saxon freemen appointed to try causes 
between the English and Welsh men of property, and made responsible, with their whole 
estates real and personal, for false verdicts. Lambard. But by most authorities their 
institution is ascribed to Alfred about 886. In Magna Charta, jiiries are insisted on as the 
gi'eat bulwark of the people's liberty. "When either party is an alien born, the jury shall be 
one half denizens, and the other half aliens, statute 28 Edw. III. 1353. By the common 
law a prisoner upon indictment or appeal might challenge peremptorily thirty-five, being 
under tlu'ee juries ; but a lord of parliament, and a peer of the realm, who is to be tried by 
his ijeers, cannot challenge any of his peers. An act for the trial by jury in civil cases in 
Scotland was passed in 181 5. An act to consolidate and amend the laws relating to jm-ies 
in Ireland was passed 4 "Will. IV. 1833. The constitution of 1791 established the trial by 
jury in France. An imperial decree abolished trial by jury throughout the Austrian 
empire, Jan. 15, 1852. + 

♦'JUSTE MILIEU," according to Louis-Philippe (in 1830), is the only princii:)le of 
government which can secure the welfare of France. 

JUSTICES OF THE Peace are local magistrates, invested with extensive powers in 
minor cases, but subject to supersession and punishment by the King's Bench for an abuse of 
their airthority. They were first nominated by "Wdliam I. in 1076. Stow. Persons termed 
conservators of the peace in each county were appointed by i Edw. III. c. 2, 1327 ; and their 
duties were defined in 1360. The form of a commission of the peace settled by the judges, 
23 Eliz. 1580. HaicJcins. See Eyre. 

JUSTICES, LORDS, were appointed by English sovereigns to govern during their 
absence. Two lords justices of the court of appeal in chancery were appointed to give more 
efiiciency to the administration of justice in the court of chancery, having rank next after 

* Tliey have been ascribed to Mr. Burko, 5Ir. William Gerard Hamilton, commonly called Single-speech 
Hamilton, John Wilkes, Sir. Dunning (afterwards lord Ashburton), Serjeant Adair, the rev. J. Kosenhagen, 
John Roberts, Charles Lloyd, Samuel Dyer, general Lee, the duke of Portland, Hugh Boyd, lord George 
Sackville, and sir PhiUp Francis. The last-named is generally considered to have been the author. Junius 
said, " I am the depositary of my own secret, and it shall jierish with me." 

\ Coercion of Juries. — About the year 927, the plaintiff and defendant used to feed the jury em- 
panneled in their action, and hence arose the common law of denying sustenance to a jury after the hearing 
of the evidence. A jury may be detained during the pleasure of the judge if they cannot agi-ee upon a 
verdict ; and may be confined without meat, drink, or fire, candlelight excepted, till they are unanimous. 

Some jurors have been fined for having fruit in their pockets, when they were withdi-awn to consider of 

their verdict, though they did not eat it. Leon. Dyer, 137. A jury at Svidbury not being able to agree, and 
liaving been some time imder duress, forcibly broke from the court where they were locked up, and went 
home, Oct. 9, 1791. Phillips. In Scotland, Guernsey, Jersey, and France, juries decide by a majority ; in 
France, since 1831, a majority of two-thirds is required. 



JUS 



415 



KAL 



the cliief baron of the exchequer, from Oct. r, 1851. The rt. hon. J. L. Knight-Bruce and 
lord Cranworth (afterwards lord chancellor) were the first lords justices ; the latter was 
succeeded by sir G. J. Turner in 1853. 

JCSTICIAES. In ancient times the kings of England used to hear and determine causes ; 
but it is declared by law that if the king cannot determine every controversy, he, to ease 
himself, may divide the labour among persons, men of wisdom and fearing God, and out of 
such to appoint judges. The Saxon kings of England appointed a judge after this manner, 
who was, in fact, the king's deputj'. After the Norman conquest, the person invested with 
that power had the style of Cajnfalis Jiisiicice, ov Justiciarius Anglice. These judges con- 
tinued until the erection of the courts of king's bench and the common pleas. The first 
justiciars of England were Odo, bishop of Bayeux, and "William Fitz-Osborn, in 1067 ; and 
the last was Philip Basset, in 1261. 

JUSTINIAN CODE (compiled under the direction of the emperor Justinian I.), 
wherein was written what may be termed the statute law, scattered through 2000 volumes, 
reduced to fifty; it was promulgated in 528. To this code of laws Justmian added the 
Pandects, the Institutes, and Novels. These compilations have since been called, collec- 
tively, the body of civil law {Corpus Juris Civilis). A digest was made in 533. Blair. 

JUTE, the fibres of two plants, the chonch and isbund (Corchoriis elitorius and corcliorus 
capsulans), since 1830 extensively cultivated in Bengal for making gunnycloth, &c. Jute 
has been much manufoctured at Dundee as a substitute for flax, tow, &c., and in July 
1862, assertions were made that it could be employed as a substitute for cotton. In 1853, 
275,578 cwts., and in 1861, 904,092 cwts. of undressed jute were imported into the United 
Kingdom. 

JUTLAND (Denmark). The Jutes settled in our southern counties. South Jutland 
was taken by the allies in 1813, and restored in 1814. 

JUVENILE OFFENDEES. In 1838, an act was passed for instituting a prison for 
instructing and correcting juvenile offenders, and the military hospital at Parkhurst in the 
Isle of "Wight was appropriated for this jnirpose. A similar act was passed in 1854. 



K. 



KABYLES. ^ee Algiers. 



KADSEAH. See Parsccs. 



KAFFRAEIA, an extensive countiy in S. Africa, extending from the north of Cape 
Colony to the south of Guinea. Our war with the natives began in 1798. In 1819, headed 
by Slokanna, a prophet, they attacked Grahamstown and were repulsed w'ith much 
slaughter. 



and sevei-al oflBcers and men of the 74th regi- 
ment were killed .... Nov. 6, 1851 

Wreck of the Birkenhead with reinforcements 
from England (see Birkenhead) . Feb. 26, 1053 

The hostilities of the Kaffirs liaving assumed 
all the features of regular warfare, the go- 
vernor-general, Cathcart, attacked and de- 
feated them Dec. 20, ,, 

The conditions offered by Cathcart were ac- 
cepted, and peace was restored . March g, 1S53 



A savage invasion of the Kaffirs or Caflfres, in 
the vicinity of Grahamstown, Cape of Good 
Hope, was eventually suppressed by the 
coloni.al authorities .... Oct. 1831 

Slighter annoyances to the colonists occurring, 
sir Harry Smith, the then governor, pro- 
claimed martial law, and oidered the inhabit- 
ants to rise en raasse for the defence of the 
frontier Dec. 31, 1850 

Disastrous operations against the K.affirs in the 
Watcrkloeflf followed, and colonel Fordyce 

KAGOSIMA. See Jajyan, 1863. 

KAINAEDJI, Bulgaria. Here a treaty was signed, 1774, between the Turks and 
Russians, which opened the Black Sea, and gave the Crimea to the latter. 

KALAFAT, on the Danube, opposite the fortress of "Widdin. This place was fortified 
by the Turks under Omer Pacha when they crossed the river, Oct. 28, 1853. In December, 
prince Gortschakoff, with the Eussian army, determined to storm their entrenchments. The 
conflict lasted from Dec. 31, to Jan. 9, 1854, when the Eussians were compelled to retire. 
Among these conflicts one occurred at Citate, Jan. 6. See Ciiatc. Kalafat was invested 
Jan. 28, and general Schilders attacked it vigorously on April 19, without success, and the 
blockade was raised April 21. 



KAL 416 KEN 

KALEIDOSCOPE, an optical instrument, which, by an arrangement of mirrors, produces 
a symmetiical reflection of beautiful images, was invented by Dr. (now sir David) Brewster, 
of Edinburgh ; it was suggested in 1814, and perfected in 1817. See Dchuscopc. 

KALITSCH (Poland). Here the Russians defeated the Swedes, Nov. 19, 1706, and here 
the Saxons, under the French general Reynier, were beaten by the Russians under Winzin- 
gerode, P'eb. 13, 1813. 

KALMAR. See Calmar. KALMUCK. See Tartar. 

KALUNGA FORT (E. Indies\ attacked unsuccessfully by the company's forces, and 
general Gillespie killed, Oct. 31, 1814; and again unsuccessfully, Nov. 25. It was evacuated 
by the Nepaulese, Nov. 30, same year. 

KAMTSCHATKA, a peninsula, E. coast of Asia, was discovered by Morosco, a Cossack 
chief, 1690; taken possession of by Russia, in 1697; and proved to be a peninsula by 
Behring, in 1728. Four months, commencing at our midsummer, may be considered as the 
spring, summer, and autumn here, the rest of the year being dreary winter. The amiable 
ca2)tain Clarke, a companion of captain Cook, died in sight of Kamtschatka, Aug. 22, 1779) 
and was buried in the town of St. Peter and Paul, in the peninsula. 

KAMPTULICON, a substance used for flooring, patented by Elijah Galloway in 1843, 
and manufactured since 185 1, by Messrs. Tayler, Harvey, and Co. It is composed of India- 
rubber and cork, combined by masticating machines. 

KANGAROOS, animals indigenous to Australia (first seen by captain Cook, June 22, 
1770), were bred at San Donato, the estate of prince Demidoff, in 1853, and since. 

KANSAS, a western state in N. America, was organised as a territory, May 30, 1854 ; 
admitted into the union, Jan. 29, 1861 ; and was left open to .slavery, in opposition to the 
Missouri Compromise (see Shivery in America). During the greater jiart of 1855 this state 
was a scene of anarchy and blood.'^hcd through the efforts of the slavery party to make it a 
slave state. 

KARRACK. See Carracl: 

KARS, a town in Asiatic Turkey, renowned for its defence by general (now sir William) 
Fenwick Williams, with 15,000 men, and with three months' provisions and three days' 
ammunition, against the Russian general Mouraviett", with an army of 40,000 infantry and 
10,000 cavalry. The siege lasted from June 18 to Nov. 28, 1855. The suff'erings of the 
garrison were very great from cholera and want of food. The Russians made a grand assault 
on Sept. 29, but were repulsed with the loss of above 6000 men, and the garrison were over- 
come by famine alone.* Sandicith. Kars was restored to Turkey, Aug. 1856. 

KEEPER OF THE Kino's Conscience. The early chancellors were priests, and out of 
their moral control of the king's mind probaldy grew up the idea of an equity court in 
contradistinction to the law courts. A bill in chancery is a petition through the lord chan- 
cellor to the king's conscience for remedy in matters for which the king's common law courts 
afford no redress. The keeper of the king's conscience therefore, at the present day, is the 
ofllcer who presides in the court of chancery. See Chancellor and Lord Keeper. 

KEEPER (LORD) of the Gkeat Seal of England differed only from the lord 
chancellor in that the latter had letters patent, whereas the lord keeper had none. 
Richard, a chaplain, was the first keeper iinder Ranulph, in 1116. The two offices were 
made one by 5 Eliz. 1562. Cowcll. See Chancellor. The office of lord kee2ier of the great 
seal of Scotland was established in 1708, after the union, 

KENILWORTH CASTLE (Warwickshire), was built about 1120, by Geoff'reyde Clinton, 
whose grandson sold it to Henry III. It was enlarged and fortified by Simon de Montfort, 
to whom Henry gave it as a marriage portion with his sister Eleanor, t Queen Elizabetli 

* On accepting general Williams' proposal fur surrendering, general Mouravieff said: — "General 
Williams, yon have made yourself a name in history ; and posterity will stand amazed at the endurance, 
the courage, and the discipline which this siege has called forth in the remains of an army. Let us 
arrange a capitulation that will satisfy the demands of war, without outraging humanity." In 1856 the 
general was made a baronet, with the title of sir William Fenwick Williams of Kars, and granted a 
jiension. 

t After the battle of Evesham and defeat and death of Simon de Montfort, by prince Edward (after- 
wards Edward T.) 1265, Montfort's yoiniger son, Simon, shut himself up in Kenilworth castle, which sus- 
tained a siege for six months against the royal forces of Henry III., to whom it at length surrendered. 
Upon this occasion was issued the "Dictum Of Kenihcorili," or " ban of Kenilworth," maeting that all 
who took up arms against the king should pay him the value of their lauds for five years. 



KEN 417 KHE 

conferred it on her favourite, Dudley, carl of Leicester. His entertainment of the queen 
commenced July 19, 1575, and cost the earl daily 1000/. 

KENNINGTON COMMON (Surrey). The Chartist demonstration, Aiu-il 10, 1848, took 
jilace on the common ; which was directed to be laid out as a public pleasure ground in 1852. 

KENSINGTON PALACE was purchased by William III., from lord chancellor Finch, 
who made the road through its park. The gardens were improved by queens Mary, Anne, 
and Caroline, who died here. Here died George, prince of Denmark, and George 11. ; and 
here queen Victoria was born. May 24, 1819.* 

KENT. See Britain and Holy Mnid. Odo, bishop of Bayeux, brother of "William the 
Conqueror, was made earl of Kent, 1067 ; and Henry Grey was made duke of Kent in 1710 ; 
lie died without male heirs in 1740. Edward, son of George III., was created duke of Kent 
in 1799. He was father of queen Victoria, and died in 1820. See England. 

KENT, an East Indiaman, of 1850 tons burthen, left the downs Feb. 19, 1825, bound 
for Bombay. In the Bay of Biscay she encountered a dreadful storm, by which she was very 
much shattered, Feb. 28. On the next day she accidentally took fire, and all were in 
expectation of jjerishing, eitlier by the tempest or the fiames. The Cambria, captain Cook, 
bound to Vera Cruz, providentially hove in sight, and nearly all on board were saved. The 
Kent blew up, Llarch 2. 

KENTISH FIRE, a term given to the continued cheering common at the Protestant 
meetings held in Kent about 1828 and 1829, with the view of preventing the passing of the 
Catholic Relief bill. 

KENTUCKY, a western state of N. America, admitted 1792. It declared for strict 
neutrality in the conflict between the North and South in April, 1861, but was invaded by 
the southern troops in August. On their refusal to retire, after much correspondence, the 
legislature of Kentucky gave in its adhesion to the Union, Nov. 27, 1861. In the campaign 
that ensued sharp skirmishes took place, and on Jan. 19, 1862, the confederates under 
Zollicofier were defeated and himself killed at Mill Sjmng, and in March no confederate 
soldiers remained in Kentucky. See United States. 

KEROSELENE, a new ansesthetic, derived from the distillation of coal-tar by Mr. "\V. B. 
Merrill, of Boston, U.S., was tried and made known early in 1861. 

KERTCH, capital of the ancient kingdom of Bosporus, late a flourishing town on the 
straits of Yenikale, sea of Azof. It was entered by the allies (English and French) May 24, 
1855 ; the Russians retired after destroying stores, &c. The place was totally dismantled by 
the allies, and the inhabitants removed. 

KET'S REBELLION: a revolt in July, 1549, instigated by William Ket, a tanner, of 
Norfolk. He demanded the abolition of inclosures and the dismissal of evil coimsellors. 
The insurgents amounted to 20,000 men, but were quickly defeated by the earl of Warwick. 
More than 2000 fell ; Ket was tried, and hanged, Aug. 27, 1549. 

KEW (Surrey). The 'palace was successively occupied by the Capel family and Mr. 
Molyneux ; by Frederick, prince of Wales, 1730, and George III. Queen Charlotte died 
here, Nov. 4, 1818. A new palace erected by George III., under the direction of Mr. Wyatt, 
was pulled down in 1827. The gardens contain averyfine collection of plants, and are decorated 
with ornamental buildings, most of them erected by sir William Chambers, about i76o.t 
The meteorological observatory was presented to tlie British Association in 1842. 

KEYS. The invention is ascribed to Theodore of Samos, by Pliny, about 730 B.C. 

KHERSON, iin ancient Dorian colony (deriving its name from Chersonesus, a peninsula), 

I came under the sway of the great Mithridates about 120 B.C., and afterwards of that of Rome, 

A.D. 30. It continued important, and its possession was long disputed by the Russians and 

* In Aug. 1855, by pemiission of the goveminent, a military band played in Kensington gardens on 
Snnday.s, in presence of about 60,000 persons. The practice was discontinued in 1856, being objected to by 
many persons ; but bands were ordered to play in other parks during the week. 

t The botanic gardens contain many magnificent conservatories, &c. Mr. Aiton retired from his 
office of director of the botanic gardens in 1S41 after fifty years' service. He was succeeded by sir William 
Hooker, at whose recommendation the gardens were opened to tlie public daily. In 1847 tlie royal 
kitchen and forcing gardens were incorporated with the botanic gardens. The collections in tlie Museum 
of Economic Botany began with the private collection of sir WiUiam Hooker given by him in 1847. Under 
his charge the gardens were greatly improved. He died Aug. 12, 1865, and was succeeded by his son, Ur 
Joseph D. Hooker. 

T. V. 



KHI 418 KIL 



Greeks It was taken by Vladimir, grand-dnke of Russia, in 988, when he and Im army 
received Christian baptism, and he married the emperor's sister Anne, who obtained Kherson 
as her dowry. The city was destroyed by the Litliuanians ; and the Turks found it deserted ■ 
when they took possession of the Crimea in 1475- What ancient remains the Turks and 
Tartars had spared, the Russians conveyed away for the construction ot bebastopol. femce 
the foundatioix of Odessa in 1792, Kherson has declinerl. Potemkm, the favourite ot 
Catherine, who died at Jassy in 1791, is buried here, and John Howard, the Enghsh philan- 
thropist, who died here Jan.' 20, 1790, is buried about three miles from the town, where an 
obelisk has been erected to his memory. 

KHIVA, in Turkistan, Asia, governed by a khan. An expedition sent against it by the 
emperor Nicholas of Russia in 1839 perished through the rigour of the cliinate in 1840. 
KHYBER PASS, Affghanistan. See India, 1839, 1842. 

KIDDERMINSTER (Yv^orcestershirc), renowned for its carpet manufactures, established 
about 1735. 

KIEL chief town of Holstein, a seaport, and a member of the Hanseatic league in 1300. 
The university was founded in 1665. By a treaty between Great Britain Sweden and 
Denmark, signed here Jan. 14, 18 14, Norway was ceded to Sweden. Previously, the Norwe- 
gians had been deserted by the king of Denmark, and had sent a deputation to England, to 
interest that country in their favour. On the contrary, the English blockaded the ports ot 
Norway, and the Swedes entered by land. The Norwe.gians fought some brave actions but 
they were defeated. Tlie prince of Denmark quitted NoiTvay, and the diet elected the king 
of Sweden to be their king. An extraordinary assembly of the revolted provinces Schleswig 
and Holstein, met hero Sept. 9, 1850. By a convention between Austria and Irussia, the 
former is to govern Holstein, but Kiel is to be held by Prussia as a German federal port 
(Aug. 1865). 

KILCULLEN (Kildare). Here a large body of the insurgent Irish defeated the British 
forces commanded l)y general Dundas, May 23, 1798- The general in a subsequent engage- 
ment overthrew the rebels near Kilcullen- bridge, when 300 were slam. 

KILDARE (E Ireland). The Curragh or race-course here was once a forest of oaks. 
Here was the nunnery of St. Bridget, founded by her in the 5th centuiy, and here was a 
building called the fire-house, where, it is supposed, the nuns kept the inextmguishaWe hre 
which e'xisted till the reformation. The see was one of the earliest episcopal foundations in 
Ireland; St. Conlsth, who died 519, the first prelate. The first Protestant bishop was 
Thomas Lancaster, in 1550. The see is valued, by an extent returned, 30 Hen Viii., at 
eql lis. Ad. Irish per year. Kildare was united to Dublin in 1846. See Z^uWm. ihe 
insurrection in Kildare, which swelled into the rebellion, commenced m Kildare, May 23, 
1798. On that night, lieut. Gilford of Dublin, and a number of other gentlemen, were 
murdered by insurgents. This rebellion was quelled in 1799. 

KILFENORA (Clare), a bishopric, said to have been founded by St. Fachnan. Cardinal 
Paparo, in 1152, rendered it a sutfragan see to Cashel ; but in 1660 it was annexed to Tuam, 
and afterwards united to Killaloe. 

KILKENNY (S.E. Ireland), an English settlement about 1071. The Statutes of Kil- 
kenny enacted, among other things, " that the alliance of the English by marriage with any 
Irish the nurture of infantes, and gossipred with the Irish, be deemed high treason. And 
ar^ain, "if auie man of English race use an Irish name, Irish apparell, or anie other guize 
or fashion of the Irish, his lands shall be seized, and his body unprisoned, till he shall 
conform to English modes and customs." 

KILL ALA (Mayo) was invaded bv a French force landing from three frigates, under 
general Humbert, Aug. 22, 1798. The invaders were joined by the Irish insurgents and 
the battles of Castlebar and Colooney followed ; and the French were defeated at Lally- 
nainuck, Sept. 8, same year. 

KILLALA (Sligo), an early see. The author of the tripartite life of St. Patrick, says, 
" that in 4^4 he came to a pleasant place where the river Muadas (Moy) empties itself into 
the ocean -and on the south banks of the said river he built a noble church, called Kil- 
Aladh of which he made one of his disciples, Muredach, the first bishop Ihe see ot 
Achonry was united to Killala in the 17th century; and both became united to 1 nam in 
1839. See Tuam and BisJiojis. 

KILLALOE (Clare), a see supposed to have been founded by St. Molua, whose disciple, 



KIL 



419 



KIN 



St. Flannan, son to king Tlieodoric, consecrated at Eome by pope John IV. in 639, was also 
bishop. At the close of tlio I2tli century the see of Roscrea was annexed to Killaloe, a]id 
that of Kill'enora has been held with it. Clonfert and Kilmacduach were united to them 
in 1836. 

KILLIECRANKIE (a defile in Perthshire). Here the forces of "William III. commanded 
by general Mackay were defeated by the adherents of James II. under Graham of Claver- 
house, viscount Dundee, who fell in the moment of victory, July 27, 1689. 

KILIIACDUACH (Galway). This see was held with Clonfert, from 1602. St. Coleman 
was its first bishop, in the 7th century. It was valued, 29 Eliz. 1586, at 13?. 6s. 2>cl. iicr 
annum. It is now united to Killaloe. 

KILMAINHAM HOSPITAL (Dublin), the noble asylum of aged and disabled soldiers 
in Ireland, built by Wren, was founded by Arthur, earl of Granard, marshal-general of the 
army in Ireland, 1675 ; and the duke of Ormond perfected the plan, in 1679. 

KILMALLOCK (Limerick). An abbey was foimded here by St. Mochoallog or Molach 
about 645, and an abbey of Dominicans was built in the 13th century. Ware. A charter 
was granted to Kilmallock by Edward VI., and another by Elizabeth in 1584. The town 
was invested by the Irish forces in 1598, but the siege was raised by the duke of Ormond. 
There was much lighting here in 1641 and 1642, 

KILMOEE (Armagh), an ancient to^vn, whose bishops were sometimes called Brefinienses, 
from Brefney, and sometimes Triburnenses, from Triburua, a village ; but in 1454, the 
bishop of Triburna, b}' assent of pope Nicliolas V., erected the parish church of St, 
Fedlemid into a cathedral. Florence O'Connacty, the first bishop, died in 1231. Valued, 
15 Jas. I. with Ardagh, at 100?. per annum. The joint see of Elphiu and Ardagli was 
united to it in 1841. 

KILSYTH (Central Scotland). Here Montrose defeated the Covenanters, Aug. 15, 1645, 
and threatened Glasgow. 

KINBURN, a fort, at the confluence of the rivers Bug and Dnieper, taken by the English 
and French, Oct. 17, 1855. Three floating Frencli batteries, said to be tlie invention of the 
emperor, on the principle of horizontal shell-firing, were very efi"ective. On the i8th the 
Russians blew up OczakolF, a fort opposite. 

KINDRED, Table of, in the Book of Common Prayer, was set forth in 1563. 

KINDER-GARTEN (children's garden), a system of education devised by Frocbel, but 
' practically carried out by Mr. and Mrs. Ronge, in Germany in 1S49, and in England in 
185 1. The system, founded mainly on self-tuition, and enlivened by toys, games, and 
singing, is set forth in Rouge's "Kinder-Garten," published in 1858. 

KING: Gennan Konig, Latin Rex, Scythian Rcis, Spanish Rcy, Italian R?., and French 
Roy, all come from the Hebrew Rosch, chief or head. Nimrod was the first founder 
of a kingdom, 2245 B.C. Bufrcsnoy. Misraim built cities in Egypt, and was the first who 
assumed the title of king in that division of the earth, 2188 B.C. The " manner of the king" 
is set forth in i Samuel \\n., 11 12 B.C. Saul was the first king of Israel, 1095 B.C. Most 
of the Grecian states were governed by kings ; and kings were the first rulers in Rome. 



Kino of England. — The style was first used by- 
Egbert, 828; but the title Hex gcntis An- 
glorum, kinp of the English nation, existed 
during the Ueptarchy. See Britain. 

The plural phraseology, we, us, our, was first 
adoijtcd among our English kings by king 
John 1 199 

The title of " king of France " assumed, and the 
French arms quartered, by Edward III., in 
right of his mother 1340 

Pope Leo X. confen-cd the title of " defender 
of the Faith" on Henry VIH. . Oct. 11, 1521 

Henry VIII. changed lord of Ireland into king, 1542 

The style "Great Britain" was adopted at the 
union of England and Scotland, 6 Anne . 1707 

That of the " tJnitcd Kingdom of Great Britain 
and Ireland " at the union, when the roy;il 
style and title was aiii)ointed to run thus ; — 
"Georf/ius Ttrtius, Dei Gratia, Brita nnianm 
Rex Fidei Bt fi.iuor," " Gcorgo the Third, l)y 
the grace of God, of the United kingdom of 



Great Britain and Ireland, king. Defender of 
the Faith " (P'rancc being omitted) Jan, i, iSoi 

Hanover was omitted in the queen's style, 

June 21, 1837 

The queen was proclaimed in all the important 
places in India, as "Victoria, by the Grace of 
God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain 
and Ireland, and the colonies and dependen- 
cies thereof in Europe, Asia, Africa, xVmerica, 
and AustraUa, queen," &c. . . Nov. i, 185S 

The National Assembly decreed that the title 
of " king of France," should be changed in 
the person of Louis XVI. to that of " k-ing of 
the French" Oct. 16, 1789 

The royal title abolished 1792 

Louis XVHI. styled " by the grace of God king 
of France and Navarre " 1814 

Louis-Philipiie I., the late sovereign, was in- 
vited to the monarchy under the style of the 
" king of the French " (see France) Aug. g, 183 

E E 2 



KIN 



420 



KIN 



KING, continued. 

Tbe emperors of Germany, in order that their 
eldest sons might be chosen their successors 
in their own hfe-time pohtically obtained 
them the title of " l-hui of the Romans Ihe 
first emperor so elected was Henry IV. . . 

Richard, brother of Henry III. of England, 
was induced to go to Germany, where he 



cishursod vast sums under the prom so of 
beinff elected next emperor ; he was elected 
"king of the Romans " (but failed m suc- 
ceeding to the imperial crown) . ■ ■ ■ 
The style "king of Rome" was revived by 
Napoleon I. who conferred it on his son, upon 
his birth March 20, 1811 



1256 



TMXTP nv AT!ATS • tliree for England,— Garter, Clarencieiix, and Norroy ; Lyon king-at- 

1, rXaid VI 1552 ; but the monarcli himself named it as a new institution. 

KT^r-q r.FNCH or OuEEN-s Bexch, Court of, obtained its name from the king 

JJornini licgis. 



CHIKF JUSTICES OF THE KINGS OR QUEER'S BENCH IN ENGLAND. 



1526. 

1539- 

1546. 

1552. 

1553- 

1554 

1556. 

J559- 

1573- 

1591 

1607. 

1613. 

1616. 

1620. 

1624. 

1626. 

1631. 

1635- 

1643. 

1648. 

1655- 

1659. 



John Fitz James. 
Sir Edward Montagu. 
Sir Richard Ly.ster. 
Sir Roger Cholmely. 
Sir Thomas Bromley. 
Sir William Portman. 
Sir Edward Saunders. 
Sir Robert Catlyn. 

Sir Christopher Wray. 

Sir John Poph.am. 

Sir Thomas Fleming. 

Sir Edward Coke. 

Sir Henry Montagu. 

Sir James I,ey. 

Sir Ranulph Crewe. 

Sir Nicholas Hyde. 

Sir Thomas Richardson. 

Sir John Brampston. 

Sir Robert Heath. 

Henry Rolle. 

John Glyn. 

Sir Richard Newdigate. 



1659. 
1 560. 
1663. 
1665. 
1671. 
1676. 



1685. 
1687. 
1689, 
1709 



1718 
1725 



Robert Nicholas. 

Sir Robert Foster. 

Sir Robert Hyde. 

Sir John Kelyng. I i737- 

Sir Matthew Hale. i754- 

Sir Richard Raynsford. ' 1756. 

Sir William Scroggs. j 

Sir Francis Pemberton. 

Sir Edmund Saunders. 1788. 

Sir George Jefferics, after- 1802. 
wards lord JeiTerics and 
lord chancellor. iSil 

Sir Edward Herbert. 

Sir Robert Wright. 1832. 

Sir John Holt. 

Sir Thomas Parker, after- 
wards lord Pa> ker and earl 
of Macclesfield and lord 
chancellor. 

Sir John Pratt. • 1859- 

Sir Robert Raymond, after 
wards lord Raymond. 



Sir Philip Yorke, afterwards 
lord Hardwicke and lord 
chancellor. 

Sir WiUiam Lee. 

Sir Dudley Ryder. 

William Murray, lord Mans- 
field, afterwards earl of 
Mansfield. 

Lloyd, lord Kenyon, June 9. 

Sir Edward Law, April 12 ; 
created lord Ellenborough. 

Sir Charles Abbott, Nov. 4 ; 
afterwards lord Tenterden. 

SirThomas Denman, Nov. 7 ; 
created lord Denman : re- 
signed. 

John, lord Campbell, March 
5 ; afterwards lord chan- 
cellor. 

Sir Alexander Cockbum, 
June. 



CHIEF JUSTICES OF THE KING's OR QUEEN's BENCH IN IRELAND. 

1803 



1764. John Gore, Aug. 24; after- 
wards earl Annaly. 

1784. John Scott, April 29 ; after- 
wards carl of Clonmel. 

1798. Arthur Wolfe, June 13 ; af- 
terwards lord Kilwarden 
(killed in Emmett's insur- 
rection, July 23, 1803). 



W'illiam Downes, Sept. 12 ; 
afterwards lord Downes. 
1822. Charles Kendal Bushe, Feb- 
ruary 14. 
1 841. Edward Pennefather, No- 
vember 10. 
Francis Blackburne, Jan. 23. 
Thomas Lefroy, March. 



1S46. 



i6go. Sir Richard Reynell, Dec. 6. 
i6q'; Sir Richard Pyne, June 7. 
iToq. Allan Brodrick, Dec. 24. 
1711 Sir Richard Cox, July 5. 
J714 WiUiam Whitshed, Oct. 14. 
1727. John Rogerson, April 3. 
1741 Thomas Marlay, Dec. 29. 
1 7 SI St. George Caulfield, Aug. 27 
1760. Warden Flood, July 31. 

ICTNO-S BENCH PRISON, Southwark, near the site of one of the ohlest prisons of 
1 \nn oncriiscd for the confi lement of debtors. Here, it is said, prince Henry (after^Tards 
w nt V uAs com^^^^^ by justice Gascoigne. Tlie prison was burnt down by the London 

fol Tune ' T780 See Gordon's No-popery Mob. It was built in 1781, and contained 

1 lUo 00ms rormerly, the debtors were allowed to purchase the liberties, to enable 

?to^have houses oiXdg^i'ngs without the walls, or to purchase day-rule.^ to go out ot the 

1 uiceS mSions. The rules included St. George's Fields, &c. A conseqiiencej 
^'r^^P rLiSiScv Vct:i86i, was the release of many insolvent debtors; and an act was 
;Ltd hfiie?'' Lr di^contiiuiing the Queen's prison and removal of the prisoners to W hite- 

cross-street prison." , ^ ,, t 1 • .,^,. 

THNG-S COLLEGES. ^^0 Ahcrdmi and Carahridge. Kings (College London, incoi- 
.orate?AuV ,4, 1829, and opened Oct. 8, 1831. Itwas incorporated with the university of 
London in ?837. The hospital was founded in 1S39. 



KIN 421 KNI 

KING'S COUNSEL, the first under the denjree of Serjeant was sir Francis Bacon, made 
so, Jionoris causd, without patent or fee, in 1604, by James I. The first modern kin^-'s 
counsel was sir Francis North, afterwards lord keeper, in 1663. 

KING'S COUNTY, Ireland, so named from Philip, king of Spain, the husl.and of queen 
Mary of England, in 1556. 

KING'S EVIL, formerly supposed to be cured by the king's touch; the first being 
Edward the Confessor, in 105S. Ln the reign of Charles II. 92, 107 persons were touched ; 
and, according to Wiseman, the king's physician, they were nearly all cured ! Queen Anne 
officially announced in the London GazcU'\ Maich 12, 1712; her intention to touch publicly. 
The custom Avas dropped by George I., 17 14. 

KING'S SPEECH. The first from the throne is said to have been by Henry I., 1107. 

KINGSTON TPJAL. The duchess of Kingston was arraigned before the lords in 
Westminster- hall, on a charge of bigamy, having married first captain Herve^^ afterwards 
earl of Bristol, and next during his lifetime, Evelyn Pierrepoint, duke of Kingston, April 
15-22, 1776. She was found guilty, but, on her pleading the privilege of peerage, the 
punishment of burning in the hand was remitted, and she was discharged on paying the fees 
of office. 

KINGSTON. See HuU. 

KINGSTON, Jamaica, was founded in 1693, after the great earthquake in 1692 which 
destroyed Port Royal, and constituted a city, 1802. An awful fire here ravaged a vast 
portion of the town, and consumed 500,000^. of property, Feb. 8, 1782 ; another fire in 
1843. See Jamaica. 

KINGSTOWN, Dalilin. The harbour here was commenced in June, 1817. The name 
was changed from Dunleary in compliment to George IV., who here embarked for England 
at the close of his visit to Ireland, Sept. 3, 1821. The Kingstown railway from Dublin was 
opened Dec. 17, 1834. 

KISSING the hands of great men was a Grecian custom. Kissing was a mode of 

salutation among the Jews, i Samuel- x. i,&c. The "kiss of charity," or "holy kiss," 

commanded in the Scriptures (72 M?na;i.s xvi. 16, &c.), was observed by the early Christians, 

and is still recognised by the Greek church and some others. Kissing the pope's foot began 

I with Adrian I. or Leo III. at the close of the 8th century. 

KIT-CAT CLUB, of about thirty noblemen and gentlemen, instituted in 1703, to 
promote the Protestant succession. Addison, Steele, and Dr. Garth were members. It 
took its jaame from Christopher Kat, a pastry-cook in King's-street, Westminster. 

KITTS. See Christophers, St. 

KNEELING. The knee was ordered to be bent at the time of Jesus (see Philippians ii. 2) 
about the year 1275, by the order of the pope. The ceremony of a vassal kneeling to his 
lord is said to have begun in the 8th century. 

KNIGHTHOOD. The word knight is derived from the Saxon CiiiJit, a servant (/.c, 
■ servant to the king, &c.). The institution of the Eoman knights [EquUes or horsemen, from 
icqiius, a horse), is ascribed to Romulus, about 750 B.C. Knighthood was conferred in 
I England by the priest at the altar, after confession and consecration of the sword, during the 
! Saxon Heptarchy. The first knight made by the sovereign with the sword of state was 
Athelstane, by Alfred, A.D. 900. Spdman. The custom of ecclesiastics conferring the 
j honour of knighthood was suppressed in a synod held at Westminster in 1 100. Ashmole's 
I Institutes. All persons having ten pounds yearly income were obliged to be knighted, or pay 
a fine, 38 Hen. 111. 1254. Salmon. On the decline of the empire of Charlemagne, all 
Europe being reduced to a state of anarchy, the proprietor of every manor became a petty 
sovereign ; his mansion was fortified by a moat, and defended by a guard, and called a 
castle. Excursions were made by one petty lord against another, and the women and 
treasure were carried off by the conqueror. At length the owners of rich fiefs associated to 
repress these marauders, to make property secure, and to protect the ladies ; binding them- 
selves to these duties by a solemn vow, and the sanction of a religious ceremony. Cervantes' 
"Don Quixote," a satire on knight-errantry, was published in 1605. See Chivalrij, Toar- 
namcnts. 



KNI 



422 



KNI 



KNIGHTHOOD, continued. 



PEINCa-AL MILITARY, RELIGIOUS, AND HONORARY ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD. 



Alcantara, instituted about . 1156 
Amaranta, Sweden (female) . 1645 
Angelic Knights, Greece . 1191 
Annouciada, Savoy, about . 1360 
Annunciada, Mantua . . 1618 
Avis, Portugal, about . . 1147 
Bannerets, England, 1360. 

Renewed. See Bannerets . 1485 
Bath, England, 1399. Re- 
newed. See Bath . . . 1725 
Bear, Switzerland . . .1213 
Bee, France . . . . 1703 
Belgic Lion .... 1815 
Black Eagle, Prussia, insti- 
tuted by Frederick I. . .1701 
Blood of Christ, Mantua . 1608 
Broomflowers, France . . 1234 
Brotherly (or Neighbourly) 

Love, Austria . . . 1708 
Calatrava, Castile, instituted 

by Sancho III. . . . 1158 
Charles III. (or the Immacu- 
late Conception), Spain . 1771 
Charles XIII., Sweden . . iSii 
Chase, Wurtemberg . . 1702 
Christ, Livonia . . . . 1203 
Christ, Portugal . . . 1317 
Christian Charity, France . 1558 
Cincinnati, America . . . 17S3 
Conception of the Virgin . 1618 
Concord, Prussia . . . i65o 
Crescent, Naples, 1268. Re- 
vived 1464 

Crescent, Turkey . . . 1801 
Cross of Christ . . .1217 
Cross of the South, Bi-azil . 1822 
Crown Royal, France (Fries- 
land) 802 

Crown, WUrtemberg . . 1818 
Dauelirog, Denmark, institu- 
ted by Waldemar II., 1219; 
revived by Christian V. . 1671 
Death's Head (female), by the 
widow Louisa Elizabeth of 
Saxe Masburg . . . 1709 
Dog and Cock, France . . 500 
Dove of Castile . . . . 1379 
Dragon, Hungary . . . 1439 
Dragon Overthrown, German 1418 
Eagle (see Black, Mexican, 

lied, White). 
Ear of Corn and Ermine, 

Brittany, about . . . 1442 
Elephant, Denmark, about 

iigo; by Christiau I. . . 1458 
Elizabeth Theresa, Austria 

(female) .... 1750 
Fidelity, Baden . . . 1715 

Fidelity, Denmark . -1732 
Fools, Clevos . . . . 1380 
Frederick, WUrtemberg . 1830 
Friesland (or Crown Royal), 

F'rance 802 

Garter (which see), England . 1349 
Generosity, Brandenburg . 1685 
Genet, France . . . 726 
Golden Angel (afterwards St. 

George), about . . . 312 
Golden Fleece, instituted at 
Bruges by Philip,;surnamod 
the Good . . . . 1429 

Golden Lio n, Hesse Cassel . 1770 



Golden Shield and Thistle, 

France .... 

Golden Spur, by Pius IV. . . 

Golden Stole, Venice, before 

Guelphic, Hanover 

Henry the Lion, Brunswick . 

Holy Ghost, France . . . 

Holy Vial (St. Rend), France 

Hospitallers (v:hich see), 1099 ; 
of Rhodes, 1308 ; of Malta, 1521 

Iron Crown, Lonibardy . . 1816 

Iron Ileljnet, Hesse Cassel . 1814 

Jerusalem (see il./ai(a) . . 1048 

Jesus Christ, Rome, insti- 
tuted 1jy John XXII., 1320. 
Reformed, as Jesus and 
Mary, by Paul V. . 

Knot, Naples .... 

La C.alza, Venice, about . . 

Lamb of God, Sweden . 

Legion of Honour, France, 
instituted by Najioloou Bo- 
naparte .... 

Leopold, Austria . . . 

Leopold, Belgium . 

Lily of Arragon . . . . 

Lily of Navarre 

Lion and Sun, Persia . . 

Lion of Zahringen, Baden 

Lioness, Naples, about . . 

Loretto, Lady of . 

Louis, Bavaria . . . . 

Louis, Hesse Darmstadt 

Malta (see HosinialUrs). 

Maria Louisa (female), Spain . 

Maria Theresa, Austria . 

Maximilian Josej^h, Bavaria . 

Martyrs, Palestine . 

Merit, He.sse Cassel . . . 

Merit, Prussia 

Mexican Eagle . . . . 

Montjoie, Jerusalem, before . 

Noble Passion, Saxony . 

Oak of Navarre, Spain . . 

Our Lady of Montesat . 

Our Lady of the Conception 
of Villa Viposa 

Our Lady of the Lily, Navarre 1043 

Palatine Lion . . . . 1768 

Palm and Alligator, Africa, 
granted to Gov. Campbell in 1837 

Passion of .Jesus Christ, 
France 1384 

Peter I., Brazil . . . . 1826 

Peter, Frederick Lewis, Old- 
enburgh 183S 

Pius, founded by Pius IV. . 1559 

Polar Star, Sweden. Revived 1748 

Porcupine, France . . 1393 

Reale, Naples, about . . 1399 

Red Eagle, Prussia, 1734. Re- 
vived . . . . . 1792 

Redeemer (or Saviour), Greece 1833 

Rosary, Spain . . .1212 

Rose, Brazil . . . . 1829 

Round Table, England, by 
Alfred (see Garter) . 516 or 528 

St. Alexander Nevskoi, Rus- 
sia . . . . . . 1722 

St. Andrew, Russia . . 1698 

St. Andrew, Scotland (see 
Thistle) . . 809, 1540, 1687 



1370 
1559 

737 
i8i=; 
1834 
1579 

499 



1615 

1352 

737 

1564 



1802 
1806 
1S32 
1410 
1043 
1 80S 
1812 
1399 
1587 
1827 



1792 

1757 
iSo5 
1014 
1769 
1740 
1S65 
nSo 
1704 
722 
1317 

1S18 



St. Anne, Holstein, now Rus- 
sia . . . . 1738 or 173s 
St. Anthony, Hainault . . 1382 
St. Anthonjs Bavaria . . 1382 
St. Bento d'Avis (see Avis 

above). 
St. Blaise, Armenia, 12th cen- 
tury. 
St. Bridget, Sweden . . 1366 
St. Catherine, Palestine . . 1063 
St. Catherine, Russia (/e?)iaZ(;) 1714 
St. Charles, Wurtemberg . . 1759 
St. Constantiue, Constanti- 
uoxsle, about 313 ; Parma, 

1699 '■• since removed to 

Naples. 
St. Denis, France . . . 1267 
St. Elizabeth, Brazil , . . 1801 
St. Esprit, France . . . 1579 
St. Ferdinand, Naples . . 1800 
St. Ferdinand, Spain . .1811 
St. George and the Reunion, 

Naples 1819 

St. George, Angelic Knights, iigi 
St. George, Austria . 1470, 1494 
St. George, Defender of the 

Immaculate Conception, 

Bavaria .... 1729 
St. George, England (sec Gar- 
ter) 

St. George, Genoa . 

St. George, Rome . . . 

St. George, Russia. 

St. George, Spain . . . 

St. George, Venice . 

St. Gerion, Germany . . 

St. Henry, Saxony 

St. Hermenegild, Spain . . 

St. Hubert, Germany, by the 

duke of Juliers and Cleves 1444 
St. Isabella, Spain, 1815 ; Por 

tugal (female) . . . . 
St. James, Holland 
St. James, Portugal , . . 
St. Jame.s, Spain, about 
St. Jame.s of the Sword, Sjiain 

and Portugal 
St. Januarius, Naples . . 
St. Joachim, Germany . 
St. Jolia of Aeon, after . . 
St. Jolm of Jerusalem (see 

Hospitallers) 
St. John, Prussia . . . 
St. Joseph, Tuscany 
St. Julian of Alacantara . . 
St. Lazarus, France, before 

1 1 54; united with that of 

St. Maurice, Savoy . . 1572 
St. Louis, France . . . 1693 
St. Mark, Venice, about 828. 

Renewed .... 
St. Mary de Merced, Spain . 
St. Maurice, Savoy . . . 
St. Michael, France 
St. Michael, Germany . . 
St. Nicholas, Naples 
St. Patrick, Ireland . . . 1783 
St. Paul, Rome . . . 1540 
St. Peter, Rome. . . . 1520 
St. Remi(orHoly Vial), about 499 
St. Rupert, Germany . . 1701 
St. Sejiulchre, Palestine . 1095 



1349 
1472 
1492 
1769 
1317 
1200 
1190 
173U 
1814 



iSoi 

1290 

1310 

. 1170 

837 
1738 
1755 
1377 

1048 
1812 
1807 
1156 



1562 
121S 

1434 
1469 
1618 
1382 I 



* Enlarged and corrected from Bdmondson and Carlisle ; the early dates are doubtful. 
■were instituted after the settlement of Europe in 1815. 



Many orders 



KNI 



423 



KOX 



KNIGHTHOOD, continued. 



St. Stanislas, Poland . ■ ijC^S 
St. Stephen, Hungary . .1764 
.St. Stephen, Tuscany . - 1561 
St. Thomas of Acun, after . 1377 
Saviour, Aragon . . . mS 
Saviour, Greece . . • 1833 
Saviour of the World, Sweden 1561 
Scale, Castile, about . . i3i<5 
Scarf, Castile, 1330. Revived 1700 
-Seraphim, Sweden . • i334 i 
Ship and Crescent, Franco . 1269 
Slaves of Virtue, Germany 

(female) .... 1662 
Star, Franco .... 1351 
Star, Sicily . • • -1351 



Star of the Cross (Jcmale), 

Austria .... i663 
Star of India . ... 1S61 
Swan, Flanders . . . 500 
Sword (or Sdeuce), Cyprus, 

about 1 192 

Sword, Sweden, 1525. Re- 
vived 1743 

Templars (see Temidars) . ing 
Teste Mortc (Death's Head), 

Wurtemborg . . . 1652 
Teiitonic, Prussia, about 1 190. 

Rene-wed . . • • 1522 
Thistle of Bourbon . . 1370 

Thistle, Scotland, Sog. Re- 
vived . . ■ 1540. 1637 



Tower and Sword, Portugal, 

1459. Revived . . . 1808 
Tusiu, or Iiuug;u-ian knights, 

about . . . . . 1562 
Vasa, Sweden . . • 1772 

Virgin Mary, Italy . . . 1233 
Virgin of Mount Carmel, 

France 1607 

White Cross, Tuscany . . 1814 
White Eagle, Poland, about 

1325. Revived . . . 1705 
Vv'hito Falcon, Saxo Weimar 1732 
Wilhelm, lloUand . . . 1815 
Wing of St. Michael, Portu- 
gal "72 

Wladimir, Russia . . .1782 



Female Knights. It is said that the first were 
the women who preserved Tortosa from f alUng mto 
the hands of the Moors in 1149, by their stout 
resistance. Large immunities and favours were 
granted to the women and their descendants. 
Several female orders appear in the previous list. 

KV10HT3 OF GlYN and KeRRV IN IRELAND. ThO 

heads of two branches of the family of Fitzgerald, 



who stiU enjoy the distinctions bestowed on 
their ancestors by the ancient sovereigns. 
Knights of the Shire, or of Parliament ; sum- 
moned by the king's writ and chosen by the 
freeholders, first summoned Vjy Simon do Mont- 
fort in 1254, and in a more formal manner, Jan. 
20 1263. There are writs extant as far back as ii 
Edward I. 12S3. The knights are stiU girded with 
a sword when elected, as the writ prescribes. 



TvNTVES In England, Hallamiliire has been renowned for its cutlery for five centuries; 
Chancer smaks of the " Slielliekl thwytel.'" Stow says that Richard Mathews on the Fleet- 
brid-e wa? the first Englishman ^y\^o\nadeMc knives, &c. ; and that he obtained a prohi- 
bition of foreic^n ones, 1563. Clasp or spring knives became common about 1650 ; coming 
SnaUy from Flanders.^ \'nife-clcanini macJdnes were patented by Mr. George Kent m 
iS^ and 1852 ; others have been invented, by Masters, Price, &c. See Forks. 

KNOW-NOTHINGS, a society which arose in 1853, in the United States of N America 
Their principles were embodied in the following propositions (at New York, 1^55) :-ilitj 
possessed several newspapers and had much political influence. 

„, . . „i,„ii „,io \r,-r>rir'a 7 Thorough reform in the naturalisation laws. 

the bishops, &c., in a repubUc sanctified by iBso- 
Protestant blood. 

KOH-I-NOOR, or " Mountain of Light." The East India Diamond. See Diamonds. 

KOLIN or KoLLiN (Bohemia). Here the Austrian general Daun gained a signal 
victory over Frederick the Great of Prussia, June iS, 1757- lu commemoration, the mihtary 
order of Maria Theresa was instituted by the empress-queen. 

KOMORN or Comoen (Hungary), an ancient fortress town often taken and retaken 
durhig the wars with Turkey. Near it the Hungarians defeated the Austnans, July ii, 
1849 Ijut surrendered the town, Oct. 1, 1849. 

KONIEH (formerly Icouium). Here the Turkish army was defeated by the pacha of 
E^^jTt after a Z^saifguinary fight, Dec. 21, 1832. The gi'and vizier was taken prisoner. 

" -i-rWTPCiP.Fl^G the capital of East Prussia, was founded by the Teutonic knights in 
KONIGSbLivU, tue capiiai v>.^^i. ^ _„„V„,. ;„ ,,r-r Tt ininnd tl.p, Hauseatic league 



crowned the first king ot I'russia m 17^1. xl, ua:^ ^^.^ -j — .._..,.^- .,^- --t, 
French in 1807. Here the present king and queen were crowned, Oct. iS, 1861. 

KONIGSTEIN TUN (Nassau, Germany), most capacious was built by Frederick 
K ^ f„ IHn.r of Poland in 172^. It was made to hold 233,667 gallons of wme ; and on 
fliTtf whi h^s^sSiir^^^^^ ^0^ twenty persons to regale themselves. 

The Smourtun of StBernard-s holds 800 tuns. See Ilcidcmrr, Tun. 



K()K 42i LAB 

KORAN OR Alcoran (Al-Kuran), tlie sacreil book of the Mahometans, was written 
about 6io, by Mahomet, who asserted that it had been revealed to him. by the angel Gabriel 
in twenty-three years, and published by Abubeker about 635. Its general aim was to unite 
the professors of idolatry and the Jews and Christians in the worship of one God (whose 
vmity was the chief point inculcated), under certain laws and ceremonies, exacting obedience 
to Mahomet as the prophet. The leading article of faith preached is compounded of an 
eternal truth and a necessary fiction, namely, that there is only one God, and that Mahomet 
is the apostle of God. Gibbon. The Koran was translated into Latin in 1 143 ; into French 
1647 ; into English, by Sale, 1734 ; and into other European languages 1763 et seq. It is a 
rhapsody of 6000 verses, divided into 1 14 sections. See Mahomctanism, &c. 

KOREISH, an Arab tribe which oppo.sed the pretensions of Mahomet, and was defeated 
by him and his adherents, 630. 

KOSZTA AFFAIR. Martin Koszta, a Hungarian refugee, when in the United States in 
1850, declared his intention of becoming an American citizen, and went thi'ough the pre- 
liminary forms. In 1853 he visited Smyrna, and on June 21 was seized by a boat's crew 
from the Austrian brig Huzzar. By direction of the American minister at Constantinople, 
captain Ingraham, of the American sloop St. Louis, demanded his release ; but having heard 
that the prisoner was to be clandestinely transferred to Trieste, he demanded his surrender by 
a certain time, and prepared to attack the Austrian vessel on July 2; Koszta was then given 
up. On August I, the Austrian government protested against these proceedings in a circiilar 
addressed to the European courts, but eventually a compromise was effected, and Koszta 
returned to the United States. 

KRASNOI (Central Russia). Here the French army under Marshal Davoust, prince of 
Eckmiihl, was totally defeated by the Russian army commanded by prince Kutusotf (who 
died in 1813). 

KREASOTE. See Crcasote. 

KREMLIN", a palace at JIoscow, built by Demetri, grand-duke of Russia, in 1376. It 
was burnt down in 1812, and re-built in 181 6. 

KUNNERSDORF, Battlk of. See Caniicrsdorf. 

KUNOBITZA, in the Balkan. Here John Hunniades, the Hungarian, defeated the 
Turks, Dec. 24, 1443. 

KURRACHEE, a flourishing port in N. W. India, was taken by the British, Feb- 
3, 1839. 

KUSTRIN OR CusTRiN (Prussia), a fortified towm, besieged and burnt by the Russians, 
Aug. 22, 1758 ; taken by the French in 1806 ; given up, 1814. 



LABORATORY. The Royal Institution laboratory, the first of any importance in 
London, was established in 1800. In it were made the discoveries of Davy and Faraday. 
See Royal Institution. 

LABRADOR (N. America), discovered by Sebastian Cabot, 1497 ; visited by Corte Real 
in 1500 ; made a Moravian missionary station in 1771. 

LABUAN, an Asiatic island N. AV. Borneo ; occupied by the British in 1846, and given 
irp to sir James Brook in 1848. See Borneo, 

LABURNUM, called also the golden chain and Cytisus Laburnum, was brought to these 
countries from Hungary, Austria, &c., about 1576. Ashe. 

LABYRINTH. Four are mentioned : the first, said to have been built by Dsedalus, in 
the island of Crete, to secure the Minotaur, about 1210 B.C. ; the second in Egypt, in the 
isle of Mceris, by Psammeticus, king of that place, about 683 B.C. ; the other, the third, at 
Lemnos, remarkable for its sumptuous pillars, which seems to have been a stalactite grotto ; 
and the fourth at Clusium, in Italy, erected by Porsenna, king of Etruria, about 520 B.C. 
Pliny. The beauty and art of the labyrinths of Mendes were almost beyond belief ; it had 
12 halls and 3000 chambers, with pillars, was encrusted with marble, and adorned with 
sculpture. Herodotus. The labyrinth of Woodstock is connected with the story of Fair 
Rosamond. See Rosamond. The Maze, at Hampton Court, was formed at the end of the 
1 6th centurv. 



LAC 425 LAM 

LACE was of very delicate texture in France and Flanders in 1320. Its importation 
into England was ]irohibited in 1483 ; but it was general in the court costume of Elizabeth's 
reign. Dresden, Valenciennes, Mechlin, and Brussels, have long been famous for their fine 
lace. An ounce weight of Flanders thread has been frequentlj^ sold for four pounds in 
London ; and its value, when manufactured has been increased to forty pounds, ten times 
the j)rice of standard gold. A dissipated framework knitter of Nottingham, named Hammond, 
is said to have invented a mode of applying his stocking-frame to the manufacture of lace 
from studying the lace on his wife's cap, about 1768. Maccidloch. So many improvements 
liave been made in this manufacture, particularly by Heathcote (1809, 1817, &c.), Morley 
and Leaver (iSii, &c.), that a piece of lace which about 1809 cost 17/. may now be had for 
7^. (1853). Vre. The pi'ocess of "gassing," by which cotton lace is said to be made equal 
to fine linen lace, Avas invented by Samuel Hall of Basford, near Nottingham. He died in 
Nov. 1862. 

LACED.EMON. See S2Mrta. 

LACONIA (S.E. Peloponnesus), the ancient name of Spai-ta ; in the Sth century called 
Tzakonia. 

LACTEAL VESSELS were discovered in a dog by Jasper Asellius of Cremona, 1622, and 
in birds and other animals, by Mr. Hewson of London, about 1770. 

LADY. The masters and mistresses of manor-houses, in former times, served out bread 
to the poor Aveekly, and were therefore called Lafords and Lef-days — signifying bread-givers 
(from hlaf, a loaf) : hence Lords and Ladies. Tooke considers Lord to signify hijh-born. 
Ladies first came into court in France in 1499. — Lady day (March 25), a festival instituted 
about 350, according to some authorities, and not before the 7th century according to others. 
&QG Annunciation. The year was ordered to begin on Jan. ist, in France in 1564; and in 
Scotland, by proclamation, on Dec. 17, 1599 ; but not in England till Sept. 3, 1752, Avhen 
the style was altered. 

LADRONE ISLES (N. Pacific), belonging to Spain, discovered by Magellan, in 1520. 
He first touched at the island of Guam. The natives having stolen some of his goods, he 
named the islands the Ladrones, or Thieves. In the 17th century they obtained tlie name 
of Marianne's islands from the queen of Spain. 

LAGOS-BAY (Portugal). Here was fought a battle between admiral Boscawen and the 
French admiral De la Clue, who lost botli his legs in the engagement, and died next day, 
Aug. 17, 18, 1759. The Centaur and Modesto were taken, and the Redoubtable and Ocean 
run on shore and burnt : the scattered remains of the French fleet got into Cadiz. 

LAGOS, in the Bight of Benm (Africa), was assaulted and taken by the boats of a 
British squadron, under commodore Bruce, Dec. 26 and 27, 185 1. This affair arose out 
of breaches of a treaty for the suppression of the slave-trade. In 1862, the place was ceded 
to the British government, and created a settlement : Henry Stanhope Freeman to be the 
first governor. 

LA HOGUE (N.W. France), Battle of. May 19, 1692, between the English and Dutch 
combined fleets, under admirals Eussell and Eooke, and the French fleet commanded by 
admiral Tourville. The English attacked the French near La Hogue, gaining a splendid 
victory, burning thirteen of the enemy's ships, destroying eight more, forcing the rest to fly, 
and thus preventing a threatened descent upon England. 

LAHORE (N.W. India), was taken by Baber in 1524, and was long the capital of the 
Mongol empire. It fell into the power of the Sikhs in 1798. It was occupied by sir Hugh 
Gough Feb. 22, 1846, who in March concluded a treaty of peace with them. 

LAKE POETS, a term applied to "Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Southey, from their having 
resided in the neighbourhood of the lakes of Westmoreland. 

LAKE REGILLUS (Italy), where the Romans defeated the Latin auxiliaries of the 
expelled Tarquins, 499 B.C. 

LAKES CHAMPLAIN, ERIE, and ONTARIO. These lakes were the scenes of many 
actions between the British and Americans in the war of independence (about i 776 and 
1777), and in the war of 18 13- 14. 

LAMAISM, the religion of Mongolia and Thibet, is a corrujit form of Buddhism 
{which see). 



LAM 



426 



LAN 



LAMBETH PALACE. A considerable portion was Imilt in the I2tli and I3tli centuries, 
by Hubert Walter, arclibishop of Canterbur}^ The chapel was erected in 1196. The tower 
of the church was erected aljout 1375 ; and other parts of the edifice in the 15th century. 
Simon of Sudbury, archbishop of Canterbury, was barbarously put to death here by the 
followers of "Wat Tyler, who attacked the palace, burnt all the furniture and books, and 
destroyed all the registers and public papers, June 14, 13S1. The domestic portion of the 
palace was greatly enlarged for archbishop Howley (who died 1S48), by Mr. Blore, at an 
expense of 52,000^. See Cantcrliury and Articles. 

LAMIAN WAR, b.c. 323, between Athens and her allies (excited by Demosthenes, the 
orator), and Antipater, governor of Macedon. Antipater lied to Lamia, in Thessaly, and was 
there besieged. He escaped thence and defeated his adversaries at Crauou, 322 B. v.. 

LAMMAS-DAY, the ist of August, one of our four cross quift-ter-days of the year. 
Wliitsuntide was formerly the first of these quarters, Lammas the second, Martinmas the 
third, and Candlemas the last ; and such partition of the year was once equally common 
with the present divisions of Lady-day, Midsummer, Michaelmas, and Christmas. Some 
rents are yet payable at each of these quarterly days in England, and very generally in 
Scotland. Lammas comes from the Saxon, hlamnucssc, loaf-mass, liecause formerly upon 
that day our ancestors offered bread made of new wheat ; aucientlj', those tenants that 
held lands of the cathedral church of York were by tenure to bring a lamb alive into church 
at high mass. 

LAMPETER COLLEGE (Cardiganshu-e), was founded by bishop Burgess in 1822, and 
incorporated 1828. 

LAMPS. The earthen lamp of Epictetus the philosopher sold after his death for 3000 
drachmas, 161. Lamps with horn sides were the invention of Alfred. London streets were 
first lighted with oil-lamps in 1681, and with gas-lamps in 1814. A lamp "constructed to 
produce neither smoke nor smell, and to give considerably more light than any lamp hitherto 
known," was patented by M. Aim(S Argaud in 1784, and was brought into general use in 
England early in the present century. On his x>rinciple are founded the lamp invented by 
Carcel about 1803, and since 1825, '.the Moderateur Lamps of Levavasseur, Hadrot, and 
Neuburger. See Safety Lamih 

LANARK (W. Scotland), was a Roman station, and made a royal burgh 1103. 

LANCASHIRE was created a county palatine by Edward IIL for his son John of Gaunt, 
who had married the daughter of Henry, first duke of Lancaster, in 1359, and succeeded 
him in 1361. The court of the Duchy Chamber of Lancaster was instituted in 1376. 
On the accession of Henry IV. in 1399 the duchy merged into the crown. See under article 
Cotton. 

LANCASTER, supposed to have been the Ad Alaunam of the Romans. Lancaster was 
granted by William I, or II. to Roger de Poitou, who erected a castle upon its hill. It was 
taken by the Jacobites, Nov. 1715 and Nov. 1745. 

LANCASTERIAN SCHOOLS, on a system of education by means of mutual instruction, 
devised by Joseph Lancaster about 1796, but were not much patronised till about 1808. 
The system led to the formation of the British and Foreign School Society, in 1805, whose 
schools are unsectarian, and use the Bible as the only means of religious instruction. Lancaster 
was accidentally killed at New York in 1838. 

LAND was let generally in England for is. per acre, 36 Hen. YIII. 1544. The whole 
rental of the kingdom was about 6,ooo,oooZ. in 1600 ; about 14,000,000?. in 16SS ; in 1798 
Mr. Pitt proposed his Income Tax of 10 per cent, on' an estimate of 100 millions, taking the 
rent of laud at 50 millions, that of houses at 10 millions, and the profits of trade at 40 millions ; 
but in his estimate were exempted much land, and the inferior class of houses. The rental 
of the United Kingdom was estimated at 59,500,000/. in 1851.* An act for rendering more 
easy the transfer of land was passed in 1862. See Agriculture, 



A species of land-tax was exacted in England in 
the lotU century, which produced 82,000?. 
(see Dancgdt) in 1018 

Land Banks wore proposed by Yarranton In . 1648 



The land-tax imposed 1699, grew outof a subsidy- 
scheme of 4s. in the pound, which produced 
5oo,oooL in . . . . ■ . . . 

A Land Credit Company for Silesia was cstab- 



* The allotment of land to cottagers began with lord Braybrookc's successful experiment in Essex, of 
allotting small ijortious of land to poor famiUes, to assist them and relieve the parish poor-rates in 1S19. Tho 
little colony was first called Pauper Gardens, but afterwards ifeio Village, and it is calculated that 200I. 
annum were saved to the p:msh. 



ptr 



LAN 



427 



LAN 



LAND, continued. 

lishcd by Frederick the Great (see Credits 
Fonc'icrcs) 1763 

Mr. Pitt made the tax perpetual at 4?. in the 
I)ound, but introduced his plan for its re- 
demption April 2, 1793 

Lauded Estates Court, established to "facili- 
tate the sale and transfer of laud in Ireland " 
(sec Encumbered Estates Act) .... 1S5S 

The Land Registry office was opened in . . 1862 

Fi'om the Revolution to the year iSoo, the land- 
t;is had yielded 227,000,000^. 



MiTiisters were left in a minority in the House 
of Commons on the land-tax bill in 1767 ; it 
being the first instance of the kind on a 
money bill since the Revolution. Its rate 
varied in different years from is. to 4s. in the 
pound. 

The tax in 1810 produced 1,418,337?. ; in 1820, 
1,338,420?. ; in 1830, 1,423,618?. ; in 1840, 
1,298,622?. ; in 1852, 1,151,613?. 



LANDEN, or Nbekwinden, Belgium. Near here the French under marshal Luxembourg 
defeated the allies, commanded by William IIL of England, chiefly through the cowardice 
of the Dutch, July 19 (N.S. 29), 1693. The duke of Berwick, illegitimate son of James IL, 
fighting on the side of France, was taken prisoner. 

LANDGRAVE (from land and grave, a count,) a German title, which commenced in 
1 130 with Louis III. of Thuringia, and became the title of the house of Hesse about 1263. 

LANDLORD. See Rent. 

LANDSHUT (Silesia), where the Prussians were defeated by the Austrians under marshal 
Laudohn, June 23, 1760. 

LANGSIDE (S. Scotland), where the forces of the regent of Scotland, the earl of 
Murray, defeated the army of Mary queen of Scots, May 13, 1568. Mary lied to England 
and crossed the Solway Firth, lauding at "Workington, in Cumberland, May 16. Soon after- 
wards she was imiu'isoned by Elizabeth. 

LANGUAGE must either have been revealed originally from heaven, or the fruit of 
human invention. The latter opinion is embraced by Horace, Lucretius, Cicero, and most 
of the Greek and Roman writers ; the former by the Jews and Christians, and many profound 
modern iihilosophers. Some suppose Hebrew to have been the language spoken by Adam ; 
others say that the Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic are only dialects of the. original tongue. 
"And the whole earth was of one language and of one speech," Genesis xi. i. The original 
European languages were thirteen, viz. : Greek, Latin, German, Sclavonian, spoken in the 
east ; Welsh ; Biscayan, spoken in Spain ; Irish ; Albanian, in the mountains of Epirus ; 
Tartarian, the old Illyrian ; the Jazygian, remaining yet in Liburuia ; the Chaucin, in the 
north of Hungary ; and the Fiiniic, in East Friesland. From the Latin sprang the Italian, 
French, Spanish, and Portuguese. The Turkish is a mixed dialect of the Tartarian. From 
the Teutonic sprang the present German, Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, English, Scotch, &c. 
There are 3664 known languages, or rather dialects, in the world. Of these, 937 are Asiatic ; 
5S7 European ; 276 African ; and 1624 American languages and dialects. Adelung. 
George I. in 1724, and George II. in 1736, appointed regius professors of modern languages 
and of history to each of the universities of England. In i86i and 1862 professor Max Miiller 
lectured on the "Science of Language" at the Royal Institution, London.* He divides 
languages into three families : — 



I. Aryan (in Sanskrit, nohle). 
Southern Division. India (Prakrit, and Pali ; Sans- 
krit ; dialects of India ; Gipsy). 
Iranic (Parsi ; Armenian, iic.). 

Northern Division. 

Celtic (Cymric : Cornish, Welsh, JIanx, Gaelic, Bre- 
ton, (Sic). 

Italic (Oscan ; Latin ; Umbrian ; — Italian, Spanish, 
Portuguese, French, <Sic.). 

lllyrie (Albanian). 

nellcnic (Greek, and its dialects). 

Windic (Lettic: Old Prussian: Salvonie lUalecls, — 
liohcmian, Russian, Polish, Lithuanian, &c.). 

Teutonic (IJir/h German: Modern German; Low 
German : Gothic ; Anglo-Saxon ; Dutch ; Frisian ; 

LANGUE D'OC. See Troubadours. 



English. Scandinavian : Old Norse, Danish, Swe- 
dish, Norwegian, Icelandic). 

II. Semitic: Southern. Arabic (including Ethiopic 
and Amharic). Middle. Hebraic (Hebrew, Sama- 
ritan, Phojnician inscriptions). Northern. Aramaic 
(Chaldee, Si-riac, Cuneiform inscriptions of Baby- 
lon and Nineveh). 

III. Turanian' (from Tura, swiftness). 

Northern Division. Tungusic (Chinese, &c.); Mon- 
golic ; Turkic ; Samoyedic, and Finnic. 

Southern Division. Taie (Siamese, &c.) ; (Himalayas) ; 
Malayic (Polynesia, &:c.); Gangetic; Louitic 
(Burmese, &c.); Munda; Tamxilic. 



* Cardinal Giuseppe Mezzofanti (1774-18 
languages in 1807, and more afterwards. 



(knew 114 languages or dialects; and Niebuhr know 20 



LAN 428 LAT 

LANSDOWN (Somersetshire). The iiarliamentary army uiuler sir Wm. Waller was here 
defeated, July 5, 1643. 

LANTERNS of scraped horn were invented in England, it is said, by Alfred ; and it is 
supposed that horn was used for window lights also, as glass was not known in Alfred's 
reign, S72-901. Stow. Loudon was lighted by suspended lanterns with glass sides, 1415. 

LANTHANUM, a rare metal discovered in the oxide of cerium, by Mosander in 1839. 

IjAOCOON, an ex(|uisite Grecian work of art, executed in marble, was modelled by 
Agesander, Atlienodorus, and Polydorus, all of Rhodes, and about 80 eminent statuaries ; it 
represents the death of the Trojan hero, Laocoon, priest of Neptune, and his two sons, as 
described by Virgil, ^Encis ii. 200. It was discovered in 1505 in the Sette Salle near Rome, 
and purchased by pope Julius 11. It is now in the Vatican. 

LAODICEA. SeexScmi Churches. 

LAON (N. France). Here a succession of actions between the allies (chiefly the 
Prussians) and the French, was fought under the walls of the town, which ended in the 
defeat of the latter with great loss, March 9, 10, 1814. 

LA PEROUSE'S VOYAGE. In 1785 La Perouse sailed from France for the Pacific, 
with the Boussolc and Astrolabe under his command, and was last heard of from Botany Bay, 
in March, 1788. Several expeditions were subsequently dispatched in search of Perouse ; 
but no certain information was had until captain Dillon, of the East India ship Research, 
ascertained that the French ships had been cast away on the New Hebrides, authenticated 
by articles which captain Dillon brought to Calcutta, April 9, 182S. 

LAPLAND, or Sameland, N. Europe, nominally subject to Norway in the 13th 
century, and now to Sweden and Russia. 

LARCENY. (French, larcen; Latin, lalrocirdum.) See Theft. 

LA ROTHIERE (France), Battle of, between the French, commanded by Napoleon, 
and the Prussian and Russian armies, which were defeated with great loss after a desperate 
engagement, Feb. i, 1814. This was one of Napoleon's last victories. 

LARYNGOSCOPE, an instrument consisting of a concave mirror, by which light is 
thrown upon a small plane mirror placed in the posterior part of the cavity of the mouth. 
By its means the vocal chords of the interior of the larynx, &c., are exhibited, and have 
been photographed. One constructed by Dr. Tiirek, in 1857, was modified by Dr. Czermak, 
who exhibited it in action in London in 1862. A similar apparatus is said to have been 
constructed by Mr. John Aver}'^, a surgeon in London, in 1846, and used by M. Garcia. 

LATERAN, a church at Rome, dedicated to St. John, was originally a palace of the 
Laterani, and was given to the bishops of Rome by Constantino, and inhabited by them till 
their removal to the Vatican in 1377. Eleven councils have been held here. 

LATHAM-HOUSE, Lancashire, was heroically defended for three m_ontlis ag ainst the 
parliamentarians, by Charlotte, countess of Derby. She was relieved by princ e Rupert, 
May, 1644. Tlie house was, however, surrendered Dec. 4, 1645, and dismantled. 

LATHE. The invention is ascribed to Talus, a grandson of Daedalus, about 1240 B.C. 
Pliny ascribes it to Theodore of Samos, about 600 B. c. 

LATIN KINGDOM, Empire, &c. See Latiian, Eastern Empire 1204, o-iiii Jerusalem. 

LATIN LANGUAGE (founded on the Oscan, Etruscan, and Greek), one of the original 
languages of Europe, and from which sprang the Italian, French, and Spanish. See 
Latiiiiii. A large portion of our language is derived from the Latin. It ceased to be spoken 
in Italy about 581 ; and was first taught in England by Adelmus, brother of Ina, in the 7th 
century. The use of Latin in law deeds in England gave way to the common tongue about 
1000 ; was revived in the reign of Henry II. ; and again was rejjlaced by English in the reign 
of Henry III. It was finally discontinued in religious worship in 155S, and in conveyancing 
and in courts of law in 1731 (by 4 Geo. II. c. 25). A corrupt Latin is still spoken in 
Roumelia. 

PRINCIPAL LATIX -WRITERS. 

Died 
Catullus . . . B.C. 40 
Sallust . . . . • 34 
Vitruvius . . (flourishes) 27 
Propertius . , . .26 





Died 




Died 


Plautus 


. B.C. 184 


Lncilius 


B.C. 103 


Ennius 


. . i6g 


Lucretius . 


. 52 


Terence 


(iloiii-ishef) 166 


Julius Cicsar 


• • 44 


Cato the Elder . 


■ 149 


Cicero 


• 43 



LAT 429 LAV 



LATIN LANGUAGE, continued. 



Died I Died \ Died 

Svietonius (aioJt() a.d. 120 



Virgil .... B.C. 19 Seneca .... a.d. 65 

TibnUus 18 Pliny the Elder . . • . 79 

Horace 8 Quintilian . (flourishes) 80 

Oelsus . (flourishex) a.d. 17 Valeriu.s Fl.accus . ,, . 81 

Livj' 18 Pliny the Younger ,, . 100 

Ovid 18 Statins . . . (about) 100 

Paterculus 31 I Tacitus . . . ,, 100 

Persius 62 Silius Italicus . . . loi 



Juvenal 

Aulus Gcllius . (^HDurisJtcs) i6g 
Apuleius . . ,, 174 

Ammianus Marcollinu.s . . 390 

Claudian 408 

Macrobiu.s 415 

Boetbius 524 

(See Futhers of the Church.) 



Lucan 65 i Martial . . (fiourlsJies) 104 

LATITAT, an ancient writ by wliicli por.sons were usually called to the King's Bench 
court, had its name from its being supposed that the defendant was lurking, or lying hid, 
and could not be found in the county to be taken liy bill, and the writ is directed to the 
sheriff to apprehend him. Tlie writ was abolished by the Uniformity of Process Act, May 
23, 1S32. 

LATITUDE. First determined by Ilipparchus of Nice, about 162 B.C. It is the extent 
of tlie earth, or of the heavens, I'cckoned from tlie equator to either pole. ]\Iaupertnis, in 
1737, in latitude 66'20, measureil a degree of latitude, and made it Sg'^g^ mile;;. Swan- 
berg, in 1803, made it 69'292. At the equator, in 1744, four astronomers made it 68732 ; 
and Lambton, in latitude 12, made it 61743. kludge, in England, made it 69"i48. Cassini, 
in France, in 1718 and 1740, made it 69'i2 ; and Biot, 68769 ; while a recent measure in 
Spain makes it but 68-63 — less than at the equator, and contradicts all others, proving the 
earth to be a prolate spheroid (which was the opinion of Cassini, Bernoulli, Euler, and 
others), instead of an oblate spheroiil. 

LATIUM, now Campaxia (Italy), the country of Latinus, king of Janiculum, 1240 B.C. 
Lanrcntum was the capital of the country in the reign of Latinu.s, Lavinium under ^Eneas, 
and Alba under Ascanins. See Itah/ and Home. 

LATTER-DAY SAINTS. .See Mormonites. LA TRAPPE. See Trappists. 

LAUDANUM. See Opium. 

LAUENBURG, a duchy, N. Germany; was conquered from the Wends by Henry the 
Lion of Saxony, about 1152; ceded to Hanover, 1689 ; incorporated with tlie French empire, 
1810 ; ceded to Denmark, 1815 ; annexed by Prussia, Aug. 14, 1865 ; possession taken 
Sept. 15, following. See Gaslein. Population in 1855, 50,147. 

LAUREATE. See Pod Laureate. 

LAUREL was sacred to Apollo, god of poetry ; and from the earliest times the poets and 
generals of annics, when victors, were crowned with laurel. Petrarch was crowned with 
laurel, April 8, 1341. — Tho Primus lauroccrasus was brought to Britain from the Levant, 
before 1629 ; tlie Portugal laurel. Primus hisitanica, before 1648 ; the royal bay, Laurus 
indica, from Madeira, 1665 ; the Alexandrian laurel, Ruscus raccmosus, from Spain, before 
1713 ; the glaucous laurel, Laurus aggregata, from China, 1806 or 1821. 

LAURENT ALIA were festivals celebrated at Rome in honour of Acca Laurentia, who is 
said to have been either the nurse of Romulus or Remus, or a rich dissolute woman, who 
be(]ueathed licr property to the Roman people. They commenced about 621 B.C., and were 
held on the last day of April and the 23rd of December. 

LAURUSTINE, Viburnum Tinus, an evei'green shrub, was brought to England from the 
south of Europe, before 1596. 

LA VALETTA. See Malta. 

LAVALETTE'S ESCAPE. Count Lavalette, for aiding the emperor Napoleon on his 
return in 1815, was condemned to death, but escaped from ])rison in the clothes of his \nfe, 
during a last interview, Dec. 20, 1815. Sir Robert "Wilson, Michael Bruce, esq., and captain 
J. II. Hutchin.son, were convicted of aiding the escape, and sentenced to three months' 
imprisonment in the French capital, April 24, 1816. Lavalette was permitted to return to 
France in 1820, and died in retirement in 1830. 

LA VENDUE (W. France). The French Royalists of La Vendee took to arms in March, 
1793, and were successful in a number of hard-fought battles with the Republican armies, 
between July 12, 1793, and Jan. i, 1794, when they experienced a severe reverse. Their 
leader, Henri, comte de Larochejaquelein, was killed, March 4, 1794. The war was termi- 
nated by general Hoclie, in 1796. A treaty of peace was signed at Lugon, Jan. 17, 1800. 
See Chouans. 



LAV 



430 



LAZ 



LAVENDER, Lavandula spica. Brouglit from the south of Europe, before 1568. 

LAW'S BUBBLE. John Law, of Edinburgh (1681), became comptroller-general of the 
finances of France, iipon the strength of a scheme for establishing a bank, and an East India 
and a Mississippi company, by the proiits of which the national debt of France was to be 
paid off. He first oifered his plan to Victor Amadeus, king of Sardinia, who told him he was 
not powerful enough to ruin himself. The French ministry accepted it; and in 1 7 16, he 
opened a bank in his own name, under the protection of the duke of Orleans, regent of 
France ; and the deluded rich of every rank, subscribed for shares both in the bank and the 
companies. In 1 718 Law's was declared a royal bank, and the shares rose to upwards of 
twenty-fold the original value ; so that, in 1719, they were worth more than eighty times 
the amount of all the current specie in France. In 1720 this fabric of false credit fell to the 
ground, spreading ruin throughout the country. Law died in poverty in 1 729 at Venice. 
— The South Sea Bubble in England occurred in the fatal year 1 720. See SoiUh Sea. 

LAWS. See Codes, Canons, and Civil Law. 
promulgated by Moses, 149 1 B.C. 



The Jewish law was given by God, and 



The laws of Phoroneus, in the kingdom of 
Argos (1807 B.C.) were the first Attic laws; 
they were reduced to a system by Draco, for 
the Athenians, 623 B.C. ; whose code was 
superseded by that of Solon, 594 B.C. 

The Spartan laws of Lycurguswere made about 
844 B. c. ; they remained in full force for 700 
years, and formed a race totally different 
from all others living in civilised society. 

The Roman Laws, the Twelve Tables, were 
published 449 B.C., and remained in force till 
Justinian, nearly a thousand years. 

BRITISH LAW.=?. 

The Briti.sh Laws of earliest date were trans- 
lated into the Saxon in . . . . a.d. 590 
Saxon laws of Ina published about . . . 700 
Alfred's code of laws, the foundation of the 
common law of England, is said to have been 
arranged about (see Common Law) . . . 886 
Edward the Confessor collected the laws in . 1065 
Stephen's chai ter of general Uberties . . .1136 
Henry 11. 's confirmation of it . . 1154 and 1175 
The maritime laws of Richard I. (see Oieron) . 1194 
Magna Charta, by king John, 1215 ; confirmed 
by Henry III. 1216 et seq. See Magna Charta, 
and Forest's Charter. 
Lord Mansfield, lord chief justice of the king's 
bench, declared, "That no fiction of law 
shall ever so f;ir prevail against the real 
truth of the fact, as to prevent the execution 
of justice" May 21, 1784 

LAWYERS. 

Pleaders of the bar, or bari-isters, are said to 

have been first appointed by Edward I. . 1291 
Serjeants, the highest members of the bar, 



were alone permitted to plead in the court of 
Common Pleas. The first king's council 
under the degree of sorjeaut was sir Francis 

Bacon, in 1604 

Law Association charity founded in . . . 1S17 
Incoriiorated Law Society formed in 1823 ; plan 
enlarged, 1825 ; a charter obtained, 1831 ; 
renewed, 1845. The building in Chanceiy- 
lane, from the designs of Vuiliamy, was com- 
menced in 1829 

Juridical Society established in . . . . 1855 
See Barristers, Counsel. 

Law Amendmeisit Society, founded in 1843. It 
holds meetings during the session of parliament, 
and publishes a journal and reports. Its first 
chairman was lord Brougham, who introduced 
the subject of Law Reform by a most eloquent 
speech in the house of commons, on Feb. 7, 1828. 
Many acts for Law Reform have been jjassed 
since, and vigorous measures were proposed by 
the late lord Chancellor Westbury. 

Law-Courts. — Commissioners appointed in 1859 
reported in favour of the concentration of the 
law-courts in London, on a site near Carey-street, 
Chancery-lane. The estimated expense was about 
1,500,000^, which it was recommended to take 
from the accumulated Chancery fund termed 
"Suitors' fund." An act of parliament to carry 
out the plan was passed m 1865. 

Law Reporters, a new and more economical plan 
of preparing and publishmg law reports was finally 
adopted by a committee of barristers on March ii, 
1S65. 



LAYAMON'S BRUT, or Chronicle of Britain, a poetical semi-Saxon paraphrase of the 
BrutofWace, made between iioo and 1230, was published with a literal translation by 
sir Frederick Madden, in 1847. 

LAYBACH (near Trieste, in Ill}Tia). A congress met here in Jan. 1821, and was 
attended by the sovereigns of Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Naples. It broke up in May, 
after having issued two circidars, stating it to be their resolution to occupy Naples with 
Austrian troops, and put down popular insurrections. 

LAYER'S CONSPIRACY. Christopher Layer, a barrister, conspired with other per- 
sons to seize George I., the prince of Wales, lord Cadogan, and the prmcipal officers of state, 
to take the Tower by surprise, to plunder the Bank, and finally to bring in the Pretender. 
He was hanged, May 17, 1723. 

LAZZARO, St. (N. Italy). Here the king of Sardinia and the Imperialists defeated the 
French and Spaniards after a long and severe conflict, June 4, 1746, 



LAZ 



431 



LEA 



LAZZAKONI (from lazzdro, Spanish for a pauper or leper), a term applied by the 
Ipanish viceroys to the number of degi'aded beings in Naples, who live like cattle, half- 
lothcd and houseless. No man was born a lazzdro ; and he wlio turned to a trade ceased to 
c on^. The viceroy permitted the lazzaroni to elect a chief with whom ho conferred 
especting the imposts on the goods brought to the markets. In 1647, Masaniello held the 
Ihcc. Sec Naples. In 1793, Ferdinand IV. enrolled several thousands of lazzaroni as 
likemen (spontonecrs), who generally favoured the Court party. On Alay 15, 1848, they 
i'cre permittcdj on the king's behalf, to commit fearful ravages on the ill-fated city. 
lollctta. 

LEAD is found in various countries, and is abundant in various parts of Britain, and in 
omo places richly mixed "with silver ore. Pattinson's valuable method for extracting the 
ilver was made known in 1829. The famous Clydesdale mines were discovered in 1513. 
?hc lead -mines of Cumberland and Derbyshire yield about 15,000 tons per annum. British 
nines produced 65,529 tons of lead in 1S55 ; and 69,266 tons in 1S57. Leaden pipes for the 
onveyance of water were brought into use in 1236. In 1859, 23,690 tons of pig and sheet 
ead were imported, and 18,414 tons exported. 

LEAGUES. Four kings combined to make war against five, about 1913 b.c. {Gen. xiv.) 
rhe kings of Canaan combined against the invasion of the Israelites, 145 1 B.C. The more 
•minent Greek leagues were the xEtolian, powerful about 320 B.C., which lasted till 189 B.C., 
md the Achffian, revived 280 B.C., which was broken up by the conr[uest of Greece by the 
[lomans, 146 B.C. The fall of these leagues was hastened by dissension. 



jombard leagues against emperors (see Lom- 

banU) ii76aud 1225 

Licague of the Public Good was between the 
dukes of Burgundy, Brittany, and Bourbon, 
and otherprinces against LouisXI., of France, 

1463-72 
jeague of Cambray against Venice . . . 1508 
loly League (the poiJe, Venice, &c.), ag-ainst 
Louis XII. ........ 1510 

Jeague of Smalcald 1529 

jcague of the Beggars (Gueitx ; the Protestants 
so called, though Roman Catholics joined the 
league) to oppose the institution of the In- 
quisition in Flanders 1566 



The Hoi-Y Leaoue, so denominated by way of 
eminence, to iirevent the accession of Henry 
IV. of Franco, who was then of the reformed 
rehgion, was commenced at Poronne in 1576 
and lasted till 1593, when Heniy embraced 
Romanism. 

League of Wurtzburg, by Catholics ; of Halle, 
by Protestants 1610 

League against the emperor 1626 

Solemn Leagvie and Covenant in Scotland, 
against the episcopal government of the 
Church, and the regal authority (see Covenant) 163S 

League of Augsburg, against France . . . 16S6 



LEAP-YEAIi OR Bissextile, originated with the astronomers of Julius Cajsar, 45 B.C. 
rhey fixed the solar years at 365 days, 6 hours, comprising, as they thought, the period 
Tom one vernal equinox to another ; the six hours were set aside, and at the end of four 
/ears, forming a day, the fourth year was made to consist of 366 days. The day thus added 
,vas called intercalary, and was placed a day before the 24th of February, the sixth of the 
:alends, which was reckoned twice, hence called bissextile or tivicc sixth. This added day 
vith us is Feb. 29th. See Oalendeir. This arrangement makes the year nearly three minutes 
longer than the astronomical year : to obviate this, 1700 and 1800 were not, and 1900 will 
aot be leap-year, but 2000 will be one. See Juliem Year, Gregorian Calendar, &c. 

LEARNING and the Arts flourished among the Greeks, especially under Pisistratus, 
537 B.C., and Pericles, /|/|/| B.C. ; and with the Romans at the commencement of the Christian 
Ta, under Augustus. The Greek refugees caused their revival in Italy, particularly after 
;ho taking of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, and tho invention of printing shortly 
jefore the period of the lienaissav/x. Leo X. and his family (the Medici) greatly promoted 
earning in Italy, in tho i6th century ; when literature revived in France, Germany, and 
England. Sec Literature, and lists of authors under Greek, Latin, English, and other 
'anguages. 

LEASE (from the French laisscr, to let), a kind of conveyance invented by serjeant 
Moore, soon after tho Staiidc of Uses, 27 Henry VIII., 1535. Acts relating to leases were 
aassed in 1856, and 1858. 

LEATHER was very early known in Egypt and Greece, and the thongs of manufactured 
hides were used for ropes, harness, &c., by all ancient nations. The Gordian knot was made 
3f leather thongs, 330 B.C. A leather cannon was proved at Edinburgh, fired three times, 
in;l found to answer, Oct. 23, 1778. Phillips. The duty on leather produced annually in 
England, 450,000?., and in Ireland about 50,000?. It was abolished, May 29, 1830. Many 
bankruptcies were declared in tho leather trade, in the autumn of i860 in England. In the 



LEG 432 LEG 

case of Lawrence, Mortimore, and Co., enormous fraudulent dcalinc^s in bills were disclosed. 
A plan for making artificial leather out of cuttings, &c., was made known in i860. Leather- 
cloth is unbleached cotton coated with a composition of boiled linseed oil and turpentine, 
coloured with various pigments, invented by Messrs. Croekcll, of Newark, U.S., and patented 
in 1849. 

LECH, a river, S. Germany, near which the cruel general Tilly was defeated by the 
Swedes, under Gustavus Adolphus, April 30, 1632. Tilly died of his wounds soon after. 

LECTURES. Those on physic were instituted by Dr. Thomas Linacre, of the College of 
Physicians (founded by Henry VIIL) about 1502. Clinical lectures, at the bed-side of the 
patient, were begun by sir B. C. Brodie (1813-17) ; Mr. G. Macilwain, about 1824, gave sur- 
gical clinical lectures in connection with a dispensaiy. See Girsham Collcgr., Boyle's 
Lectures, Royal and London rnstitutions, &c. The political lectures of Thelwall, commenced 
in January, 1795, were interdicted by an act of parliament. In the autumn of 1857 and 
since, many distinguished noblemen and gentlemen lectured at mechanics' institutes. An 
act passed in 1835 prohibited the publication of lectures without the consent of the lecturers. 

LEEDS (Yorkshire), the Saxon Lvidis, once a Roman station, received a charter in 1627. 
Population in 1861, 207,165. 



Magnificent new town-hall opened by the queen, 
and tLe mayor, Peter Fairbaim, knighted 

Sept. 7, 1 



Shcnfield grammar school founded . . . 1552 

Coloured Cloth hall built 1758 

Literary and Philosophical society established 1820 

Enfranchised by the Reform act . . . . 1832 I 

LEEK is the Welsh emblem, in consequence of a command from DcM-i, or David, 
afterwards archbishop of St. David's, in 519. On the day that king Arthur Avon a great 
victory over the Saxons, Dewi is said to have ordered the soldiers to place a leek in their 
caps. 

LEESBURG HEIGHTS. See BalTs Bluff. 

LEGACIES. In 1780 receipts for legacies were subjecteil to a stamp duty, and in 1796 
the legacy duty was imposed. The impost was increased several times subsequently, par- 
ticularly in 1805, 1808, and 1845. The revenue derived from it varies considerably in 
amount in consecutive years ; but it may be said to average about one and a half to two 
millions annually. In 1853, the legacy duty was extended to landed or real property. See 
Succession D^Uy Act. 

LEGATES. Ambassadors from the pope : the legate's court was erected in 1516 by 
cardinal "Wolsey, to prove wills, and for the trial of offences against the spiritual laws. Law 
Diet. It was soon discontinued. 

LEGATIONS were the twenty administrative divisions in the States of the Church, 
governed by legates. They rebelled in 1859-60, and are nearly all included in the kingdom 
of Italy. See Rome. 

LEGHORN, Lirorno, in Tuscany, a mere village in the 15th centuiy, owes its prosperity 
to the Medici family. It suffered dreadfully by an earthquake iu 1741 ; was entered by the 
French army, July 27, 1796, but the British property had been removed. It was evacuated 
by the French in 1799, and retaken, 1800. It was unsuccessfully attacked by the British 
and Italian forces in Dec. 1813. The Austriaus took this city from the insurgents, May 12 
and 13, 1849, and quelled a .slight insurrection, July, 1857. In June, 1857, above 60 persons 
were killed at the theatre, through an alarm of fire. 

LEGION, Lcgio, a corps of soldiers in the Roman armies, first formed by Romulus, when 
it consisted of 3000 foot and 300 horse, about 750 B.C. When Hannibal Mas in Italy, 
216 B.C., the legion consisted of 5200 soldiers ; and under Marius, in 88 B.C., it \vas 6200 
soldiers, besides 700 horse. There were ten, and sometimes as many as eighteen, legions 
kept at Rome. Augustus had a standing arm}' of 45 legions, together with 25,000 horse and 
37,000 light-armed troojjs, about 5 B.C.; and the peace establishment of Ath'ian was thirty 
of these formidable brigades. The peace of Britain was jirotected by three legions. A 
Icc'ion was divided into ten cohorts, and eveiy cohort into six centuries, with a vexillum, or 
standard, guarded by ten men. The French army has been divided into legions since 
Francis I. See Thundering Legion. 

LEGION OF HONOUR, a French order embracing the army, civil officers, and other 
individuals distinguished for services to the state ; instituted by Napoleon Bonaparte, when 



LEG 433 LEN 

First Consul, May 19, 1802. On the restoration of the Bourbons, Louis XVIII. confirmed 
this onk'r iu April, 1814. The honour was conferred on many British subjects who distin- 
3'uished themselves in the Paissiau war, 1S54-6, and in the Paris exhibition of 1S55. 

LEGITIillSTS, a term (since 1814) applied to those who support tlie claims of the elder 
Liranch of the Bourbon fiimily to the throne of France : whose representative is Henry, due 
le Bordeaux, called conite. de Chambord, born Sept. 29, 1820. They held a congress at 
Lucerne on June 24-29, 1862 : when about 3850 persons were present, including the duchess 
)f Parma. They agreed to continue a pacific policy. 

LEGNANO (iu Lombardy), where the emperor Frederick Barbarossa was defeated by the 
Milanese and their allies, May 29, 11 76, which victory led to the treaty of Constance iu 
[1S3. 

LEICESTER (central England) returned two members to parliament in the reign of 
Kdward L Here Pilchard IIP was buried, Aug. 25, 1485 ; and here cardinal Wolsey died, 
Kov. 29, 1530. During the civil war, it was taken by Charles I., May 31, and by Fairfax, 
lune 17, 1645. The stocking manufactm'e was introduced in 1680. 

LEIGHLIN (W. Carlow), a see founded by St. Laserian, about 628. Burchard, the 
N'orwegian, the son of Garmond, founded or endowed the priory of St. Stephen of Leighlin. 
Hishop Doran, a worthy prelate, appointed in 1523, was murdered by his archdeacon, Mau-- 
■ice Cavenagh, who was hanged for the crime on the si)ot where he had committed the 
nurder. £eaiso7i. In 1600 Leighlin M'as united to Ferns ; the combined see united to 
3ssory, in 1835. See Feriis and Bishops. 

LEINSTER, a kingdom in 1167, now one of the four provinces of Ireland, divided into 
'our archbishoprics by pope Eugeuius III., at a national .synod, ludd at KelLs, March 9, 
[ 15 1-2, and in which his holiness was represented by cardinal Paparo. The abduction of 
Devorgilla, wife of O'Ruave, a lord of Connaught, by Dermot king of Leinster in 1152, is 
isserted to have led to the landing of the English and the subseijuent conquest. The pro- 
vince of Leinster gave the title of duke to Schomberg's son, in 1690. The title became 
extinct in 17 19, and was conferred on the family of Fitzgerald in 1766. 

LEIPSIC (Saxony). Famous for its university (founded 1409) and its fair. Here Gus- 
bavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, defeated the Imperialists, under Tilly, Sept. 7, 163 1 ; and 
here the Imperialists were again defeated by the Swedes, under Torstenseu, Oct. 13, 1642. 
Here took place, on Oct. 16, 18, 19, 1813, " ?A,« battle of the nations,'" between the French 
army and its allies, commanded b}^ Napoleon (160,000), and the Austrian, Russian, and 
Prussian armies (240,000 strong). The French were beaten, chiefly owing to 17 Saxon 
battalions, their allies, turning upon them in the heat of the engagement. 80,000 men 
perished on the field, of whom more than 40,000 were French, who also lost 65 pieces of 
artillery, and many standards. The victory was followed by the capture of Leipsic, of the 
rear-guard of the French army, and of the king of Saxony and his family. 

LEITH. The port of Edinburgh was burnt by the earl of Hertford, in 1544. It was 
fortified by the French partisans of queen Mary, in 1560, and surrendered to the English. 
The "Agreement of Leith " between the superintendents and ministers _was made, Jan. 
1572. The docks were commenced in 1720. 

LELEGES, a Pelasgic tribe which inhabited Laconia about 1490 B.C., aud after many 
contests merged into the Helleues. 

LEMURES. The ancients supposed that the soul, after death, wandered over the world, 
and disturbed th(^ peace of the living. The happy spirits were called Lares familiares, and 
the uulia])py Leniurcs. The Roman festival called Lcniuralia, kept on May 9, 11, 13, was 
iuslituted by Ronmlus about 747 B.C., probably to propitiate the spirit of the slaughtered 
Remus. 

LENT (from the Saxon, Icndcn, spring). The forty days' fast observed in the Roman 
catholic church from Ash-Wednesday to Easter-day, said to have been instituted by pope 
Telesphorus, 130.— The early Christians did not commence their Lent until the Sunday 
which is now called the first Sunday in Lent ; and the four days beginning with Ash-Wed- 
nesday were added by ]w\ic Felix III., in the year 487, in order that the number of fasting 
days should amount to forty. — Lent was first observed in England by command of Ercom- 
bert, king of Kent, iu 640 or 641. Bakers Chron. Flesh was prohibited during Lent ; but 
Henry VIII. permitted the use of «-7u7« meals by a proclamation in 1543, which continued 
in force until, by iiroclamation of James I., in 1619 and 1625, aud by Charles I., in 1627 and 
163 1, tlesh was again wholly forbidden. See Quadragesima. 

r F 



LEO ■ 434 LEV 

LEON, Kingdom of. See SjKiin. 

LEONINES. Hexameter and pentameter verses, rhj'ming at the middle and the end, 
are said to have been first made by Leouinns, a canon, about the middle of the 12th cen- 
tury, or by pope Leo II. about 6S2. 

LEPANTO (near Corinth), Battle of, Oct. 7, 157 1 : when the combined fleets of Spain, 
Yenice, Genoa, Malta, and Pius V., commanded by don John of Austria, defeated the whole 
maritime force of the Turks, and checked their pi'ogress. 

LEPROSY, a skin"' disease described in' Leviticus xiii. (b.c. 1490), which prevailed in 
ancient times throughout Asia. It has now almost disappeared from Europe, except in the 
south and in ISTorway. It chieflj' affected the lower classes, yet occasionally has proved fatal 
to the very highest personages. Eobort Bruce of Scotland died of lejirosy in 1329. A 
hospital for lepers were founded at Granada, by queen Isabella of Castile, aboiit 1504, and a 
large number of leper houses were founded in Britain. Dr. Edmondson met with a case in 
Edinburgh in 1S09. 

LETTERS. See Alphabet, Belles Leitres, Marque, and Privateers. 

LETTRES DE CACHET, sealed letters issued by the king of France, beginning about 
1670, by virtue of which those persons against whom they were directed were thrown into 
prison, or sent into exile. The National Assembly decreed their abolition, Nov. i, 1789. 

LETTUCE, introduced into England from Flanders, about 1520. It is said that when 
queen Catherine wished for a salad, she had to send for lettuce to Holland or Flanders. 

LEUCTRA, in Bceotia, N. Greece, the site of a battle when the Thebans, under Epami- 
nondas, defeated the superior force of Cleombrotus, king of Sparta, July 8, 371 B.C. 4000 
Spartans, with their king, were slain. The Spartans gradually lost their preponderance in 
Greece. 

LEUTHEN (S. Prussia). See Lissa. 

LEVANT (the East), a term applied to Greece, Turkey, Asia Minor, &c. Levant 
companies, in London, were established in 1581, 1593, and 1605. 

LEVELLERS, a fanatical party in Germany, headed by Muncer and Storck in the i6th 
ceutuiy, who taught that all distinctions of rank were usurpations on the rights of maidvind. 
At the head of 40,000 men, Muncer commanded the sovereign princes of Germany and the 
magistrates of cities to resign their authority ; and on his march his followers ravaged the 
country. The landgrave of Hesse at length defeated him ; 7000 of the enthusiasts fell in 
battle, and the rest fled; their leader was taken and beheaded at Mulhausen in 1525. 
The English "Levellers," poAverful in jiarliament in 1647, were put down by Cromwell 
in 1649, and their leader Lilliurn imprisoned. At the period of the French Revolution some 
knots of persons, styled JiCvellers, appeared in England. A "Loyal Association" was 
formed against them and republicans, by Mr. John Reeves, Nov. 1792. 

LEVELS. The Great Level of the Fens is a low-lying district of about 2000 squai'e 
miles, in Lincolnshire, Huntingdonshire, Cambridgeshire, and Norfolk, said to have been 
overflown by the sea during an earthquake, 368. It was long.afterwards an inland sea in 
winter, and a noxious swamp in summer, and was gradually drained — by the Romans, the 
Saxons, and especially by the monks during the reigns of the Plan tagenet kings. One of 
the first works on a large scale was carried out by Morton, bishop of Ely, in the reign of 
Henry VII. A general drainage act was passed by the advice of lord Burghley, in 1601, 
but little work was done till the reign of James I., who, in 1621, invited ovei" the great 
Dutch engineer, Cornelius Vermuyden, to assist in the general drainage of the country. 
After completing several great works Vermuyden agreed (in 1629) to drain the "Great 
Level." He was at first prevented fj-om proceeding with his undertaking through a popular 
outcry against foreigners ; but eventually, aided by Francis, earl of Bedford,' in spite cjf 
the great opposition of the people, for whose benefit he was labouring, he declared his 
great work complete in 1652. Much, howevei-, still remained to be done ; and the drain- 
age of the Great Level employed the talents of Rennie (about 1807), and of Telford 
(1822), and of other eminent engineers since. In 1844 the Middle Level commission cut 
through certain barrier banks, and replaced them by other works. These latter were reported 
unsound in March, 1862; and on May 4, the outfall sliuce at St. Germain's, near Kings 
I^yiii, g'lvo way. Higli tides ensuing, alDout 6000 acres of fertile land were inundated, 
causing a loss of about 25,000?. After unwearied, and, for awhile, unsuccessful efforts, a 
new coffer dam was constructed under the superintendence of Mr. Hawkshaw, which was 
reported sound in July. Another inundation, begun through the bursting of a marshland 



LEV 435 LIB 

sluice, near Lyiiu, Oct. 4, was checked. The Levels are distinguished as the Middle, Bed- 
ford, South, and North Levels. 

LEVEKIAN MUSEUM, formed by sir Ashton Lever, exhibited to the public at Leicester- 
house, Loudon ; it was offered to the public, in 1785, by the chance of a guinea lottery, and 
won by Mr. Parkinson, in 1785, who sold it by auction, in lots, in 1806. 

LEVIATHAN. See Steam Navigation. 

LEWES (Sussex), where Henry III., king of England, was defeated by Montfort, earl of 
Leicester, and the barons, May 14, 1264. Blaauw. The king, his brother Richard, king of 
the Romans, and his sou Edward, afterwards Edward I., were taken prisoners. One division 
of Montfort's army, a body of Londoners, gave way to the furious attack of prince Edward, 
Avho, pursuing the fugitives too far, caused the battle to be lost. See Evesham. 

LEXICON. See Dictionaries. 

LEXINGTON (Massachusetts), Battle of, between Great Britain and the United States 
of America, in the war of independence. The British obtained the advantage, and destroyed 
the stores of the revolted colonists, but lost in the battle 273 men, killed and wounded, 
April 19, 1775. — The hostilities thus commenced continued to 1783. — Lexingtox, a town in 
Missouri, U.S., fortified by the Federals, was attacked by the confederate general Price, on 
Aug. 29 ; and after a gallant resistance by colonel Mulligan, surrendered on Sept. 21, 1861. 
See United States. 

LEYDEN (Holland), Lugdunum Batavoruin, important in the 13th century. From Oct. 
31, 1573, to Oct. 3, 1574, Avlien it was relieved, it endui'ed a siege by the armies of Spain, 
during which 6000 of tlie inhabitants died of famine and pestilence. In commemoration the 
university was founded, 1575. In 1699 two-thirds of the population perished by a fever, 
which, it is said, was aggravated by the imjjroper treatment of professor De la Boe. The 
nuiversity was almost destroyed by a vessel laden with 10,000 lbs. weight of gunpowder 
blowing np, and demolishing a large part of the town, and killing numbers of people, Jan. 
12, 1807. The Leyden jar was invented about 1745, by Kleist, Muschenbroek, and others. 
See Electricity. 

LIBEL. By the laws of Rome (those of the Twelve Tables), libels which affected the 
reputation of another were made capital offences. In the British law, whatever renders a 
man ridiculous, or lowers a man in the opinion and esteem of the world, is deemed a libel. 
"The greater the truth, the greater the libel," the well-known law maxim of a high autho- 
rity, is now disputed. Act against blasphemous and seditious libels, punishing the oflendcr 
by banishment for the second offence, 60 Geo. III. 1820.* Lord Campbell's act, 6 & 7 Vict. 
c. 96 (1843), greatly softened the stringency of the law of libel respecting newspapers. See 
Trials, 1788, 1790, 1792, 1803, 1808, ci scg-., and 1863. 

LIBERIA, the negro republic on the coast of Upper Guinea, "West Africa, was founded 
b}'' the American Colonial Society, which was established by Henry Clay in 1816. Liberia 
was made independent in 1847 ; recognised in 1848 ; and was flourishing in 1863. The 
president visited the International Exhibition of London in 1862. 

LIBERTINES (signifying freedmen and their sons), was a sect headed by Quintin and 
Corin, about 1525, who held various monstrous opinions. 

LIBRARIES. The first imhlic library of which we have any certain account in history 
was founded at Athens by Pisistratus, about 544 B.C. The second of note was founded by 
Ptolemy Philadelphus, 284 B.C. It was partially destroyed when Julius Cwsar set fire to 
Alexandria, 47 B.C. 400,000 valuable books in MS. are said to have been lost by this cata- 
strophe. Blair. According to Plutarch, the library at Pergamos contained 200,000 books. 
It came into the possession of the Romans at the death of Attains III. (133 B.C.), who 
bequeathed his kingdom and wealth to the Roman people. It was added to that of Alexan- 
dria by Jlarc Antony. The first ^;r«'«fe library was the property of Aristotle, 334 B.C. 
Straho. The first library at Rome was instituted 167 B.C. ; it was brought from Macedonia. 
The library of Appellicon was sent to Rome by Sylla, from Athens, 86 b.c. This library 

* An action for libel was brought in the court of King's Bench by a bookseller named Stockdalo, 
ag-iinst Messrs. Hansard, the printers to the bouso of commons. This action related to an opinion 
expressed in a parliamentary report of a Viook published by Stoekdale. Lord Denman, in giving judgment, 
said he was not aware that the authority of the house of commons could justify the publication of a 
libul, — an opinion which led fo some proceedings on the part of the hovise, and to other actions by Stock- 
dale ; and in the session of 1840 (April 14) a law was passed giving summary protection to persons 
employed by parliament in the imblication of its reports and papers. 

F F 2 



LIB 



436 



Lie 



^^nder the motion of confining the attention of the clergy to ^^je Sex Ptmes The eaily 

to he destroyed, that everything might begin anew as Irom his reig ; and books and lecouls 
were afterwards recovered by succeeding emperors with great dithtulty. 



LIBRARIES OF EUROPE. 

The first public library in Italy was founded at 
Florence by Nicholas Nlccoh, one ot the great 
restorers of learning. At his death, he lett 
his librarv to the public, 1436- Cosmo de 
Medici enriched it with the invahiable G'-eek, 
Hebrew, Arabic, Chaldaic, and Indian Mbb. 

' about 1560 

The Vatican Libraiy at Konie, founded by pope 
Nicholas V. in 1446, and improved by Sixtus 
v., 1588; contains about 150,000 volumes 
and 40,000 manuscripts. , j , 

Imperial Library of Vienna, founded by 
Frederick III. in 1440, and by Maximilian 1 
Royal (now Imperial) Libraryof Pans, by John 
(iiSo-n63), and by Francis I. about 1520. It 
was said to contain 815,000 volumes, and 
84,000 manuscripts in i860. A new reading- 
room has been built. 
Escurial at Madrid, commenced with tlae 
fomidatiun of that sumptuous palace, by 

Philip II , ,, • . ^' ■ '-J +■ 

Library of the University of Munich is said to 
contain 400,000 volumes and 10,000 manu- 
scripts ; and that of Gottingen, 300,000 
volumes and 6000 manuscripts. 

Imperial Librarv at St. Petersburg (consisting 
principally of the spoils of Poland) was 
founded in 

LIBRARIES IN GREAT BRITAIN. 

Richard de Bury, chancellor and high treasurer 
of England, so early as 1341, raised the farst 
private library in Europe. He purchased 



1500 



1557 



1714 



thirty or forty volumes of the abbot of &t. 
Alban's for fifty pounds' weight of silver^ 
Bodleian Library at Oxford, founded 40 Lliz. 
1598 ; opened in 1602 ; contains nearly 400,000 
volumes, and upwards of 30 000 manuscripts. 
Cottonian Library, founded by sir Robert 
Cotton, about 1600; appropriated to tne 
pubhc, 1701 ; partly destroyed by fire, 1731 ; 
removed to the British Museum . . • '^53 

Won College '??3 

Roval Society in . ■ • , \ , ■., • -i, „f '^ 
Radclitt'eian, at Oxford, founded by the will ot 
Dr. Radcliffe, who left 40,000;. to the uni- 
versity, 1714 ; opened . . • • • ■ i749 
University Library, Cambridge, 1720, when 
George I. gave 5000?. to purchase Dr, Moore s 
conectioii. 
British Museum («)7"'cfc see) ■ ■ • , ■ ■, ; '753 
The Libraries of the Royal Institution (founded 
1803) the London Institution (1805), and the 
Royal College of Surgeons (1786), have classi- 
fied catalogues. , ,. ^ , n , 
Librarv of the University of Dublin (1601), and 
the Advocates' Library in Edinburgh (1680), 
are extensive and valuable, t 

Free Libraries have been successfully estab- 
lished since 1850 at Manchester, Liverpool, 
Salford, &o. Many others have been fonned 
under acts passed in 1845, 1850, and 1856. 
On Nov 5, 1855, a proposal to establish a Free 
Library in the city of London was negatived, 
and 1857 that in Marylebone was closed for 
want of support. 
1 See Circulating Library. 



LIBYA (Africa), was conquered by the Persians, 524 B.C., and by Ptolemy Soter, 320. 
TTPFNCES This mode of levying money was introduced by Eichard I. about 1190 ; 
but was tin confined to such of the'nobility as' desired to enter the lists at tournaments. 

Oames and gaming-houses licensed m Lcnid^ 1620 1 ^^^^^^^^^^^.^^ ' ' '''' 



Licences for public-houses granted m 1551, ana 

for refreshment-houses, with wine Ucences, 

. i860 
m . . ■ • • • • * . ■I'-'v-^ 

The licensing system was applied to India as a 

kind of income-tax, 1859; ceased in . . 1861 



Licence sv.stem for exciseable articles enforced 

in various reigns, from the 12th Charles II. 1660 
Plays ordered to be hcenfed in . . . • i737 
I ottery oflice-keepers to take out licences, and 

mv ^oJ. for each, this reduced the number 

Irom40ot0 5i ^"^- '778 I 

LICHFIELD (Staffordshire). The see of Mercia, afterwards Lichfield was louinled in 
6;6 In 1705 the see was removed to Chester; in 1102 it was removed to Coventry, and 
Stenvards back to Lichfield, but with much opposition from the monks of Coventry (see 
foveZf) Dr Samuel Butler, in 1837, ^vas the first bishop of L chheld only. This see ha 
^iven thr^e saints to the Romish church ; and to the British nation one lord diancellor and 
Slee lord treasurers. It is valued in the king's books at 559^- i8.s. 2d Lichfield cathe.1. 
was aisTbuit about 656. The present structure was built by Eoger de Clinton, the 37th 

* This statement has been disputed. Theophilus, abp. of Alexandria, is said to have destroyed many 
books when he demolished the tem^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^ to the Bodleian 

,. + I^ 'n^f rd' Bfi?Cbar?esH 7^*^1662) th^eecop'^^^^^ to'be giv.n to certain pubUc 

Sxrord?t£;'ru;hcLiS'(^^^^^^^^^^ 



Lie 



437 



LIU 



bishop, ill 1148.* In Liehliokl castle, king Ricliai\l II. kept his Christmas festival, 1397, 
when 200 tons of wine and 2000 oxen were consumed. A charter was granted to Lichfield, 
constituting it a city, by Edward VI., 1549. rresent income, 4500^. 

RECENT BISHOPS OF LICHFIELD AND COVENTRY. 

17S1. James, earl of Cornwallis, diecl 1824. 
1824. Hon. Henry Ryder, died March 31, 1S36. 
1836. Samuel Butler, died Dec. 4, 1839. 



1839. Jmies Bowstead, died Oct. 11, 1843. 
1843. John Lonsdale, present bighop. 



LlCINIAlSr LAW, Licinia Lex (375 B.C.), forbade any person to possess more than 500 
acres of land, or more than loo head of large cattle, or 500 of small, in the Roman states ; 
anotlier law, 56 r,.c. of this name, imposed a severe penalty on party clubs, or societies 
assembled for election purposes; and another, about 103 B.C., limited the expenses of 
the table. 

LIECHTENSTEIi^, a constitutional principality, S. Germany. Population, in 1858, 
7150. Prince John, born Oct. 5, 1840, succeeded his father Alois-Joseph, Nov. 12, 1858. 

LIEGE (Belgium), a bi.shopric, under the German empire, from the 8th century till 1795. 
Liege frequently revolted against its prince-bishops. In 1467, after a severe contest, the 
citizens were beaten at Brusthem, and their city taken by Cliarles the Bold, duke of 
Burgundy, who treated them with great severity. In 1482 Liege fell into the power of Do 
la j\larck, the Boar of Ardennes, who killed the bishop, Louis of Bourbon, and was himself 
beheaded two years after. Liege was taken by the duke of Marlborough, Oct. 23, 1702; 
and by tlie French and others, at various times, up to 1796, when it was annexed to France. 
It was incorporated with the Netherlands in 1814, and with Belgium in 1830. Iron-works 
were established at Liege in the i6th century. 

LIEGNITZ. See Pfaffcmlorf. 

LIEUTENANTS, Lord, for counties, were instituted in England, 3 Edw. VI., 1549, 
and in Ireland in 183 1. For the lords lieutenants of Ireland, see Ireland. 

LIFE-BOAT, &c.t It was stated, in Sept. 1865, that there were 185 life-boats on the 
coasts of the United Kingdom. 36x9 lives were saved in 1864 by means of rocket apparatus, 
life-boats, &c. In the ten years, 1855-64, 30,261 lives were saved. See Wrecks. 



A patent was gi-.anted to Mr. Lukin for a Ufe- 
boat in 1785 

A reward offered by a committee of gentlemen 
in South Shields for a lifeboat, 1783, obtained 
by Mr. Henry Greathead, of that town . . 1789 

It was first put to sea, Jaii. 30, 1790; and Mr. 
Greathead received 1200?. from iparliament 
for this great means of saving life in cases of 
shipwreck. 

31 life-boats were built, and 300 lives saved up 
to . ■ 1S04 

The duke of Xorthumberland offered a reward 

LIFE-GUARDS. See Guards. 



of 105?. for a life-boat fulfilling certain con- 
ditions, 1850 ; obtained by Mr. James Beech - 
ing, of Yarmouth . . . . . . 1851 

The tubular life-boat of Mr. H. Richardson, the 
Challenffer, patented in Jan. ; a cruise was 
made by him from Liverpool to London in it 1852 

The National Life-boat Institution founded in 
1824; its journal, the "Lifeboat," pnbli.shed 
1852. In 1856 its funds were enlarged by a 
bequest of io,ooot. from Hamilton Fitzgerald, 
esii. 



LIFE. INSURANCE. See Insurance. 



LIGHT. The law of refraction discovered by Snellius, about 1624. The motion and 
velocity of light discovered by Reaumur, and after him by Cassini, and calculated by Roeiner 
(1676) and Bradley (1720). Its velocity ascertained to be about 190,000,000 of miles in 
sixteen minutes, or nearly 200,000 miles in a second, which is a million of times swifter than 
the velocity of a cannon ball, about 1667. The light of the sun is eight minutes and eight 
seconds in its transmission through the space from that orb to the earth. The undulatory 



* Walter de Langton (bishop in 1296) built the chai)el of St. Mary, now taken into the choir, and 
under bishop Heyworth (1420) the cathedral was perfected The building was despoiled at the Reforma- 
tion, and was scandalously injured in the parliamentary war (when its moinimeuts, its fine sculptures, 
and beautifully painted windows were demolished); but it was repaired at the restoi-ation, and again 
thoroughlj- in 1788. 

t Life-Preserver, the apparatus of captain M in by (brought into use in Feb. 1808), effects a communi- 
cation with the distressed vessel by a rope, thrown by a shot from a mortar, with a hue attached to it. For 
tlie night, a night-ball is provided writh a hollow case of thick pasteboard, and a fuze and quick match, 
and cljargod with fifty balls, and a sufficiency of powder to inflame them. The fuze is so graduated that 
the shell shall explode at the height of 300 yards. The balls spread a brilliant light for nexrly a minute, 
.and give a clear view of every surrounding object. In 20 years, 5S vessels and 410 of their crews and 
passenger-s h.ad been saved. Capt. Mauby died Nov. 18, 1854, aged 89. 

The Bo.iT-LowERi.MO Appar.vtus, invented by Mr. Chanes Chfford, of London, in 1856, has been much 
approved of, and is generally adopted in the royal navy. 



LIG 



43 S 



LIM 



theory of light, its polarisation, and its cheinieal action have all heen iiiade known in the 
present century by Drs. Thos. Young, Fresnel, Makis, Arago, Liot, Brewster, Wheatstone, 
Kitter, Niepce, Daguerre, Talbot, &c. See Optics, Photography. 

LIGHTHOUSES, anciently called Pharos (and \\o\i pharc, Frencli ; faro, Italian), fi-oni 
one erected at Pliaros, near Alexandria, Egypt, 550 feet high, said to have been visible 
forty-two miles, about 285 B.C. There was one at Messina, at Rhodes, &c. The light was 
obtained by fires. The hrst true lighthouse erected in England was the Eddystone light- 
house in 1758-60. 



BKITISH LIGHTHOUSES. 

Bj' tlie report of tlie Commis.sioners on Lights, (fee. 
(1861), we learn that there were then 171 shore- 
lights in England, 113 in Scotland, and 73 in Ire- 
land (total 357) ; and 47 floating-lights. 

The French have 224 lighthouses on shore. 

The source of light in our lighthouses is principally 
oil ; but in harbour-lights gas has been successfully 
used. Glass reflectors were used in 1780, and 
copper ones in 1807. A common coal fire-light 
was discontinued at St. Bees so recently as i82vi. 
Presnel's Dioptric* system (devised about 18 19) was 
adopted for the fii-.st time in England by Messrs. 
Wilkins, at the direction of the Trinity board, July 
I, 1836. 



The most brilliant artificial light ever produced — 
derived from magneto- electricity bj' a machine 
devised by professor Holme? — was first employed 
at the South Foreland lighthouse, near Dover, on 
Dec. 8, 1858 ; and at Dengeness (or Dungcness) in 
1862. Mr. Holmes' arrangement and a simiUrone 
constiTJcted by M. Serin, were shown at the Inter- 
national exhibition, London, in 1862. 

Lime-light {v;hic.)i see) employed at the S. Foreland 
lighthouse in 1861. 

The cost of erecting the three great British light- 
houses — viz., the Skerry- Vore (west coast), 158 feet 
high, was 83,126;. ; the Bishop Rock, Stilly Isles, 
145 feet high, 36,559^ ; and the Bell Kock, Scotland, 
117 feet high, 61,331^ 



LIGHTNING-CONDUCTORS were first set up for the protection of buildings by 
Franklin shortly after 1752, when he broiight down electricit,y from a thunder-cloud. The 
first in England was set up at Payne's Hill, by Dr. Waison. In 1766 one was placed on tlio 
tower of St. Mark, at Venice, which has since escaped injury, altliough frequently consumed 
by lightning previously. A powder magazine at Glogau, in Silesia, was saved by a con- 
ductor ill 1782 ; and, from the Avaiit of one, a quantity of gunpowder was ignited at Brescia 
in 1767, and above 3000 persons perished. In 1762, Dr. Watson recommended conductors 
to be used in the navy ; and they were employed for a short time, but soon fell into disuse 
from want of .skill and attention. Mr. (since sir William) Snow Harris devoted his attention 
to the subject from 1820 to 1854, and published a work in 1843, detailing his experiinents. 
In 1830, above thirty ships were fitted up with his conductors, and in 1842 his plans were 
adopted, and his conductors are now manufactured in the royal dockyards. In 1854 
parliament granted him 5000Z. 

LIGNY (Belgium), M'hcre a battle was fought, June 16, 1815, just previously to that of 
Waterloo, between the Prussian army under Blucher, and the French army commanded by 
Napoleon, in wliioh the former was defeated. Blucher, however, arrived on the field of 
Waterloo in the evening at a most critical moment. 

LIGURIANS, a Celtic tribe, N. Italy, invaded the Roman territory, and were defeated 
238 B.C. They were not subjugated till 172 B.C. The Ligukian Republic, founded in May, 
I797> ^ipon the ruins of the republic at Genoa, was incorporated with France in 1805, and 
then merged into the kingdom of Italy. 

LIGUORIANS, or Redemptopjsts, a Roman catholic order, established in 1732 by 
Alfonso de Liguori, and approved by pope Benedict XIV. in 1759. 

LILAC TREE. Sijringa. The Persian lilac from Persia was cultivated in England 
about 1638 ; the common lilac by Mr. John Gerard about 1597. 

LILLE. See Lisle. 

LILY, a native of Persia, Syria, and Italy, was brought to England before 1460 ; 
the Martagon from Germany, 1596. 

LILYBjEUM, a strong maritime fortress of Sicily, was besieged by Pyrrhus, king of 
Epirus, 276 B.C., and was relieved by the Carthaginians, 275 B.C. It was taken by the 
Romans, 241 B.C., after a siege of nine years, which led to the end of the second Punic war. 

LIMA (Peru). In 1534, Pizarro, marching through Peru, was struck with the beauty of 
the valley of Rimac, and there he founded this city, and gave it the name of Ciudad de las 
Reyes, or city of the kings, 1535. Here he was assassinated, June 26, 1541. Awful 
earthquakes occurred here, 15S6, 1630, 1687, and Oct. 28, 1746. In 1854-5 thou.sands 



* From the Greek dia, through, and nptomni, I see ; the light being condensed by and transmitted 
through lenses. The system is an adaptation of the discoveries of Buffon, C'ondorcet, Brewster, and others. 



LIM 439 LIN 

))en.slied by yellow fever. Mr. Suldvaii, the British consul, Avas assassinated at Lima, 
Aug. II, 1857. 

LIME or LiNDEX Tree, probably introduced in the i6th century. The lime trees in 
St. James's park arc said to have been jdanted at the suggestion of Evelyn, who recom- 
mended multiplying odoriferous trees, in his work, " Fumifugium " (1661). One of these 
trees planted in Switzerland in 1410, existed in 1720, the trunk being thirty-six feet in 
circumference. 

LIME-LIGHT, produced by the conibustiou of oxygen and hydrogen or carburetted 
hydrogen on a surfeco of Yum. This light evolves little heat and does not vitiate the air. 
It is also called Druiumond Light, after lieut. Drummond, Avho successfully produced it as a 
first class light about 1826, and employed it on the ordnance survey. It is said to have been 
seen at a distance of 112 miles. It was tried at the South Foreland lighthouse in 1861. 

LIJIERICK, anciently Lumneacli (S. W. Ireland). About 550, St. Munchin is said to 
have founded a bishopric and built a church here, which latter was destroyed by the Danes 
in 853. Donald O'Brien, king of Limerick, founded the cathedral about 1200. Limerick 
obtained its cliarter in 1195, when John Stafford was made first provost ; and its first mayor 
was Adam Servant, in 1198. It was taken by Ireton after six months' siege in 1655. In 
Aug. 1691, it was invested by the English and Dutch, and surrendered on most honourable 
terms, Oct. 3, same year.* An awful explosion of 218 barrels of gunpowder greatly shattered 
the town, killing 100 persons, Feb. i, 1694. Another exjjlosion of gunpowder here killed 
many persons, Jan. 2, 1837. Awful and destructive tempest, Jan. 6-7, 1839. 

LIMITED LIABILITY. An act for limiting the liability of joint stock companies, 
18 & 19 Vict. c. 133 (passed 1855), was amended 1856-7-8. On May 31, 1864,^^' 3830 joint- 
stock companies had been formed and registered on the limited liability principle, and 938 
had ceased to exist." 

LINCELLES (N. France), Avhere the allied English and Dutch armies defeated the 
French, Aug. 18, 1793. General Lake commanded three battalions of brave foot guards. 

LINCOLN, the Roman Lindum Colonia, and at the period of the [conquest rich and 
populous. It was taken several times by Saxons and Danes. The castle was built by 
William I. in 10S6. Without Newport-gate was fought upon Lincoln plain the battle 
between the partisans of the empress Maud, commanded by the earl of Gloucester, and the 
army of Stephen, in which the king was defeated and taken prisoner, Feb. 2, 1141. Louis, 
dauphin of France, having been invited over by the discontented barons in the last year of 
king John's reign was acknowledged by them as king of England here ; but the nobility, 
.summoned by the earl of Pembroke to Gloucester to crown Henry III., marched against 
Loiris and the' barons, and defeated them in a most sanguinary tight (called the Fair of Lincoln), 
May 20, 121 7 ; and Louis withdrew. 

LINCOLN, Bishopric of. Sidnacester or Lindesse and Dorchester, two distinct^ sees 
in Mercia, were united about 1078, and the see was removed to Lincoln by bisliop Remigius 
do Feschamp, who built a cathedral (1086), afterwards destroyed by fire, but rebuilt by 
bishop Alexander (11 27) and bishop Hugh of Burgundy. The diocese is the largest in the 
kingdom, uotwitlistanding that the dioceses of Ely, Oxford, and Peterborough, formerly 
parts of it, and now distinct sees, were further enlarged from Lincoln in 1837. The see 
was valued at the dissolution of monasteries at 2065?. ^j^r annum ; and after many of its 
manors had been seized upon, it was rated in the king's books at 894/. 105. id. Present 
income, 50007. It has given three saints to the church of Rome, and to the civil state of 
England six lord chancellors. The great bell of the cathedral, called Great Tom of Lincoln, 
weighs four tons eight pounds. 

KECENT BLSHOPS OF LINCOLN. 

1787 Georce Pre'tyman (afterwards Tom'iine), trans- I 1827. Joliu Kaye, died Feb. 19, 1852. _ 

lated to Winchester, 1820. 1852. Jolui Jackson, present (1865) bishop. 

1820. Hon. George Pelham, died Feb. i, 1827. | 

LINCOLN'S-INN (London^ derives its name from Henry de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, who 
erected a mansion on this spot in the reign of Edward I., which had been the bishop of 

« Bv th° treaty it was a-^reed that all arms, propcrtv, and estates should be restored ; all attainders 
.annulled and all outlawries reversed ; and that no oath but that of allegiance should be reqiure i of high 
or low • the freedom of the Catholic religion wa.s secured ; relief from pecuniary claims incurred by hos- 
tilities 'was guaranteed ; permission to leave the kingdom was extended to all who desired it ; and a general 
pardon proclaimed to all then in arms. Barns. 



LIN 440 LIS 

Chiehestor's palace. It became an inn of court, 1310. The gardens of Lincolii's-inn-fields 
were laid out by luigo Jones, about 1620, and erroneously said to occupy the same space as 
the largest pyramid of Egypt, wliich is 764 feet square ; Lincohi's-inn square 1)oing 821 feet 
by 625 feet 6 inches. Lord W. liassell ^Yas belieaded in Lincoln's-inn FieUls, July 21, 1683. 
The square (formed in 1618) was inclosed with iron railings about 1737. The new buildings 
were opened, Oct. 30, 1845, and the square planted. The theatre in Lincoln's-inn-fields 
was built in 1695 ! rebuilt in 1714 ; made a barrack in 1756, and pulled down in 1848. 

LINDISFARNE, or Holy Island, on the coast of jSTorthumberland, became a bishop's 
see, 635. It was ravaged by the Danes under Regnar Lodbrok in 793, and the monastery 
was destroyed by them in 875 ; the see was removed to Chester-le-street in 900, and finally 
to Durham in 995 (or 990). 

LINEN. Pharaoh arrayed Joseph in vestures of fine linen, 1716 B c. {Gen. xli. 42.) 

First manufiictured in England by Flemish Hemp, flax, linen, thread, and yarn, from Ire- 

weavers, under the protection of Henry III. 1253 ' land, permitted to be exported duty free . 1696 

A company of linen-weavers established in I Irish linen boai-d established in 171 1 ; the Linen- 
London 1368 hall, Dublin, was o]iened 1728 ; the board 

The art of staining linen became known . . 1579' abolished in 1S2S 

A colon}' of Scots in the reign of James I., and , A board of trustees to superintend the Scotch 

other Presbyterians who fled from persecu- 1 linen manufacture established in . . . 1727 

tion in succeeding reigus, planted themselves ' Drinfermline, in Fifeshii-e, Dundee, in Angus- 

in the north-east part of Ireland, and there \ shire, and Barnsley, in Yorkshire, are chief 

established the linen manufacture, which ' seats of our linen manufacture, 

was liberally encouraged by the lord deputy Duty on hnen was taken off in . . . . i860 

Wentworth in 1634 ; by William III. in . 1698 

LINLITHGOW-BRIDGE (near Edinburgh), near which the forces of the earl of Angus, 
who_ held James V. in their power, defeated the forces of the earl of Lennox, who, after 
receiving promise of quarter, was killed by sir James Hamilton, 1526. Mary, queen of 
Scots, was born in the palace of Linlithgow, James V., her father, dying of a broken heart, 
the same year, 1542. 

LINN^AN SYSTEM of botany, arranged by Linn^ or Linnneus, a Swede, 1725-30. 
He classed the plants according to the number and situation of the sexual parts, and made 
the flower and fruit the test of his various genera. Linnaeus lived from 1707 to 1778. 
His library and herbarium were juirchased by sir James E. (then Dr.) Smith, and 
given to t\\e Linncean Society m London, which was instituted in 1788, and incorporated 
;March 26, 1802. 

LION AND UNICORN, the former English, the latter Scottish, became the supporters 
of the royal arms on the accession of James I. in 1603. 

LIPPE, a constitutional principality (N. W. Germany). Population, Dec. 1861, 108,513. 
Reigning prince, Leopold, born Sept. i, 1821 ; succeeded his father, Leopold, Jan. i, 1851. 

LIPPSTADT. See Liltzen. 

LISBON (Olisippo, and Felicitas Julia, of the ancients) was taken by the Arabs in 716, 
and became important under the Moorish kings, from whom it was captured by Alfonso I. of 
Portngal in 1147. It was made the capital of Portugal by Einauuel, 1506. Lisbon has 
suffered much by earthqirakes, and was almost destroyed by one, Nov. i, 1755. See Earth- 
quakes. The court fled to the Brazils, Nov. 10, 1807, and on Nov. 30 the French, under 
Junot, entered Lisbon, and held it until the battle of Vimeira, in which they were defeated 
by the British, under sir Arthur Wellesley, Aug. 21, 1808. A military insurrection at 
Lisbon, Aug. 21, 1831, M^as soon suppressed, and many soldiers were executed. Massacre 
at Lisbon, June 9, 1834. See Portugal. 

LISLE (now Lille, N. France) has a strong citadel by Vauban. It was besieged by the 
duke of Marlborough and the allies ; and, though deemed impregnable, was taken after a 
three months' siege in 1708. It was restored by the treaty of Utrecht, in 17 13, in conside- 
ration of the demolition of the fortifications of Dunkirk. Lisle sustained a severe bombard- 
ment from the Anstrians, who were obliged to raise the siege, Oct. 7, 1792. 

LISMORE (S. Ireland). St. Carthage, first bishop, 636, says : " Lismore is a famous and 
holy city, of which nearly one half is an asylum where no woman dare enter." The 
ca,stle (built by king John when earl of Moreton, 1185), burnt in 1645, was rebuilt with 
great magnificence by the duke of Devonshire. The cathedral, built 636, was repaired by 
Cormac, son of Muretns, king of Munster, about 1130 ; and the bishopric was united to that 
of Waterford, about 1363 ; and both to Cashel in 1839. 

LISSA (or Leuthen, Silesia), Battle of, in which the king of Prussia vanquished 



LIT 441 LIT 

prince (?lia.rles of Lorraine; 6000 Austrinns were" slain, Dec. 5, 1757. — LissA, in Poland, 
was laid in rnins by the Russian army in the campaign of 1707. 

LITANIES (Greek litaivia, supplication^, were first nsed in processions, it is said, about 
469 ; others sny about 400. Litanies to the Virgin IMary were first introduced by pope 
(iregory I. about 595. The first English litany was commanded to be used in the Reformed 
churches by Henry VIII. in 1543. 

LITEKARY CLUB (at first called "The Club" au^l "Johnson's Club"), began in 
1763 by Goldsmith, Reynolds, Burke, Gibbon, Jones, Garrick, Bennett, Langton, and 
Tophain Beauclerk, with Dr. Johnson for president. The opinion formed of a new work by 
the club was speedily known all over London, and had great influence. The club still exists. 
Hallain, JIacaulay, the manpiess of Lansdowne, and bishop Blotnficld were members ; Dr. 
ililinan, dean of St. Paul's, was in the chair at the centenary dinner on June 7, 1864. 

LITERARY FUND, Roy.vl, was founded in 1790, to relieve literary men of eiII nations, 
by David Williams,* the friend of Benjamin Franklin. It had its origin in this way: 
Floycr Sydenham, an eminent Greek scholar, of Wadham college, Oxfoixl, and translator of 
some of the works of Plato, having no patronage, was involved in embarrassment, and 
arrested and thrown into prison for a trifling debt due for his frugal meaLs, and there, in 
178S, died of a broken heart in want and misery, when nearly eighty years of age. The 
sympathy excited gave rise to this institution, since bountifully supported. It was incorpo- 
rated in 181S. Since 1855 various alterations in its management have been annually 
proposed and negatived. 

LITERARY PROPERTY. See Copyright. 

LITERARY SOCIETIES, &c. See Societies. 

LITERATURE, called also Letters and Belles Letlres, is held to comprehend Eloquence, 
Poetry, History, Language, and their subordinates. See Bible, and also Greek, Latin, 
England, France, Italy, Spain, and Gcrinanij. 

LITHIUM, a metal, the lightest substance in nature except the gases (its specific gravity 
being o'59), is obtained from an alkaline substance termed lithia ; discovered by M. 
Arfwedson, a Swede, in 1817. 

LITHOGRAPHY (engraving on stone). The invention of it is ascribed to Alois 
Sennefelder, whose first essays were executed about 1796 ; and shortly afterwards the art was 
announced in Genuany, and was known as polyautography. It became partially known in 
England in 1801, ct seq., but its general introduction may be referred to Mr. Ackermann, of 
London, about 1S17. Sennefelder died in 1841. Improvements in the art have been made 
by Engelmann and many others. See Printing in Colours. 

LITHOTOMY. The surgical operation of cutting for the stone was performed by the 
ancients. The "small apparatus," so called from the few instruments used in the operation, 
was practised by Celsns, about 17. The operation called the " high apparatus " is said to 
have been invented by De Franco, and it is thought to be the most ancient. The "great 
apparatus" was invented by John de Romanis, about 1500. 

lilTHOTRITY (or bruising the stone). The apparatus produced by M. Leroy d'Etiolles 
in 1822 has since been improved. 

LITHUANIA, formerly a grand-duchy, N. E. of Prussia. The natives (belonging to the 
Slavonic race) long maintained their independence against the Russians and Poles. In 1386, 
their grand-duke Jagellon became king of Poland and was baptized : Lithuania was not incor- 
porated with Poland till 1501, when another duke Casimir became king of that country. The 
larger part of Lithuania now belongs to Russia, the remainder to Prussia. 

LITURGIES (from the Greek iidrti, prayers, and ergon, work). The Greek and Roman 
liturgies are very ancient, having been committed to writing about the 4th and 5th centuries. 
The Romish church recognises four: the Roman or Georgian, the Ambrosian, the Galilean, 
and the Spanish or Mosarabic. The Greek church has two principal liturgies : St. Chry- 
sostom's and St. Basil's, and .several smaller ones. Parts of these liturgies are attributed to 
the Apostles, to St. Ignatius, 250, and to St. Ambrose (died 397), and to St. Jerome (died 
420). The present English Lituhgy was first composed, and was approved and confirmed 

* He w,is in early life a dissenting minister, and wrote on education. He was consulted by the earl y 
revolutinnary party in Kr.ance as to the form of a constitution for that country, he, Dr. Priestley, sir Jame s 
Mackintosh, and other distinguished fiii^lishinjn, having bsen prJviou^ly dsolared French citizsns. He 
died July 29, 1816. 



LIV 



442 



LIV 



bv parliament, in 1547-8. Tiie offices for morning and evening prayer were tlieif pnt into 
nearly the same form in which we now have them. At the soli':itation of Oalvm and 
others the liturc'y wa=i reviewed and altered to very nearly its present state, 1551. it was 
first read in Ireland, in the English language, in 1550, and in Scotland, where it occasioned 
a tumult, in 1637, and was withdrawn, 1638. The Liturgy was revised by Whitehead, 
formerly chaplain to Anna Boleyn, and by bishops Parker, Grmdall, Cox, and Pilkmgton, 
deau May, and secretary Smith. See Common Prayer. 

LIVERIES The term is derived from the custom of the retainers of the lord mayor and 
c^heritfs of London bearing habiliments of the form and colour displayed by those lunction- 
aries ' It was usual for the wardens of companies to deliver a purse containing 20s. to the 
lord mayor on the ist of Dec. to obtain for individuals, so desiring sufhcient do ho 
make a suit and the privilege of wearing the livery. This added to the sp endour ot the 
mayors train when the civic court went forth. Ashe. Liveries were regulated by statute in 
1392, and frequently since. 

LIVERPOOL (W. Lancashire), is supposed to be noticed in Domesday-book under the 
name EsmrAanc, or Smodune.* Soon after the Conquest, William granted that part ot the 
oomiry situated between the rivers Mersey and Ribble to Roger of Poitiers, who according 
to Camden, built a castle here, about the year 1089. To this circumstance is attributed the 
oric^in of the town. It afterwards was held by the earls of Chester and dukes of Lancaster. 
Population in 1851, 375.995 ; i" 1^61, 443>874- 

Liverpool made a free burgh by king Honry 

in ^ 

Made an independent port . . • 
Liverpool " a paved town " (Leland) 



[ Royal Institution founded 

1229 I Wellington-rooms built 

1335 ! Royal institution opened by a speecli from Mr. 



1814 



No 7. 



' The people of her majesty's decayed town of 
-r ;_„..„„,.i " petition Eliz ibeth to be relieved 



1818 
1820 



261. by 



Liverpool 

from a subsidy . • ^ • ,• 

Separated from the duchy of Lancaster 

Town rated for ship-money m only 

Besieo-ed by prince Rupert, and surrendered, 

° "^ June 26, 

Made a separate parish . . • • . • 169S 
The old dock, the first in England, constructed 

and opened ^°99 

lihie coat hospital founded • ^ • ^ ■ • ■ 1709 
The town opposes the Young Pretender, and 

raises several regiment: 
Town-hall commenced . 

Infirmary established 

Seamen's hospital founded 

A most destructive fire 

House of industry founded . . 

Theatre licensed, 1771 ; opened. . • • 

Liverpool equips, at the commencement ot the 

war against France, 120 privateers, carrymg 

1986 guns, and 8754 seamen .... 

King's dock constructed . . •,,•,; 

[The Queen's dock was also constructed about 

the same time.] 

Memorable storm raged i7S9 

The exchange burnt . • , ," , ■ , i" <- ' ^''^^ 
The town-hall (since restored) destroyed by fire ,, 
The Athenseum opened .... Jmx i, 1799 

Union news-room erected ^°°° 

The Lyceum ei-ccted . . • - • ■ ^°°^ 
Awful fire, whose ravages exceeded i,ooo,ooo(. 

sterling Sept. 14, „ 

Corn exchange opened . . . ■ Aug. 4, 1B08 
Royal exchange completed . • ^ • • ^°°9 
Statue of Geo. III. commenced . Oct. 25, „ 

■piU of St. Nicholas' tower, which killed 20 
persons • ^^^- "' ^^" 



July 19, 
. Feb. 



1630 
1644 



1745 
1749 

1752 

1762 

1770 

772 



1778 
1785 



Roscoe 
American seamen's hospital 
Prince's dock opened 
St. J ohu's market-place 
Royal Institution incorporated 
Marine Humane Sojiety forme 1 
New house of industry erected . . • • 

Liver theatre opened 

Old dock closed . . . • . • • • 
Foundation of new cvistom-house laid, Aug. 12, 
Blackrock lighthouse built, and light first 

shown March i. 

Lunatic asylum founded, 1792 ; new buildings 
erected . . " " ' o <-' 

Clarence dock completed . . . bept. 
Liverpool and Manchester railway openedt 

Sept. IS, 
Zoological gardens opened . . . ; , ■ 
Great fire ; property valued at 300,0001. de- 
stroyed J^^' '' 

Lock hospital and Watei-loo dock opened . 

Victoria and Trafalgar docks opened Sept. 8, 1836 

Mecbanics' institute opened 1837 

New fish market opened . . • Feb. 8, ,, 
Apothecaries' company formed . . • ,' " 
Liverpool and Birmingham railway opened, 
its entire length, as the Grand Junction, 

July 4. >. 
Railway to London (now the North-Western) 
was opened its entire length . Sept. 17, 

Statistical society founded . 
The Liverpool steamer, of 461-horse power, sails 

for New York Oct. 28, 

Awful storm raged .... J-'^^- "> 
Foundation of the collegiate institution laid by 

lord Stanley . . • • • • , . • ^^4° 
Foundation of St. George's hall and courts laid 1841 
Immense fire ; property worth more than half 

a million sterling destroyed . Sept. 25, 1842 
Mr. Hiiskisson's statue erected . . Oct. 1847 



1823 



1830 



1834 



1858 



39 



t"SS"ii^"»"t them, wMoh went over Lie thigh .and eaue.d h,e death, &epl. .s. .S30. 



LIV 



443 



LOA 



LIVE K PO OL, con tinued. 

rrocession of Orangemen at Liverpool, and fatal 

riot July 14, 1851 

Tlic queen visits Liverpool . . Oct. 9, ,, 
St. Gtorge's hull opened . . Sept. 18, 1854 

Broad ri'its (150,000 persons out of enqjloy 

through the frost) .... Feb. 10, 1855 
Gigantic landing stage for large steamers coni- 

ploted 1857 

JIany commercial failures . Sept. to Nov. ,, 
Association for Social Science meets . Oct. 1858 
Free library, &c., founded by Mr. (afterwards 
sir) \V. Brown, M.P. for S. Lancashire, April 
5, 1857 ; opened .... Oct. 18, i860 



Sailors' home (cost 30,000?.) burnt April 29, 1S60 
The free museum oijened . . . Oct. 17, 1861 
Brownlow Hill church and workhoxisc- school 

burnt, and 23 lives lost (20 children) Sept. 8, 1862 
The dock space in 1810 was 26 acres for .ships, 

to the amount of 704,000 tons; in 1857, 209 

acres, tonnage 4,320,000. 
Explosion of ii^ tons of gunpowder in the LnUie 

Sleigh, in the Mersey, causing much damage, 

Jan. 16, 1864 
Death of sir Wm. Brown, a gi'eat benefactor to 

Liverpool March 3, ,, 



LIVERrOOL ADMINISTRATION. Shortly after tlie assa.s.sination of Mr. rerceval 
(May II, 1812), the earl of Liverpool became lirst mini.ster of the crowu.* Hi.s aiiministra- 
tioii tcriniiiated when he was attacked by apoplexy, Feb. 11, 1827, and Mr. Canning suc- 
ceeded as prime minister, April. In fifteen years there had been many changes. 



Lord Eldon, lord chancellor. 

Earl of Harrowby, lord pvpaUJent of the council. 

Earl of Westmoreland, lord priri/ .««/. 

Mr. Vansittarr, chaiicellor 0/ the excheq'ier. 

Earl of Mulgrave, master general of the ordnance. 



Lord Melville, first lord of the admiralti/. 

Viscount Sidmouth, viscount Castlereagh, and earl 

Bathurst, home, foreign, and colonial secretarien. 
Lord Palmerston, marciuess of Camden, earl of Clan- 

carty, earl of Buckinghamshii'e, ifcc. 



LIVONIA, a Russian province on the Baltic sea, first visited by some Bremen merchants 
about 1 1 58. It has belonged successively' to Denmark, Sweden, Poland, and Russia. It 
was finally ceded to Peter the Great in 1721. 

LLANDAFF (Wales). The first known bishop was St. Dubritius, said to have died 
in 612. The see is valued in the king's books at 154?. 14s. id. per annum. Present 
income, 4200/. 

IIECENT BISHOr.S OF LLANDAFF. 



17S2. Richard Watson ; died July 4, 1816. 

1 816. Herbert Marsh ; translated to Peterborough, 

i8ig. 
1S19. Wm. Van Mildert ; translated to Durham, 1826. 



1826. Charles Eichard Sumner; translated to Win- 

chester, 1827. 

1827. Edward Copleston ; died Oct. 14, 1849. 
1849. Alfred Ollivant, present bishop. 



LLOYD'S (London). The coffee-house, kept by Lloyd, in Abchurch-lanc, in 17 10, after- 
wards removed ; was established finally at the Royal Exchange in 1774, and remained there 
till the fire in 1838. Here resort eminent merchants, underwriters, &c. ; and here are 
effected insurances on ships and merchandise. Lloyd's is supported by subscribers avIio 
pay annual)}' 4J. 4.9. The books kept here contain an account of the arrival and sailing of 
vessels, and are remarkable for their early intelligence of maritime afiairs. In 1803, tlie 
subscribers instituted the Patriotic Fund, whicli see.t 

LOADSTONE. See Marjnctism. 

LOANS for the public service were raised by Wolsey in 1522 and 1525. In 1559 
Elizabeth borrowed 20o,oooZ. of the city of Antwerp, to enable her to reform her own coin^ 
and sir Thomas Gresham and tlie city of London joined in the security. Eapin. The 
amount of the English loans, during several memorable periods was, viz. : — 

Seven year.s' war . . 1755 to 1763 . £52,100,000 1 War against Bonaparte . 1803 to 1814 £206,300,000 
Amurican war . . . 1776101784 . 75,500,000 War against Russia t . 1855 to 1856 . 16,000,000 
French revolutionary war 1793 to 1802 . 168,500,000 | For deficiency in revenuej . 1856 . 10,000,000 

Besides the property-tax, in 1S13 were raised two loans of twenty-one millions and twent}'- 
two millions ; and it deserves to i)e recorded, that a subscription loan to carry on the war 
against France was filled up in London in 15 hours and 20 minutes, to the amount of eighteen 



* Robert Jenkinson, born .Jan. 7, 1770, entered the house of commons under Mr. Pitt ; opposed the 
."vbolitiou of the slave trade in 1792; in 1796 became lord Hawkesbury; b-came foreign minister under 
Mr. Addington, in 1801 ; succeeded his father a.s carl of Liverpool in 1808; died Dec. 4, 1S28. 

t The Austrian Lioi/d's, an association for general, commercial, and industrial purposes was founded at 
Trieste, liy Baron Bnick, in 1833. It has established regular communication between Trieste and the 
Levant, by means of a fleet of st -amers, carryaig the mails, and pubhshes a journal. 

J Both taken by the Rothschilds alone. 



LOG 444 LOG 

uiillious, Dec. 5, 1796. See Loyalfij Loans. In 185S, the East India company raised a loan 
of 8,ooo,oooZ.* 

LOCAL GOVERNMENT ACT passed in 1S5S was amended in 1861. 

LOCHLEVEN CASTLE (Kinross), Imilt on an island in tlie celebrated lake of Loch 
Leven, it is said by the Picts, was a royal residence when Alexander III. and his queen 
were forciblj' taken from it to Stirling. It was besieged by the English in 1301, and again 
in 1334. Patrick Graham, first archbishop of St. Andrew's, was imprisoned for attempting 
to reform the chnrch, and died within its walls, about 1478. The earl of Northumberland 
Avas confined in it, 1569. It is, however, chiefly remarkable as the place of the unfortunate 
(|ueen Mary's imprisonment in 1567, and of her escape, on Suudaj', May 2, 1568. 

LOCKS. Those of the Egyptians, Greeks, and Eomans, were clumsy contrivances. 
Denon has engraved an Egyptian lock of wood. Du Cange mentions locks and padlocks as 
early as 1381. Braraah's locks were patented in 1784. Mr. Hobbs, the American, exhibited 
his own locks in the Crystal palace, in 185 1, and showed great skill in picking others. 

LOCOMOTIVES. See Railways. The use of steam locomotives on ordinary roads is 
I'egulated by acts passed in i86i and 1865. 

LOCRI, a people of Northern Greece. They resisted Philip of Macedon, Avere aided l)y 
llie Atlienians and Tliebans, and defeated by him at Chneronea, Aug. 7, 33S b.c. 

LOCUSTS formed one of the plagues of Egy])t, 1491 B.C. (Exod. x.) Owing to the putrefac- 
tion of vast swarms in Egypt and Libya^ upwards of 800,000 persons are said to have perished, 
128 B.C. Palestine was infested witli such swarms, that they darkened the air ; and after 
deA^ouring the fruits of the earth, they died, and their intolerable stench caused a pestilential 
fcA^er, A.D. 406. A similar catastro^jlie occurred in Erance in 837. A remarkable swarm of 
locusts settled upon the ground about London, and consumed the A'egetables ; great numbers 
fell in the streets, and Avere preserved by the curious ; they resembled gi'asshoppers, but Avere 
three times tlie size, and their colours more variegated, Aug. 4, 1748. Tliey infested 
Germany in 1749, Poland in 1750, and Warsaw in June, 1816. They are said to have been 
.-•een in London in 1857. Eussia AA-as infested by them in July, 1S60. 

LODGING-HOUSES. An act placing common lodging-houses under the watch of the 
police Avas passed in 185 1. In that year a model lodging-house, erected by prince Albert, 
appeared at the Great E.xhibition. Since then, blocks of lodging-houses for the poor have 
Ijeen erected by Miss Burdett Coutts and others. Mr. Peabody's donation of March 12, 1862, 
lias been appropriated for a similar jiwrpose. On Nov. 21, 1863, the city of London voted 
20,000/. and a piece of land in Victoria-street for the purpose. 

LODI (N. Italy). Napoleon Bonaparte, commanding the French army, totally defeated 
the Austrians, commanded by general Beaulieu, after a bloody engagement at the bridge of 
[>odi. May 10, 1796. All Lombardy was opened to his army, and the republican flag floated in 
JMilan a few days after. 

LOG-LINE, used iu navigation, about 1570 ; first mentioned by Bourne in 1577. It is 
divided into spaces of 50 feet, and the Avay which the ship makes is measured by a half- 
minute sand-glass, Avliich bears nearly the same proportion to an hour that 50 feet bear to a 
mile : the line used in the royal naA^y is 48 feet. 

LOGAEITHMS, the indexes of the ratio of numbers one to another, Avere invented by 
baron Napier of ilerchiston, who publislied his Avork in 1614. The invention was completed 
by Mr. Henry Briggs, at Oxford, Avho published tables, 1616-18. The method of computing 
by means of marked pieces of ivory Avas discovered about the same time, and hence called 
Xajncr's hones. 

LOGIC, "the science of reasoning." Eminent Avorks on it are by Aristotle; Bacon, 
Novum Organon; Locke on the Understanding; and the modern treatises on Logic, by arch- 
bishop Whately, sir William Hamilton, and Mr. John Stuart Mill. 

' French Loan on July 9, 1855, on account of the war with Russia. The French legislature passed a | 
hill for raising by loan 750 million francs (30,000,000/. sterling). On the 30th the totil subscribed I' 
amounted to 3,652,591,985 francs (about 146,103,679?.), nearly five times the amount required. About 600 
millions came from foreign countries; 2,533,888,450 from Paris; from the departments, 1,118,703,535. 
The number of subscribers was 316,864. No less than 231,920,155 francs was made up by subscription of 
50 francs .and under. The English sub.scription of 150,000,000 fra7ics was returned, as double the amount 
required had been proffered. In May, 1859, the French government raised a loan of 20,000,000/. for the 
Italian war from its own people without difficulty. A Tur/cish loan of 5,000,000/., on the security of 
England and France, was taken up by Rothschild in .\Hg. 1855, and was well received ; the stock rose to a 
small premium. 



LOG 445 LON 

LOGIERIAN SYSTEM of nuisical eilucation, commenced by J. B. Logicr, in Jan. 1S15, 
and introduced into the chief towns of the United Kingdom, Prussia, &c. 

LOdOGltAPfUC nilNTING, in which tlie commoner words were cast in one mass, was 
patented by Henry Jolmson and Air. Walter of the Times in 1783. Anderson's Histoiy of 
Commerce, vuL iv. was printed by tliese types in 1789. 

LOI DES SUSrECTS, enacted by the French convention, Sejit. 17, 1793, dnrinf the 
reign of terror, filled the prisons of Paris. The Public Safety bill, of u somewhat similar 
character, was passed, Feb. 18, 1858, shortly after Orsini's attempt on the life of the 
emperor. 

LOLLAIJDS (by some derived from the German lollcn, to sing in a low tone), the name 
given to the first reforniers of the Roman catholic religion in England, and a reproachful 
appellation of the followers of Wykliffe. Chaucer. The original sect is said to have been 
founded in 13 15 by Walter Lollard, who was burned for heresy at Cologne in 1322. The 
Lollards are said to have devoted themselves to acts of mercy. The first Lollard martyr 
in England was William Sawtree, parish priest of St. Osith, London, Feb. 12, 1401, when 
the Lollards were proscribed by parliament, and numbers of them were burnt alive.* 

LOilBAED MERCHANTS, in England, were understood to be composed of natives 
of some one of the four republics of Genoa, Lucca, Florence, or Venice. Anderson. Lom- 
bard usurers were sent to England by pope Gregory IX. to lend money to convents, com- 
munities, and private persons who weie not able to pay down the tenths which were collected 
throughout the kingdom with great rigour that year, 13 Hen. III. 1229. They had offices 
in the street named after them to this day. Their usurious transactions caused rheir 
expulsion from the kingdom in the reign of Elizabeth. 

LOMBARDY (N. Italy) derived its name from the Langobardi, a German tribe from 
Brandenburg, said (doubtfully) to have been invited into Italy by Justinian to serve against 
the Goths. Their chief, Alboin, established a kingdom which lasted from 568 to 774. The last 
king, Desiderius, was dethroned by Charli;magne. (For a list of the Lombard kings, 
see Italy.) About the end of the 9th century the chief towns of Lombardy fortiffed 
themselves, and became republics. The first Lombard league, consisting of Milan, Venice, 
Pavia, Modena, &c., was formed to restrain the power of the German emperors, in 1167. 
On May 29, 1176, they defeated the emperor Frederick Barbarossa at Legnano, and even- 
tually compelled him to sign the peace of Constance in 1183. In 1225 another leao-ne was 
formed against Frederick II. , which was also successful. After this, jietty tyrants rose in 
most of the cities, and foreign influence quickly followed. The Guelf and Ghibelline factions 
greatly distracted Lombardy ; and IVom the 15th century to the present time, it has been 
contended for by the German and French sovereigns. The house of Austria obtained it 
in 1748 and held it till 1797, when it was conquered by the French, who incorporated it into 
the Cisalpine repuldic, and in 1805 into the kiHgdo7n of Italy. On the breaking up of the 
French empire in 1S15, the Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom was established by the allied 
sovereigns and given to Austria, who had lost her Flemish possessions. In March, 1848, 
Lombardy and Vi'uice revolted, and joined the king of Sardinia : they did not support him 
well ; and after his defeat at Novara (Jlarch 23, 1849), were again subjected to Austria. An 
amnesty for political offences was granted in 1856. Great jealousy of Sardinia was felt by 
Austria since 1849. In 1857 diplomatic relations were suspended ; and in April, 1859, war 
broke out ; the Austrians crossing the Ticino and entering Piedmont. The French emperor 
declared war against Austria, and immediately sent troops into Italy. The Austrians were 
defeated at Montebello, May 20 ; Palestro, May 30, 31 ; Magenta, June 4 ; and Solferino, 
June 24. By the peace of Villafranca (July 11), the largest part of Lombardy was ceded to 
Louis Napoleon, who transferred it to the king of Sardinia. It now forms part of the new 
kingdom of Italy. 

LONDON. The greatest and richest city in the world. Some assert, that a city existed 
on the spot 1 107 years before the birth of Christ, and 354 years before the foundation of 
Roine,t and that it was the capital of the Trinobantes, 54 B.C., and long previously the 

* Among others, sir John OWcastle, baron Cobliam, was cruelly put to death in St. Giles'-m-the-Fields. 
His crime was the adoption of the tenets of the gieat reformer Wykliffe. He was misrepresented to our 
Henry V. by the bigoted clergy, as a heretic and traitor, who was actually at the head of 30.000 Lollards in 
'these fields. About 100 inoffensive people were found there. Cobham escaped : l.iut was taken some time 
jafter in Wales. He suffered death, being hiuig on a gaUows, by a chain fastened round his body, and 
thus su.spended, burnt alive, in Dec. 1418. I'tniauit. ' ' 

t The fables of Geoffrey of Monmouth, with regard to the origin of London, are unworthy of the atten- 



LOX 



44(3 



LOK 



royal seat of their kings. In A.B. 6i it was known to tlie Romans ns Lnndinium, or Colonia 
Augusta, and became tlie cliief residence of tlie merchants at that period. It is said, but 
not truly, to have derived its name from Lud, an old British king, avIio was buried near 
where Ludgate formerly stood; but its name is from Lhjn-Dln, tlie "town on the 
'lake."* It became tlie capital of the Saxon kingdom of Essex, and was called Lundeii- 
ccaster. In i860, London and the suburbs were estimated to cover 121 square miles, 11 miles 
each way, being three times as large as in 1800. The population of the metropolitan districts 
in 1851, was 2,362,236 ; in 1861, was 2,803,034. The population of "the city" in 1851, 
Avas 127,869 ; in 1861, was 112,247. Revenue of the corporation in 1862, 437. 341^. See 
Mayors, Lord. The "port" of London extends from London Bridge to tlie North Fore- 
land. See Docks.-\' 



Boadicea, queen of the Iceni, reduces London 
to ashes, and puts 70,000 Romans and stran- 
gers to the sword . . . . . . 61 

She is defeated by Suetonius, 80,000 Britons 

are massacred, and she takes poison . . 61 
Bishopric said to have been founded by 

Theanus 179 

London rebuilt and walled in by the Romans . 306 
800 vessels said to bo -employed in the poi't of 

London for the export of corn . . . 359 
Bishopric revived by St. Mellitus : St. Paul's 
and Westminster abbey built . . . . 604 

A plague ravages London 644 

Great Are which nearly consumed the city . 798 
London pillaged by the Danes . " . . . S39 
Alfred repairs and streiigthens Ijondon . . S84 
Easterlings settle in London before . . . 978 

Another great fire 9S2 

Tower built by William 1 1078 

First charter granted to the city by the same 

king. See London Citizens ... . . 1079 
Another great fire, St. Paul's burnt . . . 1086 
606 houses thrown down by a temi^est . . . 1090 
Charter granted by Henry 1. . • . .1 100 
St. Bartholomew's priory founded by Rahcro, 

about 1 100 
London-bridge built, 1014; burnt . . . 1136 

Old London-bridge begun 1176 

Henry Fitz-Alwhyn, the first mayor (served 
twenty-four years) . . . . . .1189 

Massacre of Jews , , 

Charter granted by Henry H 1154 

First stone bridge finished 1209 

Charter of king John ; mayor and common 

coimcil to be elected annually! . . . 1214 

Foreign merchants invited to settle, and do so, 

1199-1220 
Charter of Henry II 1233 



Aldermen appointed .... about 1242 

Watch in London, 38 Hen. Ill 1253 

Privileges granted to the Hanse naerchants 

(lohic/i see) . . . . . . . . 1259 

Tax called murage, to keep the walls and 

ditches in repair .... about 1282 

Water brought from Tyburn to West Cheap . 1285 
Expulsion of the Jews (16, SI i) • . ■ . 1290 
Livery companies incorporated . . . . 1327 

Charter granted by Edward III 132S 

Terrible pestilence, in which 50,000 (?) citizens 

perishS 1348 

London first sends members to parliament . 1355 
William of Walworth lord mayor . . . . 1380 
Wat Tyler's rebellion. See Ti/ler . . . 13S1 

Aldermen elected for life 1394 

Great plague 30,000 (?) died .... 1406 

City first lighted at night by lanterns . . . 141 5 
Guildhall commenced 1411, finished . . . 1416 
Whittington thrice lord mayor, viz. 1397, 

1406, 1419 
Jack Cade's rebellion. See Cade . . . . 1450 
First civic procession on the water ; sir John 

Norman lord mayor 1453 

Falconbridge attempts the city . . . . 1471 
Pi'inting-press set up by Caxton . . . ,, 
Sweating sickness rages . . . ... 1485 

Fleet ditch navigable 150G 

St. Paul's school founded by dean Colet . . 1509 
The fatal sweat, 6'(«/or .(i)?(7;ici(s . ... . 1517 

Evil May-day {which see) „ 

Streets fii-st paved (ri?!er'« S/o.^.) . . . 1533 
Russian trading company established . . 1553 
" Bills of Mortality " ordered to be kept . . 1538 
Dissolution of religious houses .... 1539 
St. Bartholomew's monastery changed to an 

hospitivl . . . . . . . . ,, 

Forty taverns and public houses allowed in the 



tion of the antiquary. That London was founded by Brute, a descendant of the Trojan ^Eneas, and called 
New Troy, or Troy-novant, until the time of Lud, who surrounded it with walls, and gave it the name of 
Caer Lud, or Lud's tov^n, fee, may be considered as mere romance. Leigh. 

* The original walls of London were the work of the Romans. Theodosius, governor of Britain, is 
.Slid to have raised them, 379; but thoy are supposed to have been built about 306. There were originally 
four principal gates ; but the number increased ; and among others were the Prfetoi'ian way, Newgate, 
Duwgate, Cripplegate, Aldgate, Aldersgate, Ludgate, Bridegate, Moorgate, Bishopg.ate, the Postern on 
Tower-hill, and the only one of the city boundaries now remaining, is Temple-bar, rebuilt 1670-2. 

t London Citizens. To them many privileges and immunities have been granted from the time of \ 
WilUam the Conqueror, whose first charter, granted in 1079, is still preserved in the city archives. This j 
charter is written in beautiful Saxon characters, on a slip of parchment .six inches long, and one broad, I 
and is in English as follows : — "William the king greeteth William the bishop, and Godfrey the portrevo, 
and all the burgesses within London friendly. And I acquaint you, that I will that ye bo all there law- 
worthy as ye were in king Edward's d.ays. And I will that every child be his father's heir, after his 
father's days. And I will not suffer that any man do you any wrong. God preserve you." 

X Stow incorrectly states this charter to have been given in 1209, but it bears date j'May 19th in the 
i6th year of King John's reign, which began in 1199. This charter was acted on at that i^eriod in various 
instances, as many of the mayors were afterwards continued in their offices for several years together ; and 
the same right was exerted in the case of Mr. Aldei-man Wood, who filled the office of lord mayor during 
two succeeding years, those of 1816 and 1817. Leigh. 

§ This tciTible pestilence broke out in India, and sprcadhig itself westward through every country on 1 
the globe, reached England. Its ravages in London were so great, that the common cemeteries were not 
sufiicient for the interment of the dead ; and various pieces of ground without the walls were assigned for 
burial-places. Amongst these was the waste land now forming the precincts of the Charter-house, whore 
upwards of 50,000 bodies were then deposited. This disorder did not subside till 1357. Idc-m. 



LON" 



44; 



LON 



LONDON, continued. 

city, and three in 'Westminster, act 7 EJw. 

VI. there ai-e now 7000) 1553 

Christ's hospital foin\ded by king Ed w. VI. . ,, 

Coaches introdnced abont 1563 

Royal e.Kchange built. Sec Exchdnge . . . 1566 
New buildinffs in London forbidden " where no 

former hath been known to have been," to 

prevent the increasing size* .... 1580 

Levant company established 1581 

Thames water conveyed into the city by leaden 

pipes 15S0-94 

Staw publishes his survey 1598 

Nearly all London j-et built of wood . . . 1600 
East India company incorporated . . . ,, 
30,578 persons said to perish by. the plague . 1603 
Gunpowder plot (ukich see) .... 1605 
Virginia company established . . . . 1616 
Thomas Sutton founds Charterhouse school, <£;c. 161 1 
New river water brought to London . . . 161 3 

Princif)al streets paved 1616 

Hackney coaches first jjlied. See Hacknen 

Coaches ........ 1625 

Buildingof the western parishes, St. Giles's, &c., 

begun 1640 

The city held for the parliament . . . 1642 

London fortified 1643 

Jews allowed to settle in London by Cromwell, 1650 

The Jews begin to return 1656 

Banking begun by Francis Child, about . 1660 
Royal Society of London chartered . . . 1662 
68,596 pei-sons said to have perished by the 

great plague. See Plognes 1665 

"Oxford" afterwards " London Gazette" pub- 
lished Nov. 7, ,, 

Great fire of London. See Fires . . . . i665 
Act for a " new model of building " in the city, ,, 
Hudson's-bay company chartered . . . 1670 
Monument erected. See Monument . . 1671-7 
Oate.s' pretended popish jDlot .... 1670 
A London directory published . . . . 1679 

Charter granted by Charles II 16S0 

Penny post established 1683 

Settlement of French pnitcstants . . . 1685 
Charter declared forfeited 1682 ; but restored . 1689 
Bank of England established .... 1694 
Awful storm .... Nov. 26, Dec. i, 1703 
Sacheverel's sermon and mob . . . .1710 
Act for the erection of fifty new churches , .1711 
South Sea bubble commenced 1710, exploded 

1720. See South Sea Compo 111/ . . . . 1720 

Chelsea water- works formed 1722 

Bank of England built .... 1732-4 
Glass lamps in the street . between 1694 & 1736 
Fleet ditch covered, and Fleet market opened . 1737 
"Great Frost," Dec. 25, 1739, to Feb. 8 . . 1740 
London Hospital instituted . . . . ,, 
New Mansion House founded, 1739; completed, 17^3 

British Museum established ,," 

Society of Arts established , , 

Shop signs removed . . . . . . 1762 

Westminster paving act passed , 

Blackfriars bridge opened . . Nov. ig, 1769 
The lord mayor (Brass Crosby) committed to 

the Tower by the House of Commons for a 

breach of privilege . . . March 27, 1771 
Lord George Gordon's No-poptry mob. Sec 

GnnluD's Moh June, 1780 

Thanksgiving of George III. at St. Paul's 

cathedral April 23, 1789 

Royal Institution of Great Britain founded . 1799 



London docks opened . . . . Jan. 20, 1799 

London Institution founded 1805 

Lord Nelson's funeral .... Jan. g, 1806 
Gas first exhibited in Pall Mall .... 1807 
Riots on the committal of sir F. Burdctt to the 

Tower April 6, 1810 

The Mint finished 1811 

Regent-street begun 1S13 

Civic banquet to the allied sovereigns at Guild- 
hall June i3, 1814 

Custom-house burnt . . . Feb. 12, ,, 

Gaslight becomes general ,, 

The city generally lighted with gas . . . ,, 
Waterloo bridge ojDened . . . June 18, 1S17 

New custom-house opened „ 

Southwark bridge oj)encd . . jNIarch 24, 1819 

The great increase in building commences . 1820 
Bank of England completed by sir John Soane, 1821 
Tumults at queen Caroline's funeral Aug. 14, ,, 

Cabs introduced 1823 

London Mechanics' Institution founded . . ,, 

Bviblile companies' panic 1823 

London University chartered. See London 

Uaiversiti/ Feb. 11, 1826 

27 turnpikes removed by act of parliament . . 1827 

New post-office completed 1829 

Farringdon market opened ,, 

Omnibuses introduced , , 

New metropolitan police began . Sejat. 29, ,, 
Covent-garden market rebuilt .... 1830 
Memorable political panic, Nov. 5 ; and no lord 

mayor's show .... Nov. g, ,, 

New London bridge opened . . Aug. i, 1831 
General fast on account of the cholera in 

England Feb. 6, 1832 

Hungerford market opened . . July 3, 1833 
Houses of parliament burnt . . Oct. 16, 1834 

City of London School founded .... 1835 
Queen dines at Guildhall . . . Nov. 9, 1837 
Royal Exchange burnt . . . Jan 10, 1838 
Railway opened from London to Birmingham, 

Sept. 17; to Greenwich . . Dec. 28, ,, 
Penny postage begun .... Jan. 10, 1840 
Railway to Southampton opened . May 11, ,, 

Wood pavement tried ; fails .... 1S41 

London library established ,, 

Railway to Bristol opened . . . June 30, ,, 
Blackwall tunnel opened . . Aug. 2, , , 
Railway to Brighton opened . . Sept. 21, ,, 
Thames Tunnel opened . . . March 25, 1S43 
Royal Exchange opened . . . Oct. 28, 1844 
Erection of baths and w.ash-houses begins . ,, 

Fleet prison taken down ,, 

New building act begun . . . Jan. i, 1S45 

Penny steamboats begun ,, 

Model lodging houses built , 

Railway mania . • ,, 

Two-penny omnibuses begun .... 1846 
Great Chartist demonstration in London. See 

Cliartists April 10, 1848 

Re-appearance of the cholera . . Sept. 1849 

Co.aI exchange opened . . . Oct. 30, ,, 
Lord mayor's great banquet (of mayors), see 

Lord Mayors .... March 21, 1850 
Attack upon general Haynau . . Sept. 4, ,, 
Great Exhibition opened May i, closed Oct. 11, 1S51 
Duke of Wellington dies Sept. 14 ; his funeral 

at St. Paul's (2c/iic/j«e) . . . Nov. 18, 1852 

Cab-strike July 27-29, 1853 

Visit of king of Portugal . . May 19, 1854 



* This proclamation or decree was dated from Nonesuch, 7th July, 1580, and it was forbidden to erect 
new buildings where none had before existed in the memory of man. The extension of the metropolis 
was deemed calculated to encourage the increase of the plague ; create a troiible in governing such multi- 
tudes ; a dearth of victuals; multiplying of beggars and inability to relieve them ; an increase of artisans 
more thnn could live together ; impoverishing other cities for lack of inhabitants. The decree stated that 
lack of air. lack of room to walk and shoot, &c., .arose out of too crowded a city. A proclamation to the 
same effect was also issued by James I. 



LON 



US 



LON 



LONDON, coniimied. 

Attack of cholera . . Aug. and Sept. 

Meeting for Patriotic fvind . . . Nov. 2, 

Visit of emperor and empre.ss of the French to 
the lord mayor .... Api'il 19, 

The queen distributes Crimean medals, May 18, 

Failure of Paul, Strahan, & Co. See Trlah, 

June 5, 

Metropolitan Local Management Act passed 

Aug. 14, 

Visit of the king of Sarduiia . . Nov. 30, 

Metropolitan Board of works, first meeting, 

Dec. 22, 

Peace proclaimed .... April 29, 

Grand display of illuminations and firewoi-ks 
in the parks May 29, 

The Guards re-enter London . . July 6, 

Boyal British Bank stops payment. See British 
Bank Sept. 4, 

Meetings of unemployed operatives in Smith- 
field Feb. 

Many commercial failures ; Bank charter act 
suspended Nov. 12, 

James Morrison (originally a poor boy), who 
mainlyiiitroducedthesystem of quick returns 
and small profits, dies exceedingly rich 

Oct. 30, 

Metropolisdividedintoiopostal districts, Jan. i, 

Leviathan launched (began Nov. 3) . Jan. 31, 

Complaints of the state of the Thames ; act for 
its purification passed . . . Aug. 2, 

Panic on stock exchange (40 or 50 faikn-es) at 
reported French and Kussian alliance against 
An.stria April, 

A strike among the building trades, and a 
lock-out bj' the masters, Aug. 8 ; the latter 
require the men to sign a document, de- 
claring that they will not belong to any 
society which interferes with the freedom 
of the workman. The strike was dying 
out in Nov. 

Disgi-aceful riots at the clmrch of St. George's 
in the East, through the indiscretion of the 
Tractarian clergyman, the rev. Bryan King, 
Sept. and Oct. The church (closed for a time) 
re-opened ; fresh disturbances on Nov. 6, 13, 
and 20 ; the agitation continued till Mr. King 
retired, when a compromise was effected 

July 29, 

Metropolitan railway (underground) com- 
menced in spring of .... ■ 

Great distress through the severe winter ; 
thousands relieved at the police offices, 

Dec. i860, <fe Jan. 

A iiother strike in the building track s commences 

March 22, 

A street railway in the metropolis opened 
near Bayswater .... March 23, 

Great fii-e near Tooley street (see JPircs) June 22, 

Sale of the East India house . . June 23, 

Meeting to establish the " City of London 



1854 
1S55 



1857 



1857 



College," the bishop of London in the chair 

Oct. 2, 

Mr. George Peabody, the American merch.ant, 
gives 150,000^ to ameliorate the condition of 
the poor and needy of Loudon . March 12, 

The International Exhibition opens . May i, 

Thames embankment bill passed, after much 
discussion Aug. 

The masons' strike Jiot over . . June, 

Fights in Hyde-park between the Garibaldians 
and Irish . . . Sept. 28 & Oct. 5, 

Public meetings there prohibited . Oct. 9, 

The Metropolitan Uailway opened . Jan. 10, i 

Pnemnatic despatch company begins to convey 
|iost-ofiice bags .... Feb. 21, 

Princess Alexandra of Denmark enters London 

March 7, 

Prince and princess of Wales present at the 
city ball at Guildhall . . . June 8, 

Appeal of the bishop of London on account of 
the .spiritual destitution of the metropolis, 

June, 

The common council vote 20,000^ and a site in 
Victoria-street, B.C., for a lodging-house for 
the poor Nov. 19, 

New street between Blackfriars and London- 
bridge opened Jan. i. 

Charing Cross railway opened . . Jan. 11, 

Garibaldi enters London, April 11 ; receives the 
freedom of the city . . . April 21, 

Many turnpikes in the N. suburbs abolished, 

July I, 

Great excitement through the murder of Mr. 
Briggs in a carriage of the North London rail- 
way . . . . . . July 9, 

The first railway train enters the city of 
London near Blackfriars-bridge . Oct. 5, 

North London industrial exhibition, Islington, 
opened by earl Russell . . . Oct. 17, 

Excitement through the performance of the 
Davenport brothers . . Oct. — Dec. 

Great bullion robbery in Lombard-street, 

Dec. 3 or 4, 

South London industrial exhibition opened, 

Feb. I, 

Many burglaries in London ; great robbery at 
Walker'.s, the jeweller)?, Cornhill Feb. 4, 5, 

The prince of Wales present at the opening of 
the main drainage works, at the southeiii 
outfall, near Erith . . . April 4, 

Prince of Wales opens the international re- 
formatory exhibition at Islington . May 19, 

Investigation into the state of the workhouse 
infirmaries through several paupers dying 
through neglect Aug. 

Many turnpikes in the S. subui'bs abolished, 

Oct. 31, 

[See England ; and the occuiTcnces not noticed 
here, under their respective heads. ] 



LONDON, BisHOPiuc of, is said to have been founded in tlie reign of Lucius, about 
179, Tlieanus the first archbishop. Augustin made Canterbury the metropolitan see of 
England. Loudon became a bishopric under Mellitus iu 604, and has yielded to the church 
of Rome five saints, and to the realm sixteen lord chancellors and lord treasurers ; it was 
valued in the kiug's books at 1119/. 8s. a^d. j>cr anmiiii. Present income, io,ocxdZ. 



KECENT BISHOPS OF LONDON. 



1787. Beilby Porteus, died May 14, 1809. 
1S09. John Randolph, died July 28, 1813. 
1813. W. Howley, translated to Canterbury, Aug 



1828. Charles James Blomfield; resigned Oct. 1856 

(died Aug. 5, 1857). 
1 8 56. Archibald Campbell Tait (present bishop). 



LONDON BEIDGE. One is said to have existed, 978. A bridge built of wood, 1014, 
was partly burned in 1136. The late old bridge was commenced about 11 76, by Peter of 
Colechurch, and completed in 1209, with houses on each side, connected together by large 



LON 449 LON 

arelios of timhcr, wliich iTossed the street. In July, 12 12, a fire at the Southwark eml 
brought crowds on tlie bridge ; the houses at the north end caught fire likewise, and pre- 
vented their escape. Thus, it is said, upwards of 3000 persons lost their lives, being 
either killed, burned, or drowned. The bridge was restored in 1300, and again was destroye:! 
by fire in 1471, Feb. 13, 1632, and Sept. 1725. In 1756 all the houses were pulled down. 
The waterworks were begun in 1582 ; they caught fire and were destroyed in 1774. The 
toll was discontinued, March 27, 1782. After many repairs, in 1822 the corporation adver- 
tised for designs for a new bridge : that by John liennie was approved, and the works were 
executed by his sons John and George. The first pile was driven 200 feet to the west of 
the old bridge, March 15, 1S24 ; and the first stone was laid by the lord mayor, alderman 
Garratt, June 15, 1825. The bridge was opened by William IV. and his queen, Aug. i, 1831. 
The cost was 506,000^. * 

LONDON IN.STITUTION, "for the advancement of literature and the diffusion of useful 
knowledge," in imitation of the Royal Institution, Avas founded in 1805 by sir Francis 
Baring, bart., and others, at 8, Old Jewry, Cheapside. Prof. Person was the first librarian. 
The present building in Finsbury-circus was completed in 1819, and opened ou April 21 ; 
the first lecture was delivered by Mr. W. T. Brande, on May 5, following. Mr. W. 11. Grove, 
Q.C, (the inventor of the Voltaic battery which bears his name), was the first professor of 
experimental philosophy, 1S40 to 1S46. The institution possesses an excellent library, 
lecture-room, and laboratory. , 

LONDON GAZETTE. See Nciospapers. 

LONDON STONE. A stone said to have been placed by the Piomans in Cannon-street, 
then the centre of the city, 15 B.C. Cheapside was at this period in the suburbs. Burns. 
London Stone is one of the greatest antiquities of the city, having been known before the 
time of William I. It was removed from the opposite side of the way in 1742. It was 
against this stone that Jack Cade struck his sword, exclaiming, " Now is Mortimer lord of 
this city ! " 1450. 

LONDON UNIVERSITY was founded by the exertions of lord Brougham, Thomas 
Campbell, and others; the deed of settlement dated Feb. 11, 1826. The building was 
commenced April 30, 1S27 (when the first stone was laid by the duke of Sussex) ; and was 
opened by an inaugural lecture from professor Bell, Oct. i, 1828. On Nov. 28, 1836, two 
charters were granted : bj' one the London university was changed to " University college," 
and by the other the University of London was established, with a chancellor and other 
officers. New charters were granted to the latter on Dec. 5, 1837 and April 21, 1858. It 
has offices at Burlington-house, and has power to grant degrees to students of the universities 
of the united kingdom, and many collegiate establishments. — University Hall, Gordon- 
square, was founded in 1847. 

LONDONDEPiRY, or Derry (N. Ireland), mentioned 546. An abbey here was burned 
by the Danes in 7S3. A charter was granted to the London companies in 1615. The town 
Avas surprised, and sir George Powlett, the governor, and the entire garrison were put to the 
sword by rebels, in 1606. It was besieged by O'Neal in 1641. A grant was made of Derry, 
with 210,000 acres of land, to various companies in London, in 1619, w'hen it took its 
present name. The memorable siege of Derry by the army of James II. commenced April 20, 
1689. The garrison and inhabitants were driven to the extremity of famine ; but under the 
direction of the rev. George Walker, they defended it nntil the siege was rnised by gen. 
Kirke, on July 30. James's army, under the French general Rosen, retired with the loss of 
about gooo men. 

LONE STAR, a secret society formed in 184S, in Alabama and other southern states of 
the North American union. Its object was declared to be the "extension of the insti- 
tutions, the ])ower, the influence, and the commerce of the United States over the whole of 
the western hemisiiherc, and the islands of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans." The first 
acquisition to be made by the order were Cuba and the Sandwich Islands. The knowledge 
of the existence of this society reached England in August, 1852. 

LONG ISLAND, 011 Fi.atbush (N. America), Battle of, Aug. 27, 1776, between the 
British troops under sir William Howe, and the revolted Americans, who sufi"ered a severe 
defeat, after a well-fought action, losing 2000 men killed and wounded, and 1000 prisoners. 

* On March 17, 1859, it was computed that there pri=sed ovtr London-bridge 20,498 vehicles (of which 
4483 were cabs and 4286 omnibuses^, and 167,910 persons (107,074 on fjot, and 60,836 in vehicles;. 

G G 



LON 



450 



LOO 



LONGEVITY. Metliusclali died, aged 969, 2349 B.C. {Gen. v. 27). In these countries 
the instances of it are remarkable, though rare. Golour M 'Grain, of the Lsle of Jura, one of 
the Hebrides, is said to have kept 180 Christniases in his own house, and died in the reign 
of Charles L, being the oldest man on anything approaching to authentic records for 
upwards of 3000 years. Greig. " Li 1014 died Joliannes de Temporibus who lived 361 
j'ears (!)" &tow. Thomas Parr, a labouring man of Shropshire, was brought to London by 
the earl of Arundel, in 1635, and considered the wonder of his time, being then in his 
153rd yeai', and in perfect health ; but the journey and change of air and diet killed him, 
Nov. 15, the snme year. Henry Jenkins, of Yorkshire, died in 1670, and was buried 
in Bolton churchyard, Dec. 6, in that year, aged 169 j'ears. Most cases of alleged longevity 
are very doubtful. 



OTHER EXTRAORDINARY IKSTANCES. 

1656. .James Bowles, Killingworth . . aged 

1691. Lady Eccleston, Ireland . . . . 

1749. A man named Collier, Dublin . 

1757. An Englishman named Eccleson . . . 

1759. James Sheil, Irish yeoman 

1766. Colonel Thomas Winslow, Ireland . . 

,, John Mount, Scotland .... 
1768. Francis Conceist, Burythorpe . . . 

1772. Mrs. Clun, Lichfield 

1774. William Becby, Uungarvon (an ensign 
who served at the battles of tho Boyne 
and Aughrim) . . . . . . 

1775.. Peter Gordon, Anchterless 

,, Mary Paton, Lochwinnoch . . . . 
1776. Mr. Movet, surgeon, Dumfries . 

,, Sarah Brookman, Glastonbury . . . 
1778. Thomas Cockey, Blechingley 

Z779. M. Lawrence, Orkney 

1780. Robert Mac Bride, Herrics 

,, Mr. William Ellis, Liverpool . . . . 

,, Louisa Truxo, a negi'ess, was living in ihis 
year, at Tucuman, Sovith America . 
1782. Evan Williams, Carmarthen . . . . 

1786. Cardinal de Solis 

1787. Mary Brook, of Leek 

1792. Mr. Johnson, of Birmingham . 

,, Mrs. Judith Scott, Islington . . . . 
1806. Mr. Creeke, of Thurlow .... 
,, Mr. J. Tucker, llching ferry . . . . 
„ Catherine Lopez, of Jamaica 
„ Sarah Anderson, a free black . . . 

1813. Mrs. Meighan, Donoughmore . 

1814. Mary Innes, Isle of Skye . . . . 
,, Mrs, .Judith Crawford, Spanish-town 

1816. Jane Lewson, Coldbath-fields, Clerkenwell 

1840. Mrs. Martha Rorke, of Dromore, county of 

Kildare, Aug. 27 



Mrs. Mary Power (aunt of the late rt. hon. 
Kd. Lalor Shiel), Ursuline convent, Cork, 
March 20 116 

James Nolan, Knockardrane, Carlow . .116 



EXAMPLES FURNISHED BY DR. J. WEBSTER, F.R.S. 

Bkd. Burled at Aged. 

1566. Numas de Cugna, Bengal .... 350 

158S. Jane Britten Evercreech, Somerset . . 200 

,, Thomas Carn, St. Leonard, Shoreditch . 207 

1621. J. Torathe, Glamorgani^bire . . . . ifo 

1652. Dr. W. Meade, Ware, Herts . . 148J 

1678. Juan Bnrt.amente, Seville . . . . 125 

16S8. Elizabeth Torathe, Glamorganshire . . 177 

1711. Mrs. Scrimshaw, Rosemary-lane . . . 127 

1723. W. Robert.^on, Edinburgh .... 137 

1724. Peter Torten, Temeswar, Hungary . . 185 
1726. Juan de Outeyri, Villa de Fofinancs, in 

Asturias 146 

1736. John Rouscy, Distrey, Scotland . . . 138 
1739. Margaret Patten, Christehurch, W^cstmin- 

ster 136 

1741. J. Rovin, Temeswar, Hungary . . . 172 

,, Jane Rovin, ditto 164 

1757. Alexander Jl'CulIoch, Aberdeen . . . 132 
1759. Donald Cameron, Rannach, Aberdeenshire 130 
1763. Mrs. T.aylor, Piccadilly . . . .131 
1766. John Mount, Langham,*Dumfries . . 136 

,, John Hill, Leadhills, near Edinburgh . 130 
T771. Mr. Whalley, Rotherhithe . . . . 121 
1775. W^idow Jones, Campbell .... 125 

1780. Mr. Evans, Spitalfields 139 

17S4. Mary Cameron, Bracmar, Aberdeen . . 129 
1791. Ai-chbd. Cameron, Keith, Aberdeenshire . 122 
1851. Jean Golembeski, Hotel des Iiivalides, 

Paris 126 



LONGITUDE, determined by Hipparehus, at Nice, who fixed the first degree in the 
Canaries, 162 B.C. Harrison made a time-keeper, in a.d. 1759, which in two voyages was 
found to correct the longitude within the limits required by the act of parliament, 12th 
Anne, 17 14; and obtained the reward. See Ilarrisoiis Timc-picce. Other improvements 
followed. Tlie chronometers of Arnold, Earnshaw, and Breguet, are highly esteemed. 
Chronometers are now received on trial at Greenwich Observatoiy. The fict relating to 
the discovery of tlie longitude at sea was repealed in 1828. The Bureau des Longitudes 
at Paris was established in 1795. 

LONG PARLIAMENT met Nov. 3, 1640; was forcibly dissolved by Crounvell 
April 20, 1653. 

LONGWY (N.E. France), a frontier town, was taken by the allied army, Aug. 23, 1792, 
the beginning of the great war. 

LOOKING-GLASSES. See Mirrors. 

Ij00]\L The weaver's, otherwise called the Dutch loom, was brought into use in London 
from Holland, about 1676. There were, in 1825, about 250,000 hand-looms in Great 
Britain, and 75,000 power-looms, each being equal to three hand-looms, making twenty-two 
yards each per day. The Jacquard loom was invented about iSco. The steam-loom was 
introduced in 1S07. See Cotton, Elcciric-Ioom, and Pncumatic-locm. 



LOR 



451 



LOR 



LORD._ Sea Zadi/. "When printed in the Englisli Bible thus Lord stands for Jehovah, 
the self-existing God, the name first revealed to Moses, 1491 B.C. Uxod. vi. 3 ; when in 
ortlinary type, for Adonai, a lord or master. 

LORD CHAMBERLAIN, CHANCELLOR, &c. See Chamberlain, Chancellor, &c. 

LORD'S DAY ACT, 29 Charles 11. c. 7. See Sabbath. 

LORD'S SUPPER, instituted by Jesus Christ {Matt. xxvi. 17), 33. See Sacra^neiit and 
Trunsubstaniiation. 

LORDS.* The nobility of England date their creation from 1066, when "William Fitz- 
Osborn, the first peer, is said to have been made by "William L earl of Hereford ; and 
afterwards AValter d'Evreux, earl of Salisbury ; Copsi, earl of Northumberland ; Henry de 
Ferrers, earl of Derby ; and Gerodus (a Fleming), earl of Chester. Twenty-two other 
peers were made in this sovereign's reign. The first peer created by patent was lord 
Beauchamp of Holt Castle, by Richard II. in 1387. In Scotland, Gilchrist was created earl 
of_ Angus by Malcolm HI. 1037. In Ireland, sir John do Courcy was created baron of 
Kiusale, &c., in I181 ; the first peer after the obtaining of that kingdom by Henry II. 

LORDS, House of. The peers of England were summoned, ad consulenelum, to consult, 
in early reigns, and were summoned by writ, 6 & 7 John, 1205, but the earliest writ extant 
is 49 Hen. III. 1265. The commons did not form a part of the great council of the nation 
until some ages after the conquest. See Parliament. The house of lords includes the 
spiritual as well as temporal peers of Great Britain. The bishops are supposed to hold 
certain ancient baronies tinder the king, in right whereof they have seats in this house. 
Some of the temporal lords sit by descent, some by creation, and others by election, since 
the union with Scotland in 1707, and with Ireland, 1801. — Scotland elects 16 representative 
peers, and Ireland 4 spiritual lords by rotation of sessions, and 28 temporal peers for life. 
The house of lords in Nov. 1865 consisted of 3 princes of the blood, 3 archbishops, 20 
dukes, 21 marquesses, 129 earls, 27 viscounts, 221 barons, and 2S bishops j in all, 452. The 
house of lords — 



At the death of Charles II. . . , 176 peers. 
At the death of William III. . . .192 

At the death of Anne .... 209 
At the death of George I. . . . . 216 
At the death of George II. ... 229 



At the death of George III. 
At the death of George IV. 
At the death of William IV. 
In the iSth Victoria, 1855 . 
In the 24th Victoria, i860 



• .339 peer.s. 

• 396 

• 456 

• 448 
. 462 



The barons enact the constitutions of Claren- 1 Unite with the commons in making William 

don in 1164 and Mary king and queen .... 1689 

Obtain Magna Charta iu 1215 Reject thegreat reform bill, Oct. 7, 1831 ; passit, 

Held the government .... 1264-5 June 4, 1832 

House of lords abolished by the commons, OpposesuccessfuUythecreationof life-peerages't 

Feb. 6, 1649 ; restored 1660 J Feb. 7, 1856 

LORDS JUSTICES. See Justices. 

LORETTO, near Ancona, Italy. Here is the Casa Santa, or Holy Hotise, in which it is 
pretended the "Virgin Mary lived at Nazareth, and which was carried by angels into Dalmatia 
from Galilee in 1291, and brought here a few years after. The lady of Loretto, gaudily 
dressed, stands upon an altar holding the infant Jesus in her arms, surrounded with gold 
lamps. Loretto was taken by the French iu 1797, and the holy image, which had been 
carried to France, was brotight back with pomp, Jan. 5, 1803. 

L'ORIENT (W. France). Lord Bridport off this port defeated the French fleet, June 23, 
1795. The loss of the French was severe : that of the BritLsh inconsiderable. — The French 
fiag-ship, L'OiuK.VT, blew up during the battle of the Nile, Aug. i, 1798. Admhal Brueys 
and about 900 men perished. 



* Peers of England are free from all arrests for debts, as being the king's hereditary counsellors ; 
therefore a peer cannot bo outlawed in any civil action, and no attachment lies again&t his person ; but 
executiiin may be taken upon his lands and goods. For the same reason, they aie free from all attendance 
at courts leet or sheriffs' turns ; or, in case of a riot, from attending the posse comitatus. He can act as a 
justice of the peace in any part of the kingdom. See Boron. Earl, &c. 

t Peerage for life onfy, with the title of lord W'ensleydale of Wensleydale, was granted to baron sir 
James Pwrke, Jan. 10, 1S56 ; the house of lords ojiposed his sitting and voting as a peer for life, and on July 
25, 1856, ho was created a peer in the utual way, with the title of lord Wensleydale of AValton. 

G O 2 



LOR 



452 



LOW 



LORRAINE (formerly Lotliaringia), a French jn'ovince, became a kingdom under 
Lothaire (son of the emperor Lotliaire L) about 855; it was divided on his death, in 869, 
part of it being made a duchy. The first hereditary duke, Cxerard, was nominated by the 
emperor Henry IIL in 1048. From Gerard descended the illustrious house of Lorraine, 
represented now by the emperor of Austria, whose ancestor, the empress Maria Theresa, 
married in 1736 Francis, formerly duke of Lorraine, then of Tuscany. liOrraino had been 
given to the dethroned king of Poland, Stanislaus L, for life ; at his death in 1766, it was 
imited to France. 

IjOTS. Casting lots was sacred among the Jews, as an appeal to God, Proverhs xvi. 33. 
It was employed in the division of the land of Canaan, about 1444 B.C., by Joshua (xiv.), 
and in the election of Matthias the apostle, a.d. 33, Acts i. — Lots for life or death have been 
frequently cast. For an instance, see Wales, 1649, note. 

LOTTERIES are said to have originated in Florence about 1530, and to have been 
legalised in France in 1539. The first mentioned in English history began drawing at the 
western door of St. Paul's cathedral, Jan. 11, 1569, and continued day and night until 
May 6 following. It contained 40,000 " lots" at los. each lot. The profits were for repairing 
the harbours on the coast of England, and the prizes were pieces of plate. 



A lottery, granted by the king, in special favour 
for the colony of Virginia (prizes, pieces of 
plate), drawn near St. Pauls, 

June 29 — July 20, 161 2 
Fir.st lottery for sums of money took place in . 1630 
Lotteries established (for more than 130 years 

yielded a large annual revenue to the crown) 1693 
Lottery for the British Museum . . . 1753 
Cox's museum, containing many rare sjieci- 
meus of art and .articles of virtu, disposed of 
by lottery, by an act of parliament . . . 1773 
An act passed for the sale of the buildings of 
the Adelphi by lottery . . June 16, „ 

Irish state lottery drawn 17S0 

Lottery for the Leverian Museum . . 17S4-5 



For the Pigott diamond, pemiitted, Jan. 2, 
1801 ; it was afterwards sold at Christie's 
auction for 9500 giuneas . . . May 10, 1802 
For the collection of pictures of alderman Boy- 
dell, by act 1S04-5 

Lotteries abolished by 6 Geo. IV. c. 60 Oct. 1826 

The last drawn Oct. iS, ,, 

Act passed declaring that the then jsending 

Glasgow lottery .should be the la.st . . 1834 
An act passed imposing a penalty of 50?. for 
advertising lotteries in the British news- 
papers ......... 1836 

Lotteries suppressed in France . . 1793 and 1S36 
Mr. Dethiers' twelfth - cake lottery, Argyll- 
rooms, Hanover-square, suppressed Dec. 27, i860 



LOUDOISr-HILL, or Drumclog. See Drumclog. 

LOUIS-D'OR, a French gold coin of 24 francs, fir.st struck by Louis XIII. in 1640 ; its 
value fluctuated. In 1810 it was superseded by the Napoleon. 

LOUISIANA (N. America), one of the United States ; discovered l)y Ferdinand de Soto 
in 1541 ; traversed by M. de Salle in 1682, and settled by Louis XIV. (from whom it derived 
its name) in 1718. It formed the basis of Law's Mississippi scheme. It was ceded to Spain 
at the peace when all east of the Mississippi was given to England, 1763. Capital, Baton 
Rouge. 

Restored to France 1801 Seceded from the Union by ordinance Jan. 25, 1861 

Sold to the Americans, 1803 ; and made a state 1812 Adm. Farr.agut takes New Orleans for the 

Gen. Jackson defeated the British at New Federals April 28, 1862 

Orleans Jan. 8, 181 5 Louisiana restored to the Union . . . 1865 



LOUVRE. This renowned edifice in Paris is said to have been originally a royal 
residence in the reign of Dagobert, 628. It was a jirison-tower constructed by Philippe 
Augustus in 1204. It afterwards became a library, and Charles VI. made it his palace 
(about 1364). Successive kings enlarged and adorned it, particularly Louis XIV. — 
Najioleon I. turned it into a museum, and deposited here the finest collection of paintings, 
statues, and treasures of art known in the world. The chief of those brought from Italy 
have since been restored to the rightful possessors. The magnificent buildings of the new 
Louvre, begun by Napoleon I. and completed by Napoleon III., were inaugurated by the 
latter in great state, Aug. 14, 1857. 

LOVE FEASTS. See Agapcs. 

LOWER EMPIRE. Some historians make it begin with the reign of Valerian, 253 ; 
others with that of Constantine, 323. 

LOWERING BOAT APPARATUS. See Lifc-loats. 

LOW SUNDAY, the first Sunday after Easter, said to derive its name from the contrast 
between its solemnities and those of Easter Sunday. 



LOY 



453 



LUN 



LOYALTY LOAXS were raised during the revolutionary wars. Tlie term "loyalty 
loan " was applied to one opened in London on the 5th Dec. 1796, and in lifteeu hours and 
twenty luiuutes the sunr of eighteen millions sterling was subscribed. See National 
Association. 

LUBECK, a city in N. Gcrmanj', one of the four republics of the German confederation, 
was built in tlie 12th century, and was the chief founder of the Uanseatic league about 1240, 
which lasted till 1630 Liibeck was declared a free imperial city about 1226 ; but was 
frequently attacked by the Danes. The French took it by assault, Nov. 6, 1806, and 
Napoleon incorporated it into his em])ire in 1810. On his fall in 1814 it became once 
more a free imperial city. Pojiulation in 1862, 50,614. 

LUCANLVNS, a warlike people of S. Italy, defeated Alexander of Epirus at Pandosia, 
332 B.C. ; were subdued by the Romans 227 ; revolted after the battle of Cannte, 216 ; were 
reduced by Scipio, 201 ; again revolted, 90; admitted as Eoman citizens, 88. 

LUCCA (central Italj'), a Roman colony 177 B.C., a Lombai'd duchy 1327 A.D., became 
a free city about 1370, and took an active part in the civil wars of the Italian I'epublics. It 
was united with Tuscany, and given in 1805 as a principality to Eliza Bonaparte by her brother 
Napoleon I. Lucca, as a duchj*, was given to Maria Ijouisa, widow of Louis, king of 
Etruria, in 1814. It was exchanged by her son Charles-Louis for Parma and Placentia in 1847, 
•was annexed to Tuscany, and with it became jjart of the kingdom of Italy in i860. 

LUCIA, ST. (West Indies), settled by the French in 1650 ; taken by the British several 
times in the subsequent wars. Insurrection of the French negroes, April 1795. St. Lucia 
was restored to France at the peace of 1802 ; but was seized by England, 1803, and confirmed 
to her in 1814. Population in 1861, 26,705. 

LUCIFER MATCHES came into use about 1S34. In March, 1842, Mr. Reuben Par- 
tridge patented machinery for mamifacturing the splints. In 1845, Schrotter of Yienna 
discovered his amorphous pliosphoru.s, by the use of which lucifers are rendered less dangerous, 
and the manufacture less unhealthy. 

LUCKNOW, the capital of Ouder See India, 1857. 

LUDDITES. Large parties of men under this designation commenced their depredations 
at Nottingham, lireaking frames and machinery, Nov. 181 1. Skirmish with the military 
there, Jan. 29, 1812. Several serious riots occurred again in 1814 ; and numerous bodies of 
these people, chiefly unemployed ai'tisans, committed great excesses in i8i6 ct seq. Several 
of these Luddites were tried and executed. 

LUGDUNUil. See Lcydcn and Lyons. 

LUNATICS. An eminent authority has traced insanity, in a thousand male patients, to 
the following causes : — 



Drvinkenness . 
Conscquenccis of disease 
Epilepsy . . . . 
Ambitiun 
Excessive labour 
Burn idiots . 
Misfortunes 



no 
100 



69 



Old ago 69 

Chagrin . . . . -54 

Love . . . . . . 47 

Accidents . . . .39 

Religious enthusiasm . . . 29 

Unnatural practices . . 27 

Political events . . . . 26 



Poisonous effluvia . 

Ill-usage 

Crimes, remorse, and despair . 
Malfoniiation of the skull 
Other and unknown causes . 

Pretended insanity . . . 



. " The king shall have the custody of the lands 
of natural fools," &c., 17 Edw. II. . . . 

M.arriagcs with lunatics declared void, 15 Geo. 
II. c. 30 

Act regarding criminal lunatics p.assed Aug. 

The numerous laws respecting lunatics were 
consolidated and amended by 16 & 17 Vict. 
cc. 70, 96, 97 ....... 

A new lun.acy act for Scotland passed 

An act to amend the law relating to conmiis- 
sion.s of lunacy passed (said to be in conse- 
quence of the Wyndham case, see Trials, 1862) 



1324 
1742 



1853 



S62 



TREATMENT OF THE INSANE. 

Till the end of the last century lunatics were 
treated with cruel severity. See Conolly "On 
the Treatment of the Insane," 1856. 

The insane were exhibited at Uethlem as a 
show, for id. or 2d. till 1770 



Enlightened principles of treatment were in- 
troduced by Wm. Tuke, at the Society of 
Friends' "Retreat," at York, and by Pinel, 
at the Bicetre. Paris, with verj- groat success 

Esquii'ol succeeds Pinel, and strongly recom- 
mends instruction in the management of 
mental disorders 

Exposure of enormous cruelties in the Bethlem 
hospital 

This led to gradual improvements, and at last 
to the total abolition of mech.anical restraints 
at Lincoln, 1837 ; and at IlanwcU Asj-luni 
(under the superintendence of Dr. John 
Conollj-) and at other jilacos .... 

Psychological journal first published hy Dr. 
Forbes Winslow ....... 

Journal of Mental Science, by Dr. J. C. Buck- 
nill ... ... 



IBIO 

iSis 



Private. 


Pai 


PER. 




Male. Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Total. 


132 123 


6oo3 


7316 


13.579 


895 723 


91 


94 


1,803 


1448 1350 


1034 


1279 


5.1" 



LUN 454 LUX 

LUNATICS, continued. 

LUNATICS IX CHARGE IN ENGLAND AND M'ALES, JAN. I, 1 855. 

County asylums . . . . 

Hospitals 

Licensed hoiLses . . . . 

2475 2196 7133 8689 20,493 

On J.in. I, 1858, there wore in charge in England and Wales 22,310 lunatics of all classes ; 1859, 22,853 '< 
i860, 17,837; 1S61, 23,721 ; 1862, 26,169; 1^64. 28,285; 1865, 29,425. 

lu 1851, there were in Ireland nearly 15,000 lunatics of all classes ; in Scotland in 1851, 3362 in charge ; 
in 1855, 7403 ; of which only 3328 were luider the protection of the law. 

LUND-HILL, near Bariisley, in Sontli Yorkshire. While the miners -were dining in tlie 
pit, Ueh. 19, 1857, the inflammable gas took fire and exploded. Above i8o miners perished. 
In April and j\Ia3^ bodies were still being extricated. Tliere had been great laxity of discipline 
in the pit. yoool. were subscribed for the bereaved. 

LUNEBURG. Sec Brunsidd: 

LUNEYILLE (F]-ance), Peace of, concluded between the French republic and the 
emperor of Germany, confirmed the cessions made by the treaty of Campo Forniio, 
stipulated that the Rhine, to the Dutch territories, should form the boundary of France, and 
recognised the Batavian, Helvetic, Ligurian, and Cisalpine republics, Feb. 9, 1801. 

LUPERC!ALIA, a yearly festival* observed at Rome on Feb. 15, in honour of Pan, 
destroyer of wolves {lupi), instituted by the Romans, according to Plutarch ; but according 
to Livy, brought by Evander into Italy. These feasts are said to have been abolished in 
496, by pope Gelasius, on account of their great disorders. 

LUSATIA, a marcpiisafc in N. Germany, given to John of Bohemia, 13 19 ; obtained by 
Jlatthia-s of Hungary, 1478 ; and ceded to Saxony in 1635. 

LUSIAD. See Epic. LUSI^rVNIA. See Portugal. 

LUSTRUM, an expiatory sacrifice made for the Roman people, at the end of every five 
years, after llie census had been taken, 472 b.c. Every fifth year was called a lu.'strum ; and 
ten, fifteen, or twenty years, were commonly expressed by two, three, or four lustra. The 
number of Roman citizens was— in 293 B.C., 272,308 ; 179 e.g., 273,294 ; 70 B.C., 450,000; 
28 B.C., 4,164,060 ; A.D. 48, 5,984,072. 

LUTHERANISM,f the form of Christianity professed by the majorit}' of the people of 
the north of Germany, Prussia, Denmark, and Sweden. The doctrines are mainl}^ embodied 
in Luther's catechisms, in the Augsburg Confession, and in the Formula Concordicc of the 
Lutherans, published in 1580. Their first imiversity was founded at Marburg, in 1527, by 
Philip, landgrave of Hesse. 

LUTZEN, or Lutzengen (N. Germany). Here Gusta^'us Adolphus, king of Sweden, 
defeated the Imperialists under Wallenstein, Nov. 6, 1632, but was himself killed'; and here 
the French army, commanded by Napoleon, defeated the combined armies of Russia and 
Prussia, commanded by general "Wittgenstein, May 2, 18 13. The battles of Bautzen 
and Wiirtzchen immediately followed (May 19 — 21), both in favour of Napoleon. The allies 
Avere compelled to pass the Oder, and an armistice was agreed to, and afterwards prolonged; 
i>ut, unfortunately for the French emperor, did not produce peace. 

'LUXEMBURG (Holland), capital of the grand duchy of Luxemburg, part of -which is 
subject to Holland and jiart to Belgium since 1839. Luxemburg, once considered the 
strongest fortress in the world, was taken and pillaged by the French in 1542-3 ; by the 
Spaniards in 1544 ; by the French in 1684 ; restored to Spain in 1697 ; taken by the French in 
1 701 ; given to the Dutch as a barrier town, and ceded to the emperor at the peace in 1713. 

* Naked youths ran through the streets with whips, lashing all whom they encountered, even women, 
who received the stripes with iuchnation, believing that they removed barrenness and eased the pains of 
childbirth. Augustus forbade all persons above the age of fourteen to appear naked during this festival. 
Cicero, in his Philippics, reproaches Antony for having disgraced the dignity of the consulship by appoai-ing 
naked on one of these occasions. Varro. 

t Martin Luther was born at Eisleben, Nov. lo, 1483 ; studied at Erf\irt, 1501 ; was professor of philo- 
sophy at Wittenberg, 150S ; resisted the sale of indulgences, 1517 ; defended hi"inself at Aug.sburg, 1518 ; at 
AVorras, 1520 ; was excommunicated, June 16, 1520 ; began his German bible, 1521 ; married K.athcriue de 
Bora, 1525; published his German bible complete, 1534; died Feb. iS, 1546. 



LUX 



455 



LYO 



It withstood several sieges iu the hist ceutuiy. It surrendered to the French after a long and 
memorable siege, June 7, 1795. 

LUXOR. See Thelcs. 

LUXURY. Lucullus (died 49 B.C.), at Rome, was distinguished for inordinate luxury. 
See Sumptuary Laws. 

LYCEUM (origiuall}^ a temple of Apollo Lyceus, or a portico, or gallery, huiltby L3'ceus, 
son of Apollo) was a spot near the Ilissus, in Attica, where Aristotle taught philosophy ; 
and as he generally tauglit as lie walked, his pupils were called peripatetics, loalkcrs-about, 
and his philosophy that of the Lyceum, 342 B.C. Stanleij. See Theatres. 

LYCIA (Asia Minor) belonged successively to Crcesus (about 560 B.C.), the Persians 
(546 B.C.), to Alexander the Great (333 B.C.), and to his successors the Seleucida>. The 
Romans gave Lycia to tlie Rhodians (1S8 B.C.). It became nominally free under the Romans, 
.and was annexed to tlie empire by Claudius. Tlie marbles, brought from Lycia by sir Charles 
Fellows, were deposited in the British Museum, 1840-6. 

LYDIA, or Maeonia, an ancient kingdom in Asia Minor, under a long dynasty of kings, 
the last being Crcesus, "the richest of mankind." The coinage of gold and silver money, 
and other useful inventions, are ascribed to the Lydians. jEsop, the Phrygian f;ibulist, 
Alcman, the iirst Greek erotic poet, Tiiales of Miletus, Auaximene.s, Xeuophanes, Anacreon 
of Teos, Heraclitus of Ephesus, &c., flourished in Lydia. 



Argon, a doscend.ant of Horculos, reigns in 
Lydia. Herinl. . . . . .B.C. 1223 

The kingdom of Lydia, propoi'ly so called, 
begins under Ardysvis L Jila'ir. . . . 797 

Alyattes L reigns 761 

Jleles commences his rule 747 

Keign of Candaules ...... 735 

Gyges, first of the race Mermnadse, kills Can- 
daules, marries his queen, \isurps the tlirone, 
and makes great conquests . . . . 718 

Ardysus 1 1. reigns, 678 ; the Cimbri besiege 
Sardis, the capital of Lydia .... 635 

The Milesian war, commenced under Gyges, is 

continued bj' Sadyattes, who reigns . . . 628 
Heign of Alyattes II. ..... . 617 

iiattle upon the river Ilalj-s, between the 
Lj-diins and Medes, interrupted by an 
almost total eclipse of the sun. This eclipse 



had been predicted manj' years before by 
Thales of Miletus. Blair. . B.C. May 28, 585 

Crojiius, son of Alyattes, succeeds to the 
throne, and conquers Asia Minor . . 560-50 

Croesus, dreading the power of Cyrus, whose 
conquests had reached to the borders of 
Lydia, crosses tlie Halys to attack the Medes, 
with 420,000 men and 60,000 horse 

He is defeated, pursued, and besieged in his 
capital by Cyrus, who orders him to be 
burned alive ; the pile is alreidy on fa-e, 
when Crcesus calls aloud, Solon! and Cyrus 
hearing him, spares his life. Lydia made a 
province of the Persian empire . . . , 

Sardis burnt by the lonians .... 

Lydia conquered by Alexander . . . . 

Becomes jxxrt of the kingdom of Porgamus . 283 

Conquered by the Turks . . . a.d. 1326 



543 



546 
499 
332 



LYIXG-IN HOSPITALS. The first, established in Dublin by Dr. Bartholomew Mosse, 
a physician, amidst strong opposition, was opened March, 1745. See Hospitals. 

LYMPHATIC VESSELS (concerned iu digestion), were discovered by Jasper Asellius 
in 1622, and described in 1627. Discovered in oviparous animals by Dr. Hewson, who 
disputed the honour of the discovery with Dr. Munro, 1 762. 

LYNCH LAW, ptmishment inflicted by private individuals, independently of the legal 
authorities, said to derive its name from John Lynch, a farmer, who exercised, it tipon the 
fugitive slaves and criminals dwelling in the "dismal swamp," Nortli Carolina, Avhen thej' 
committed outrages u]ii)n yiersons and property which the colonial law could not promptly 
repress. This mode of administering justice began about the end of the 17th century, aud 
still exists in tho outlying districts of the United States. 

LYONS (S. France), the Roman Lugdunum, founded by M. Plancu.s, 43 is.c. Tho 
i-ity was reduced to ashes in a single night by lightning, A.D. 59, and was rebuilt in tlie 
reign of Nero. It was a free city till its union with France in 1307. 



Clodius Albinus defeated and .slain by Septimus 

Sevcrus, near Lyons . . . Feb. 19, 197 
Two general councils held here . . 1245, 1274 
Silk manufacture commenced .... 1515 
l^yons besieged by the Convention army — sur- 
rendered — and awful scenes of blood and 
rapine followed, Oct. 7 ; tbe National Con- 
vention decreed tho demolition of the cit}', 

Oct. 12, 1793 
Capitulated to the Austrians, March, 1814, July, 1815 



An insuiTection .among the artisans, which led 
to great iiopular excesses ; quelled by an 
army .... Nov. 21 — Deo 3, i8:;r 
Dro.adful riots, put down hy milit.ary April 15, 1834 
Railway to Paris opened . . . A]jril 7, 1839 
A dreadful inundation at Lyons. Seo Imnida- 

tioHs. Nov. 4, 1840 

Another insurrection quelled, with much loss 
of life Juno 15, 1S49 



LYR 456 MAC 

LYRE. Its invention is ai-crihed to the Grecian Hermes, the Latin Mercury, who, 
according to Homer, ga\-e it to Apollo, the first tliat played upon it with method, and accom- 
panied it with poetry. Tlie invention of the primitive lyre, with three strings, is ascribed to 
the first Egyptian Hermes. Terpander added several strings to the lyre, making the immber 
seven, 673 B.C. Phryuis, a musician of Mitylene, added two more, making nine, 438 B.C. ^ 

M. 

MACADAMISING, a system of road-making devised by Mr. John Macadam, and pub- 
lished by him in an essay, in 1819, having practised it in Ayrshire. He received a grant of 
io,oooZ. from parliament; was ajipointed surveyor-general of the metropolitan roads iu 
1827 ; and died in 1836. 

MACAO (N. Cliina) was given to the Portuguese as a commercial station in 1586, iu 
return for their assistance against pirates. 

MACARONI. This name was given to a poem byTlieop. Folengo, 1509, and it continues 
to designate trifling performances, as buffoonery, puns, anagrams, " wit without wisdom, and 
humour without sense." His poem was so called from an Italian cake of the same name, 
jdeasant to the taste, but witliout any alimentary virtue. These poems became tlie reigning 
taste in Italy and France, where they gave birth to Macaroni academics, and reaching 
England, to Macaroni clubs (about 1772J, till, in the end, everything ridiculous in dress and 
manners was called " Macaroni." 

MACCABEES, a finnily of patriotic Jews, who commenced their career during the 
persecution of Autiochus Epiphanes, 167 B.C., when Mattathias, a priest, resisted the 
tyranny of the governor. His son, Judas Maccabfcus, defeated the Syrians in three battles, 
166, 165 B.C. ; but fell in an ambush, i6i B.C. His brother Jonathan made a league with 
the Romans and Laceda?monians, and after an able administration was treacherously killed 
at Ptolemais by Tryphon, 143 B.C. His brother and successor, Simon, was also murdered, 
135 B.C. John Hyrcanus, son of Simon, succeeded. His son Judas, called also Aristobulus, 
took the title of king, 107 B.C. The history of the Maccabees is contained in five l)Ooks of 
that name, two of which are included in our Apocrypha. Four are accounted canonical by the 
Roman Catholic church ; none by Protestant communions. 

MACDONALD AFFAIR. See Prussia, 1861. 

MACE, a weapon anciently used by the cavalry of most nations, was originally a spiked 
club, hung at the saddle-bow, and usually of metal. Maces were also early ensigns of 
authority borne before officers of state, the top being made in the form of an open crown, 
and commonly of silver gilt. Tlie lord chancellor and speaker of the house of commons 
have maces borne before them. Edward III. granted to London the privilege of having 
gold or silver maces carried before the lord mayor, sheriffs, aldermen and corporation, 1354. 
It was with the mace usually carried before the lord mayor on state occasions, tliat Walworth, 
lord mayor of London, knocked the rebel Wat Tyler oft' his horse, a courtier afterwards 
despatching him with his dagger, for rudely ajiproaching Richard II., 1381. Cromwell, 
entering the house of commons to disperse its members and dissolve the parliament, ordered 
one of his soldiers to " take away that fool's bauble, the mace," which was done, and the 
doors of the house locked, April 20, 1653. 

MACEDON (N. Greece). The first kingdom was founded by Caranus, about 814 B.C. 
It was an inconsiderable countrj^, sometimes under the protection of Athens, sometimes of 
Thebes, and sometimes of Sparta, until the reign of Philip, the father of Alexander the 
Great, who by his wisdom as a politician, and exploits as a general, made it a ])0werful 
kingdom, and paved the v,ay for his son's greatness. 

Reigns of Caranus, 814 B.C., or 796, or 74S ; I He is murdered by a favourite, to whom be 

Perdiccas I., 729; Arg.neus I., 684 ; Philip I., promised his daughter in marriage . b c. 399 

640 or 6og. j Pausanins reigns 394 

.a<:ropus conquers the Illyrians . . B.C. 602' Reign of Amyntas II., 393 ; expelled . . 398 

Reign of Amyntas, 540 ; of Alexander I. . . 500 ; Recovers his throne, and kills Pausanias . . 397 



jVIacedon conquered by the Persians, 513 ; de 
livered by the victory of Platsea . . . 479 

Reign of Perdiccas II 454 

Potid;t;a taken by the Athenians . . . 431 
Archelaus, natural son of Perdiccas, murders 
the legitimate heirs of his father; seizes the 
throne, and improves the country . . . 413 



The lUyrians enter Macedonia, expel Amyntas, 
and make Argseus, brother of Pausanias, 

king 392 

Amyntas again recovers his kingdom . . . 390 
Macedonians, a semi-Arian sect, followers of 
Macedonius, about 341 ; condemned by the 
council of Constantinoi^lc .... 381 



MAC 



MAD 



MACEDON, continued. 

Reign of Alexander II., 369; assassinated B.C. 367 

Reign of Terdiccas II I. , 364 ; killed in battle . 360 
Reign of Pbilip H., and institution of the 

Macedonian phalanx ..... 359 

He defeats the Athenians and Illyrians . 360, 359 

He takes Amphipolis. Soe Airheri/ . . . 358 
He conquers Thrace, Illyria, and Thessaly 356-352 

Birth of Alexander the Great . . . . 356 

Close of the first Sacred war .... 346 

lUyi-ienm overrun by the army of Philip . . 344 

Thrace made tributary to Macedon . . . 343 

Aristotle ajipointed tutor to Alexander . . ,, 

War .against the Athenians ..... 341 

Philip besieges Byzantium unsuccessfidly . . 340 

Battle of Chreronea ; Philip conquers . . 338 
Philip is assassinated by Pausanias at jEg;\i 

during the celebration of games in honour 

of his daughter's nuptials 336 

Alexander III., surnamed the Great, succeeds ,, 
The Greeks appoint him general of their armies 

against the I'ersians 335 

The Thebans revolt ; he levels Thebes to the 

ground ; the house of Pindar alone left . . ,, 
He passes into Asia, and gains his first battle 

over Darius at the Granicus . . May 22, 334 
Sardis surrenders, Halicarnassus taken, and 

cities in Asia Minor „ 

Meninon ravages the Cyclades ; Darius takes 

the field with 460,000 infantry, and 100,000 

cavalry 333 

] Darius defeated at Tssus (zchich see) . Nov. ,, 
Alexander on his way to Egypt, lays siege to 

Tyre, which is destroyed after seven :uonths 332 

Damascus is taken, and the vast treasures . ,, 

Gaza surrenders . . . . . . . , , 

Alexajider enters Jeruisalem ; and Egypt is con- 
quered ,, 

Alexandria founded ,, 

The Peri-ians totally defeated at Arbela Oct. i, 331 

Alexander master of Asia ; enters Babjdon . ,, 

Alexander sits on the throne of Darius at Susa 330 

Parthia, Media, &c., overrun bj' him . . 329 

Thalestris, queen of the Amazons, visits him . ,, 
He puts his friend Parmenio to death, on a 

charge of conspiracy supposed to be false . ,, 
His expedition to India ; Porus, king of India, 

is defeated and taken ; and the country as 

far as the Ganges is ovemm .... 327 
Callisthenes is put to the torture for refusing 

to render divine homage to Alexander . . 328 
Voyage of his admiral Nearchus from the Indus 

to the Euphrates 328-325 



Returns to Babylon, 324 : dies 

Pbilip Aridajus' III. king . 

Alexander's conquests are divided among bis 
generals, 323 ; bis remains are transported to 
Alexandria, and buried by Ptolemy . . . 

The Greeks defeated by Antipater and the 
Macedonians, near Cranon (which gee) 

Cassander reigns, 316; rebuilds Thebes . . 

Seleucus recovers Babylon 

Cassander kills Roxana and her son (the last of 
Alexander's fixmily), and usurps the throne . 

Battle of Ipsus (?(7/uc/t .see) ; Antigonus killed . 

New division of the empire .... 

Death of Cassander ....... 

Reign of Alexander V. and Antipater, his sons 

Demetrius I., Poliorcetes, son of Antigonus, 
murders Alexander, and seizes the crown of 
Macedon 

Achaean league formed against Macedon . 28 

Governments ofPyrrhus, 287 ; Lj^simachus, 286 ; 
Ptolemy Ceraunus 

Irruption of the Gauls ; Ptolemy killed . . 

Sosthenes governs ...... 

Reign of Antigonus Gonatas, son of Demetrius 

Pyrrhus invades Macedon, defeats Antigonus, 
and is proclaimed king 

Pyrrhus slain ; Antigonus restored . 

Antigonus takes Athens. . . . . 

The Gauls again invade Macedon 

Revolt of the Parthians 

Reign of Demetrius II 

Philip, his son, 232 ; set aside by Antigonus 
Doson . 

Philip v., 220 ; wars unsuccessfully against the 
Rhodians 

Philip defeated by the Romans at Cynocephala; 

Reign of Perseus, his son 

Perseus defeated by the Romans 

The consul jEmilius Paulus enters Macedon, 
and pronounces it a Roman province . . 

Perseus and his sons made prisoners, walk in 
chains before the chariot of iEmilius in his 
triumph for the conquest of Macedon 

Macedonia plundered by Theodoric the Ostro- 
goth AD. 

Conquered by the Bulgarians .... 

Recovered by the emperor Basil . . . . 

Formed into the Latin kingdom of Thessa- 
lonica, by Boniface, of Montferrat . 

After various changes, it is finally conquered 
by the Turks under Amurath II., and an- 
nexed to his empire 



B.C. 323 



315 
312 



311 
301 



29S 



294 
1-243 



274 
272 
268 

250 
239 



202 
197 
17S 
171 



167 



lOOI 

1204 



MACHIAVELLIAN PRINCIPLES, those laid down by Nicholas Machiavelli of Florence 
(born 1469, died 1527), in his Practice of Politics and The Prince. By some they are stigma- 
tised as "tlie most pernicions maxims of government, founded on the vilest policy;" and by 
others as " sound doctrines, nothwithstanding the prejudice erroneou.sly raised against 
them." The author .said that if he taught princes to be tyrants, he had also taught the people 
to destroy tyrants. The work appeared at Eome in 1532, and Mas tran.slated into Englisli 
in 1 761. 

MACIEJOVICE (near Warsaw, Poland). Here the Poles were totally defeated by the 
Kussians, and their general, Kosciusko, taken prisoner, Oct. 4, 1794. 

MADAGASCAR (S. E. coast of Africa), a large populous island, said to have been dis- 
covered by Lorenzo Almeida, 1506. 



The French .attempted to settle at Autongel- 
b.ay in 1774 

Their establishment at Fort Dauphin fell int-j 
the hands of the English with Boui-bon and 
Mauritius in iSio-ii 

The settlements ceded to king Radama, on his 
giving up the slave trade .... i8i8 

Radama, who favovired Eiu'opcans and encou- 
raged Christi.anity, died 1828 



A reactionary policy under his energetic queen 
immediately began ; the English missionaries 
who came in 1820 obliged to depart . . 1836 

The application of the native laws to the Euro- 
pean settlers occasioned an luisuccessful 
atUick on the town of Tamatave, by a united 
o.'cpedition from the English at the Mauritius, 
and the French from the Isle of Bourlson, 

June, 1845 



MAD 



458 



MAE 



I The queen dies ; succeeded by her sou Radama 

II., a Christian Aug. 1861 

A revolutiun ; the king and his ministers assas 
sinated ; the queen iiroclaimed the sovereign, 
I May, 1863 

Embassy from Madagascar arrives at South- 

i an.pton ^°^- ^^^■i 

\ Disputes with tlie French continue . Nov. 1865 



I 



MADAGASCAR, contimicd. 

All amicable intercourse ceases for ten years, 
din-ing which the native Christians suffer 
persecution .....-• 1846 
The French defeated in an attack on the island, 

Oct. 19, 1S55 
The rev. W. Ellis published an interesting 
account of his three visits to the island, on 
behalf of the Ijondon Missionary Society, in 

1854-5-6, 185S , 

MADEIRA, an island, N. W. coast of Africa, discovered, it is said in 1344, 1»y ^Ii*- 
Macliani, an En^dish gentleman, or mariner, ^vho tied from France for an illicit amour. He 
was driven here by n storm, and his mistress, a French lady, dying, he made a canoe, and 
c.arried the news of his discovery to Pedro, king of Arragon, whicli occasioned the repo t 
that the island was discovered by a I'ortuguese, 1345- It i« asserted that the i^ortugnese 
did not visit this island until 1419 or 1420, nor did they colonise it until HSi- tt was 
taken hy the British in July, 1801 ; and again by admiral Hood and general Beiestoid 
Dec. 24, 1807, and retained ii\ trust for the royal family of Portugal, which had emigrated 
to the J3razils. It was restored to the Portuguese in 1814. Smce 1852 the renowned 
vintages here have been totally ruined by the vine disease. 

MADIAI PERSECUTION. See Tuscany. 

MADRAS (S. E. Hindostan), called by the natives Chennapatam, colonised by the 
English, 1620. 



Port St. George built, 1641 ; made a presidency 1654 
J?engal placed under Madras .... 1658 
Calcutta, hitherto subordinate to Madras, made 

a presidency 17°' 

Madras taken by the French . . Sept. 14, 1746 

Restored to the English i749 

Vainly besieged by the French under Lally, 

Dec. 12, 175S 
Ilyder marches to Madras and obtains a favour- 
able treaty April, 1769 

Sir John Lindsay arrives . . . July, 1770 
He is succeeded' by sir R. Hartland . Sept. 1771 

]j(ird Pigot, governor, imprisoned by his own 
councU, Aug. 24, 1776 ; dies in confinement, 
April 17, 1777 ; his enemies convicted and 
fined 1000?. each .... Feb. 11, 1780 
Sir Eyre Coote arrives . . . Nov. 5, ,, 
He defeats Hyder .... July i, 1781 
Jjord Macartney airives as governor June 22, ,, 
The Madras government arrests gen. Stuart for 
disobedience, and sends him to England, 

June, 17S3 
Lord Cornwallis arrives here . . Dec. 12, 1790 
Sir Charles Oakley succeeds gen. Meadows as 

governor Aug. i, 1792 

Lord Mornington (afterwards the marquess 

Wellesley) visits here . . . Dec. 1798 

General Harris with the Madras army enters 
Mysure, March 5 ; and arrives at Scringa- 



patam, April 5, which is stormed by the 
British under major-general Baird, and 
Tippoo Saib killed .... May 4, 

Appointment of sir Thomas Strange, fir.st judge 
of Madras under the charter . . Dec. 26, 

More than 1000 houses in Madras burnt ^ Feb. 

The Madras army under general Arthur Welles- 
ley (afterwards duke of Wellington) marches 
for Poonah (see 7rt'/i«) . • ■ March, 

Mutiny among the British forces at Vellore 

600 sepoys killed ; 200 executed . July 10, 

Mutiny of the sepoy troops at Madras . . . 

Arrival of lord Minto at Madras, who publishes 
a r'cneral amnesty .... Sept. 29 

Awful hurricane, by which the ships at anchor 
wore driven into "the town and seventy sail 
sunk, manv with their crews . . May, 

Madras attacked by the Pindarees . . . 

Appointment of t^ie rev. Dr. Corrie, first Bishop 
of Madras Feb. 14, 1835 

Sir Charles Trevelyan,* governor, Jan. 1859; 
recalled for publisiiing a minute in opposi- 
tion to Mr. Ja?. Wilson's financial schemes. 

May 10, i860 

His successor, sir H. Wood, dies at Madras, 

Aug. 2, „ 

Sir Wm. Denison appointed governor, Nov. 
i860; arrives .... Feb. 18, 1861 
[For other events, see Jiidia.] 



1799 



1803 



1806 



1811 
1817 



MADRID (New Castile). Mentioned in history as Majerit, a Moorish castle. 



Kicked by the Moors 1109 

JIade tlie seat of the Spanish court . . . 1516 

Taken by lord Galway 1706 

The Escurial was built . . . . 1563 c( scq. 
The old palace was bunit down . . . . 1734 
Madrid taken by the French . . . March, 1808 
The citizens rise up in arms to expel the French, 
and a dreadful conflict takes place May 2, 1808 



Joseph Bonaparte enters Madrid as king of 
Spain, but soon retires . . . July 20, 180S 

Madrid retaken by the French, Doc. 2, 1808 ; 
and retained till it is entered by WelUngton 
and his army .... Aug. 12, 1812 

Ferdinand YII. restored . . . May 14, 1S14 
Population, in 1857, 483,795. 

See S^Min, 1S40 el seq. 



MAESTRICHT (Holland). It revolted from Spain 1570, and was taken by the prince of 
Parma in 1579, when a dreadful massacre took ])lace. In 1632, the prince of Orange reduced 
it after a memorable siege, and it was confirmed to the Dutch in 1648 ; Louis XIV. took it 
in 1673 ; William, prince of Orange, invested it in vain in 1676 ; but in 1678 it was restored 
to the Dutch. In 1 748 it was besieged by the French, wlio were permitted to take i)Ossession 
of the city on condition of its being restored at the peace then negotiating. At the coni- 

•■• Appointed financial secretary and a member of the Indian council at Calcutta, Oct. 1SG2. 



MAG 459 MAG 

I nienccnieiit of 1793, Maestiieht was unsiiecessfully attacked by the French, Lut they became 
'1 masters of it towards tlie end of tlie following year. lu 1814, it was made part of the 
j kingdom of the Nutherhinds ; it now belongs to Holland. 

I MAGAZINE, at first a miscellaneous periodical publication. There arc now magazines 
' devoted to nearly every department of knowledge. The following arc the dates of the first 
publication of the princi|)al magazines. In Jan. 1865, 544 magazines were being published 
: in Great Britain and Ireland. See Reviews and Ncicspapcrs. 



Gentleman's Magazine . . 1731 I European Magazine . . . 1782 



London ... . . 1732 

Soots 1739 

Royal 1759 

Court ..... 1760 

Gospel 176S 

Lady's ..... 1772 



Jfethodist .... 1784 

Evangelical . . . . 1792 

Moutbly 1796 

Philosopbical 



Eraser's Magazine . , . 1830 

Metroiwlitaa . . . . 1831 

Penny 1832 

Tait's 1833 

Cunihill 1859 



Blackwood's .... 1817 j Macmillan's 

New Monthly . . . . 1S14 1 Temi^le Bar ; and St. James's 1S60 



MAGDALEXS and Magdai.enettes, communities of nuns and women, the latter 
cla.ss consisting chiefly of penitent courtesans. The order of penitents of St. Magdalen was 
founded 1272, at ilarseilles. The convent of Naples was endowed by queen Sancha, 1324. 
That at Metz was instituted in 1452. At Paris, 1492. The Magdalen at Rome was endowed 
by pope Leo X., in 1515, and favoured by Clement VIII., in 1594. The ]\Iagdalen Hospital, 
London, was founded in 1758, principally under the direction of Dr. Dodd. The Asylum in 
Dublin was opened in June, 1766. 

MAGDEBURG (Prussia). The archbishopric was founded about 967. The city suffered 
much during the religious wars in Germany. It was blockaded for seven months by the 
Imperialists, under AVallenstein, in 1629 ; and was barbarously sacked by Tilly on May 10, 
1 63 1. It Avas given to Brandenburg in 1648; was taken bj' the French Nov. 8, 1806, 
and annexed to the kingdom of "Westphalia ; but was restored to Prussia in 1813.* 

MAGELLAN, Str.a.its of (connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans\ was passed by 
Fernando de JNIagelhaens (Magellan), a Portuguese, on Nov. 27, 1520. He gave the latter 
ocean its name on account of its calmness. JVlagellan completed the first voyage round the 
world, with a fleet of discovery fitted out by the emperor Charles V., but was killed in 1521. 
Tiie S[)aniards had a fort here, called Cape Famine, because the gan-ison perished for want. 

]\IAGENTA, a small town in Lombardy, memorable for the victory of the French and 
Sardinian army over the Austrians, June 4, 1859. The emperor Louis Napoleon com- 
manded, and he and the king of Sardinia were in the thickest of the fight. It is said that 
55,CK)0 French and Sardinians, and 75,000 Austrians were engaged. The former are asserted 
to have lost 4000 killed and wounded, and the Austrians 10,000, besides 7000 prisoners ; 
these numbers are still doubtful. The French generals Espinasse and Clerc were killed. The 
arrival of general M'Mahon during a deadly struggle between the Austrians and the French, 
greatly contributed to the victorJ^ The contest near the bridge of BuffaloraAvas very severe. 
The Austrians fought well, but were badly commanded. The emperor and king entered 
j\Iilan on June 8 following ; Jl'ilahon and Regnault d'Angely were created marshals of 
France. — The red dye, rosaniline, obtained by chemists from gas-tar, is termed magenta. 
Sec Aniline. 

MAGI, OR Worshippers of Fire. The Persians adored the invisible and incomiire- 
hensiblc God as the principle of all good, and paid homage to fire, as the emblem of his power 
and purity. They built no altars nor temples ; their sacred fires blazed in the open air, and 
their offerings were made upon the earth. The Magi, their priests, are said to have had skill 
in astronomy, &c. ; hence the term Magi was applied to all learned men, till they were finall}- 
confounded with the magicians. Zoroaster, king of Bactria, was the reformer of the sect of 
the Magi ; he flourished about 1080 li.c. ; others say 550 B.C. Their religion was superseded 
in Persia by Mahometanism, a.d. 652. The Parsees at Bombay arc descendants of the 
Guebres or fire-worshippers. 

JIAGIC. See Alchemy, Witcheraf/, &c. The invention of the Magic Lantern is 
ascribed to Roger Bacon, about 1260, but more correctly to Athauasius Kircher, who 
died 1680. 

* The Mafidthtu-f! Experiment is shown by means of a hollow sphere, composed of two hemisjiheres, 
fittin^ air-tiglit. When the air is exhausted by the air-pump, the hemispheres are held together by the 
jirossure of the atmosphere, and require gr;;at force to separate them. The apparatus was suggested by 
Utto von Gucrickc, the inventor of the a:r-puiip. He died in 16S6. Brande. 



JIAG 460 MAG 

MAGISTEATES. See Justices. The present arrangement of metropolitan police magis- 
trates (the chief sitting at Bow-street) was made by act of parliament in 1 792. Henry 
Fielding, the novelist, was acting magistrate for Westminster and at Bow-street. He was 
sncceeded by his half-brother, sir John Fielding, in 1761. 

By Sir William Addington . 1780 ] Sir Xathaniel Conant . . 1813 Sir Frederick Roe . . . 1827 
Sir Richard Ford . . 1800 Sir Robert Baker . . . 1820 Mr. T. J Hall . ... 1S39 

Mr. Read .... i8o5 | Sir Richard Birnie . . . 1821 Sir Thomas Henry . . 1864 

Stipendiary borough magistrates were appointed by 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 76, 1835. 

MAGNA CHARTA. The fundamental parts of the great charter of English liberty were 
derived from Saxon Charters, continued by Henry I. and his successors. It was signed by 
John at Rnnnymcde, near Windsor, Juno 15, 1215,* &c. It was many times contirmed, 
and frequently violated, by Henry III. This last king's grand charter was granted in 1224, 
and was assured by Edward I. See Forests. 

MAGNA GE^CIA, the independent states founded by Greek colonists in South Italy, 
Sicilj'^, &c., beginning in 974 B.C. Pandosia and Metapontum were built in 774 B.C. Cum.T, 
in Campania, is said to have been founded in 1034 B.C. These states were ruined through 
siding with Hannibal when he invaded Italy, 216 B.C. 

Syracuse founded . . B.C. 734! Crotona .... B.C. 7101 Lipara ■" . ... b.c. 627 

Leontium and Catana . . 730 1 Tarentum 708 As^rigentum . ' . . . 582 

Sybaris 721 | Locri Epizephyrii . . . 673 | Thurium. .... 432 

MAGNESIA (Asia Minor). Here Antiochus the great, king of Syria, was defeated by 
the Scipios, 190 b.c. — Magnesia alba, the white alkaline earth used in medicine, of gently 
purgative properties, was in use in the beginning of the i8th century. Its piroperties were 
developed by Dr. Black in 1755. 

MAGNESIUM, a metal iirst obtained from magnesia b}' sir Humphrey Davj', about 
1807, and since produced in larger quantities by Bussy, Deville, and especially by Mr. E. 
Sonstadt, in 1S62-4. Its light wlien burnt is very brilliant, and is so rich in chemical rays 
that it maj^ be used in photography. Lamps have been made for burning magnesium wire, 
which is so emijloyed by the excavators of the tunnel through Mount Cenis. By its light 
photographs of the interior of the Pyramids were taken in 1865. 

MAGNETISM. Magnes, a shepherd, is .said to have been detained on Mount Ida by tlio 
nails in his boots. The attractive power of tlie loadstone or magnet was early known, and is 
referred to by Homer, Aristotle, and Pliny ; it was also known to the Chinese and Arabians. 
The Greeks are said to have obtained the loadstone from Magnesia in Asia, 1000 B.C. Roger 
Bacon is said to have been acquainted with its property of pointing to the north (1294). 
The invention of the mariner's compass is ascribed to Flavio Gioia, a Neapolitan, about 1320 ; 
but it was known in Norway previous to 1266 ; and is mentioned in a French poem, 1150. 
See under Electricity. 



Mr. Christie ijroved that heat diminishes 
magnetic force about 1825 

Sir W. Snow Harris invents various forms of 
the compass 1831 

Electricity produced from a magnet by pro- 
fessor Faraday, 1831 : his researches on the 



Robert Norman, of London, discovered the 

dip of the needle about ..... 1576 
Gilbert's treatise "De Magnete," published . . 1600 

Halley's theory publis^hed 1683 

JIarcel observed .that a bar i>f iron becomes 

temioorarily magnetic by po.sition . . . 1722 
Artificial magnets made by Dr. G. Knight . 1746 i action of the magnet on light, on the mag- 
The variation of the comjiass was observed by | netic properties of flame, air, and gases 

Bond, about 1668; the diurnal variation by 

Graham, 1722 ; on which latter Canton made 

4000 observations previous to . . . . 1756 
Coulomb constructed a torsion balance for de- 
termining the laws of attraction and repul- 

.sion, 1786 ; also investigated by Michel, Eulcr, 

Lambert, Robison, and others . . . 1750-1S00 
The deflection of the magnetic needle by the 

voltaic current was discovered by CErsted . 1820 ' netic polarity . 1856 

3Ir. Abraham invents a magnetic guard for i In the present century our knowledge of the 



(published 1845), on dia-magnetism (1845), 
on magne-crystallic action (1848), on atmo- 
spheric magnetism (1850), on the mag^ietic 
force 1851-2 

Magnetic observations established in the British 
colonies under the superintendence of col. 
Edward Sabine .... 1840 e< «<■(/. 

Prof. Tyndall proves the existence of dia-mag- 



))ersons engaged in grinding cutlery 
The magnetic effects of the violet rays of light 
exhibited by Morichini, 1814 ; polarity of a. 
.sewing needle so magnetized shown by Mrs. 
Somerville 1825 



phenomena of magnetism has also been 
greatly increased by the labours of Arago, 
Ampfere, Hansteen, Gauss, Weber, Poggen- 
dorff, Sabine, Lament, Du Moncel, &c.t See 
Animal Magnetism. 



'' On Nov. 20, 1214, the archbishop of Canterbury and the barons met at St. Edmondsbury. On Jan. 6. 
1215, thej' presented their demands to the king, who deferred his answer. On May ig they were censured 
by the pope. On May 24 they marched to London, and the king was compelled to yield. 

t In the Roj-al Institution, London, is a magnet by Logeman, of Haarlem, constructed on the jirin- 



MAG 



461 



MAI 



MAGNETO - ELECTRICITY, tlie discovery of professor Faraday. See Elcctricitij. 
j Magneto-electricity has been recently applied to telegraphic and to lighthouse purposes.* 

I MAGNOLIA. Magnolia glauca was brought here from N. America, 1688. The laurel- 
I leaved Magnolia, Magnolia cfrandi flora, from N.America about 1734. The dwarf Magnolia, 
I Magnolia ptDnila, from China in 1789; and (also from China) the brown stalked, 1789; 
f the purple, 1790; and the slender, 1804. 

MAGYARS.. See Ilungarij. 

MAHARAJPOOR. (India). Here sir Hugh Gougli severely defeated the Mahratta army 
of Gwalior, Dec. 29, 1843. Lord Eilcnborough was present. 

MAHOGANY is said to have been brought to England by Raleigh, in 1595; and to 
have come into general use about 1720. 

MAHOMET ANISM embodied in the Koran, includes — the unity of God, the immortality 
of the soul, predestination, a last judgment, and a sensual paradise. Mahomet assei'ted 
that the Koran was revealed to him by the angel Gabriel during a period of twenty-three 
years. He enjoined on his disciples circumcision, prayer, alms, fre(|ucut ablution, and 
fasting, and permitted polygamy and concubinage. 



Maliomet, or Mohammed, born at Mecca . 

Announced himself as a prophet about . . 

Fled fiom his enemies to Medina (his flight is 
called the Hegira) 

Overcomes his enemies, the Koreish, the Jews, 
&c. 

Defeats the Christians at MutA .... 

Is acknowledged as a sovereign . . . . 

Dies, it is said, of slow poison, administered by 
a Jew to test his divine character . June 7, 

The Mahometans are divided into several sects, 
the two chief being the Sonnites, or the Ortho- 
dox, who recognised as caliph Abubeker, the 
father-in-law of Mahomet, in preference to 
Omar and Ali ; and the Skiites (Sectaries), or 
J^atimiles, the followers of Ali, who married 
Fatima, the prophet's daughter. 

The Ottoman empire is the chief seat of the 
8onnites, the sultan being considered the 
represcnt-.itive of the caliphs ; while Persia 
has been for centuries the stronghold of the 
Shiites. 



The Mahometans conquered Arabia, North 
Africa, and p.art of Asia, in the 7th centur3- ; 
in the Sth they invaded Europe, conquei-ing 
Spain, where they founded the Califat of 
Cordova, which lasted from 756 to 1031, when 
it was broken up into smaller governments, 
the last of which, the kingdom of Grenada, 
endured till its subjugation by Ferdinand in 
1492; but the Mahometans were not finally ' 



1609 



732 



1453 



expelled fi-om Spain till 

Their progr.ess in France was stopped by their 
defeat at Tours by Charles Martel, in . . 

After a long contest, the Turks under Maho- 
met II. took Constantinople ; he made it his 
capital and the chief seat of his religion . 

Though con.sidered to be declining, Mahome- 
tanism is calculated as including 100 millions 
amongst its votaries. 

Coomrooden Tyabjee, a Mahometan, after serv- 
ing his articles, was duly admitted to practise 
as an attorney, having taken the oaths upon 
the Koran. Lord chief-justice Campbell 
wished him success in his profession Nov. 1858 



MAHRATTAS, a people of Hindostan, who originally dwelt north-west of the Deccan, 
which they overran about 1676. They endeavoured to overcome the Mogul, but were 
restrained by the Afghans. They entered into alliance with the East India Company in 
1767, made war against it in 1774, again made peace in 1782, and were finally subdued in 
1818. Their last prince, Sindiah, is now a pensioner of the British government. 

MAID. See IIolij Maid, Elizabeth Barton, and Joan of Arc, Maid of Orleans. 

MAIDx\. (Calabria), where the French, commanded by general Ttegnier, were signally 
defeated by the British under major-general sir John Stuart, July 4, 1S06. 

MAIDEN. See Guillotine. 

MAIDS OF HONOUR. Anne, daughter of Francis II. duke of Brittany, and queen of 
Charles Vlll. and Louis XII. of France, was the first to have young and beautiful ladies 
about her person, called maids of honour. Phil, de Commmcs. When Charles died (149S), 
she put a cordelier (a black knotted lace) round her coat of arms, as a token of mourning, 
which introduced the custom. The queen of Edward I. of England is said to have had four 
maids of honour ; queen Victoria has eight. 

MAIL. Coaches for the conveyance of letters were first set up at Bristol by Mr. John 

ciples of Dr. Elias, which weighs 100 lbs., and can sustain 430 lbs. Hteckor, of Nuremberg, constmcted a 
magnet weighing 36 grains, capable of sustaining 146 times its own weight. This was exhibited in 1851, 
also at the Royal Institution. 

» The South Forelar.d lighthouse, near Dover, was illuminated by the magneto-electric light in the 
•winters of 1858-9 and 1S5960, and at Dungcncss in 1861-2. The light excels all other artificial lights in 
brilliancy, continuance, iXc. 



MAI 462 JIAL 

Palmer, of Bath, Aug. 2, 1784. They were employed for other routes iu 1785, and soon 
became general in England. The mails were first sent by rail in 1838. 

MAIMING AND WOUNDING. See Coventry Act. 

MAINE, a province, N.W. of France, Avas seized by William I. of England in 1069. 
It acknowledged prince Arthur, 1199; and was taken from John of England by Philip of 
Frarice, 1204 ; was recovered by Edward III. in 1357 ; but given up, 1360. After various 
changes it was finally united to France by Louis XI. in 1481. — Maine (N. America), was 
discovered by Cabot, 1497 ; and colonised by the English in 1638 ; it became a state of the 
union in 1820. The boundary line between the British and the United States territories in 
Maine was settled by the Ashburton treaty, concluded Aug. 9, 1842. The Maine liquor law, 
prohibiting the manufacture and use of intoxicating drinks, with certain exceptions, was 
enacted in 1851. 

MAJESTY. Among tiie Eomans, the emperor and imperial family were thus addressed, 
and also the popes and the emperors of Germany. The style was given to Louis XI. of 
France in 1461. Voltaire. Upon Charles V. being chosen emperor of Germany in 15 19, the 
kings of S^iain took the style. Francis I. of France, at the interview with Henry VIII. of 
England, on the Field of the Cloth of Gold, addressed the latter as Your Majesty, 1520. 
James I. used the style "Sacred," and "Most Excellent Majesty." 

MAJORCA. . See Balearic Isles and Minorca. Majorca rebelled against Philip V. of 
Spain iu 1714 ; but submitted, July 14, 1715. 

MALABAR (W. coast of Hindostan). The Portuguese established factories here in 
1505 ; the English did the same in 1601. 

JIALACCA, on the Malay peninsula, E. Indies, was a flourishing Portuguese settlement 
in 151 1. The Dutch factories were established in 1640. It now forms part of the 
British "Straits" settlements, the Dutch government having exchanged it for Bencoolen 
in Sumatra. 

MALAKHOFF, a hill near Sebastopol, on which was situated an old tower, which the 
Russians strongly fortified during the siege of 1854-55. The allied French and English 
attacked it on June 17 and 18, 1855, and after a conflict of forty-eight hours were repulsed 
with severe loss ; that of the English being 175 killed and 1 126 wounded ; that of the French 
3338 killed and wounded. On Sept. 8, the French again attacked the MalakholF; at eight 
o'clock the first mine was sprung, and at noon the French flag floated over the conquered 
redoubt. See Scbaatopul. In the Malakhoff' and Redan were found 3000 pieces of cannon of 
every calibre, and 120,000 lbs. of gunpowder. 

MALDON (Essex), built 28 B.C., is supposed to have been the first Roman colony iu 
Britain. It was burnt by queen Boadicea, and rebuilt by the Romans. It Avas burnt by 
the Danes, a.d. 991, and rebuilt by the Saxons. Maldon was incorporated by Philip and 
Mary. The singular custom of Borough-English is kept up here, by which the youngest 
son, and not the eldest, succeeds to the burgage tenure on his father's death. — See 
Boro ugh- English. 

MALEGNANO, or Melegnano, modern names of Marignano, ichich sec. 

MALICIOUS DAMAGES. The law i-especting them was consolidated and amended by 
24 & 25 Vict, c, 97. This act protects works of art, electric telegraphs, &c., 1861. 

MALO, ST. (N. W. France). This port sustained a tremendous bombardment by the 
English under admiral Benbow in 1693, and under lord Berkeley in July, 1695. In 1758 
the British landed in considerable force in Cancalle bay, and went up to the harbour, where 
they burnt upwards of a hundred ships, and did great damage to the town, making a 
number of prisoners. It is now defencled by a very strong castle, and the harbour is most 
difticult of access. 

MALPL AQUET (N. France). Here the allies under the duke of Marlborough and prince 
Eugene defeated the French commanded by marshal Villars, Sept. 11, 1709. Each army 
consisted of nearly 120,000 choice soldiers. There was great slaughter on both sides, the 
allies losing 18,000 men, which loss was but ill repaid by the capture of Mons. 

MALT, barley prepared for brewing and distillation. A duty was laid upon malt in 1667, 
1697, et scq. Important acts for the regulation of malt duties were passed in 1830 and 1837. 
In March, 1858, there were 6157 licensed maltsters in the United Kingdom. The duty on 
malt in 1863 amounted to 6,273,727^. An act was passed in 1865 allowing the excise dutj- 
to be charged according to the weight of the grain used. 



MAL 463 MAN 

HALT, continued. 

BUSHELS OF MALT MADH IX THE UXITED KIXCJDOM IX THE FOLLOV/IXG YEARS : — 



i325. England . . . Bushels 29,572,743 
Scotland .... 3,925,847 
Ireland 2,706,862 



36,205,451 



1840. England . . Bushels 33,376,720 
Scotland .... 4,374,328 
Ireland .... 1,915.584 

39,666,632 



(Made in tlie United Kingdom in 1835, 42,892,012 bushels: in 1847. 35,307,815 ; in 1S50, 40,744,752 ; 
in 1857, 45,967,461 ; in 1861, 47,914,614 

I MALTA (formerly Melita), an island in the Mediterranean, held successively by the 
rPhcenicians, Carthaginians, and Romans, whicli last conquered it, 259 b.o. The apostle 
Paul was wrecked here, a.d. 62 (Ads xxvii. xxviii.). Malta was taken by the Vandals, 534; 
"by the Arabs, 870 ; and by the Normans from Sicily, 1090. With Sicily it became succes- 
sively part of the possessions of the houses of Hohenstaufen, Anjou (1266), aud Aragon 
(1260). Li 1530 Charles V. gave it to the Knights Hospitallers, who defended it most 
courageously and successfully against the Turks in 1551 and 1565, when the Turks were 
obliged to abandon the enterprise after the loss of 30,000 men. The island was taken by 
general Bonaparte in the outset of his expedition to Egypt, June 12, 1798. He found in it 
1200 pieces of cannon, 200, 000 lbs. of powder, two ships of the line, a frigate, four galleys, 
and 40,000 muskets ; besides an immense treasure collected by superstition ; and 4500 
Turkish prisoners, whom he set at liberty. Malta was surrendered to the British under 
Pigot, Sept. 5, 1800. At the peace of Amiens, it was stipulated that it should be restored 
to the knights. The British, however, retained possession, and the war i-ecommenced 
Ibetween the two nations : but by the treaty of Paris, in 1814, the island was guaranteed to 
preat Britain. La Valetta, the capital, was founded in 1557 by the grand master La Valetta, 
[ind completed and occupied by the kuiglits, Aug. 18, 1571. The Protestant College was 
founded in 1846. 

MALTA, KxiGiiT.s OF. A military-religious order, called also Hospitallers of St. John 
of Jerusalem, Knights of St. John, and Knights of Rhodes. Some merchants of Malli, 
trading to the Levant, obtained leave of the caliph of Egypt to build a house for those who 
came on pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and whom they received Avith zeal and charity, 1048. 
They afterwards founded a hospital for the reception of pilgrims, from whence they were called 
Hospitallers (Latin hospcs, a guest). The military order was founded about 1099; confirmed 
by the pope in 1113. Li 1119 the knights defeated the Turks at Antioch. After the Chris- 
tians had lost their interest in the East, and Jerusalem was taken, tlie knights retired to 
Acre, which they defended valiantly in 1290. They next followed John, king of Cyprus, 
who gave them Limisso in his dominions, where they stayed till 13 10, in which year they 
took Rhodes, under their grand master De Vallaret, and the next year defended it under the 
duke of Savoy against an army of Saracens ; since when, his successors have used F. E. R. T. 
for their device, that is, Fortitudo ejus Rhodiim tenuit, or, His valour kept Rhodes. From 
this they were called knujhts of Rhodes ; but Rhodes being taken by Solyman in 1522, they 
retired into Candia, thence into Sicily. Pope Adrian VL granted them the city of Viterbo 
for their retreat ; and in 1530 the emperor Charles V. gave them the isle of Malta. The 
order was suppressed in England in 1540 ; restored in 1557 ; and again suppressed in 1559. 
St. John's Gate, Clerkenwell, a relic of their possessions, still exists. The emperor Paul of 
Russia declared himself grand master of the order in June, 1799. 

MAMELUKES, originally Turkish and Circassian slaves, established by the sultan as a 
body-guard, 1230. They advanced one of their own corps to the throne, about 1250, and 
continued to do so until Egypt became a Turkish province, in 15 17, when the beys 
took them into pay, and filled up their ranks with renegades from various countries. 
On tlie coni[uest of Egypt by Bonaparte, in 1798, they retreated into Nubia ; but, 
assisted by the Arnauts, they once more wrested Egypt from the Turkish government. 
Dn March i, 181 1, they were decoyed into the power of the Turkish pacha, Mehemet AH, 
ind .slain at Cairo to the number of 1600. In 1804, Napoleon embodied some of them ia 
lis guard. 

MAJOIOTH, an extinct species of elephant. An entire mammoth, flesh and bones, was 
liscovered in Siberia, in 1799. Remains of this animal have since been found at Harwich in 
[803, and at places in Eurojie, Asia, and America. 

MAN, AxTiQUiTY OF. In 1846, JI. Boucher de Perthes found some rude flint imple- 
nents, which he believed to be of human manufacture, mingled with bongs of extinct 
iiiimals, in the old alluvium near Abbeville in Pieardy, France. Similar flints have since 



MAN 



464 



MAN 



been found in Sicily by Dr. Falconer, at Brixliam by Mr. Pengellj', and lately in varions 
part.s of the world. Hence many geologists infer that man existed on the earth many ages 'J 
earlier than has been hitherto believed. Sir Charles Lyell's "Antiquity of Man" was pub- 
lished in 1863, and sir John Lubbock's " Prehistoric Times " in 1865, 

MAN, Isle of, was subdued by Edwin, king of Northumberland, 621 ; by Magnus of 
Norway, 1092; ceded to the Scots, 1266; and taken from them in 13 14, by Montacute, 
afterwards earl of Salisbury, to whom Edward III. gave the title of king of Man, in 1343. 
It was afterwards subjected to the earl of Northumberland, on whose attainder Henry IV. 
granted it in fee to sir John Stanley, 1406 ; it was taken from this family by Elizabeth, 
but was restored in 1608, to the earl of Derby, through whom it fell by inheritance to the 
duke of Athol, 1735. He received 70,000^. from parliament for the sovereignty in 1765 ; 
and the nation was charged with the further sum of 132,944^. for the purchase of his interest - 
in the revenues of the island in Jan. 1829. The countess of Derby held the isle against the i 
parliament forces in 165 1. The bishopric is said to have been presided over by Amphibalus \ 
about 360. Some assert that St. Patrick <\-as the founder of the see, and that Germanus was 
the first bishop, about 447. It was united to Sodor in 11 13. The bishop has no seat in th(; 
house of lords ; but lord Auckland (bishop, 1847-54), sat by right of his barony. Present 
income, 2000^. 

RECEXT BISHOPS OF SODOR AND MAN. 

1841. Thos. Vowler Short, translated to St. Asaph 



m 1846. 
Walter Augustus Shirley ; died in 1847. 
John Eden (lord Auckland), translated to 

Bath in 1S54. 
Hon. Horatio Powys (present bishop). 



1784. Claudius Origan; died in 1813. 

1813. George Murray, translated to Rochester in 

1827. [ 1846. 

1828. William Ward; died in 1838. j 1847. 

1838. James Bowstead, translated to Lichfield in 

Dec. 1839. ! 1854. 

1840. Henry Pepys, tr.anslated to Worcester in 1841. I 

MANASSAS JUNCTION, Virginia, United States, an important military position, 
where the Alexandria and Manassas Ga]j railways meet, near a creek named Bull Run. It 
was held by the confederates in 1861, when they were attacked by the Federal general Irvin 
McDowell. He began his march from Washington on July 16, and gained some advantage 
on the iSth at Centreville. On the 21st was fought the first battle of Bull Pun. The 
Federals, who began tlie fight, had the advantage till about three o'clock, p.m., when the 
Confederate general Johnston brought up reinforcements, which at first the Federals took for 
their own troops. After a brief resistance, the latter were seized with sudden panic, and, 
in sjiite of the utmost efforts of their officers, fled in disgraceful rout, abandoning a large 
quantity of arms, ammunition, and baggage. The Confederate generals Johnston and 
Beauregard did not think it prudent to pursue the fugitives, who did not halt till they 
arrived at Washington. The Federal army is said to have had 481 killed, loii wounded, 
1216 missing. The loss of the Confederates was stated to be about 1500. — In ]\Iarch, 1862, 
when the army of the Potomac, under general McClellan, marched into Virginia, they found 
that the Confederates had quietly retreated from the camp at ]\Ianassas. On Aug. 30, 1862, 
this place was the site of another great battle between the northern and southern armies. 
In August, general " Stonewall" Jackson, after compelling the Federate general Pope to 
retreat, defeated him at Cedar mountain on the 9th, turned his flank on the 22nd, and 
arriving at Manassas repulsed his attacks on the 29th. On the 30th general R. E. Lee 
(who had defeated general McClellan and the invading northern army before Richmond, 
June 26 to July i), joined Jackson with his army, and Pope received reinforcements from 
AVashington. A desperate conflict ensued, which ended in the Confederates gaining a 
decisive victory, compelling the Federals to a hasty retreat to Centreville, where they were 
once more routed, Sept. i. The remains of their army took refuge behind the lines of 
Washington on Sept. 2. Pope was at once superseded, and M'Clellan resumed the command 
to march against the Confederates, who had crossed the Potomac and entered Maryland. See 
United States. 

MANCHESTER (Lancashire), in the time of the Draids, was one of their principal 
stations, and had the privilege of sanctuary attached to its altar, in the British language 
Meijne, a stone. It was one of the seats of the Brigantcs, who had a castle, or stronghold, 
called Mancenion, or the place of tents, near the confluence of the rivers Medlock and 
Irwell, the site of which, still called the "Castle Field," was, about 79, selected by the 
Romans as the station of the Cohors Prima Frisioruiii, and, called liy them Mancunium ; 
hence its Saxon name 3!anceastre, from which its modern appellation is derived. Lewis. 



Mancenion taken from the Britons . . . 488 
Captiu-ed by Edwin of Northiuiibria . . . 620 
The inhabitants become Christians about . . 627 



The town taken by the Danes, 877 ; retaken . 923 
The charter {Magna Charla of Manchester), 

May 14, 1301 



MAN 



46/ 



MAN 



■MANCHESTER, continued. 

" Mancliestcr cottons " introduced . . . 1352 

The church made colleg-iate 1421 machinery destroyed ." . . Mays, 1S29 

Free Grammar-school founded . . . .1516 

Privilege of sanctuary moved to Chester, about 1541 The races established iSi^o 

An aulnager (measurer) stationed hero . . 1565 
Sir Tliomas Fairfax takes the town . . . 1643 
The walls and fortifications razed . . . . 1652 
Cheetham College, or Blue-coat hospital, Choral Society established " . . . . _• 1833 

founded 1653 

Tumult raised by " Syddall, the barber," who - , , ,, 

is afterwards hanged 1715 Church-i-ate refused .... Sept. 3, 1834 

Prince Charles Edwai-d, the Young Pretender, ^ , . 

makes it his quarters . . . Nov. 28, 1745 act 1S36 

Queen's Theatre first built 1753 

The Infirmary instituted, 1752; built . . 1755 

The inhabitants discharged from their obliga- ^/^iv. i->-i ^, ^,,^^^1-,^^^.^^^.^ . . . -j. ,, 

tion to grind their corn at Irk mill . . . 1759 Manchester police act .... Aug. 26, 182!^ 
Cotton goods first exported .... 1760 
Manchester navigation opened . . . . 1761 

Lunatic asyhun founded 1765 

Agricultural Society instituted . . . . 1767 
Christian, king of Denmark, visits Manchester, 

and puts up at the Bull Inn .... 1768 

The Queen's Theatre rebuilt 1775 

Subscription concerts established . . . 1777 
Riots against machinery . . . Oct. 9, 1779 
JIauufacture of muslin attempted here about . 1780 
Philosophical Society established . . . . 1781 
New Bailey Bridge completed .... 17S5 
Queen's Theatre burnt down . . June ig, 1789 

And re-erected 1790 

New Bailey built ,, 

Assembly rooms, Mosley-street, built . . 1792 
Philological Society instituted . . . . 1803 
Fever hospital erected, 1805 ; Theatre Royal . 1806 

The portico erected ,, 

The weavers' riot .... May 24, 1808 

Exchange and Commercial-buildings erected, 

Jan. 1809 
Manchester &, Salford water-works established ,, 

Blanketeers' meeting 1S17 

Lock ho.spital established 1819 

Manchester Reform Meeting* . . Aug. 16, ,, 
New Brunswick-bridge built . . . . 1820 

Chamber of Commerce established . . . ,, 

Law Library founded , _, , -„ ^ , ^, - . 

Natural History Society projected . . . 1821 Oct. 17, 1857 

New Quay Company founded . . . , 1822 

Deaf and Dumb School instituted . . . 1823 

Riiyal Institution formed . . . . . „ 

Floral and Horticultural Society established . ,, 

Mechanics' Institution founded .... 1824 

Musical festival fix-st held 1S28 

At the launch of a vessel which keeled and up- 
set, upwards of 200 persons precipitated into 

the river ; 51 perished . . . Feb. 29, ,, 

MANCHESTER, Bishopric of. An order iu council in Oct. 1838, declared that the 
sees of St. Asa])h and Bangor should be united on the next vacancy in either, and that the 
bishopric of M.inchester should be immediately created within tlie jurisdiction of the 
archiepibCO])al .see of York ; the county of Lancaster for that purpose to be detached from 
Chester. By act 10 Vict. (1847) the sees of St. Asaph and Bangor were to exist irndisturbed, 
and that of Mancliester was to be created. Tlie I'ev. Dr. James Prince Lee (the present 
bishop) was appointed iu 1847, and consecrated in 1848, Income, 4200^. 

' Called Peterli'o. The assembly consisted of from 60,000 to 100,000 persons, men, women, and 
children. Mr. Hunt, who took the chair, had spoken a few words, when the meeting was suddenly 
assailed by a charge of the Manchester cavalry, assisted by a Cheshire regiment of yeomanry, and a 
regiment of hussars, the outlets being occupied by other military detachments. The unarmed multi- 
tude were in consequence driven one upon another, by which many were killed, ridden over by the 
horses, or cut down by their riders. The deaths were 11 men, women, and children, and the wounded 
about 600. J . 1 1- 

t The temporary building consisted of a hall upwards of 700 feet long and 100 feet wide, and, including 
a tr.an.sept, covered an .area of 80,000 square feet. It cost above 25,000^. It contained the most extra- 
ordinary collection of works of art (valued at 6,000,000?.) ever brought together in this country. The 
collection of national portraits was very remarkable. There were 1,300,000 visitors. The expenses of the 
undertaking amounted to 99.500?. ; the receipts to 98,500?. 

H H 



In a tumult here, a factory burnt, and much 

machinery destroyed . . . May 3, 
New concert-room established . . . • 
The races established ....•• 
Manchester and Liverpool railway opened — Mr. 

Hu.ski.sson killed — (see Liverpool) Sept. 15, 
Manchester a parliamentary borough June 7, 

Choral Society established 

Statistical Society formed, the first in England, 

Sept. 2, 
Church-rate refused .... Sept. 3, 
Manchester incorporated, by Municipal Reform 

act 

Manchester and Leeds railway act passed 
Geological Society instituted . . - ■ 
Charter of incorporation . . . Oct. 23, 
Manchester police act .... Aug. 26, 
Great disorders in the midland counties among 

artisans : they extend to this town . Aug. 
Briti.sh Association meeting here . June 23, 
Great free-trade meetings held here (see Cum 

Laics) Nov. 14, 

Important meeting held at the Athena3um (see 

Athenceun) Oct. 3, 

Great Anti-corn Law meeting, at which 64,984?. 

were subscribed in four hours . Dec. 23, 
The Queens-park, Peel-park, and Philip's-park, 

opened Aug. 

Manchester made a bishopric . . Aug. 10, 
Opening of Owens Collegiate Institution, to 

which foundation the late Mr. John Owens 

bequeathed 100,000?. . . . March 10, 
The queen's visit to Manchester . . Oct. 7, 
Great meeting in the Free-trade hall to greet 

M. Kossuth Nov. 11, 

The Engineers' strike . . Jan. 3— April 26, 
The Guild of Literature entertained at a ban- 
quet by the citizens . . . Aug. 31, 
Opening of the F'ree Library . . Sept. 2, 
Great Free-trade banquet . . Nov. 2, 

Manchester declared to be a city, and formally 

so gazetted April 16, 

Great strike of minders and piecers Nov. 7, 
Exhibition of Art TBE.\suRESt determined on, 

May 20, 1856 ; opened by prince Albert, May 

5 ; visited by the queen, June 29, 30 ; closed, 

Oct. 17, 
Sir John Potter, a benefactor to the town, died, 

Oct. 25, 
British Association meet here (2nd time), 

Sept. 4, 
Great county meeting ; 130,000?. subscribed to 

the Lancashire Rehef fund . . Dec. 2, 
Meeting of the Church Congress Oct. 13-15, 



]\[AN 466 MAN 

MANES, the name applied by the ancients to tlie soul when separated from the body. 
The Manes Avere reckoned among the infernal deities, and -were generally sn]iposed to 
jireside over the burial-places and monuments of the dead. They were solemnly wor- 
.shipped by the Eomans, and invoked by the augurs; Virgil (22 B.C.) introduces his 
liero as sacriticing to the Manes. The Romans superscribed their epitaphs with D. M., 
Diis Manibus. 

MANGANESE. Black oxide of manganese, long used to decolorise glass, and called 
Magnesia nigra, was formerly incliTded among the ores of iron. Its distinctive character 
was proved by the researches of Pott (1740), Kaim and AViuterl (1770), and Scheele and 
Bergmann (1774) ; it was first eliminated by Galin. Manganese combined with potassium 
is called mineral chameleon, from its rapid change of colour under certain circumstances. 
Forchammer emploj^ed it as a test for the presence of organic matter in water ; and Dr. 
Angus Smith successfully applied this test to air in 1858. 

MANICHEANS, a sect founded by Manes, which began to infest the East about 261. 
It spread into Egypt, Arabia, and Africa, and particularly into Persia. A rich widow, 
whose servant Manes had been, left him much wealth, after which he assumed tlie title 
of apostle, or envoy of Jesus Christ, and announced that he was the paraclete or comforter 
that Christ had promised to send. He maintained two principles, the one good and the 
other bad ; the first he called light, which did nothing but good, and the second he 
called darkness, which did nothing but evil. He rejected the Old Testament, and 
composed a system of doctrine from Christianity and the dogmas of the ancient fire- 
worshippers. He obtained many followers. Sapor, king of Persia, believed in him at 
one time ; but afterwards banished him. He was burnt alive by Bahram or Varancs, king 
of Persia, 274. His followers spread themselves over the Roman empire, and several sects 
sprung from them. 

MANILLA (built about 1573), capital of the Philippine Lsles, a great mart of Spanish 
commerce. Manilla was taken by the English in 1757 ; and again in Oct. 1762, by storm. 
The archbishop engaged to ransom it for about a million sterling ; never wholly paid. 
Manilla has suffered greatly by earthquakes. It is stated that nearly 3000 jiersons ])erished 
by one in 1645. On Sept. 22, 1852, the city was nearly destroyed, and on June 3, 1S63, 
several thousand lives were lost. 

MANNPIEOI (S. Germany), founded in 1606, became the court residence of the 
Palatine of the Rhine in 1719; but his becoming elector of Bavaria in 1777 caused the 
removal of the court to Munich. Mannheim surrendered to the French, raider coinmand of 
general Pichcgru, Sept. 20, 1795. On Oct. 31, the Austrians under general Wurmser 
defeated the French near the city. Several battles were fought witli various success in the 
neighbourhood during the late wars. Kotzebue, the popular dramatist, Avas assassinated at 
Mannheim, by a student of Wurtzburg, named Sand, April 2, 1819. 

MANORS are as ancient as the Saxon constitution, and imply a territorial district 
with the jurisdiction, rights, and perquisites belonging to it. They were fonnerly called 
baronies, and still are lordships. Each lord was empowered to hold a court called the 
court-baron for redressing misdemeanors, and settling disputes between the tenants. 
Cabinet Lawyer. 

MANSION-HOUSE, London. The residence of the lord mayor. It is situate at the 
cast end of the Poultry, on the site of tlie ancient Stocks-Market. It was built of Portland 
stone by Dance the elder, 1739-53. See Mayor. 

MANSOURAH (Lower Egypt). Here Louis IX. was defeated by the Saracens and taken 
jirisoner, April 5, 1250. He gave Damietta and 400,000 livres for his ransom. 

MANTINEA (Arcadia, Greece), Battles here — (i) Athenians and Argives defeated by 
Agis II. of Sparta, 418 B.C. (2) Between Epaminondas and the Thebans, and the combined 
forces of Laceda;mon, Achaia, Elis, Athens, and Arcadia, 362 B.C. The Theban general was 
victorious, but was killed in the engagement, and from that Thebes lost its power and 
consequence among the Grecian states. The emperor Adrian built a temple at Mantinea in 
honour of his favourite Alcinoiis. The town was also called Antigonia. Other battles were 
fought in the neighbourhood. 

MANTUA (N. Italy). "Virgil was born at a village near this city, 70 B.C. Hence he is 
often styled the Mantuan bard. Mantua was ruled by the Gonzagas, lords of Mantua, from 
1328 to 1708, when it was seized by the emperor Joseph I. It lias since been held by the 
Austrians. ilantua surrendered to the French, Feb. 2, 1797, after a siege of eight months. 



IMAN 467 MAR 

It was retaken by tlie Aiistiiau and Paissian army, July 30, 1799, after a short siege. In 
1800, after the battle of Marengo, the French again obtained jjossession of it. It was 
inchided in the kingdom of Italy till 1814, when it was restored to the Austrians. 

MANUFACTUEES. See Silk, Cotton, &c. MAORIS. See Nciv Zealand. 

]\IAPLE-TREE. The Acer rubrum, or scarlet maple, was brought here from N". America, 
I'efore 1656. Tlie Acer Ncgundo, or ash-leaved maple, before 1688. From the Acer sacclia- 
rimcm (introduced here in 1735) the Americans make very good sugar. 

MAPS. See Charts and Mcrcator. 

MARATHOiSr (in Attica). Here, on Sept. 28 or 29, 490 B.C., the Greeks, only 10,000 
strong, defeated the Persian army amounting to 500,000, who had 200,000 killed. The 
former were commanded by Miltiades, Aristides, and Themistooles. Among the .slain was 
Hippias, the instigator of the war. Tl>e Persian army was forced to retreat to Asia. 

]\IARBLE. Dipcenus and Scyllis, statuaries of Crete, were the first artists who 
sculptured marble, and polished their works ; all statues i^reviously being of wood, 568 B.C. 
Pliny. The edifices or monuments of Rome were constructed of, or ornamented witli, fine 
marble. The ruins of Palmyra are chiefly of white marble. The marble arch, London, 
was removed from Buckingham-palace to Hyde-park, March, 1851. 

MARBURG (W. Germany). The cathedral was founded, 1231 ; and the first Protestant 
universit}' in 1527. It sufiered much during the Seven years' war, 1753-60. 

JIARCH, the first month of the year, until Numa added January and February, 713 b.c. 
Komulus, wlio divided the year into months, gave to this month the 'name of his' supposed 
father. Mars ; though Ovid observes, that the people of Italy had the month of March before 
the time of Romulus, but that they placed it very differently in the calendar. The. year 
formerly commenced on the 25th day of this month. See Year. 

MARCHFELD (Austria). Here Ottocar II. of Bohemia was defeated and slain by his 
rival, the emperor Rodolph of Hapsburg, Aug. 26, 1278. See Bohemia. 

MARCHES, Lords of, noblemen who lived on boundaries settled between England and 
Wales, and England and Scotland, and, according to Camden, had their laws, and power of 
life, death, &c., like petty princes. These powers were abolished, 1535, and 1547. 

JMARCIONITES, heretics, followers of Marcion, about 150, who preceded the Manichees, 
and taught similar doctrines. Cave. 

MARCOMANNI, a people of Southern Germany, expelled the Boii from Bohemia, and, 
united with other tribes, invaded Italy about 167, but were repelled by the emperors Anto- 
ninus and Verus ; defeated by the Legion called, from a fabled miracle, the Thundering 
Legion, 179 ; and finally driven beyond the Danube by Aurelian, 271. 

MARENGO (N. Italy). Here the French armj^, commanded by Bonaparte, attacked the 
Austrians, June 14, 1800; his army was retreating, when the arrival of general Dessaix 
turned tlie fortunes of the day. The slaughter on both sides was dreadful. By a treaty 
between the Austrian general Jlelas and Bonaparte, signed June 15, the latter obtained 
twelve strong fortresses, and became master of Italy. 

MARESCHALS, or Marshals, in France, "were the esquires of the king, and originally 
had the command of the vanguard to observe the enemy and to choose proper places for its 
encampment. Till the time of Francis I., in 1515, there were but two marshals, wJio had 
500 livrcs per annum in war, but no stipend in time of peace. The rank afterwards became 
of the highest military importance, the number was without limit, and the command 
supreme. Najioleon's marshals were renowned for skill and courage. See Marshal. 

MARIAN PERSECUTION. See Protestants. 

MARIGNANO (now Malegnano), N. Italy, near Milan. Three battles have been fought 
near here — i. Francis I. of France defeated the duke of Milan and the Swiss, Sept. 13, 14, 
15 15 ; above 20,000 men were slain. This conflict has been called the Battle of the Giants. — 
2. Near here was fought the battle of Pavia (ivhich see). — 3. After the battle of Magenta, 
June 4, 1859, the Austrians entrenched themselves at Malegnano. The emperor sent 
marshal Baraguay d'Hilliers with 16,000 men to dislodge them, which he did with a loss of 
about 850 killed and wounded, on June 8. The Austrians are said to have lost 1400 killed 
and wounded, and 900 prisoners, out of 18,000 engaged. 

II u 2 



MAR 408 MAK . 

MARINER'S COMPASS. See Compass and Magnetism. 

MARINES were first established with the object of forming a nursery to man the fleet. 
An order in council, dated Oct. i6, 1664, authorised 1200 soldiers to be raised and formed 
into one regiment. In 1684, the 3rd regiment of the line was called the Marine Regiment; 
l)ut the system of having soldiers exclusively for sea-service was not carried into efl'ect until 
1698, when two marine regiments were formed. More regiments were embodied in subse- 
quent years ; and in 1741 the corps consisted of ten regiments, each 1000 strong. In 1759 
they numbered 18,000 men. In the latter years of the French war, ending in 1815, they 
amounted to 31,400, but there were frequently more than 3000 supernumeraries. The jollies, 
as they are called, frequently distinguished themselves. The "Royal Marine Forces" now 
comprehend artillery and light infantry. The A'ote for 1857 was for 16,000 marines, 
inclusive of 1500 artillery. P. H. Nicolas. 

MARINO, SAN, a republic in Central Italj^, has existed since the 6th century. Its 
independence was confirmed by pope Pius VII. in 1817. Population, in 1858, about 8000. 

MARK, a silver coin of the northern nations, and the name mark-lubs is still retained in 
Denmark. In England, the mark means the sum of 13s. 4f^., and here the name is also 
retained in law courts. 

JIARKET. See Smithjidd and Metropolitan Cattle Market. 

MARK'S, ST. (Venice). The church was erected in 829 ; the piazza in 1592. 

MARLBOROUGH, Statutes of, were enacted in the castle of Marlborough, in Wilt- 
shire, 1267. — Marlborough-House, Pall Mall, London, was built by Wren for the duke of 
IMarlljorough, 1709-10; was bought for the princess Chai'lotte and prince Leopold in 1817 ; 
lield by queen Adelaide till 1849, and became the residence of the prince of Wales, 1863. 

MARONITES, Christians in the East, followers of one Maron in the 5th centiu-y ; they 
are said to have embraced the errors of the Jacobites, Nestorians, and Monothelites : in 1180 
they numbered 40,000 living in the neighbourhood of Mount Libanus, and, being a brave 
I^eople, they were of great service to the Christian kings of Jerusalem. They were reconciled 
to the church of Rome aliout the 12th century. For an account of the massacres of the 
Maronites in i860, see Druses. 

MAROONS, a name given in Jamaica to runaway negroes. When the island Avas 
conquered from the Spaniards, a number of their negroes fled to the hills and became 
ver}' troublesome to the colonists. A war of eight years' duration ensued, when the 
Maroons capitulated on being permitted to retain their free settlements, about 1730. 
In 1795 they again took arms, but were speedily put down and many were transported to 
other colonies. Brande. 

MAR-PRELATE TRACTS, virulently attacking episcopacy, were written, it is believed, 
by Henry Penry, who was cruelly executed. May 29, 1693, for having written seditious 
words against the queen (found about his person when seized). The tracts appeared about 
1586. Some had very singular titles: such as "An Almand for a Parrat," "Hay any 
Workc for Cooper ?" &c. They were collected and reprinted in 1843. 

MARQUE, Letters of. See Privateer. 

MARQUESAS ISLANDS (Polynesia) were discovered in 1595 by Mendana, who named 
them after the viceroy of Peru, Marquesa de Mendo9a. They were visited by Cook in 1774, 
and were taken possession of by the French admiral Dupetit Thenars, May i, 1842. 

MARQUESS, a dignity, called by the Saxons Markin-Reve, by the Germans Markgrave, 
took its original from Mark or March, a limit or bound (see Marches) ; the office being to 
guard or govern the frontiers of a province. Marquess is the next place of honour to a duke, 
and was introduced several years after that title had been established in England. The 
first on whom it was conferred was the favourite of king Richard II., Robert de Vere, earl of 
Oxford, created marquess of Dublin, and placed in parliament between the dukes and earls, 
1385. James Stewart, second son of James III. of Scotland, was made marquess of Oniiond, 
in 1476, without territories ; afterwards earl of Ross. 

. MARRIAGE was instituted by God {Gen. ii.), and confirmed by Christ {Marh x.), who 
performed a miracle at the celebration of one {John ii.). Matrimonial ceremonies among the 
Greeks are ascribed to Cecrops, king of Athens, 1554 b.c. 



Law favotiring marriage passed at Rome . B.C. 18 
Priests forbidden to marry after ordination . a.d. 325 
Marriage was forbidden in Lent . ' . . 364 



It was forbidden to bishops in 692, and to priests 
in 1015 ; and these latter wore obliged to take 
the vow of celibacy in 1073 



MAR 



469 



MAR 



MARRIAGE, continued. 

Tlie cclobration of m;irrias;e (as a sacrament) in 
churches was ordained by pope Innocent III. 

about 1 199 

Marriages were solemnised by justices of the 
jieace under an act of the commons in Ohver 
<>omwcirs administration .... 1653 

A tax was laid on marriages, viz. : on the m.ar- 
ritge of a duke, 50?.. ; of a common person, 
2.5. 61I. ......... 1695 

Irregular mari-iages prohibited (see Fleet Mar- 
rianex) 1753 

Marriages were .again taxed in . . . . 17S4 

New marriage act, 1822 ; repealed . . . 1823 

Acts prohibiting marriages bj' Roman Catholic 
priests in Scotland, or other nainistors not 
belonging to the Church of Scotland, repealed 1834 

Act to render the children of certain marriages 
within forbidden degrees of kindred legiti- 
mate : and marriage with deceased wife's 
sister prohibited 1835 

The present Mamage act for England, autho- 
rising marriages with religious ceremony, 
by registrar's certificate, or in a dissenting 
chapel, passed 1836 [amended in 1837 and 1856] 

Marriage iiegistration act 1837 



Amendment acts passed in . . 1840 and 

A bill to suppress irregular mamages in Scot- 
land (see Gretna) passed in . . . . 

A coui-t established for Divorce and Matrimonial 
Causes, which has the power of giving sen- 
tence of judicial separation for adultery, 
cruelty, or desertion without cause for two 
years and upwards. (See Divorce) 

It has frequently been attempted to legalise a 
marriage with a deceaied tci/e's ii-^ter, without 
success. The Marriage Law Reform associa- 
tion was instituted for this e.-iclusive object, 
Jan 15, 1851. A bill for this purpose passed 
the commons, Julj' 2 ; was rejected by the 
lords, July 23, 1858 ; and again rejected in . 

In the case of Brook v. Brook, it was decided 
that such a marriage celebrated in a foreign 
country was not valid . . April 17, 

This decision confirmed on appeal to the house 
of lords, on March 18, 

A commission appointed to inquire into the 
working of the marriage laws in Scotland 
and Ireland, in consequence of the Yelverton 
case. (See Trials, 1861) 



1856 



1857 



NUMBER 


OF K 


. 40, 300 


1830 


• 73,228 


1840 


• 84,473 


184s 


• 91.946 


1848 


. 96,883 


1850* 


• 98,378 


1853 



OF KEGISTEKED MARRIAGES IX ENGLAND AND WALES. 



1750 
1800 
1810 
1815 
1820 
1825 



Royal Marriage Act was passed in 1772, in conse- 
quence of the marriage of the duke of Gloucester, 
the king's brother, with the widow of the earl 
Waldegrave, and of the duke of Cumberkvud with 
the widow of colonel Horton and daughter of lord 
Iniham. [By this act, none of the descendants of 
George II., unless of foreign birth, can man-y under 
the age of 25, unless with the consent of the king ; 
at and after that a.^e, the consent of parliament 
is necessary to render the marriage valid.] The 
marriage of the duke of Sussex with the lady 
Augusta Murray, solemnised in 1793, was pro- 
nounced illegal, and the claims of their son, sir 
Augustus d'Kste, declared invalid, by the bourse of 
lords, July g, 1844. 

Half Markiage. Semi-Mntrimonium. Among the 
Romans concubinage was a legitimate union, not 
merely tolerated but authorised. The concubine 
had the name of semi-conju:c. Men might have 
either a wife or a concubine, provided they had 
not both together. Constantine the Great checked 
concubin.age, but did not abolish it. This ancient 
custom of the Romans was preserved, not only 
among the Lombards, but by the French when 
they held dominion in that country. Cu j as assures 
us that the Gascons and other people bordering on 
the Pyrenean mountains had not relinquished this 
custom in his time, 1590. The women bore the 
name of "wives of the second order." Heiundt. 
See MarffdiMtic Marriages. 

Double SIariuages. There are some instances of a 
husband and two wives (but they are very rare) in 



102 


437 


1H54 




159 


727 


121 


083 


1855 


Crimean war 


IS2 


113 


143.743 


1856 




159 


337 


138 


230 


1857 




159.097 


IS2 


744 


1858 




156 


070 


164 


520 


1859 




ifa7 


723 



i860 . . .170,156 

1861 [cotton famine) 163,706 

1862 . . . 164,030 

1863 . . . 173,510 

1864 . . . 180,263 



countries where polygamy was interdicted by the 
state. The first La^ediemonian who had two wives 
was Anaxandrides, the son of Leon, about 510 B.C. 
Dionysius of Syracuse married two wives, viz. : 
Doris, the daughter of Xenetus, and Aristomache, 
sister of Dion, 398 B.C. It is said that the count 
Gleichen, a German nobleman, was permitted, 
under peculiar circumstances, by Gregory IX. , in 
A.D. 1237, to marry and live with two wives. 'The 
Mormonites pi-actise and encourage polygamy. 

Forced Marriages. The statute 3 Henry VII. (1487) 
made the principal and abettors in marriages with 
heiresses, (fee., contrary to their will, equally guiltj* 
as felons. By 39 Eliz. (1596) such felons were denied 
the benefit of clergy. This offence was made 
punishable by transportation, i Geo. IV. (1820). 
The remarkable case of Miss Wharton, heiress of 
the house of Wharton, whom captain Campbell 
married by force, occurred in William III.'s reign. 
Sir John Johnston was hanged for seizing the 
yomig lady, and the marriage was annulled by 
parliament, 1690. — Edward Gibbon Wakefield was 
tried at Lincaster, and found guilty of the felo- 
nious abduction of Miss Turner, March 24, 1827 ; 
and his marriage with her was immediately dis- 
solved by act of parUanient. 

Marriages by Sale. Among the Babylonians, at a 
certain time every year, the marriageable females 
were assembled, and disposed of to the best bidder. 
This custom is said to have originated with 
Ato.ssa, daughter of Belochus, about 1433 B.C. 

Fleet Marriages. See Fleet. 



MARSEILLAISE HYMN, The words ami music are ascribed to Rouget ilc Lille, a 
French engineer officer, who composed it at the request of mar.shal Lucknow, in 1791, to 
cheer the cunscriiits at Strasburg. It derived its name from a body of troops from Marseilles 
marching into Taris in 1792 playing the tune, it being then not much known. Brande. 

* Of these marriages, it is stated in the registrars' returns that 47,570 men and 70,601 women could 
not write, and that they signed the marriage register with their marks. — In France, the marriages were 
208,893 in 1820; 243.674 in 1825 ; and 259,177 in 1830. As respects Paris, the statistics of th.at city, which 
are very minute and curious, furnish the following classes as occurring in 7754 marriages : — Bachelors and 
maids, 6456 ; bachelors and widows, 36S ; widowers and maids, 708 ; widowers and widows, 222. 



MAR 



470 



Mx\R 



MARSEILLES, the ancient Massilia (S. France), a maritime city, founded by the 
PhocEcans about 600 B.C. ; was an ally ot Rome, 21S rs.c. Cicero styled it the Athens of 
Gaul, on account of its excellent schools. 



[It carried off 50,000 of the inhabitants. The 
bishop Belsunce devotedly exerted himself 
to relieve the sufferers.] 
Revolutionary commotions here . April 30, 1789 
Marseilles opposes the revolutionary govern- 
ment, and is reduced .... Aug. 1793 



Taken by Julius Cresar after a long and terrible 

siege, 45 B.C. ; and by Euric, the Visigoth, 

A.D 470; sacked by the Saracens . a.d. 839 

Marseilles a republic 1214 

Subjected to the counts of Provence . . . 1251 
United to the crown of France .... 1482 
The plague rages .... 1649 and 1 720-1 

MARSHALS. Two were appointed in London to clear the streets of vagrants, and to 
send the sick, blind, and lame to asylums and hospitals for relief, 1567. Norlhouck. 

MARSHALS, Bkittsh Field-. This rank was first conferred upon John, duke of 
Argyle, and George, earl of Orkney, by George IL in 1736. See Maresdtal. 

MARSHALS of Fkaxce, &c., appointed by Napoleon L during his wars, 1804-14. 



Arrighi, duke of Padua. 

Augerean, duke of Castiglione. 

Bernadotte, prince of Ponte Corvo ; afterwards king 
of Sweden. 

Berthier, prince of Neufchatel and Wagi-am, com- 
mitted suicide at Bamberg, 181 5. 

Bessiferes, dvike of Istria. 

Davoust, prince of Eckmiihl and duke of Auerstadt. 

Jourdan, peer of Fi-ance. 

Junot, duke of Abrantes, suicide 1813. 

Kellerman, duke of Valmy. 

Lanncs, duke of Montebello, killed at Aspem, 1809. 

Lefebvre, duke of Dantzic. 

Macdonald, duke of Tarento. 

Marmont, duke of Ragusa. 

Massena, prince of Essling and duke of Rivoli. 

Moncey, duke of Conegliano. [1835. 

Mortier, duke of Treviso, killed by Fieschi, July 28, 



Murat, king of Naples, executed Oct. 13, 1815. 
Ney, prince of Moskwa, executed Dec. 7, 1815. 
Oudinot, duke of Reggio. 
Soult, duke of Dalmatia. 
Snchct, duke of Albuera. 
Victor, duke of Belluno. 

OFFICERS OF STATE. 

Cambacerfes, duke of Parma. 
Caulaincourt, duke of Vicenza. 
Champagne, duke of Cadore. 
D\iroe, duke of Friuli, killed at Bautzen, 1S13. 
Fouche, duke of Otranto. 
Le Brun, duke of Piacenza. 
Maret, duke of Bassano. 
Savary, duke of Rovigo : and 

Talleyrand de Perigord, prince of Benevento, died 
183S. 



MARSHALSEA COURT of the Queen's house was very ancient, of high dignity, and 
coeval with the common law. Since the decision of the case of the Mar.shalsea (see Lord 
Coke's 10 Rc}). 68) no business had been done in this court ; but it was regulai'ly opened and 
adjourned at the same time with the Palace court, the judges and other officers being the 
same. These courts were abolished by parliament, and were discontinued, Dec. 31, 1849. 

MARSI, a brave people of Southern Italy, who, after several contests, yielded to the 
Romans, about 301 B.C. Durifig the civil wars they and their allies rebelled, having 
demanded and been refused the rights of Roman citizenship, 91 B.C. After many successes 
and reverses, they sued for and obtained peace and the rights they required, 87 B.C. The 
Marsi being Socii of the Romans, this was called the Social war. 

MARSTON MOOR (near York). The Scots and parliamentary army were besieging 
York, when prince Rupert, joined by the marquess of Newcastle, determined to raise the 
siege. Both sides drew up on Marston-moor, on July 2, 1644, and the contest W'as long 
undecided. Rupert, commanding the right wing of the royalists, was opposed by Oliver 
Cromwell, at the head of a body of troops disciplined by himself, Cromwell was victorious ; 
he drove his opponents oif the field, followed the vanquished, returned to a second engagement 
and a second victory. The prince's artillery was taken, and the royalists never recovered 
the blow. 

MARTELLO TOWERS were circular buildings of masonry erected in the beginning of 
the present century, on the coast of England, as defences against invasion. 

MARTIAL LAW. See Courts-Martial and Military Law. 

MARTINESTI. See Rimnik. 

MARTINIQUE (West Indies), settled by France, 1635. This and the adjacent isles of 
St. Lucia and St. Vincent, and the Grenadines, were taken by the British from the French in 
Feb. 1762. They were restored to France at the peace of the following year. They were 
again taken, March 16, 1794 ; were restored at the peace of Amiens in 1802 ; and were again 
captured, Feb. 23, 1809. A revolution took place in this island in favour of Napoleon, but 
it was finally suppressed by the British, June i, 1815, and Martinique reverted to its French 
masters. Severe earthquakes occurred here in 1767 and 1S39. 



MAR 471 MAS 

MARTINMAS, Nov. ii,tlie feast of St. Martin, bishop of Tours, in the 4th century. 
In .parts of the north of EngUxnd and in Scotland it is quarter day. 

MARTIN'S HALL, ST., Long Acre, London, was opened as a concert-room for Mr. 
John IlulUih, on Feb. 11, 1850; burnt down, Aug. 26, i860; and rebuilt, 1861. 

MARTYRS. Stephen, the first Christian martyr, was stoned, 37. The festivals of the 
martyrs, of ver\' ancient date, took tlieir rise about the time of Folycarp, who suffered 
martyrdom about 166. St. Alban is the English protomartyr, 2S6. See Persecutions and 
Protestants. 

M.\RYLAND, one of the first thirteen United States 'of North America, was gi'anted 
in 1632 to lord Baltimore, and settled by a company of English Romanists in 1634. It 
contains the district of Colombia, in which Washington is situate. It continued in the 
Union when the other slave states seceded in i860 and 1861. The Confederate army, under 
general Lee, after their victory at Bull Run, Aug. 30, 1S62, crossed the Potomac and entered 
Maryland. They were followed by the Federal army under McClellan. Severe conflicts 
ensued, especially on Sept. 17, at Antietam Creek, with great loss on both sides, each 
claiming the victory. Tlxe Confederates retired into Virginia in good order, and it is said 
with much booty. 

MASKS. Poppsea, the wife of Nero, is said to have invented the mask to guard her 
complexion from the sun; but theatrical masks Avcre in use among the Greeks and Eomans. 
Horace attributes them to ^Eschylus ; yet Aristotle says the inventor and time of their intro- 
duction were unknown. — Modern masks, and mutfs, fans, and false hair for the women, were 
devised in Italy, and brought to England from France in 1572. Slow. 

MASQLTERADES were in fashion in the court of Edward III., 1340 ; and in the reign of 
Charles, 1660, mas(|uerades were frequent among the citizens. The bishops preached against 
them, and made such representations as occasioned their suppression, 9 Geo. I. 1724. [No 
less than six masquerades were subscribed for in a month at this time.] They were revived, 
and carried to shameful excess by connivance of the government, and in direct violation of 
the laws, and tickets of admission to a masquerade at Ranelagh were on some occasions sub- 
scribed for at twenty-fiv^e guineas each, 1776. Mortimer. At the close of a bal masque, 
March 5, 1856, Covent-garden theatre was destroyed by lire. 

MASS, in the Roman church, is the office or prayers used at the celebration of the 
eucharist, in memory of the passion of Christ, and to this every part of the service alludes. 
The general division consists in high and low ; the first is that sung by the choristers, and 
celebrated with the assistance of a deacon and sub-deacon ; low masses are those in which 
the prayers are badly reliearsed without singing. Mass was first celebrated in Latin about 
394 ; it was introduced into England in the 7tli century. Prostration was enjoined at the 
elevation of the host in 1201.* 

MASSACHUSETTS (New England, N. America), the seat of the first English settlements, 
1620. It joined the first congress of the States in 1774. See United States. 

^MASSACRES. The following are among the most remarkable : — 



BEFORE CHRIST. 

Of all the Carthaginians in Sicily, 397. 

■2000 Tyrians crucified and Sooo put to the sword for 

not surrendering Tyre to Alexander, 331. 
Of 2000 Capuans, friends of Hannibal, by Gracchus, 

211. 
A dreadful .slaughter of the Tcutones and Ambrones, 

near .Vi.>c, by .Marius, the Roman general, 200,000 

being left dead on the spot, 102. 
The Romans throughout Asia, women and children 

not excepted, massacred in one day, by order of 

Mithridates, king of Pontus, 83. 
A great number of Roman senators massacred by 

Cinna, Marius, and Sertorius, 87. j of Seleucia, 165. 

Again, under Sylla and Calilinc, his minister of At Alexandria, many thousands of citizens were 

vengeance 82. ' massacred by order of Aatoninua, 215. 



At Perusia, Octavianus Cfesar ordered 300 Roman 
senators and other persons of distinction to be 
sacrificed to the manes of Julius Caisar, 40. 

AFTER CHRIST. 

At the destruction of Jerusalem, 1,100,000 of Jews 
are said to have been put to the sword, 70. 

The Jews, headed by one Andrae, put to death 
100,000 Greeks and Romans, in and near Gyrene, 

lis- 
Cassius, a Roman general, under the emperor M. 
Aurelius, put to death 300,000 of the inhabitants 



* Or. Daniel Rock, in his work entitled " The Church of our Fathers " (1849), gives a full account of 
an ancient MS. of " The Service of the Mass, called the Rite of Salisbury," coraiiiled for that cathedral, by 
St. Osmund and others, from the end of the nth to the end of the 12th century. 



MAS 



472 



MAS 



MASSACRES, continued. 

Tho emperor Probiis is said to liave put to death 
400,000 of the barbarian invaders of Gaul, 277. 

Of tlie Gothic hostages by Valens, 378. 

Of Thessalonica, when 7000 persons invited into the 
circus were put to the sword, by order of Theo- 
dosius, 390. 

Of the circus factions at Constantinople, 532. 

Massacre of the Latins at Constantinople, by order 
of Andronicus, 1184. 

Of the Albiffenses and Waldenses, .commenced at 
Toulouse, 1208. Thousands perished by the sword 
and gibbet of the French in Sicily, 1282. See 
Sicilian Vespers. 

At Paris, of the Armagnacs, at the instance of John, 
duke of Buiguudy, 1418. 

Of the Swedish nobility, at a feast, by order of 
Christian II., 1520. 

Of Protestants at Vassy, March i, 1562. 

Of 70,000 Huguenots, or French protestants, in 
France (see St. Bartholmnew), Aug. 24, 1572. 

Of the Christians in Croatia by the Turks, when 
65,000 were slain, 1592. 

Of the pretender Demetrius, and his Polish adhe- 
rents, May 27, 1606. 

Of Protestants at Thorn, put to death luider a pre- 
tended legal sentence of the chancellor of Poland, 
for being concerned in a tumult occasioned by a 
Roman Catholic procession, 1724. All the Protes- 
tant powei's in Europe interceded to have this un- 
just sentence revoked, but unavailingly. 

At Batavia, 12,000 Chinese were massacred by the 
natives,^ Oct. 1740, under the pretext of an in- 

■ tended insiirrection. 

At the taking of Lsmail by the Russians, 30,000 old 
and young were slain, Dec. 1790. See hmad. 

Of French Royalists (see Septembrizers), Sept. 2, 1792. 

Of Poles, at Praga, 1794. 

In St. Domingo, where Dessalines made proclama- 
tion for the massacre of all the whites, March 29, 
1804, and many thousands perished. 

Insurrectioa at Madrid, and mas.sacro of the French, 
M.ay 2, 180S. 

Massacre of the Mamelukes, in the citadel of Cairo, 
March i, 1811. 

Massacre of Protestants at Nisnies, perpetrated by 
the Catholics, May, 181 5. 

Massacre at Scio, April 22, 1822. See Cliios. 

Destruction of the Janissaries at Constantinople, 
June 14. 1826. 

600 Kabyles suffocated in a cave in Algeria, June 18, 
1845. See Dahra. 

Massacre of Christians at Aleppo, Oct. 16, 1850. 

MASSAGET^E, an ancient Scythian people (probably the ancestors of the Goths), who 
invaded Asia about 635. In a conflict with them Cyrus the Great was killed, 529 B.C. 

MASSANIELLO REVOLUTION, 1647. See Naples, note. 

MASSILIA. ^Qd 3Iarseillcs. 

MASTER OF THE Ceke.monies. See Ceremonies. 

MASTERS IN Chancery, chosen from the equity bar, were first appointed it is said 
assist the extreme ignorance of sir Christoidicr Hatton, lord chancellor of England, in 15S 
The office was abolished in 1852. 

MASTER OF THE Great Wardrobe, an officer of great antiquity and dignity. The 
establishment was abolished in 1782, and the duties transferred to the lord chamberlain. 

MASTER OF THE Rolls, an equity judge, deriyes his title from having the custody of 
all charters, patents, commissions, deeds, and recognizances, made into rolls of parchment ; 
his decrees are ajipealable to the court of chancery. The repository of public papers, called 
the Rolls, is in Chancery-lane. They were formerly kept in a chapel founded for the 
converted Jews ; but after the Jews were expelled the kingdom, it was annexed for ever 
to the office of the mastership of the i-olls. Here were kept all the records since the 
beginning of the reign of king Richard III., 1483 ; all prior to that period being kept in the 



Of Maronites, by the Druses, in Lebanon, June, 
i860 ; and of Christians, by the Mahometans, at 
Damascus, July 9-11, i860. See Druses and Damas- 
cus. 

MASSACRES IN BRITISH HISTORY. 

Of 300 English nobles, on Salisbury Plain, by Hen- 
gist, about 450. 

Of the monks of Bangor, to the number of 1200, by 
Ethelfrid, king of Bernicia, 607 or 612. 

Of the Danes in the southern counties of England, 
in the night of Nov. 13, 1002, and the 23rd Ethel- 
red II. At London it was most bloodj'', the 
churches being no sanctuary. Amongst the rest 
was Gunilda, sister of Swein, king of Denmark, 
left in hostage for the performance of a treaty but 
newly concluded. Baho-'s Chronicle. 

Of the Jews, in England. Some few pressing into 
Westminster hall at Richard I.'s coronation, were 
put to death by the fieople ; and a false alarm 
being given that the king had ordered a general 
massacre of them, the people in many parts of 
England slew all thej' met. In York 500, who had 
taken shelter in the castle, killed themselves, 
rather than fall into the hands of the multitude, 
II 89. 

Of the Bristol colonists, at CuUen's Wood, Ireland 
(see Callen's Wood), 1209. 

Of the English factory at Amboyna, in order to dis- 
possess its members of the Spice Islands, Feb. 1624. 

Massacre of the Protestants in Ireland, in O'Neill's 
rebellion, Oct. 23, 1641. Upwards of 30,000 British 
were killed in the commencement of this rebellion. 
Sir William Ptttif. In the first three or four days 
of it, forty or fifty thousand of the Protestants 
were destroyed, Lord Clarrndon. Before the re- 
bellion was entirely suppressed, 154,000 Protestants 
were massacred. Sir W. Temple. 

Of the Macdonalds of Glencoe (see Glencoe), Feb. 13, 
1692. 

Of 184 men, women, and children, chiefly Protes- 
tants, burnt, shot, or pierced to death by pikes ; 
periietrated by the insurgent Irish, at the barn of 
ScuUabogue, Ireland, in 1798. Mus(jrave. 

Of Eiu-opeans at Meerut, Delhi, &c., by mutineers 
of the native Indian army (see India), May and 
June, 1S57. 

Of Europeans at Kal.angan, on the south coast of 
Borneo, May i, 1859. 

Of the Europeans at Morant bay, Jamaica, by the 
infuriated negroes, Oct. 11, 12, 1865. 



to 
5S8. 



MAT 473 MAU 

Tower (if London. Seo Records. The first recorded master of the rolls was either John do 
Langton, appointed 1286, or Adam de Osgodeby, appointed Oct. i, 1295 ; hut it is clear 
that tlie office was in existence long before. Hardy. The dnties were defined in 1833, and 
the salary regnlated in 1837. 

MASTEKS OF THE ROLLS. 



Sir Will. Grant appointed . . May 27, i8ot 
Sir Thomas Plumer .... Jan. 6, 181S 
Robert, lord Gifford . . Aprils, 1824 



Sir John Leach May 3, 1827 

Sir C. Pepys (aft. lord Cottenliam) Sept. 29, 1834 
Henry Bicker.steth (a/'i!. lord Lano-dale) Jan. 19, 1836 



Sir J. S. Coijley {aft. lord Lyndhurst) SciJt. 14, 1826 | Sir John Romilly (the prrsekt, 1865) March 28, 1851 

MATHflMATICS formerly meant all kinds of learning; bnt the tennis now applied 
to the sciences relating to numbers and quantity. See Arithmetic. Among the most eminent 
mathematicians were Euclid, 300 b.c. ; Archimedes, 287 B.C. ; Descartes, died 1650 ; Barrow, 
died 1677 ; Leibnitz, died 1716 ; sir Isaac Newton, died 1727; Euler, died 1783 ; Lagrange, 
died 1813 ; Laplace, died 1827 ; and Dr. Peacock, died 1858. Dr. Whcwell, Mr. G. B. Airy 
(astronomer royal), professor de Morgan, I. Todhunter, and Mary Somerville. born 1790, 
author of the "Mechanism of the Heavens," are eminent living mathematicians. 

]\L\TINS. The service or prayers first performed in the morning or beginning of the 
day in the Roman Catholic church. The French Matins imply the massacre of St. 
Bartholomew, Aug. 24, 1572. The Matins of Moscow were the massacre of prince 
Demetrius, and the Poles his adherents, at six o'clock in the morning of Maj^ 27, 1606. 

MATTERHORN, a part of the main ridge of the Alps, about 14,836 feet high, S. Swit- 
zerland. After various fruitless attempts l.)y professor Tyndall, Mr. Whympcr, and other 
eminent climbers, in i860, the summit was reached on July 14, 1865, by Mr. Edward 
Whymper and others. During their descent, four of the party were killeil. Mr. Hadow 
fell ; the connecting rope broke, and he himself, lord Francis Douglas, the rev. Mr. Hudson, 
and Michael Croz, a guide, slipped down, and fell from a precipice nearly 4000 feet high. 

MAUNDAY-THURSDAY (derived by Spelman from mmide, a hand-basket, in which 
the king was accustomed to give alms to the poor ; by others from dies mandati, the day 
on which Christ gave his grand mandate, that we should love one another), the Thursday 
before Good Friday. Wheatlep. On this day it was the custom of our kings or their 
almoners to give alms, food, and clothing to as many poor men as they were years old. It 
was begun by Edward III., when he M-as fifty years of age, 1363, and is still continued by our 
sovereign. 

MAUR, ST. See Benedictines. 

MAURITANIA (N. Africa), with Numidia, became a Roman province, 45 B.C., with 
Sal lust for pro-consul. Augustus created (30 B.C.) a kingdom formed of Mauritania and 
part of Getulia, for Juba II., a descendant of the ancient African princes. Suetonius 
Pauliiuis suppressed a revolt here, a.d. 42. Tlie country was subjugated by the Vandals 
and Greeks, and fell into the hands of the Arabs, about 667. See Morocco and Moors. 

MAURITIUS, or Isle of Fraxce (in the Indian Ocean), was discovered by the 
Portuguese, 1505 ; but the Dutch were the first settlers in 159S. They called it after prince 
^Maurice, their stadtholder, but on their acquisition of the Cape of Good Hope, they deserted 
it ; and it continued unsettled until the French landed, and gave it the name of one of the 
iiiicst provinces in Fiance, 1715. This island was taken by the British, Doc. 2, 1810, and 
coiifiruied to them by the treaty of Paris in 1 814. Sir Henry Barkly became governor in 
1863. Population in 1861, 313,462. 

MAUSOLEUM. Artemisia married her own brother, Mausolus, king of Caria, Asia 
Minor, 377 b.c. At his death she drank in liquor his ashes after his body had been burned, 
and erected to his memory at Halicarnassus a monument, one of the seven wonders of the 
world (350 B.C.), termed Mausoleum. She invited all the literary men of her age, and 
]iroposed rewards to him who composed the best elegiac panegyi'ic upon her husband. The 
prize was adjudged to Theopompus, 357 B.C. She died 352 B.C. The statue of JMausolus is 
among the anti([uities brought from Halicarnassus by Mr. C. T. Newton in 1857, and placed 
in the British Museum. A mausoleum for the royal family of England was founded by the 
queen at Fi'ogmore, March 15, 1S62. 

MAUVE (French for malva, mallow), a dye produced by Dr. Stenhouse from lichens in 
1848 ; now produced from Aniline {idiicli see). 



MAY 



474 



MAY 



MAY, the fifth month of the year, received its name, some say, from Romuhis, who gave 
it this appellation in respect to tlie senators and nobles of his city, who were denominated 
majores ; others supposed it was so called from Maia, the mother of Mercury, to whom 
they offered sacrifices on the first day. The ancient Romans nsed to go in procession to the 
grotto of Egeria on May-day. See Evil May-duij* 

MAYNOOTH COLLEGE (Ireland), founded by parliament, 1795, and endowed by a 
yearly grant voted for the education of students designed for the Roman Catholic priesthood 
in Ireland. An act for its government was passed in 1800. It contains about 500 students. 
Permanent endowment of this college (30,000/. for the enlargement of the buildings and 
26,000^ annually) was granted by ])arliament, June 1845. This occasioned much controversy 
in England, a motion being made for its abolition almost every session. The college was 
repaired and enlarged in i860. 

MAYORS OF THE Palace were high officers in France, and had great influence during 
the later Merovingian kings. They were Pepin the Old (or de Landen), 622 et scq.; Pepin 
Heristal, 687-714; Charles Martel, "j 14.-74.1 ; Pepin le Bref, 741-752, who shut up 
Childeric III. in a monastery, and himself took the kingdom. In this quality Charles 
Martel ruled with despotic sway, 735 ct scg.— Mayors of Corporations. At the time of 
the Norman conquest, 1066, the chief ofiicer of London was called 2^ort-grave, afterwards 
softened into 2)ort-reeve, from Saxon words signifying chief governor of a harbour. He 
was afterwards called provost; but in Henry 11. 's reign the Norman title of viairc (soon 
after mayor) was brought into use. At first the mayor was chosen for life, but afterwards 
for periods of irregular duration ; now he is chosen annually, but is eligible for re-election. 
He must be an alderman, and must have previously filled the office of sheriff. His duties 
commence on Nov. 9. The prefix lord is peculiar to the chief civic officer of Loudon, 
Dublin, Edinburgh, and also York (since 1389, when a new charter was granted). 



The first mayor of London, Henry Fitz-AlwhjTi, 
appointed in 1189 ; held office for 24 years. 

First presented to tlic barons of the exchequer 1251 

The pi-efix of lord granted by Edward III. , with 
the style of right honourable .... 

Sir Henry Pickard, who had been lord mayor 
of London in 1357, sumptuously entertained 
in one day four nionarclis : Ed\vai-d, king of 
England ; John, king of France ; the king of 
Cyprvis ; and David, king of Scotland ; the 
Black Prince and many of the nobility being 
present. Stow. 

Sir John Norman, the first lord mayor who 
went by water to be sworn at Westminster, 
and lord mayor's show instituted . . . 



1354 



1363 



The more costly pigeauts and triumphs of the 
show laid aside ... ... 16S5 

The lord mayor entertained the prince regent 
of England, the emperor of Russia, king of 
Prussia, and numerous foreigners of high 
rank June 18, 1S14 

The lord mayor,^ Farncombe, gave a banq\iet to 
Ijrince Albert and tlie mayors of most of the 
boroughs of the United Kingdom, in further- 
ance of the project of the great International 
Industrial Exhibition to be held in 1851, 

March 21, 1050 

The lord mayor, sir F. Moon, entertained the 
emperor and empress of the French April 19, 1855 

The '"Lord Mayor's court " is vei-y ancient. 



LORD M.VYOBS OF LONDON. 



1804- 
1805- 



6. 

ibo&-7. 

1807-8. 

i8oS-g. 

1809-10. 

1810-11. 

1811-12. 

1812-13. 

1813-14. 

1814-15- 

1815-16. 



Sir William Staines, bart. 

Sir John Earner, bart. 

Charles Price. 

John Perring. 

Peter Perchard. 

Sir Jiimos Shaw. 

Sir William Leighton, bt. 

John Ainsley. 

Sir Charles I'lower, bart. 

Thomas Smiih. 

Joshua Jonathan Smith. 

Sir Claiidius S. Hunter, bt. 

George Scholey. 

Sir William Domville, bt. 

Samuel Birch. 

Matthew Wood. 



1816- 
1817- 
1818- 
1819-: 
1820 



1825- 
1826 
1827- 
1828- 



Jilatthew Wood again. 
Christopher Smith. 
John Atkins. 
George Brydges. 
John T. Thorpe. 
Christopher Magnay. 
William Heygate. 
Robert Waithmau. 
John Garratt. 
William Venables. 
Anthony Browne. 
Matthias Prime Lucas. 
William Thompson. 
John Crowder. 
Sir John Key, bart. 
Sir John Key, bt. again. 



1832-3. Sir Peter Laurie. 

1833-4. Charles Farebrother. 

1834-5. Henry Winchester. 

1835-6. Williiim Taylor Copeland. 

1836-7. Thomas Kelly. 

1837-8. Sir John Cowan, bart. 

1838-g. Samuel Wilson. 

1S39-40. Sir Chapman Mar.shall, bt. 

1840-1. Thomas Johnson. 

1841-2. John Pirie. 

1242-3. J. Humphory. 

1843-4. Sir W. Magnay, bart. 

1S44-5. Michael Gibbs. 

1845-6. John Johnson. 

1846-7. Sir George CaiToll. 

1847 8. John K. Hooper. 



* Mrs. Elizabeth Montague (who died in 1800) gave for many years, on May-day, an entertainment at 
her house in Portman-square, to the chimney-sweepers of London. They were regaled with roast beef and 
plum pudding, .and a dance succeeded. Upon their departure, each guest received a shilling from the 
mistress of the feast. It is said, though the statement is much doubted, that this entertainment w.is 
instituted to commemorate the circumstance of Mrs. Montague's having once found a boy of her own, or 
that of a relation, among the sooty tribe. In allusion to this incident, perhaps, a story resembling the 
adventm-cs of this lost child is pathetically related by Montgomery, in '■ The Chimney-Sweeper's Boy." 



MAY 



475 



MEG 



MAYOliS, continued. 

1848-9. Sir James Duko, bt. , M. P. 

1849-50. Thomas Farncombe. 

1850-1. Sir John Musgrove. 

1851-2. William Hunter. 

1852-3. Thomas Clialli.s, M.P. 

1853-4. Thomas Sidney. 



1854-5. SirFras. G. Moon, hart. 

1S55-6. David Salomons. 

1856-7. Thomas Quested Finnis. 

1857-8. Sir Robt. W. Garden, bt. 

1858-9. David W. Wire. 

1859-60. John Carter. 



1S60-1. 
i86i-2. 
1162-3. 
1863-4. 
1864-5. 
1865-6. 



William Cubitt,M. P. 
William Cubitt, again. 
W. A Rose. 
Wm. Lawrence. 
Warren S. Hale. 
Benj. Sam. Phillips. 



Lor.D M.wons of Dublin. 



John le Decer was appointed first provost iii 
1308 ; a gilded sword was granted to be borne 
befors the pi'ovost by Henry IV. . . . 1407 

Tliomas Cusiek appointed first mayor . . 1409 

The collar of SS. and a foot company granted 
by Chai-les II. to the mayors . . . . i65o 

Sir Daniel BeUingham, the'flrst mayor honoured 



with the title of lord, by Charles II., who 
granted 500/. per annum, in lieu of the com- 
pany of foot 1665 

A new collar of SS. granted by William III. to 
the mayor, value looo?., the former having 
been lost in James II. '.s time . . . . 1697 



MEAL-TUB PLOT, against the duke of York, afterwards James IL, coutrived by one 
Dangerlield, who secreted a bundle of seditious letters in the lodgings of colonel Maunsell, 
and then gave information to the custom-house officers to search for smuggled goods. Oct. 23, 
1679. After Dangerfield's apin-ehension, on suspicion of forging these letters, papers were 
found concealed in a meal-tub at the house of a woman with whom he cohabited, which 
contained the scheme to be sworn to, accusing the most eminent persons in the Protestant 
interest, who were against the duke of York's succession, of treason, — particularly the 
earls of Shaftesbury, Esse.x, and Halifax. On Dangerfield being whipped the last time, as 
part of his punishment, June i, 16S5, one of his (a'es Avas struck out by a barrister named 
Kobert Francis : this caused his death, for which his assailant was hanged. 

MEASURES. See Weights. 

MEATH (Ireland), Bishopric op. Many episcopal sees in Meath (as Clonard, Duleek, 
Kells, Trim, Ardbraccan, Dunshaughlin, and Slane, and others of less note) were fixed at 
Clonard, before 1151-2, when the division of the bi.shoprics in Ireland was made by John 
Paparo, tlien legate from pope Eugene III. Meath was valued, 30 Henry VIII., at 373?. 12s. 
per annum. 

MECCA (in Arabia), the birth-place of Mahomet, 569. The temple is a gorgeous 
structure, much visited by pilgrims. On one of the neighbouring hills is a cave, where it is 
asserted Mahomet usually retired to perform his devotions, and where the greatest part of 
the Koran was brought to him by the angel Gabriel, 604. Two miles from the town is the 
liill where, they say, Abraham went to offer up Isaac, 1871 b.c. Mecca after being vainly 
besieged by Hosein for the Caliph Yezid, A.d. 682, was taken by Abdelnielek, 692. In 1803 
it fell into the hands of the Wahabees, a Mahometan sect. It is said that 160,000 pilgrims 
visited Mecca in 1858, and only 50,000 in 1859. 

MECHANICS. The simple mechanical powers have been ascribed to heathen deities ; 
the axe, wedge, wimble, &c. , to Dajdalus. See Steam Engine. 



\ristotle writes on mechanics about . B.C. 320 

rhe properties of the lever, &c., demonstrated 
by Archimedes, who died about . . . 287 

He laid the foundations of nearly all those in- 
ventions, the further prosecution of which is 
the buast of our age. WaJlis (1695).] 

riie hand-mill, or quern, was very early in use ; 
tlie Romans found one in Yorkshire . . * * 

Jattle mills, m'lli'; jumeniarice, were also in use 
by the Roman > * * 

The water-mill was probably invented in Asia ; 
the fir.st that was described was near one of 
tlie dwellings of Mithridates .... 70 

V water-mill is said to have been erected on 
the river Tiber, at Rome 50 

'appus wrote on mechanics, about . . a.d. 350 

■■loating-mills on the Tiber ;'36 

ride-mills were, many of them, in use in Venice 

ab'Hit 1078 

Vind-mills were in very general use in the 12th 
century * " 

iaw-mills are said to have been in use at Augs- 
burg 1332 



Theory of the inclined plane investigated by 

Cardan, about 15^0 

Work on Statics, by Stevinus . . . . 1586 
Theory of falling bodies, G.dileo . . , 1638 

Laws of collision, Wallis, Wren, about . . . 1668 
Theory of oscillation, Huygens .... 1670 
Epioycloidal form of the teeth of wheels, 

Roemer 1675 

Percussion and animal mechanics, Borelli ; he 

died i67g 

Application of mechanics to astronomy, paral- 
lelogism of forces, laws of motion, &c,, New- 
ton, Hooke, &c 

Problem of the catenary with the analysis, Dr. 

Gregory 16^7 

Spirit level (and many other inventions), by 

Dr. Rooke, from 1660 to 1702 

D'Alembert's researches on dynamics, about . 1743 
Borgnis' Dictionnaire de McScanique appliquee 

aux Arts, 10 vols 1818-23 

[Among the best modern writers on the 
science of mechanics are Poncelet, Whcwell, 
Barlow, Mosolcy, Delauuay, and Bartholo- 
mew Price.] 



MEG 



476 



MED 



MECHANICS' INSTITUTIONS. One was fouiuled by Dr. Birkbeck in London, and 
another in Glasgow, in 1823 ; and soon after others arose in different parts of the empire. 
They have revived since 1857, many noblemen and gentlemen giving lectures in them. 

MECKLENBURG (N. Germany), formerly a principality in Lower Saxony, now inde- 
pendent as the two grand duchies of Mecklenburg- Schwerin (population in 1863, 551,884), 
and Mecklenburg-Strelitz (population in i860, 99,060). The house of Mecklenburg is among 
the most ancient in Europe, as it claims to be descended from Genseric the Vandal, who 
ravaged the western empire in the 5th century, and died 477. Daring the thirty years' 
war, Mecklenburg was conquered by Wallenstein, who became its duke, 1628; it was restored 
to its own duke in 1630. After several changes, the government was settled in 1701 as it 
now exists in the two branches of Schwerin and Strelitz. In 1815, the dukes of Mecklenburg 
were made grand-dukes. — The royal family of England for a century has been intimately 
allied with the house of Mccklcnhunj-Strdilz. King George III. married Charlotte, a 
daughter of the duke, in 1761 ; their son, the duke of Cumberland (afterwards king of 
Hanover) married princess Frederica Caroline, a daughter of the duke, in 1815 ; and princess 
Augusta of Cambridge married June 28, 1843, Frederic, the present grand-duke. 



I Si 5. Frederic -Francis I. 

1842. Fredei-ic-Francis II., March 7 ; born Feb. 28, 
1823 (PRKSENT grandduke). 



GKAND-DUKES OF MECKLENCtJEG-SCHWERlN. 

Heir: his son, Frederic Francis, born March 
19, 1851. 



GR.\ND-DUKES OF MECKLENBURG-STRELITZ. 

1815. Charles. //<■;> .-his son, Adolphus-Froderic, born July 22, 

1816. George, born Aug. 12, 1779 ; succeeded Nov. 6. 
i860. Frederic, Sept. 6; born Oct. 17, 1819 (the 

PRESENT grand-duke). 

MEDALS. See Numismatics. There is hardly any record of medals or decorations as 
rewards in the army or navy before the time of the commonwealth. The house of .commons 
resolved to grant rewards and medals to the fleet whose officers (Blake, Monk, Penn, and 
Lawson) and men gained a glorious victory over the Dutch fleet, oif the Texel, in 1653. 
Blake's medal of 1653 was bought by his majesty William IV. for 150 guineas. In 1692 an 
act was passed for applying the tenth part of the proceeds of ]irizes for medals and other 
rewards for officers, seamen, and marines. Subsequent to lord Howe's victory, June i, 1794. 
it was thought expedient to institute a naval medal. Medals were presented by the queen to 
persons distinguished in the war in the Crimea, May 18, 1855. 

MEDIA, a province of the Assyrian empire, revolted 711 B.C. 



War with the Lydians (see //ci?yi«) . B.C. 603 

iVstyages reigns ....... 594. 

Astyages deposed by Cyru.s, 550; who estab- 

hshed the empire of Persia (w/ac/i see) . . 560 



Eevolt of the Medes .... B.C. 711 
Deioces, founder of Ecbatana, reigns . . 709 

Phraortes, or Arphaxad, reigns ; (he conquers 

Persia, Armenia, and otlier countries) . . 656 
"Warlike reign of Cyaxares .... 632-594 

MEDICAL BENEVOLENT COLLEGE (Epsom, Surrey), opeued in 1855 by the prince 
consort. It provides an asylum for 20 pensioners male and female ; and 40 foundation 
scholars (sons of medical men) are fed, clothed, and educated. 

MEDICAL COUNCIL. In 1858 an act was passed "to regulate the qualifications of 
practitioners in medicine and surgery;" amended in i860. It established "the General 
Council of Medical Education and Registration of the United Kingdom." The first meeting 
of this council took place on Nov. 23, 1858, when sir B. C. Brodie was elected first president 
(who on Nov. 30 was elected iiresident of the Royal Society). He was succeeded by Mr. J. 
H. Green in June, i860; by Dr. George Burrows, Jan. 1864. The first Medical Register wa.s 
issued in July, 1859. In 1862 the council was incorporated by parliament, and authorised 
to prepare and sell a new Pharmacopoeia, which was published as the " British Pharma- 
copceia," in 1864. 

MEDICI FAMILY, illustrious as the restorers of literature and the fine arts in Italy, 
were chiefs or signori of the re])ublic of Florence from 1434, in which year Cosmo de' Medici, 
who had been banished from the republic, was recalled and made its chief; he presided over 
it for thirty years. Lorenzo de' Medici, styled "the Magnificent," and tlie "Father of 
Letters," ruled Florence from 1469 to 1492. John de' Medici (pope Leo X.) was the son of 
Lorenzo. lioscoe. From 1569 to 1737 the Medici famil}^ were hereditary grand-dukes of 
Tuscany (which sec). Catherine de' Medici became queen of France in 1547, and regent in 
1550. She plotted with the duke of Alva to destroy the Protestants in 1565. 



MED 



477 



MEL 



MEDICINE. See Physic. 

JIEDINA {Arabia Deserta), famous for the tomb of Mahomet, in a large mosque, lighted 
by rich lamps. Medina was called the Citj' of the Prophet, because here Mahomet was 
protected when he tied from Mecca, July 15, 622. See Heyira. Medina was taken by the 
Wahabees in 1S04. 

MEEANEE. Tlie Hyderabad Ameers, amounting to 30,000 infantry, with 15 guns and 
5000 cavalry, posted in a fonnidable position at JMeeanee, were attacked on Feb. 17, 1843, 
by lieut-gen. sir Charles Napier, with 2600 men of all arms. This insignificant force fell so 
impetuously upon the enemy, that after a severe contest the Ameers gave way, and retreated 
in tolerable order. Their loss was enormous. 

MEGAEA, a city of ancient Greece, was subdued by the Athenians in the Sth century 
B.C. Pericles suppressed a revolt, 445 B.C. The Megarians founded Byzantium 657 B.C. and 
sent a second colony 628 b.c. The Megarian (Eristic or disputatious) school of philosophy 
was founded by Euclid and Stilpo, natives of Megara. 

JMEISTEKSINGERS, See Minncsincjers. 

MELAZZO(W. Sicily). Here Garibaldi, on July 20 and 21, i860, defeated the Neapolitans 
under general Bosco, who lost about 600 men ; Garibaldi's loss being 167. The latter entered 
^Messina ; and on July 30 a convention was signed, by which it was settled that the Neapolitan 
troops were to quit SicUy. They lield the citadel of Messina till March 13, 1861. 

MELBOURNE (Australia), capital of Victoria (ivhich see). It was laid out as a town by 
orders of sir R. Bourke, in April, 1837. The first land sale took place in June, and specu- 
lation commenced and continued till it caused Avide-spread insolvency in 1841-2. 



Jfade a municipal corporation, 1842 ; a bishopric 1S47 
First legislative assembly of Victoria meets . 1852 
Gold found in grcut abundance about So miles 
from Melbourne in the autumn of 1851, and 
immense numbers of emigrants flocked there 
m consequence, causing an enormous rise in 
the prices of provisions and clothing . . ,, 

Population 23,000 in 1851 ; about 100,000 at the 

end of ,, 

The city greatly improved with public buildings, 
handsome shops, &c. ...... 1853 

The Victoria bank, Ballarat, broken open, and 
14,300?. in monej' and 200 ounces m gold dust 



carried off [one of the robbers was taken in 
England, sent back to Melbourne, and there 
tried and hanged] .... Oct. 8, 1S54 

Monster meeting held at Ballarat respecting 
the collection of the gold licenses, followed by 
riots, during which the Southern Cross flag- 
was raised ; intervention of the miUtary ; 26 
rioters and three soldiers killed, and many 
wounded Nov. 30, ,, 

The mayor comes to London to congratulate 
the queen on the marriage of the jirincess 

roj-al 1853 

See Victoria. 



JMELBOURNE ADJIINISTRATIONS. On the retirement of earl Grey, July 9, 1834, 
viscount Melbourne became first minister of the crown. On the accession of viscount 
Althorpe to the earldom of Spencer, on his fathers decease, Nov. same year, lord Melbourne 
waited on the king to receive his majesty's commands as to the appointment of a new 
chancellor of the Exchequer, when his majesty said he considered the administration at an 
end. Sir Robert Peel succeeded, but was compelled to resign in 1835, and lord Melbourne 
returned to office. His administration finally terminated, Aug. 30, 1841, sir Robert Peel 
again coming into power. See Adminidratlons. 



FIRST ADMINISTRATION, July. 1 834. 

Viscount Melbourne,* ^r«f lord of the treasury. 

Marquess of Lansdowne, lord 'president. 

Earl Mulgrave, in-ivij seal. 

Viscount Althorpe, chancdlor of the exchequer. 

Viscount Duncannon, viscount Palmerston, and Mr. 

Spring Rice (afterwards lord Monteagle), home, 

foreign, and colonial secretaries. 
Lord Auckland, oAmiralty. 
Sir. Charles Grant (afterwards lord Glenelg), and 

Mr. C. P. Thomson (afterwards lord Sydenham), 

baardx of control and trade. 
Lord John Russell, paymaster of the forces. 
Lord Brougham, lord chancellor. 
Sir John Hobhouse. Mr. Ellicc, marquess of Conyng- 

ham, Mr. Littleton, &c. 



SECOND ADMINISTRATION, April, 1835. 

Lord Melbourne, ,^nsi lord ofthctreaxnry. 

Marquess of Lansdowne, lord president. 

Visct. Duncannon, privy seal, and woods a)id forests. 

Mr. Rice, chancellor of the exchequer. 

Lord John Russell, viscount Palmerston, and lord 

Glenelsr, home, foreign, and colonial secretaries. 
Earl of Jlinto, admiralty. 
Sir John Hobhouse, and Mr. Poulett Thomson, 

boards of control and trade. 
Lord Holland, duchy of Lancaster. 
Viscount Howick, secretary-at-iuar. 
Mr. Labouchere, sir Henry Parnell, lord Morpeth, &c. 
The chancellorship in commission ; sir C. Pepys 

(afterwards lord Cotteuham) became lord chancellor, 

Jan. 1S36. 



" Wm. Lamb, born in 1779 ; became M.P. for Westminster, 1812 ; secretary for Ireland, 1S27 ; succeeded 
Lis father as viscount Melbourne, 1828 ; died Nov. 24, 1S48. 



MEL 478 MER 

MELEGNANO. See Marignano. 

MELODRAMA originated with or was introduced by Mr. Holcroft in 1793. 

MEMEL, an important commercial port in Prussia, built about 1279. It was taken by 
the Teutonic knights, about 1328. It has suffered much by fire, and was almost totally 
destroyed October 4, 1854. The loss was estimated at 1,100,000?. 

MEMORY. See Mnemonics. 

MEilPHIS, an ancient city of Egypt ("of which the very ruins are stupendous"), is said 
to have been built by Menes, 3890 B.C.; or by Misraim, 2188 B.C. It was restored by 
Septimus Severus, a.d. 202. In the 7th century, under the dominion of the Saracens, it fell 
into decay. The invasion of Cambyses, 526 u.c, began the ruin of Llemphis, and the 
founding of Alexandria, 332, completed it. 

MENAI STRAIT (between the Welsh coast and the isle of Anglesey). Suetonius 
Paulinus,. when he invaded Anglesey, transported his troops across this strait in flat-bottomed 
boats, while the cavalry swam over on horseback, and attacked the Druids in their last 
retreat. Their horrid practice of sacrificing their captives, and the opposition he met with, 
so incensed the Roman general, that he gave the Britons no c^uartcr, throwing all that 
escaped from that battle into fires which they had prepared for the destruction of himself 
and his army, A.D. 61. • — In crossing this strait, a ferry-boat was lost, and fifty persons, chiefly 
Irish, Dec. 4, 1785. Tlie road from London to Holyhead has long been regarded as the 
highway from the British metropolis to Dublin ; Mr. Telford was applied to by the govern- 
niont to perfect tliis route by the London and Holyhead mail-coach road, which he did by 
erecting beautiful suspeusion bridges over the river Conway and the Menai Strait, commenced 
in July, 1818, and finished in July, 1825. The Britannia tubular bridge over the Menai was 
constructed by Stephenson and Fairbairu in 1849-50. See Tubular Bridges. 

MENDICANT FRIARS. Several religious orders commenced alms-begging in the 13th 
century, in the pontificate of Innocent III. They spread over Europe and embraced many 
communities ; but at length by a general council, held by Gregory X. at L}'ons, in 1272, 
were confined to four orders — Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, and Augustiiies. The 
Capuchins and others branched off. See Franciscans, &c. 

MENDICITY SOCIETY (Red Lion-square, London), was established in 1818 for the 
suppression of public begging, and other impositions. Tickets received from the society are 
given by subscribers to beggars, who obtain relief at the society's house, if deserving. The 
society has caused above 23,000 vagrants to be convicted as impostors. In 1857, 54,074 
meals, in i860, 42,912, and in 1864, 55,265 were distributed. In 1857, 3785, and in 1864, 
3680 begging letters were investigated. 

]\IENSURATION. The various properties of conic sections were discovered by Archimedes, 
to whom the chief advancement in mensuration may be attributed. He also determined the 
ratio of spheres, spheroids, &c., about 218 B.C. See Arithmetic. 

MENTZ (S.W. Germany), the Roman Moguntiacuni. The archbishopric was founded by 
Boniface, 745. Many diets have been held here ; and here John Faust established a printing- 
press in 1442. A festival in honour of John Guttenburg was celebrated here in 1837. 

MENU, Institutes of, the very ancient code of India. Sir Wm. Jones, who translated 
them into English (1794), considers their date should be placed between Homer (about 
962 B.C.) and the Roman Twelve Tables (about 449 B.C.). 

MERCANTILE MARINE ACT was passed in Aug. 1850, and amended Aug. 1851. 

MERCATOR'S CHARTS. The true inventor of these charts is said to have been a 
Mr. "Wricfht, who made several voyages ; in his absence Gerard Mercator published tlie 
charts in his own name, 1556. They are, however, now confidently ascribed to Mercator's 
own ingenuity. 

MERCHANDISE ]\IARKS ACT was passed in 1S62 to pimish forgeries of tradesmen's 
mai-ks, whereby much injury had been done. 

MERCHANT. An attempt was made by queen Anne's ministry to exclude mercliants 
from sitting in the house of commons in 1711 ; but it failed. The Merchant Adven- 
turers' society (see Adventurers) was established by the duke of Brabant in 1296; it 
extended to England in Edward Ill.'s reign ; and was formed into an English corporation in 
i"r64. The Merchant-Tailors, a rich company of the city of London, of which many 



MER 



479 



MES 



kings have been members, were so called after tlie admission of Henry VII. into their com- 
pany, 1501, but were incorporated in 1466. Tlieir school was founded in 1561. ^lov). 



MERCIA. See under Britain. 



MEKCUllY. See Quicksilver and Calomel. 



MERCY', Ordeu of (in France), was established with the object of ai^complishing the 
redemption of Christian captives, by John de Matlia in 1198. Ilenault. Another order was 
formed by Pierre Nolasque, Spain, 1223. 

^lERIDA (Spain), a town in Estremadura (l)uilt by the Romans), was taken by the 
French, Jan. iSii. Near this town, at Arroyos Jlolinos, tlie British army under general 
(afterwards lord) Hill defeated the French under general Girard, after a severe engagement, 
Oct. 28, 181 1. TJie Briti.sh took Merida from tiie French in Januar^^, 1812, general Hill 
leading the combined forces of English and Spanish trooj)s. 

MERGE, an ancient city and country of inner Africa, near the sources of the Nile, said 
to have flourished under sacerdotal government in the time of Herodotus, about 450 B.C. 

MEROVINGIANS, the first race of French kings, 418-752. See Mayors and France. 

MERRIMAC. See United States, 1S62. 

MERRY- ANDREW. The name is said to have been first given to Andrew Borde, a 
physician, ^yho lived in the reign of Henry VIII., and who, on some occasions, on account 
of his facetious manners, appeared at court, 1547. 

MERTHYR-TYDVIL (Glamorganshire). Riots commenced here June 3, 1831, and 
continued for several days ; many persons were killed and wounded. 

MERTON (Surrey). At an abbey here, the barons under Henry III., .Tan. 23, 1236, 
held a parliament which enacted the statutes called the Provision,^ of Merton, the 
most ancient body of laws next after Magna Charta. They were repealed in 1863. See 
Basta.rds. 

MESLIERISM. Frederick Anthony Mesmcr, a German physician, of ]\Iersburg, pub- 
lished his doctrines in 1766, contending, by a thesis on planetary influence, that the heavenlj^ 
bodies diflused through the universe a subtle fluid which acts on the nervous system of 
animated beings. Quitting Vienna for Paris, in 1778, he gained numerous proselytes to his 
system in France, where he received a subscription of 340,000 livres. The government 
appointed a committee of phy.sicians and members of the Academy of Sciences to investigate 
his ]n-etensions. Among these wei'e Franklin and Bailly, and the results appeared in" an 
admirable paper drawn up by the latter, 1784, exposing the futility of animal magnetism, as 
the delusion was then termed. Mesmeri.sm excited attention again about 1848, when Miss 
Harriet Martineau and others announced their belief in it.'^ 

MESSALIANS, a sect (about 310) professing to adhere to the very letter of the 
Gospel. Tliey refused to work, quoting this passage, " Labour not for the food that 
perisheth. " 

MESSENIA (now Mctiira-Matra), a country of the Peloponnesus. The kingdom com- 
menced by Polycaon, 1499 B.C. It had long sanguinarj' wars against Sparta (see next article), 
and once contained a hundred cities, most of whose names even are now unknown. It was 
at lirst governed by kings ; after its restoration to power in the Peloponnesus, it formed a 
republic, under the protection first of the Thebans, and afterwards of the Macedonians ; but 
it never rose to eminence. 



iLhe first Messenian war began 743 B.C. ; was occa- 
sioned by violence offered to some Spartan 
■women in a temple of devotion common to 
both nations ; the king- of Sparta beinff killed 
in his efforts to defend the female.s. Eventu- 
ally, Ithomc wa.s taken, and the Messcuians 
became slaves to the conquerors . B.C. 



The second war was commenced .about 682 B.C., 
to throw off the galling Spartan yoke, ending 
in the defeat of the Messenians, who fled to 
Sicily B.C. 662 

The tliird war took place 490 B.c ; and the 
fow-tk 465-455 



MESSINA (Sicily), so named by the Samians, who seized* this city, then called Zancle, 
671 B.C. It belonged for many ages to the Roman empire, but fell to the Saracens, about 
A.D. 829. Pricsflei/. In the nth century Roger the Norman took it by surprise, and 
delivered it from Mahometan oppression. See Sicily. 



i * In 1859, tlic Mesmeric Infirmary issued its tenth anntial report, archbishop Whately being president, 
land the earl of Carlisle and Mr. Monckton Milnes (since lord Houghton) among the vice-presidents. 



MES 



480 



MET 



MESSINA, continued. 

Eevolt against Charles of Aiijou, and is suc- 
coured by Peter of Arragon .... 1282 

Revolt in ftivour of Louis XVI. of Fr.anoe, who 
is pronlaimed here, 1676 ; the Spaniards punish 
it severely 1678 

Almost ruined by an earthquake and eruption 
of Etna 1693 

Nearlj' depopulated by a plague . . . 1740 



Half destroyed by an earthquake . . . . 1783 
Head-quarters of the British foi-ces in Sicily, 

prior to 1814 

An insurrection here, subdued . Sept. 7, 1848 

Garibaldi enters Messina after his victory at 

Melazzo Juh' 20-21, i860 

The citadel surrenders to general Cialdini, 

March 13, 1861 



METALS. The metals and metalloids are now above fifty in number. Tubal-Cain is 
mentioned as an "instruetor of every artificer in brass and iron," [Gen. iv. ) Moses and 
Homer speak of tlie seven metals, and Virgil of the melting of steel. The Phcenicians had 
great skill in working metals. See Mines, Iron, and the other metals. Bunsen and Kirch- 
hoff's method of chemical analysis by means of the spectrum has added Cffisium, Rubidium, 
Thallium, and Indium to the known metals. 

METAilORPHISTS in the 15th century affirmed that Christ's natural body, with which 
he ascended into heaven, was wholly deified. 

METAPHYSICS, the science of abstract reasoning, or that which contemplates the 
existence of things without relation to matter. The term, literally denoting "after physics," 
originated from these words having been put at the head of certain essays of Aristotle, whicli 
follow his treatise on Physics. Mackintosh. Modern metaphysics arose in the I5tli century — 
the period when an extraordinary impulse was given to the human mind in Europe, com- 
monly called the "revival of learning." Hobbes, Cud worth, S. T. Coleridge, Dugald StcAvart, 
and sir AV. Hamilton, were eminent British metaphysicians, and Descartes, Pascal, Kant, 
and Fiehte, foreign ones. See Philosophy. 

METAUPvUS, a river in Central Italj', where Hasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, was 
defeated and slain, 207 c.c, when marching with abundant reinforcements. The Romans 
were led by Livius and Claudius Nero, the consuls. The latter commanded the head of 
Hasdrubal to be thrown into his brother's camp. This victory saved Rome. 

METEMPSYCHOSIS, a doctrine attributed to Pythagoras, 528 B.C., supposes the trans- 
migration of the soul from one body to another. It is also ascribed to the Egyptians, who 
would cat no animal food lest they should devour the body into which the soul of a deceased 
friend had passed. They had also an idea that so long as the body of the deceased was kept 
entire, the soul would not transmigrate ; and therefore embalmed the dead. 

METEOROLOGY (from the Greek metedros, aerial), the science which treats of the pheno- 
mena which have their origin in the air, such as rain, lightning, meteors, fogs, &c. Bacon, 
Boyle, and Franklin Avrote on the subject. 



John Dalton's essay on meteorology appeared in 1793. 

Luke Howard's woi'k on the clouds appeared in 

1802, and his " Barometrographia " in 1848. 
Sir W. Reid published his work on the "law of 

storms" in 1838. The works of Daniell (1845), 

Kaimtz {1845), and Miiller(i847) M'e esteemed. 
Mr. James Glaisher, the energetic secretary of the 

British Meteorological Society (established in 1850) 

is the most eminent meteorologist of the day. By 

his exertions the apparatus at Greenwich was 

erected ; and meteorology has appeared in the 

"Greenwich Observations" since 1848. See Bal- 
loon — Scientific J scents. 
Meteorological observatories have been erected in all 

parts of the globe within the last 20 years. 
The meteorological department of the board of trade, 

established in 1855, under admiral FitzRoy, com- 

raenced the publication of reports in 1857.* It 

has issued apparatus and instruction books to 

METHODISTS. See We^hyans. 

METHUEN TREATY, a treaty for regulating the commerce between Great Britain and 
Portugal, made in 1703, concluded by Paul Methuen, our ambassador at Lisbon. It was 
abrogated in 1S34. 



captains of ships, and established observatories in 
many places in the empire. The Kew meteorolo- 
gical observatoi-y was given to the British Asso- 
ciation in April, i860. 

At the recommendation of M. Le Ven-ier and r.dmi- 
ral FitzRoy, meteorological information, obtained 
by the telegraph from the principal places in the 
United Kingdom, has been transmitted daily to 
Paris, and thence to other parts of Europe since 
Sept. I, i860. 

Meteorological observations appear in the Times 
daily. 

Storm-warnings first sent to the coast by the Board 
of Trade, Feb. 6 ; and first jjublished, July 31, 1861. 

Daily international bulletin of the imperial observa- 
tory at Paris, under the du-ection of M. Le Yerrier, 
first published, Nov. 1862. 

See Burohieter, Thermometer, &c.] 



* The admiral published his "'Weather-Book" in 18 
brain ; and on April 30, 1S65, he died by his own hand. 



His exertions are said to have overworked his 



MET 



4S1 



MET 



METHYL, a colourless inodorous gas, a compound of hydrogen and carbon, was 
obtained first in the free state by Frankhand and by Kolbe, in 1849. 

METPIYLATED SPIRITS. By an act passed in 1S55 a mixture of spirits of wine 
■witli 10 per cent, of its bulk of wood-naphtha, or methylic alcohol, is allowed to be made 
duty free for use in the arts and manufactures, not less than 450 gallons being made 
at one time. In 1861 an act was passed permitting the methylated spirits to be retailed 
bjr licence. 

METONIC CYCLE, a period of 19 years, or 6940 days, at the end of which the changes 
of the moon fall on the same days. See Calippk Period. 

METRIC SYSTEM. Before the Revolution there was no uniformity in French weights 
and measures. On May 8, 1790, the Constitutional Assembly charged the Academy of 
Sciences with the organisation of a better system. The committee namerl for the purpose by 
the Academy included the illustrious names of Berthollet, Borda, Delambre, Lagrange", 
Laplace, Mdchain, and Prony. Delambre and Mechaiu were charged with the measurement 
of an arc of the meridian between Dunkirk and Barcelona, and from their calculations the 
inUrc, which is equal to a ten-millionth part of the distance between the poles and the 
equator (3 -aSoS English feet) was made tlie unit of length ami the base of the system by 
law on April 7, 1795. The system was completed in 1799, and made by law the only legal 
one on Nov. 2, 1801. A decree on Feb. 12 accommodated the old measures to the new 
system ; but on July 4, 1837, it was decreed that after Jan. i, 1840, the metric and decimal 
system in its primitive simplicity should be used in all business transactions. The example 
of France has been followed by the gi-eater part of Europe, and will probably in time be 
adopted in the British empire. 



Unit of Surface, centiare=a square mfetre = i'i96o 
English yard (a square decametre or are= 100 
square mfetres). 

Unit of Volume or Solidity, stere=a, cubic mfetre. 

Unit of Capacity, liire = ii cubic decimetre (or loth 
of a mfetre) — 176077 English pint. 

Unit of Weight, pniwmf = weight of a cubic centi- 



mfetre (the looth part of a mfetre) of distilled water 

=o"56438 English dram. 
Unit of Money, the /ra;ic, a piece of silver weighing 

5 grammes. 
The multiples of those units are expressed by Greek 

numerals {deca-, 10 ; hekato-, loo ; kilo-, 1000 ; 

myria-, 10,000. The divisors are expressed hy 

Latin numerals {df.ci-. 10 ; centi-, 100 : miUi-, 1000). 



Sir John Wrottesley brought the subject before 
parliament ..... Feb. 25, 

A commission of inqiiiry appointed at the in- 
stance of the chancellor of the exchequer, Mr. 
Spring Rice (.fince lord Mouteagle) . May, 

Another commission was appointed (both con- 
sisted of eminent scientific men, and reported 
strongly in favovir of the change) . June 20, 

A committee of the house of commons reported 
to the same effect .... Aug. i, 

Jlr. Gladstone, admitting the advantages of 
the system, thought its introduction pre- 
mature. 

The Decimal Association was formed for the 



1843 
1853 



1S54 



purpose of obtaining the adoption of the sys- 
tem June, 

Another commission for inquiry was appointed, 
consisting of lords Monteagle and Overstone, 
and Mr. J. G. Hubbard, who pubUshed a pre- 
liminary report (with evidence), but expressed 

no opinion Nov. 1855 

An International Decimal Association formed in , , 
The decimal currency adopted in Canada, Jan. i, 1858 
The new weights and measiires bill (an ap- 
proximation to the decimal system) was 

passed 1862 

An act passed " to render permissive the use of 
the metric system of weights and measures " 

July 29, 1864 

METROlSrOME, to regulate time in the performance of music, was patented in England 
by John Miilzel, Dec. 5, 1815. 

METROPOLIS ROADS ACT (passed in 1863) transferred the management of certain 
roads north of the Thames from the commissioners to the parishes, and abolished certain 
turnpikes and tollbars. 

METROPOLITAN (from the Greek mdropolis), a title given at the council of Nice, 325, 
to certain bishops who had juri^sdiction over others, in a province. The dignity is said to 
have arisen in the 2nd century, through the dissentient bishops in a district referring to one 
of superior intellect. 

METROPOLITAN BOARD of WORKS, was established by 18& i9Yict. c. 120(1855), 
amended in 1862. It held its first meeting and elected Mr. (now sir) John Thwaites as 
chairman, Dec. 22, 1855. The office is in Spring-gardens. In 1858, its powers were 
extended in order to effect the purification of the Thames by constructing a new main 
drainage for the metropolis. The Board was authorised to raise a loan and levy T^d. in the 
pound on the property in the metropolis. The works are now in progress (1865). It is also 
authorised to construct the Thames Embankment. In 1861 the Board received nearly a 
'million pouuds, and expended 900,000^. See Sewage and Thames. 
\ I I 



MET 



482 



MEX 



METROPOLITAN CATTLE MAEKET, inaiignraterl by the lord mayor and corporation 
on "Wednesday, June 13, 1855, in presence of tlie prince consort. It is situated in Copen- 
hagen-fields, an elevated site north of London, occupying an area of about fifteen acres, 
larger by nine acres than SniithHeld, and capable of containing 30,000 sheep, 6400 bullocks, 
1400 calves, and 900 pigs. In the centre is a circular building, let to bankers and others 
having business connecteil with graziers and cattle-agents. Within and around the market 
are erected several large taverns. A place is set apart for slaughtering animals, with 
approved appliances for purposes of health, by ventilation, sewerage, &c. ; there is also a 
place for haystands. Sales cnmn)enced on Friday, June 15, 1855. — An act for establishing a 
meat and poultry market in Smithfield (which see) was passed in i860. 

METROPOLITAN FIRE BRIGADE, and HOUSELESS POOR. See Fira Brigade 
and Houseless Poor. 

METROPOLITAN RAILWAY (Underground), between Paddington and Victoria-street, 
near Holborn. The act for it passed in 1853 ; the construction began in the spring of i860 ; 
and it was opened for traffic, Jan. 10, 1863. ]\Iany serious difficulties were overcome with 
great skill and energy by the contractors, Jay, Smith, and Knight. In the first six months 
of 1865, there were 7,462,823 passengers. 



METTRAY. See Reformatory Schools. 



METZ. See Austrasia. 



MEXICO (N. America), discovered in 15 17, conquered bj^ the Spaniards under Fernando 
Cortez, 1521. The territory was named New Spain. The mint of Mexico was begun in 1535. 
This country rebelled in war against the viceroy in 1816 ; and under Iturbide gained it.s 
independence in 1821. Benito Juarez was appointed president, Feb. 11, 1858 ; made absolute 
dictator, Jime 30, 1861. See helow. Population, in 1862, about 7,500,000. 



Became independent by the treaty of Aquala, 

Aiig-. 23, 1821 
Aiigustin Iturbide, president of a provision..! 
junto ; Mexico formed into iui empire : the 
crown declined by Spain ; Iturbide made 
emperor, Feb. 1822 ; compelled to i.bdicate, 

March 26, 1823 
Mexican republic proclaimed . . Oct. 4, ,, 
Itui-bide went to England ; returns and en- 
deavours to recover his dignity ; shot, 

July 19, 1824 
Federal constitution established . . Oct. ,, 
Treaty of commerce with Great Britain, April, 1825 
Expulsion of the Spaniards decreed . March, 1829 
Spanish expedition against Mexico surrendered 

Sept. 26, „ 
Mexican revolution : the president Guerrero 

deposed L>ec. 23, ,, 

Independence of Mexico recognised by Brazil, 

June, 1830; by Spain . . . Dec. 28, 1836 
Declaration ol war against France Nov. 30, 1838 

This war terminated . . . Mareb g, 1839 
War with the United States . . June 4, 1845 
The Mexicans deieated at Palo Alto, May 8 ; 

and subsequen':l.s- at Matamoras . . . 1846 

Santa Fe captured, Aug. 22 : and Monterey, 

Sept. 24, ,, 
Battle of Bucno Vi.sta ; the Mexicans deieatrd 
by general Taylor, with great loss, after two 
days' fighting .... Feb. 23, 1847 
The Americans, under general Scott, defeat the 

Mexic.ns, making 6000 prisoners April 18, „ 
Various actions followed. Treaty between 
Mexico and the United States ratified, 

May 19. 1848 
Political convulsions .... ij'ept. 1852 
President Ar sta re.signs, Jan. 6 ; and St. Anna 

is invitert to return .... Feb. 1833 
St. Anna becomes dictator . . March 17, ,, 
He abdicates ; Carera elected president . J..n. 1855 
Who al.'^o abdicates ; succeeded fiist by Alvarez, 

and aftei wards by general Comonlort Dec. „ 
Property of the clergy sequestrated March 31, 1856 
New constitution .... Feb. 5, 1857 
OMMontort chosm president . . . Joly, ,, 
Coup d'etat ; (Jomonfm-t compelled to retire, 
Jan. II ; gener.il Zuloaga takes the govern- 
ment Jan. 21-26, 1858 



Benito Juarez declared constitutional president 
at Vera Cruz .... Feb. 11, 185^ 

Civil war ; several engagements Aug. to Nov. ,, 

General Miguel Miramon nominated president 
at Mexico by the Junto . . Jan 6, 1859 

Zuloaga abdicates Feb. 2, „ 

In consequence of injury to British subjects, 
ships of war sent to Mexico . . . Feb. „ 

Miramon forces the lines of the liberal generals, 
enters the capital, assumes his fvuictions as 
governor, and governs without respect to the 
laws of life and property . . April 10, „ 

Juarez confiscates the church property, July 13, ,, 

Miramon and the clerical party defeat the 
liliends under Colima . . Dec. 21, ,, 

He besieges Vera Cruz, March 5 : bombards it ; 
compelled to raise the siege . . March 21, 1800 

General Zuloaga deposes Miramon, andas.sumes 
the presidency May i, „ 

Mir.imon an-ests Zuloaga, May 9 ; the diplo- 
matic bodies suspend official relation with 
the former May 10, ,, 

Minimun defeated by Degollado . . Aug. 10, ,, 

He governs Mexico with much tyranny ; the 
foreign ministers quit the city . . Oct. ,, 

He is compelled to retii-c ; J uai ez enters Mexico, 
and re-elected president . . Jan. 19, iE6r 

Juarez made dictator by the congress, June 30, ,, 

The Ale.xican congress decides to su.spend pay- 
ments to foreigners for two years July 17, ,, 

Which leads to the breaking off diplomatic re- 
lations with England and France . July 27, ,, 

In ci^nsequence of many gross outrages on 
foreigners, the British, French, and Spanish 
governments, after much vain negotiation, 
claiming efficient protection of foreigners, and 
the payment of arrears due to fuiidholdcrs, 
sign a convention engaging to combined hos- 
tile operations against Mexico . Oct. 31, ,, 

The Mexican Cfingress dissolves, after con- 
ferring full powers on the president. Dee. 15, ,, 

Spanish troops land at Vera Cruz, Dec. 8 ; it 
surrendi-rs ..... Dec. 17, „ 

A British naval and French military expedition 
arrives Jan. 7, 8, iW.:t 

The Mexicans determine on resistance, and 
invest Vera Cruz ; their taxes are raised 25 
per cent. Jan. ,, 



MEZ 



483 



MIC 



MEXICO, continued. 

IMiramon arrives, but is scut bac-k to Spain by 

tlio British admiral . . . Feb. 

Pnijcet 1)1 ostablisbiiig a Mexican monarchy for 

anibdxike Maximilian of Austria, disapproved 

of by the British and Spanish governments, 

Feb. 
Negotiation ensues between the Spanish and 
Jlexieans ; convention between the commis- 
saries of tlie Allies and the Mexican general 
Doblado, at Soledad . . . Feb. 19, 

Tlie Mexican general Marqtiez takes up arms 
against Juarez ; and general Almonte joins 
the French general Loreucc-z ; Juarez liemand.s 
a compulsory loan, and puts Mexico in a state 
of siege March, 

Conference between plenipotentiaries of the 
Allies at Orizaba ; the English and Spanish 
declare for peace, which is not agreed to by 
the l''reuch, April 9 ; who declare war against 
Juarez April 16, 

The Spanish and British forces retire ; the 
French government sends reinforcements to 
Lorencez May, 

The French, induced by Marquez, advance into 
the interior ; severely repi'.lsed by general 
Zaragoza, at Fort Guadaloupe, near Puebla, 

May 5, 

The French defeat the Mexicans at Cerro do 
Borgo, near Orizaba . . . June 13, 14, 

The Mexican liberals said to be desirous of 
negotiation Aug. 

Gen. Forey and 2500 French soldiers land, 

Aug. 28. 

Letter from the emperor Napoleon to Lorencez 
disclaiming any intention of iiuposing a 
government on Mexico announced . Sept. 

Death of Zaragoza, a great loss to the Jle.xicans, 

Sept 8, 

Gen. Forey deprives Almonte of the presiilency 
at Vera Cruz, and apiiropriates the civil and 
militaiy power to himself . . Oct. 

Ortega takes command of the Mexican army, 

Oct. ig, 

The Mexican congress as.'^enibles, and protests 
against the French invasion . Oct. 27, 

The French evacuate Tampico . . Jan. 13, 

Korey marches towards Mexico . Feb. 24, 

Siege of Puebla, bravely defended, March 29 ; 
severe assault, March 31 to April 3 ; it is sur- 
rendert- d at discretion by Ortega . May 18, 

The republican government remove to San Luis 
de Potosi May 31, 



1862 



Mexico occupied by the French, underBazahie, 
Junes; Forey and his army enter June 10, 1S63 

Assembly of notables at Mexico decide on 
the establishment of a Umited hcreiifriry 
monaroliy, with a Roman Catholic prince 
as emperor ; and offer the crown to the arch- 
duke Maxiimilian of Austria ; a regency esta- 
Islished July 10, „ 

The French re-occupy Tampico . Aug. n, ,, 

Marshal Forey resign.s his command to 
Bazaino, and returns to France . Oct. i, „ 

The archduke Maximilian accepts the crown, 
under conditions .... Oct. 3, ,, 

The Mexican general Comonfort surprised and 
shot by partisans . . . Nov. 12, ,, 

Successful advance of the imperialists ; Juarez 
retires from San Luis de Potosi, Dec. 18 ; it 
is entered by the imperialists . Dec. 24, ,, 

The French occupy various places, Jan. & Feb. 1864 

The ex-president, general Santa- Anna, lands at 
Vera Cruz, profe^siug adhesion to the empire, 
Feb. 27 ; dismissed bj' Bazaine . March 12, ,, 

Juarez enters Monterey, which becomes the 
seat of the repuljlican government April 3, ,, 

The archduke Ma.ximilian definitively accepts 
the crown from the Mexican deputation at 
Miramar April 10, ,, 

The emperor and empress land at Vera Cruz, 
May 29 ; enter the city of Mexico . June 12, ,, 

The emperor visits the interior; grants a free 
press Aug. ,, 

The republicans defeat the imperialists at 
San Pedro Dec. 27, ,, 

Juarez, at Chihuahiia, exhorts the Mexicans to 
maintain their independence . . Jan. i, 1865 

The emperor institutes the order of the Mexican 
eagle Jan. 18, ,, 

Surrender of Oaxaca to marshal Bazaine Feb. 9, ,, 

A temporary constitution promulgated April 10, ,, 

Ortega, at Now York, enlists recruits for the 
republican army, May ; discountenanced by 
the U. S. government . . . June, ,, 

The emper.ir proclaims the end of the war, anci 
martial law against all armed bauds of men, 

Oct. ,, 

EMPEROR. 

1S64. Maximilian I. (l^rother to the* emperor of 
Ausiria), born July 6, 1832 ; accepted the 
crown April 10, 1864 : married July 27, 1857, 
to princc.-s Charlotte, daughter of Leopold I., 
king iif the Belgians ; adopts Augustus 
Iturbide as his heir, Sept. 1865. 



MEZZOTINTO. See Engraving. 

MHOW COURT-MARTIAL. See Trials, Nov. 1863. 

MICHAELMAS, Sept. 29, the feast of St. Michael, tlie reputed guardian of the Roman 
Catholic church, under the title of "St. Michael and All Angels." Instituted according to 
Butler, 487.* 

]\IICHIGAN, a north-we.st .state of N. America, settled in 1670 ; admitted into the union, 
Jan. 26, 1837. Capital, Lansing. 

MICROMETER, an astrononncal instrument used to discover and measure any small 
distance and the minuter objects in the heavens, such as the apparent diameters of the 
planet.s, &c. ; its invention is ascribed by some to M. Huygens, 1652 ; but our countryman 
Gascoyue's in.strumcnt is prior to that time. 

MICROSCOPES, said to have been invented by Fontana, in Italy, and by Drebbel, in 
Holland, about 162 1. Those with double glasses were made at the period when the law of 
refraction was discovered, about 1624. Solar microscopes were invented by Dr. Hooke. In 

* The custom of eating goose at Michaelmas has been erroneously attributed to queen Elizabeth'.? 
eating of the bird at dinner on Sept. 29, 15S8, at the house of sir Neville tjmfreyville, at the time she heard 
cf the destruction of the Spanish Armada. The custom is of much older date, and is observed on the con- 
tinent. — ClavU Cakndaria. 

1 I 2 



MID 484 MIL 

England great improvements were made in the microscope by Benjamin Martin (who invented 
and sold pocket microscopes abont 1740), by Henry Baker, F. R.S , about 1763, and still 
greater during the present century by Wollaston, Ross, Jackson, Varley, Powell, and others. 
Diamond microscopes were made by Andrew Pritcliard in 1824; and the properties of "test- 
objects" to 2>rove the qualities of microscopes, discovered by him and Goring in 1824-40. A 
binocular microscope {i.e., for two eyes), was constructed by professor Biddel in 1851. Wen- 
ham's improvements were made known in 1861. Treatises on the microscope by J. Quekett 
(1848), by Dr. W. B. Carpenter ( 1856), by Dr. Lionel Beale (1858-64), and Griffith and 
Henfrey's " Micrographic Dictionary " (1856) are valuable. The Microscopical Society of 
London was established in 1839. In 1865 Mr. H. Sorliy exhibited his spectrum-microscope 
by which the millionth of a grain of blood was detected. 

MIDDLE AGES. See Dark Ages. Henry Hallam's " Middle Ages" appeared in i8i8. 

MIDDLE-CLASS EXAMINATION. See Education (1858). 

MIDDLE LEVELS. See Leveh. 

MIDIANITES, an eastern people, descendants of Midian, a son of Abraham. — Having 
enticed the Israelites to idolatry they were severely chastised, 1452 B.C. They invaded 
Canaan about 1249 B.C., and were thoroughly defeated by Gideon. 

MIDWIFERY. Women were the only practitioners of this art among the Hebrews and 
Egyptians. Hippocrates, who practised medicine in Greece, 460 B.C., is styled by some the 
father of midwifery, as well as of physic* It advanced under Celsus, \i'ho flourished 
A.D. 37, and of Galen, who lived, 131. In England midwifery became a science about the 
period of the institution of the College of Physicians, lo Hen. VII., 1518.+ 

MILAN. Mediolanum, capital of the ancient Liguria, now Lombard}-, is reputed to 
have been built by the Gauls, about 408 B.C. 

Conquered by the Roman consul Marcellus B.C. 222 Seized by the French . . . June 30, 1796 

Seat of government of the western empire a.d. 2S6 , Retaken by the Austrians ..... 1799 

Council of MiUn. 346 Regained by the French . . May 31, 1800 

St. Ambrose, bishop of Milan . . , . 375 ] Made the cajiital of the kingdom of Italy, and 

Milan plundered by Attila ..... 452 Napoleon Bonaparte crowned with tbe iron 

Included in the Ostrogothic kingdom, 489 ; in | crown here May 26, 1805 

the Lombard kingdom 569 The Milan decree of Napoleon against all con- 
Becomes an independent republic . . . iioi ! tinental intercourse with England Dec. 17, 1807 



The emperor Frederic I. takes Milan, and ap- 
points a podesta 1158 

It rebels ; and is taken by Frederic and de- 
stroyed 1 162 



InsuiTection against the Austrians ; flight of 
the viceroy ..... March 18, 1848 

Another revolt promptly suppressed and rigor- 
ously punished . . . Feb. 6, et. stq. 1853 



Rebuilt and fortified 1169 Milan visited by the emperor of Austria Nov. 

The Milanese defeated by the emp. Frederic II. 1237, Amnesty for political offences granted . Dec. 1857 

The Visoonti become paramount in .Mihin . 1277 After tbe defeat of the Austrians at Magenta, 

•lohn Galeazzo V'isconti takes tbe title of duke 1395 June 4, Louis Naijuk-on and the king of Sar- 

Francesco Sforza, son-in-law of the last of the dinia enter Milan .... June 8, 1859 

Visconti, subdues Milan ;uid becomes duke . 1450 Peace of Villafranca ; a large part of Lombardy 
Milan conquered by Louis XII. of France . . 1499 transfeiTed to Sardinia . . July 12, ,, 
The French expelled by the Spaniards . . 1525 Victor-Emmaiuiel enters Milan as king, Aug. 8, 1S60 
-Milan annexed to the crown of Spain . . . 1540 Reactionary jjlots of Neapolitan soldiery sup- 
Ceded to Austria 1714 pressed April 29, 30, 1861 

Conquered by the French and Spaniards . . 1743 ' 

Reverts to Austria, upon Naples and Sicily See Ital)/. 

being ceded to Spain 1748 

MILETUS, a Greek city of Ionia, Asia Minor, founded about 1043 B.C. During the war 
with Persia it was taken, 494, but restored, 449. Here Paul delivered his celebrated charge 
to the elders of the church of Ephesus, a.d. 60 {Ads xx.). 

MILFOBD HAVEN (Wales). Here the earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII. , 
landed on his enterprise against Richard III. whom he defeated at Bosworth, 1485. The 

'■' Agnodice, an Athenian virgin, disguised her sex to learn medicine. She was taught by Hierophilus, 
her father, tbe art of midwifery, and, when employed, always discovered her sex to her patients. This 
brought her into so much practice, that the males of her profession, who were now out of employment, 
•accused her, before tbe Areopagus, of corruption. She confessed her sex to the judges, and a law was made 
to empower all free-born women to learn midwifery. The whole story is doubtful. 

t The celebrated Dr. Harvey personally i ngaged in the pj-actice of it, about 1603 ; and, after his example, 
the calling in of men in all difficult cases followed. Astruc affirms that the epoch of the employment of 
men-midwives goes no further back than the first lying-in of madame de la Vallifere, mibtress of Louis XIV. , 
1663. She sent for Julian Clement, an eminent surgeon, who was conducted with great secrecy to tbe 
house. The same surgeon was emp!o}-ed in the subsequent laboiirs (^f this lady, and he being very success- 
ful, men-midwives afterwards came into repute, the name of accoucheur being given tu them. 



MIL 



485 



MIN 



packets from this port to Ireland, sailing to Waterford, were established in 1787. The dock- 
yard, established liere in 1790, was removed to Pembroke in 18 14. 

MILITARY OK MARTIAL LAW is bnilt on no settled principle, but is entirely 
arbitrary, and, in trnth, no law ; but sometimes indulged rather than allowed, as law. Sir 
^futthcw Hale. It has been several times proclaimed in these kingdoms, and in 1798 was 
almost general in Ireland, where it was proclaimed in 1803. 

MILITARY ASYLUM, Royal, at Chelsea, "for the children of the soldiers of the 
regular army." The first stone was laid by the duke of York, June 19, iSoi. 

MILITARY KNIGHTS of WINDSOR. See Poor Knights of Windsor. 

]\IILITIA, the standing national force of these realms, is traced to king Alfred, Avho 
made all his subjects soldiers, 872 to 901. 

First commission of array to raise a militia . 1122 General militia act for England and Scotland, 

Kevived by Henry II 1176 1802; for Ireland . . . . . . 1809 

Ag;ain revived 1557 Enactment authorising coui'ts-martial to inflict 

Said to amount to 160,000 men . . . . 1623 imprisonment instead of flogging passed . 1814 

The present militia statutes established, 1661 to 1663 Acts to consolidate the militia laws . i852*-4 

Supplemental militia act passed . . . 1797 Militia embodied on accoiuit of the Russian 

Irish militia offered its services in England, war, 1854 ; and on account of the Indian 

March 28, 1804 mutiny 1857 

MILKY WAY (Galaxy) in the heavens. Juno is said by the Greek poets to have spilt 
her milk in the heavens after suckling Mercury or Hercules. Democritiis (about 428 B.C.) 
taught that the via lactea was a multitude of stars ; j)roved by Galileo by means of the 
telescope. 

^MILLEXNARIANS suppose that the world will end at the expiration of the seven 
thousandth year from the creation ; and that during a thousand years (millennium) Christ and 
the saints will reign upon the earth. See lirr. xx. The doctrine was very generally incul- 
cated as early as the 2ud and 3rd centuries, by Papias, Justin Martyr, and others. Burnett. 

MILLENNARY PETITION, presented to king James on his accession, 1603, on behalf 
of a thousand Puritan ministers against the "human rites and ceremonies" of the chui'cli 
of England. 

MILLS. Moses forbad mill-stones to be taken in pawn, because it would be like taking 
a man's life to pledge. Dcut. xxiv. 6. The hand-mill was in use among the Britons pre- 
A'iousl}' to the conquest by the Romans. The Romans introduced the water-mill. Cotton 
mills moved by water were erected by sir Richard Arkwright, at Cromford, Derbyshire. He 
died in 1792. 

MINCIO, a river of Lombardy. Here the Austrians were repulsed by the French under 
Brune, Dec. 25-27, 1800; and by Eugene Beauhamais, Feb. 8, 1814. 

MINDEN (Prussia), Battle of, Aug. i, 1759, between the Engli.sh, Hessians, and 
Hanoverians (commanded by prince Ferdinand of Brunswick), and the French, who were 
beaten and driven to the very ramparts of Minden. Lord George Sackville (afterwards lord 
George Germaine) who conrmanded the Britislr and Hanoverian horse, for some disobedience 
of orders was tried by a court-martial on his return to England, found guilty, and dismissed 
the service, Api'il 22, 1760. He was afterwards restored to court favour, and became 
secretary of state, 1776. 

MINES. Strabo and Tacitus enumerate gold and silver as among the products of 
England. The earliest instance of a claim to amine royal being enforced occurs 47 Hen. III. 
1262. It related to mines containing gold, together with copper, in Devonshire ; and in 
Edward I.'s reign, according to Mr. Ruding, the mines in Ireland, which produced silver, 
were supposed to be so rich that the king directed a writ for working them to Robert de 
Ulibrd, lord justice, 1276. The lead mines of Cariliganshire, from which silver has ever 
since been extracted, were discovered by sir Hugli ]\IiddIeton in the reign of James I. 

A British Mineralogical Society established in 1800 ' A Miners' Protection Association proposed by 
llaliy's " Traite de Miui5ralogie" appeared in . 1801 ' Mr. William Gurney and others in .March, 1862 
The governmeut School of Mines, &c.,Jermyn- [Value of the mineral produce of the United 
street, St. James's, opened in . . Nov. 1851 j Kingdom estimited at 25,961,649^ in 1857; 
An act for the regulation of mines pissed in . 1S60 and at 39,979 837J. in 1864 



* This militia act was conseq\ient upon the then prevailing opinion of tlie necessity of strengthening 
our national defences against the possibility of French invasion. The act empowered her majesty to raise 
a force not exceeding 80,000 men, of which number 50,000 were to be raised in 1852, and 30,000 in 1855 ; the 
quotas for e.ich county or riding to be fixed by an order in council. 



MIN 486 MIS 

MINIE RIFLE, invented at Vincennes, about 1833, by M. Minie (bom about 1800). 
From a common soldier he raised himself to the rank of nhef d'escadron. His rifle is 
considered to surpass iiU made previous to it, for accuracy of direction and extent of range. 
It was adopted by the French, and, with various modifications, by the British army in 1852. 

MINISTER OF WAR. See War Minister. 

MINISTERS. See Administrations. 

MINNESINGERS, lyric German poets, of the 12th and 13th centuries, who WTote to 
entertain knights and barons of the time. The Mcister- singers in the 14th century devoted 
themselves to citizens. Some of their songs have been collected and published. 

MINNESOTA, a western state of N. America, was organised as a territory, March 3, 1849, 
and admitted into the union in 1857. On Aug. 17, 1862, the Sioux Indians commeneed a 
series of outrages at Acton, in Messier count}', desolating the country and massacring above 
500 persons, of both sexes, and of all ages. General Sibley beat the Indians in two battles, 
and rescued many captives. Thirty-eight Indians were executed as assassins. 

MINORCA AND MAJORCA, the Balearic Isles {mhieh sec). Minorca was captured by 
lieutenant-general Stanhope and sir John Leake in Aug. 1708, and was ceded to the British 
by the trenty of Utrecht in 17 13. It was retaken by tlie Spanish and French in July, 1756. 
Admiral Byng fell a victim to public indignation for not relieving it. See Byng. It was 
restored to the British at the peace in 1763 ; besieged by the Spaniards, and taken 
Feb. 5, 1782. It was again captured by the British imder general Stuart, without the loss 
of a man, Nov. 15, 1798; but was given up at the peace of Amiens in 1802. 

MINSTRELS, originally pipci's appointed by lords of manors to divert their cojiyholders 
while at work, owed their origin to the glee-men or harpers of the Saxons, and continued till 
about 1560. John of Gaunt erected a court of minstrels at Tutbury in 1380. So late as the 
reign of Henry VIII. they intruded without ceremony into all companies, even at the houses 
of the uobilit}' ; but in Elizabeth's reign they sank into neglect, aud were adjudged rogues 
and vagabonds (1597). 

MINT. Athelstan first enacted regulations for the government of the mint about 928. 
There were several provincial mints under the control of that of London. Henry II. is said 
to have instituted a mint at AVinchester, 1125. Stow says the mint was kept by Italians, 
the English being ignorant of the art of coining, 7 Edw. I. 1278. The operators were 
formed into a corporation by the charter of king Edward III., in which condition it consisted 
of the warden, master, comptroller, assay-master, workers,- coiner.s, and suboidinates. The 
first entry of gold brought to the mint for coinage occui's in 18 Edw. III. 1343. Tin was 
coined by Charles II. 1684 ; and gun-metal and jiewter by his .successor James. Sir Isaac 
Newton was warden, 1699-1727, during which time the debased coin was called in, and new 
issued at the loss of the government. Between 1806 and 1810. grants amounting to 262,000?. 
Avere made by parliament for the erection of the present mint, which was eompleteil in 1813 ; 
it was injured by fire, Oct. 31, 1815. The new constitution of the miut, founded on the 
report of the hon. Wellesley Pole, took effect in 181 7. 



1S17. Wellesley Pole. 

1823. Thomas Wallace. 

1827. George Tierney. 

1828. J. C. Herries. 
iS^o. Lord Auckland. 



MASTERS OF THE MINT. 

1834. James Abercrombie. 1 1845. Sir George Clerk. 

1835. Alexander Baring. | 1846. Richard L. Shiel. 

,, Henry Laboiicbere. j 1S50. Sir John F. Herschel, F.R.S. 

1841. William B. Gladstone. 1855. Tiiomas Graham, F.E.S. 



MINUS. Sec Plus. 

MIRRORS. In ancient times miiTors were made of metal ; those of the Jewish women 
of brass. Mirrors in silver were introduced by Praxiteles, 328 B.C. Mirrors or looking- 
glasses were made at Venice, a.d. 1300 ; and in England, at Lambeth, near London, in 
1673. The improvements in manufacturing plate-ghiss, and that of very large size, has 
cheapened looking-glasses very much. Various methods of coating glass by a solution of 
silver, thus avoiding the use of mercury, so injurious to the healtii of the workmen, have 
been made known ; by M. Petitjean in 1851 ; and by M. Cimeg in 1861. 

MISSIONS. Among the Romanists, the religious orders of St. Dominic, St Francis, 
St. Augustin, &c., had missions to the Levant aud to America. Marco Polo is said to have 
introduced missionaries into China, 1275. The Jesuits had missions to China (vjhich see) 
and to most other parts of the world. Among the Protestants, an early undertaking of this 



MIS 487 MOD 

kind was a D.mish mission, planned by Frederick IV. in 1706. But the Moravian Brethren 
may be said to have led the way to tlie new Christian missions about 1732. The London 
Jlissionary Society held their first meeting, Nov. 4, 1794.* 

MISSISSIPPI, a great river, N. America. The Mississippi trade was begun in England, 
in Nov. 1 716. The celebrated Mississipi)i scheme or bubble in France, which was com- 
menced about the same period, exploded in 1720; at which time the nominal capital is said 
to have a)nounted to 100,000,000/. The ruin of thousands of families, dupes of this iniquitous 
scheme, soon followed in both countries, ^ea Law's Bubble. — The North American state, 
^MississuM'i, was settled in 1716 ; admitted as a state of the union, 1817 ; and seceded from 
it by ordinance, Jan. 8, 1861. Capital, Jackson. 

MISSOLONGHI, a town in Greece, heroically' and successfully defended against the 
Turks by Marco Botzaris in 1822. It was taken in 1826 after a year's siege. — Here lord Byron 
died in 1824. It was surrendered to the Greeks in 1829. 

MISSOURI, a south-western state in N. America, was settled in 1763, and admitted into 
the union, Aug. 10, 1S21. It decided on neutrality in the conflict of 1S61, but was invaded 
by both the confederate and federal forces in June of that year, and became one of the seats 
of war. Capital, Jefferson city. See United States, 1861, et scq. — For the Missouri 
Compromise, see Slavery in America. 

MITIIKIDATE, a physical preparation in the form of an electuary, supposed to be an 
antidote to poison and the oldest compound known, is said to have been invented by 
Mithridatcs, king of Pontus, about 70 B.C. 

lyilTIIRIDATIC WAR, caused by the massacre of 100,000 Romans, by Mithridates, king 
of Pontus, 88 Ed., and rem irkable for its duration, its many battles, the destruction of 
human life it occasioned, and the cruelties of its commanders, ilithridates having taken 
tlic consul Aquilius, made him ride on an ass through a great part of Asia, crying out as he 
rode, " I am Aquilius, consul of the Romans." He ultimately despatched him by ordering 
melted gold to be poured down his throat, in derision of his avarice, 85 B.C. Mithridates 
was defeated by Pompey, 66 B.C. ; and committed suicide, 63 B.C. 

MITRE. The cleft cap or mitre was worn by the Jewish high-priest, 149 1 B.C. It had 
on it a golden plate inscribed "Holiness to the Loud." Exodus xxxix. 28. The most 
ancient mitre that has the nearest resemblance to the present one is that upon the seal of 
the bishop of Laon, in the loth century. Fosbroke. Anciently the cardinals wore mitres, 
but at the council of Lyons, in 1245, the}- were directed to wear hats. 

MNEMONICS, artificial memory, Avas introduced by Simonides the younger, 477 B.C. 
Arund. Marbles. In modern times, mnemonics have been elaborately treated ; "Mneuionica" 
was published by John Willis in i6i8 ; and the Memoria Tcchnica of Dr. Grey first appeared 
in 1730. A system of mnemonics was announced in Germany, in 1806-7. 

MOCKERN (Prussia). Here the French army under Eugene Beauharnois defeated the 
allied Russian and Prussian army with great loss, April, 1813 ; and here Bllicher defeated 
the French, Oct. 16, 1813. 

MODELS. The first were figures of living persons, and Dibutades, the Corinthian, is 
the reputed inventor of those in clay. His daughter, known by the appellation of the 
Corinthian Maid, being about to be separated from her lover, who was going on a distant 
journey, traced his profile by his shadow on the wall ; her father filled up the outline with 
clay, which he afterwards baked, and thus produced a figure of the object of her affection, 
giving rise to an art till then unknown, about 985 B.c.f 

MODENA (formerly Mutina), till lately capital of the duchy in Central Ital}^; was 
governed by the house of Este, from 1288 till 1796, when the last male of that house, the 
reigning duke Hercules III., was expelled by the French. By the treaty of Campo Formio, 

* Our missionaries abroad have not unfreqviently suffered grievous hardships and privations. Com- 
mander Allan Gardner, R.N., who left Englan 1 in the Oceaa Qmen in Sept. 1830, on the Pa tagonian mission, 
with Mr. Williams, surgeon, Mr. Maidment, catechi^t, and four others, died on Pictun Island, at the mouth 
of the Beagle Channel, to the south of iierra del Fuego, having been starved to death, all his companions 
having pre.-iously perished, Sept. 6, 1851. — M. Sehoffler, a missionary to Cochin-China, was pubUcly 
executed at Son-'l'ay, by order of the grand mandarin, for preaching Christianity, such preaching being 
prohibited by 'he law of that coun'ry, May 4, 1851. 

t A beautiful model of the new town of Edinburgh, before the building began, was formed in wood. 
A model w.is maie of a bridijc over the Neva, of uncommon strength as well as elegance ; and of the 
mountiiins of Switzerland, by general P&flfcr (1765-85). M. ChoSin's model of Paris also was remarkable 
for its precision. 



mo: 488 MON 

the Modenese possessions were iucoqjorated with tlie Cisalpine repiiblii^ 1797- The arch- 
(hike Francis of Este, son of the archduke Ferdinand of Austria, and of Mary, the heiress 
of the last duke, was restored in 1814. Modena, in accordance with the voting by universal 
suffrage, was annexed to Sardinia on March 18, i860. Population, in 1857, 604,512. 

RECENT GRAXD-DUKES OF MODENA. 

1814. Francis IV. An invasion of his states b}^ to Verona, establisliing a regency, June 11 ; 

JIurat w;i.s defeated, April 11, 1815. He was 1 whicli was abolished June 13 ; Farini was 

expelled by his subjects in 1831, but was I appointed dictator, July 27 ; a constituent 

restored by the Austrians. assembly was immediately elected, which 

1846. Francis V. (born June I, 1819) succeeds Jan^ 21. offered the duchy to the king of Sardinia, 

His subjects rose against him soon after the 1 Sept. 15. He incorporated it with his 

Italian war broke out, in April, 1859. He fled I dominions, March 18, i860. 

MCESIA (now Bosnia, Servia, and Bulgaria), was finally subdued by Augustus. It was 
.successfully invaded by the Goths, 253 B.C., who eventually settled here. See Goths. 

MOGULS. See Tartary. 

]\[OHAMMERAH, a Persian town near the Euphrates, captured, after two hours' 
cannonading, b}^ sir James Outram, during the Per.sian war, March 26, 1857. News of the 
peace arrived there on the 4th of April. 

MOHATZ (Lower Hungary). Here, Louis, king of Hungary, defeated by the Turks 
under Solyman II. with the loss of 22,000 men, was suffocated by the fall of his horse in a 
muddy brook, Aug. 29, 1526. Here also prince Charles of Lorraine defeated the Turks, 
Aug. 12, 1687. 

MOHILOW (in Russia). Here the Russian army, under prince Bagration, was signally 
defeated by the French under marshal Davoust, prince of Eckmiihl, July 23, 1812. 

IklOHOCKS, ruffians, who went about London at night, wounding and disfiguring the 
men, and indecently exposing the women. One hundred pounds were offered by royal 
proclamation, in 1712, for apprehending any one of them. Northoiick. 

MOLDAVIA. See Danuhlan Princi2mlities. 

]\IOLINISTS, a Roman Catholic sect, followers of Louis Molina, a Jesuit, born 1535. 
He maintained the reconciliability of the doctrines of predestination and freewill. 

MOLUCCAS, an archipelago in the Indian Ocean (the chief Island, Amboyna), discovered 
by the Portuguese, about 151 1, and held by tlieni secretly till the arrival of the Spaniards, 
who claimed tliem till 1629, when Charles V. yielded them to John III. for a large sum of 
money. The Dutch conquered them in 1607, and have held them ever since, — except from 
1810 to 1814, when they were subject to the English. 

MOLWITZ (in Prussian Silesia). Here the Prussians, commanded by Frederick II., 
obtained a great victory over the Imperialists, April 10 (0. S. March 30), 1741. 

MOLYBDENUM, a whitish, brittle, almost infusible metal. Scheele, in 1778, dis- 
covered molybdic acid in a mineral hitherto confounded with graphite. Hjelm, in 1782, 
prepared the metal from molybdic acid; and in 1825 Berzelius described most of its chemical 
characters. Gmelin. 

MONACHISjM (from the Greek monns, alone). Catholic writers refer to the prophet 
Elijah, and the Nazarenes mentioned in Numbers, ch. vi., as early examples. The first 
Christian ascetics appear to be derived from the Jewish .sect of the Essenes, whose life was 
very austere, practising celibacy, &c. About the time of Constantine (306-22) numbers of 
the.se ascetics withdrew into the deserts, and were called hermits, vionls, and anchorets ;* of 
whom Paul, Anthony, and Pachomius were most celebrated. Simeon, the founder of the 
Stylitffi (or pillar saints), died 451. He is said to have lived on a pillar thirty years. St. 
Benedict, the great reformer of western monachism, published his rules and established his 
monastery at Monte Casino, about 529. The Carthusians, Cistercians, &c., are varieties of 
Benedictines. In 964, by tiecree of king Edgnr, all married priests were to be replaced by 
monks. See Abbeys and Bc7icdiclmes. 

MONACO, a principality, N. Italy, held by the Genoese family Grimaldi since 968. By 
treat,y, on Feb. 2, 1861, the prince ceded the comniunes of Roquebrune and Mentone; 

* The anchorites of the i2tb, 13th, and 14th centuries mnst not be confounded wi:h the anchoret^, or 
hermits. The former were confined to solitary cells ; the latter permitted to go where they pleased. 



MON 489 MON 

the chief part of liis domiuious, to France, for 4,000,000 francs. The present prince, 
Charh'S III., born Dec. 8, 1818, succeeded Juno 20, 1S56. Population aliout 1200. 

MONAECHY. Historians reckon four grand monarchies — the Assyrian, Persian, 
Grecian, and lloinan (which sec). 

MONASTERIES, ^ae Ahbajs. 

JIONDOVI (Piedmont). Here the Sardinian arnij-, commanded b}- Colli, was defeated 
by Napoleon Bonaparte, April 22, 1796. 

MONEY is mentioned as a medium of commerce in Genesis xxiii., i860 B.C., when 
Abraham purchased a field as a sepulchre for Sarah. The coinage of money is ascribed to 
the Lydians. Moneta was the name given to their silver by the Romans, it having been 
coined in tlie temple of Juno-iloneta, 269 B.C. Money was m.ade of different metals, and 
even of leatlier and other articles, both in ancient and modern times. It was made of paste- 
board by the Hollanders so late as 1574. See Coin; Gold; Silver; Copper; Mint; Baiiks, «&c. 
For Money Orders, see Post Office. 

MONEYERS are mentioned in Alfred's " Domesday- Book." They travelled with our 
early kings, and coined money as re([uired. 

MONGOLS. See Tartary. MONK. See Monachism. 

MONMOUTH'S REBELLION. James, duke of Monmouth (born at Rotterdam, April 
9, 1649), a natural son of Charles II. by Lucy Waters, was banished England for his con- 
nexion with the Rye-house plot, in 1683. He invaded England at Lyme, June 11, 1685; 
was proclaimed king at Taunton, June 20 ; was defeated at Sedgmoor, near Bridgewater, 
July 6 ; and beheaded on Tower-hill, July 15. 

MONOLITH, Greek for single stone. See Obelisk. 

MONOPHYSITES. See Eutychians. 

MONOPOLIES, reached to such a height in England, that parliament petitioned against 
them, and many were abolished, aV)out 1601-2. They were further suppressed by 21 Jas. I., 
1624. In 1630, Charles I. established monojiolies of soap, salt, leather, and other common 
things, to supply a revenue without the help of parliament. It was deci'eed that none should 
be in future created by roj^al patent, 16 Chas. I., 1640. 

MONOTHELITES, heretics who affirmed that Jesus Christ had but one will, were 
favoured by the emperor Heraclius, 630 ; they merged into the Eutychians (which see). 

JIONROE DOCTRINE, a term applied to the determination expressed by James Monroe, 
president of the LTiiited States, 1817-24, not to permit any European power to interfere in 
restraining the progress of liberty in North or South America. This doctrine was referred 
to ill 1859, with the view of weakening the influence of Gi'eat Britain and Spain on the 
American continent, and, in 1865, in relation to the new Mexican empire. 

MONSTER, The. Renwick "Williams, who prowled nightly through the streets of 
London, secretly armed with a double-edged knife, with which he shockingly wounded many 
females. He was tried and convicted, July 8, 1790. See Mohocks. 

MONTALEMBERT'S TRIAL. See France, 1858. 

MONTANISTS, followers of Montanus, of Ardaba, in Mysia, about 171 ; who was reputed 
to have the gift of prophecy, and proclaimed himself the Comforter promised by Christ. 
He condemned second marriages as fornication, permitted the dissolution of marriage, 
forbade the avoiding martyrdom, and ordered a severe fast of three lents ; he hanged himself 
witli Maximilla, one of his women-scholars, before the close of the 2nd century. Cave. Tlie 
elofjuent father, Tertullian, joined the sect, 204. 

MONT BLANC, in the Swiss Alps, is the highest mountain in Europe, being 15,781 
feet al)ove tlie level of the .sea. The summit was first reached by Saussure, aided by a guide 
named Balma, on Aug. 2, 1787. The summit was attained by Dr. Hamel (when three of his 
guides perished) in 1820, an<l by many other persons before and since. Accounts of the 
ascents of Mr. John Aldjo, Charles Fellows (1827), and of professor Tyndall (1857-8) have 
i)eeu pul dished. See Al2>s. 

MONTEBELLO, a village in Piedmont, where Lannes defeated tlie Austrians, June g, 
|8oo, and accpiired his title of duke of Alontebello ; and where (May 20, 1859), after a 
contest of six hours, tlie French and Sardinians defeated tlie Austrians, who lost about 1000 



MON 



490 



MO^T 



killed and wounded, and 200 prisoners. The French lust ahout 670 men, including general 
Beuret. 

MONTE CASINO (Central Italy). Here Benedict formed his first monastery, 529. 

MONTEM. See Eton. 

MONTENEGRO, an independent principality in European Turkey, was conquered by 
Solyman II. in 1526. It rebelled in the last century, and established an hereditary 
luerarchical government in the family of Petrovitsch Njegosch, — endured, but not recognised 
by the Porte. 



The ncplisw and successor of the Vladika, Peter 
II., doclined to a=isume the ecclesiastical 
function, and declared himself a temporal 
prince, with the title of Daniel I., 1851 ; and 

bcgao war with Turkey 1852 

Montenegro put in a state of blockade, Dee. 14, ,, 
After several indecisive encounters, tranquillity 
restored by the influence of the arms and 
ne^jotiationa of Omar Paeha, the general of 
the Turkish army ; he left the province, 

Feb. 25, i8s3 
Blockade raised .... April 10, ,, 
War again broke out ; the Turks defeated at 
Gi-ahovo June, 1858 



Peace restored Nov. 1858 

The country much distxirbed through the 
tyrannical conduct of prince Daniel, who 
was assassinated ("aged 35) . . Aug. 13, 1S60 

He is succeeded by his nephew Nicolas (mar- 
ried) Nov. 8, ,, 

An insurrection in the Herzegovina, favoured 
by the Montenegrines ; the blockade of Mon- 
tenegro April 4, 1861 

Omar Pacha invaded the province with an army 
of 32,000 men in Aug. ,, 

Many conlliots with various success ; but lat- 
terly in favour of the Turks ; ijeace made . 1862 
See Herzejoviiia. 



MONTENOTTE, a village in Piedmont, memorable as being the site of the first victory 
gained over the Austrians by Napoleon Bonaparte, A]iril 12, 1796. 

MONTEREAU (near Paris). Here the allied armies were defeated by the French, com- 
manded by Napoleon, with great loss in killed and wounded ; but it was one of his last 
triumphs, Feb. iS, 1814. — On the bridge of Montereau, at his meeting with the dauphin, 
John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, was killed by Tanneguy de Cliatcl in 1419. This 
event led to our Henry V. subduing France, the young duke Philip joining the English. 

MONTEREY (Mexico), was taken by general Taylor after a three days' conflict with the 
Mexicans, Sept. 21-3, 1846. 

MONTE VIDEO (S. America), was taken by storm by the British forces under sir Saniucl 
Auchmuty, but with the loss of nearlj' one-third of our brave troops, Feb. 3, 1807. It was 
evacuated July 7, the same year, in consequence of the severe repulse the British met with at 
Buenos-Ayres. Sea Bueiios-Ayrcs. Montevideo, a subject of dispute between Brazil and 
Buenos-Ayres, was given up to Uruguay, 1828. See Brazil, for recent war. 

MONTFERRAT (Lombardy), 1Iou.se of, celebrated in the history of the Crusades, 
began with Alderan, who was made marquis of Montferrat, by Otho, about 967. Conrad 
of Montferrat became lord of Tyre, and reigned from 1 187 till 1 191, when he was assassinated. 
"William IV. died in a cage at Alexandria, having been thus impi'isone<l nineteen months, 
1292. Violante, daughter of John II., married Andronicns Palaeologas, emperor of tiie East. 
Their descendants ruled in Italy amid perpetual contests till 1533, when John George 
Pala^ologus died without issue. His estates passed after much contention to Frederic II. 
Gonzaga, marquis of Mantua, in 1536. 

MONTGOMERY, capital of Alabama, United States, founded 1817. Here the state 
convention passed the ordinance of secession from the union on Jan. 11, i86i ; here the 
confederate congress met on Feb. 4, and elected Jefferson Davis jjresident, and Alexander 
Stephens vice-president, of the confederate states of North America ; and here they were 
inaugurated on Feb. 18. On May 21, the congress adjourned to meet on July 20 at Richmond, 
in Virginia, that state having joined the confederates and become the seat of war. 

MONTI DI PIETA, charitable institutions for advancing money on pledges, were first 
established at Perugia, Florence, Mantua, and other Italian cities, 1462, ct seq. The Fran- 
ciscans, in 1493, first began to receive interest, which was permitted by the pope, in 15 15. 
Monls clc Piete were not established in France till 1777. They were suppressed by the 
Revolution, but restored, 1804 ; regulated by law, 185 1-2. Bee Pawiibrokmg. 

MONTIEL (Spain), Battle of, March 14 (or 23^ 1369, between Peter the Cruel, king 
of Castile, and his brother Henry of Trastamaie, aided by the French warrior, Berti'am du 
Guesclin. Peter was totally defeated, and afterwards treaclierously slain. 

MONTLHERY (Seine-et-Oise, France), site of an indecisive battle between Louis XI. 
and a party of his nobles, termed "The League of the Public Good," July 16, 1465. 



MON 491 MOO 

MONTREAL, the second city in Lower Canada, built by the French. 



A destructive fire .... Aug. 23, 1850 
Another, destroying 1200 bouses ; the lo^s esti- 

matt'd at a milliou sterling . July 12, 1852 

At an anti-jjapal lecture here by Gavazzi, riots 

ensued, and many lives were lost June 10, 1853 
The cathedral destroyed by fire . Dec. 10, 1S56 
Victoria railway bridge (irhick set) formally 

opened by the ijrmce of Wales . Aug. 25, i36o 



Surrendered to the English . . Sept. 6, 1760 
Taken by the Americans, Nov. 12, 1775 ; retiikcn 

by the British .... June 15, 1776 

The church, Jesuits' college, prison, and many 

buildings burnt down . . . June 6, 1803 
Great milit.ary affray .... Sejit. 29, 1833 
The self-stylcil "loyalists" of Montreal as.sa\ilt 

the governor-general, lordEliiin; enter the 

parliament-hou'Je, drive out the members, 

.ind set fire to the building . . April 26, 1849 

MONTSEKRAT, a W. India island, discovered by Columbus in 1493, and settled by the 
British in 1632. It has several times been taken by the French, but was secured to the 
British in 1783. 

MONUMENT of LONDON, built by sir Christopher AVren, 1671-7. The pedestal is 
forty feet high, and the edifice altogether 202 feet, that being the distance of its base from 
the spot where the fire which it commemorates commenced. It is the loftiest isolated column 
in the world. Its erection cost about 14,500^. The staircase is of black marble, consisting 
of 345 steps.* Of the four original inscrijitions, three were Latin, and the following in 
English, — Cut in 1&81, obliterated by James II. ; re-cut in the reign of William III. ; and 
finally erased by order of the common council, Jan. 26, i83i.t 

THIS PILLAR WAS SET VP IN PERPETVAL REMEMBRANCE OF THAT MOST DREADFUL BURNING OF THIS 
PROTESTANT CITY, BEGUN AND CARRYED ON BY Y" TREACHERY AND MALICE OF Y= POPISH FACTION, IN 
Y' BEGINNING OF SEPTEM. IN Y' YEAR OF OUR LORD l665, IN ORDER TO Y' CARRYING ON THEIR 
HORRID PLOT FOR EXTIRPATING Y' PROTE.STANT liELIGlON AND OLD ENGLISH LIBERTY, AND Y« 
INTRODUCING POPERY AND SLAVERY. 

MOODKEE (India). Here, on Dec. 18, 1845, the Sikhs attacked the advanced guard 
of the British, and were repulsed three miles, losing many men and fifteen pieces of cannon. 
Sir liobert Sale was mortally woimded. Lady Sale signalised herself during the two 
memorable retreats from Atfghanistan. The battle followed that of Ferozeshah {ivhich see). 

MOOLTAN (India). Here Moolraj Sing, ruler of the Sikhs, murdered Mr. Vans Agnew 
and lieutenant Anderson, A])ril 21, 1848. This led to a siege. A conflict took place between 
the British and the Sikhs, in which the latter was driven to the town of Mooltan with great 
loss, Nov. 7, 1848. It was taken after a protracted boinbardiuent, Jan. 2-22, 1849. 

MOON. Opacity of the moon, and the true causes of lunar eclipses, taught by Thales, 
640 B.C. Hipparchus made observations on the moon at Rhodes, 127 B.C. Posidonius 
accounted for the tides from the motion of the moon, 79 B.C. Dior/. Lacrt. Maps of the 
moon have been constructed by Hevelius (1647), Cassini (1680), ami others. Beer and 
Madler's map was published in 1834. In 1862 profes.sor John Phillips invited the British 
Association to make arrangements to obtain a "systematic represent.'ition of the physical 
aspect of the inoon." Photographs of the moon were taken and exhibited by Mr. Warren 
De la Rue in 1857. Han.sen's " Tables of the Moon," calculated at the expense of the British 
and Danish governments, were published at the cost of the latter in 1857. See Hclipse. 

MOORS, formerly the natives of Manritania {luhicJi sec), but afterwards the name given 
to the Nmnidians and others, and now applied to the natives of Morocco and the neighbour- 
hood. Tliey assisted Genseric and the Vandals in their invasion of Africa, 429, and 
frequently rebelled against the Roman emperors. They resisted for a time the progress of 
the Arab IVbihometans, but were overcome by them in 707 ; and in 1019 introduced into 
Siiain to sup])ort the Arabs, where their arms were long victorious. In 1063 they were 
defeated in Sicily by Roger Guiscard. The Moorish kingdom of Granada was set up in 1237, 
and lasted till 1492, when it fell before Ferdinaml V. of Castile, mainly owing to internal 
discord. The expulsion of the Moors from Spain was decreed, but not fully carried into 
eflect till 1609, wiien the bigotry of Philip III. inflicted this great injury to his country. 
About 15 18 the Moors cstaljlishcd the piratical states of Algiers and Tunis {which sec). In 
the history of Spain, the Arabs and Moors niu.st not be confounded. 

* Willi.im Green, a weaver, fell from this monument, June 25, 1750. A man named Thomas Cradduck, 
a baker, precipitivtcd himself from its s\uiimit, .July 7, 1780. jMr. Lyon Levy, a Jewi.sh iiiamond merchant, 
of consideral)le rcspectaljility, throw himself from it, Jan. 18, 1810; .as did more recently three other 
persons ; in consequence of which a fence was placed round the railings of the gallery in 1839. 
i t They produced PoiJe's indignant lines : — 

I " Where London's column, pointing at the skies, 

J Like a tall bully, lifts the head, and lies." 



MOR 492 MOR 

MORAL PHILOSOPHY, defined as the knowledge of our duty, the science of ethics, 
the art of being virtuous and happy. Socrates (about 430 B.C.) is regarded as the fatlier 
of ancient, and Grotius (about 1623) of modern moral philosophy. See Philosophy. 

MORAT (Switzerland), where Charles the Bold of Burgundy was completely defeated by 
the Swiss, June 22, 1476. A monument, constructed of the bones of the vanquished, was 
destroyed by the French in 1798, who erected a stone column iu its place. 

MORAVIA, an Austrian province, occupied by the Slavonians about 548, and compiered 
by the Avars and Bohemians, who submitted to Charlemagne. About 1000 it was subdued 
by Boleslas of Poland, but recovered by Ulric of Bohemia in 1030. After various changes, 
Moravia and Bohemia were amalgamated into the Austrian dominions in 1526. 

MORAVIAN'S, United Brethren, said to have been part of the Hussites, who with- 
drew into Moravia in the 15th century ; while the Brethren say that their sect was derived 
from the Greek church in tlie 9th century. In 1722 they formed a settlement (called 
Herrnhutt, the watch of the Lord), on the estate of count Zinzendorf Their church con- 
sisted of 500 persons in 1727. They were introduced into England by count Zinzendorf about 
1737; he died at Chelsea iu June, 1760. In 1851 they had thirty-two chapels in England. 
They are zealous missionaries, and founded the early settlements in foreign parts. 

MORAY FLOODS. See Inundations, 1829. 

]\IORDAUNT. See Administrations, 1689. MOREA, the Peloponnesus. See Greece. 
MORETON BAY (New S. Wales). The colony founded here in 1859 has since been 
named Queens-land [ichich sec). 

MORGANATIC MARRIAGES. When the left hand is given instead of the right, 
between a man of superior and a woman of inferior rank, in which it is stipulated that the 
latter and her children shall not enjoy the rank or inherit tlie possessions of the former. The 
children are legitimate. Such marriages are frequently contracted in Germany by royalty 
and the higher nobility. Our George 1. was thus married ; and later, the king of JDenmark 
to the countess of Danner, Aug. 7, 1850. 

MORGARTEN (Switzerland), Battle of. Here 1300 Swiss engaged 20,000 Austrians, 
commanded by the duke Leopold, whom tliey comjiletely defeated, Nov. 16, 13 15, upon the 
heights of Morgarten, overlooking the defile through which the enemy was to enter their 
territory from Zug. 

MORICE DANCE, an ancient dance peculiar to some of the country parts of England, 
and, it is said, also to Scotland : it was performed before James I. in Herefordshire. 

MORMONITES (calling themselves the Church of Jesus Christ, of Latter-day Saints). 
This sect derives its origin from Joseph Smith, called the prophet, who announced in 1823, 
at Palmyra, New York, that he had had a vision of the angel Moroni. In 1827 he .said that 
he found the book of Mormon, written on gold plates in Egyptian characters. This book, 
there is good reason to believe, was written about 1812, by a clergyman named Solomon 
Spaulding, as a religious romance in imitation of the scripture style. It was translated and 
]uiblished in America in 1830, in England in 1841. It fell into the hands of Rigdon and 
Smith, who determined to palm it off as a new revelation. The Mormonites command the 
paj'ment of tithes, permit polygam3% encourage hibour, and believe in their leaders working 
miracles. Missionaries are propagating these doctrines in Europe with more success than 
would be expected (1865). 



The Mormonites organise a cbiircli at Kirkland, ] The provisional government abolished and the 

Oliio 1S30 Utah territory recognised by the United 

They found Zion, in Jackson county, Missouri, 1* " - • • 

From 1833 to 1S39 the sect endured much per- 
secution, and, driven from place to place, was 
comrieUed to travel westwards ; till the city 



States ; Brigham Young appointed the first 
governor ; and the University of Deseret was 

founded lE 

The poi^iilation, 11,354 



Nauvoo on the Mississippi was laid out and | The crops at the Utah settlement said to be 

a temjile was built 1S40-1 destroyed by locusts .... Aug. 1855 

Joseph and his brother Hyrum, when in prison The United States judge at Utah resigned from 

on a charge of .tri^ason, sh..t by an infuriated | inability to discharge his functions, in conse- 

mob, and Brigham Young chosen seer . . 1844 ' quence of the violent and treasonable con- 
Much harassed by their neighbours, departure | duct of the Mormons, and their leader, 

from Nan voo determined on . ... 1845! Brigham Young 1857 

The Great Salt U'ake chosen "for an everlasting | A conference of Mormon elders, &C-, was held 
abode," and taken possession of July 24, 1847 in London, at which most offensive speeches 
The valley surveyed by order of the United | were made and songs sung advocating poly- 
States government 1849 1 gamy, <S:c Sept. i, ,, 



MOR 



493 



MOS'. 



MORMONITES. contin wd. 

The United States government sent an army to 
Utah : a compromise was entered into, and 
pease was established by governor Cummings 
in June, 



A Mormonite meeting at Southampton, Feb. i8, iS6i 
A French Mormonite priest preached at Paris in 

Oct. 1862 
" Latter-day Saints'" meetings held m London 1865 



MOROCCO, an emiiire in North Africa, formerly Mauritania {which sec). In 105 1 it 
was subdued for the Fatiuiite caliphs by the Ahnoravides, who eventually extended their 
dominion into Spain. These were succeeded by the Almohades (1121), the Merinites (1270), 
and in 15 16 by tlie Scherifs, pretended descendants of Mahomet, the now reigning dynasty. 
See Tangicrs. The Moors have had fre(|uent wars with the Spaniards and Portuguese, due 
to piracy. 

Negotiations had proved fruitless : the Spanish 
government increasing their demands as the 
sultan yielded. The English govermnent 
intei-fered in vain. For the events of the war, 
see Spain . . . . - . . 1859-60 

A Moorish ambassador (the first since the time 
of Charles II.) in London. (He gave 200?. to 
the lord mayor for the London charities), 

June — Aug. i860 

The British government gave a guarantee for a 
loan of 426,000^ to the sultan to meet liis 
engagements with Spain . . Oct. 24, i36[ 



Invasion of Sebasti.in of Portugal, who perishes 
with his army at the battle of Alcazar, Aug. 4, 1578 

The Moors attuck the French in Algeria at the 
instigation of Abd el-Kader ; the prince de 
Joinville bombards Tangiers,j Aiig. 6, and 
Mogador Aug. 16, 1844 

Marshal Bugeaud signally defeats the Jloora at 
the river Isly, and acquires the title of duke, 

Aug. 14, ,, 

Peace signed between France and Morocco, 

Sept. ID, „ 

The Spaniards, who poss^ess several jilaces on 
the coast of Morocco (Ceuta, Penon de Valez, 
(fcc. ), having suffered much annoyance by 
Moorish pirates, declare war against the 
sultan in Oct. 1S59 



SULTANS. 

1822. Muley Abdorrahman. 
1859. Sidi ilohammed, Sept. 



MORPPIIA, an alkaloid, discovered in opium, by Sertiirner, in 1803. 

MORRILL TxVRIFF. See United States, 1861. 

M ORTALITY. See Bills of Mortalitij. 

MORTARA ABDUCTIOK See Jews, 1858. 

MORTARS, a short gun with a large bore, and close chamber, used for throwing bombs ; 
said to have been used at Naples in 1435, and first made in England in 1543. The mortar 
left by Soult in Spain was fixed in St. James's-parlc in Aug. 1816. On Oct. 19, 1857, a 
colossal mortar, constructed bj' Mr. Robert jNIallet, was tried at Woolwich ; with a cliarge 
of 70 lbs. it threw a shell weighing 2550 lbs. 14 niile horizontallj'', and about ^ mile in 
height. 

I MORTIMER'S CROSS (Herefordshire). The earl of Pembroke and the Lancastrians 
'were severely defeated by the young duke of York, afterwards Edward lY., Feb. 2, 1461. 
I He assumed the throne as Edward IV. in March following. 

I MORTMAIN ACT {mort main, dead hand). When the survey of all the land in Eng- 
land was made by William I., 1085-6, the whole was found to amount to 62,215 knights" 
■fees, of which the church then possessed 28,015, to which additions were afterwards made, 
till the 7th of Edward 1., 1279, when the statute of mortmain was passed, from a fear that 
{the estates of the church might grow too bulky. By this act it was made unlawful to give 
any estates to the church without the king's leave ; and this act, by a supplemental ]iro- 
vision, was made to reach all lay-fraternities, or corporations, in the I5tli of Richard II., 
139 1. JSIortmain is sucli a state of possession as makes it inalienable, whence it is said to 
be in a dead hand. Several statutes have been passed on this subject ; legacies by mort- 
main were especially restricted by the 10th George II., 1736. 

MOSAIC WORK (the Roman opus tcsscllatum), is of Asiatic origin, and is probabl}' 
referred to in Estlicr, ch. v. 6, about 519 B.C. It had attained to great excellence in Greece, 
in the time of Alexander and his successors, when Sosos of Pergamus, the most renowned 
Mosaic artist of antiquity, flourished. He acquired great fame by his accurate representa- 
tion of an " unswept floor after a feast." Tlie Romans also excelled in Mosaic work as 
evidenced by the innumerable specimens preserved. Byzantine Mosaics date from the 
4th century after Ciirist. The art was revived in Italy by Tali, Gaddi, Cimabue, and 
Giutto, who designed Mosaics, and introduced a higher style in the 13th century'. 
In the i6th century Titian and Veronese also designed subjects for this art. The prac- 
tice of copying paintings in ^Mosaics came into vogue in the 17th century; and there 
is now a worlcshop in the Vatican where chemical science is emjiloyed in the produc- 



MOS 494 MUG 

tion of colours, and where 20,ooo dilFerent tints are kept. In i85i. Dr. Salviati of Venice 
had estahlished his manufacture of " Enamel mosaics," and in July, 1864, he fixed a large 
enamel Mosaic picture in one of the spandrils under the dome of St. Paul's cathedral, Lon- 
don. He has since executed commissions for the queen and other persons. 

MOSCOW, the ancient capital of Russia, was founded it is said by Dolgorouki, about 
1 147. The occupation of tlie south of Russia by the Mongols, in 1235, led to Moscow 
becoming the capital, and beginning with Jaroslav II., 1238, its ptrinces became the reigning 
dynasty. Moscow has been frequently taken in war : it was plundered by Timour in 1382 ; 
by the Tartars in 145 1 and 1477; and by Ladislas of Poland in 161 1. The niassacre of 
Demetrius and his Polish adherents on May 27, 1606, is termed the " Matins of Moscow."' 
This city was entered by Napoleon I. and the French, Sept. 14, 1812, and the Russian 
governor, Rostopchiu, ordered that it should be set on fire in 500 places at once. In this 
memorable confl;igration, 11,840 houses were burnt to the ground, besides palaces and 
churches. The French, thus deprived of quarters, evacuated Moscow, Oct. 19, and it was 
re-entered by the Russians, Oct. 22, following. Since then, Moscow has been rebuilt with 
great splendour. Although St. Petersburg (built in 1703) has become the capital, yet Mos- 
cow is the more beloved by the Russians, who regard it as a holy city. The railway to St. 
Petersburg was opened in 185 1. An industrial exhibition held at Moscow closed July 16, 
1865. 

MOSKWA, OR Borodino, Battle of. See Borodino. 

MOSQUITO COAST (Central America). The Indians inhabiting this coast were long 
under the protection of the British, who held Belize and a group of islands in the bay of 
Honduras. The jealousy of the United States long existed on this subject. In April, 1850, 
the two governments covenanted not "to occupy, or fortify, or colonise, or assume, or exer- 
cise any dominion over any part of Central America." In 1855 the United States charged 
the British government with an infraction of the treaty ; on which the latter agreed to cede 
the disjmted territory to the republic of Honduras, with some reservation. * The matter 
was finally settled in Feb. 1857. 

MOSS-TROOPERS, desperate plunderers, and lawless soldiers, secreting themselves in 
the mosses on the borders of Scotland. They were finally extirpated in 1609. 

MOTTOES, Royal. Dku ct 7non Droit, first u.sed by Richard I., 1198. Ich dim, "I 
serve," adopted by Edward the Black Prince, at the battle of Cressy, 1346. Honi soil qui 
mal y pensc, the motto of the Garter, 1349. Jc maintiendrai, "I will maintain," adopted 
by William III., to which he added, in 1688, " the liberties of England and the Protestant 
religion." Semper cadein, was assumed by queen Elizabeth, 1558, and adopted by queen 
Anne,- 1702. See them severally. 

MOUNTAIN PARTY. See Cluhs, French. 

MOUNTS. See Etna, Ilecla, Vesuvius, Bernard, Calvary, and Olivet. 

MOURNING FOR THE Dead. The Israelites neither washed nor anointed themselves 
during the time of mourning, which for a friend lasted seven days ; npon extraordinary 
occasions a month. The Greeks and Romans fasted. The ordinary colour for mourning in 
Europe is black ; in China, white ; in Turkey, violet ; in Ethiopia, brown ; it was white in 
Spain nntil 149S. Herrera. Anne of Brittany, the qneen of two successive kings of 
France, mourned in black, instead of the then practice of wearing white, on the death of her 
first husband, Charles VIII., April 7, 1498. Henault. 

MOUSQUET AIRES, or Musketeers, horse-soldiers under the old French regime, raised 
by Louis XIII., 1622. This corps was considered a military school for the French nobility. 
It was disbanded in 1646, but was restored in 1657. A second company was created in 1660, 
and formed cardinal Mazarine's guard. Ucnault. 

MUGGLETONIANS, so called from Ludowic IMugglcton, a tailor, known about 1641, 
and prominent about 1656. He and John Reeve afiirmed that God the Father, leaving the 
government of heaven to Elias, came down and suffered death in a human form. They 
asserted that they were the two last witnesses of God which should appear before the end of 
the world. Rev. xi. 3. A sect of this name still exist.s. 

* St. Juan dcT Norte ("Grcytown) was held by the British on behalf of the Mosquitoes till the American 
adventurers, nndsr col. Kinney, to^k possession of it in Sept. 1855. He joined Walker; and on Feb. 10. 
1856, their associate Rivas, the president, claimed and annexed the Mosquito territory to Nicaragua. 



MUH 495 MUS 

MUIILBERG, on the Elbe, Prussia. Here the German Protestants were defeated bvtlio 
(.in]ieror Charles V., April 24, 1547. 

IVIU'ni-DOEF (Bavaria). Near tliis place FredcriL-k, duke df Austria, was defeated and 
taken ytrisouer by Luuis of Bavaria, Sept 28, 1322. 

I^IIJLBERRY TPvEES. The first planted in England are in the gardens of Sion-honso. 
Sliakspeare planted a nndherry-treo with his own hands at Stratford-upon-Avon ; and 
Garriek, j\Iaeklin, and others Avere entertained under it in 1742. Shakspeare's house was 
afterwards sold to a clergyman of the name of Gastrel, wdio cut down the jnulberry-tree for 
fuel, 1765 ; but a silversiinth purchased the whole, and manuliictured it into memorials. 

MULE, a spinning machine invented in 1779, by Samuel Crompton, born at Bolton, 
Lancashire, in 1753; named, from Cromj^ton's ruf^idence, IlaU-in-the-wood-w/icel ; muslin- 
wliccl, from its giving birth to the British muslin and cambiic manufacture ; and muh, from 
its combining the advantages of llargreave's spinning jenny, and Arkwright's adaptation. 
It is stated that Crompton at the time knew nothing of the latter. lie did not patent his 
invention, but gave it up in 1780. It produced yarn treble the fineness and very much 
softer than any ever before produced in England. Parliament voted him 5000/. in 1812, 
now considered a most inadequate compensation. Mr. Roberts invented the self-acting mule 
in 1825. 

MULHOUSE, or Mulhausen (N.E. France), an imperial city, under Rodolph of 
Llapsburg ; joined the Swiss confederation in 15 15 ; and annexed to France in 1798. 

]\IUMMIES (from the Arabic mum, wax). See Ewhahning. The mummies in the 
British Museum, with other Egyptian antiquities, were placed there about 1803. Mr. Alex. 
Gordon, in 1737 published an essay on three Egyptian mummies, one of which was lirought 
to England in 1722, by capt. Wm. Lethieullier ; two others came in 1734, one of which was 
retained by Dr. Mead, the other was given to the College of Physicians. In 1834, Mr. T. J. 
Pettigrew published a " History of Egyptian Mummies." 

]\IUNICH, the beautiful capital of Bavaria, Avas founded, it is said, 962. It was taken 
by Gustavus Adolphua of Sweden in 1632 ; by the Austrians, in 1704, 1741, and 1743 ; and 
by the French under Moreau, July 2, 1800. It abounds in schools, institutions, and manu- 
factories. The university was founded by king Louis in 1826. 

JIUNICIPAL CORPORATIONS, &c. See Cor jwr at ions. 

5IUXSTER (Westphalia). The bishopric said to have been founded by Charlcningiie, 
7S0, was secularised in 1802, and ceded to Prussia in 1815. The Anabaptists, under Joh"i of 
Lcydon, the king of Munster, held the city in 1534 and 1536. Here was signed the treaty of 
Westphalia {lohich see) or ilunster, Oct. 24, 1648.— Munstku, the southern province of 
Ireland. In 1568 a commission was issued for its government by a president and council, 
and new colonies were founded in 1588. 

MURCIA, a province, KE. Spain, was subdued by the Moors, 713; by Ferdinand of 
Castile, 1240 ; and divided between Castile and Arragon, 1305. 

MURDER, the highest oflence against the law of God. {Genesis ix. 6, 2348 B.C.). A 
court of Epheta^ was established by Demoi^hoon of Athens for the trial of murder, 1179 b.c. 
The Persians did not punish the first offence. In England, during a period of the Heptarchj-, 
murder was punished by fines only. So late as Henry VIlI.'s time the crime was compounded 
for in Wales. Murderers were allowed benefit of'clergy in 1503. Aggi-avated murder, or 
petit treason (a distinction now abolished), happened in three ways ; by a servant killing his 
master; a wife her husband ; and an ecclesiastical person his superior, stat. 25 Edw. III. 
1350. The enactments relating to this crime are very numerous, and its wilful comnussiou 
has been rarely pardoned by our sovereigns. The act wdiereby the murderer should be 
executed on the day next but one after his conviction, was repealed, 1836. See Exeeutions 
and Trials. 

]\[URFREESBOROUGPI (Tennessee). Near here severe confiicts took place between the 
Federals under Rosencrans and the Confederates under Bragg, Dec. 30, 1862, and Jan. 2, 
1863. The Federals claimed the victory. 

MURIATIC ACID. See Alkali. 

MUSEUM, originally a quarter of the palace of Alexandria, like the Prytanenm of 
Athens, where eminent learned men w-ere maintained by the public. The foundation is 
attributed to Ptolemy Philadelphus, who here placed his library about 284 b c. Besides 



«l 



MUS 



496 



MUS 



the British Museum and Sloaue's Museum (which sec), there are very many others in 
London. 

MUSIC* " Jubal, the father of all such as handle the harp and the organ," (3875 B.C., 
Gen. iii. 21). Lucretius ascribes its invention to the whistling of the winds in hollow reeds. 
Franckinus to the A'arions sounds produced by the hammers of Tubal-Cain. Cameleon 
Pontique and others to the singing of birds ; and Zarlino to the sound of water dropping, 
&c. The flute, and harmony, or concord in music, are said to have been invented by 
Hyagnis, 1506. Ariind. Marbles. Vocal choruses of men are first mentioned 556 B.C. 
DufresnDy. 

MUSIC IN England. Before the Eeforraation, there was but one kind of music in 
Europe worth notice, namely, the sacred chant, and the descajit built upon it. This music, 
moreover, was applied to one language only, the Latin. Ashe. The original English music 
from the period of the Saxons to that era in which our countrymen imbibed the art, and 
copied the manner of the Italians, was of a character which neither pleased the soul nor 
charmed the ear. But as all the arts appear to have been the companions of successful 
commerce, our music soon improved, our taste was chastened, and sweet sounds formed an 
indispensable part of polite education. Prior to 1600, the chief music was masses and 
madrigals, but dramatic music was much cultivated from that time. About the end of 
James I.'s reign, a music professorship was founded in the University of Oxford by Dr. Wm. 
Hychin ; and the year 17 10 was distinguished by the arrival in England of George Frederick 
Handel. Mozart came to England in 1763 ; Joseph Haydn in 1791 ; and Carl Maria von 
Weber in 1825. The study of music has been greatly promoted in this country since 1840, 
by the labours of John HuUah. The Tonic sol-jfa system, in which at first the letters d, r, 
m, f, s, 1, f, (for do, re, mi, fa, so, la, ti, or si) are used instead of notes, was invented by 
Miss Glover of Norwich, and improved by John Curwen, about 1847. It has been successfully 
employed in schools. 

Musical Notes &c. The first six are said to have 

been invented by Guy Aretino, a Benedictine 

monk of Arezzo, about 1025. Blair. Ihe notes at 

present used were perfected in 1 338. Counterpoint 

was brought to perfection by Palestrina about 1555. 

Gafforio of Lodi, read lectures on musical compo- 
sition in the 15th century, and they effected great 

improvement in the science. The Italian style of 

composition was introduced into these countries 

abovit 1616. 
The Musical Pitch was settled in France in i860. 

The middle C to be 522 vibrations in a second. 

At a meeting on the subject, held at the Society of 

Arts, in Nov. 23, i860, the concert pitch of C was 

recommended to be 528 vibrations in a second. 

Mr. IluUah adopted 512 \T.brations. 
Musical Festivals in Engiand. Dr. Bysse, ch.an- 

cellor of Hereford, proposed to the members of the 

choirs, a collection at the cathedral door after 

morning service, when forty guineas were col- 
lected and appropriated to charitable jjurposes. 

It was then agi-eed to hold festivals at Hereford, 

Gloucester, and Worcester, in rotation annually. 

Until the year 17S3, the festival lasted only two 

days ; it was then extended at Hereford to three 

evenings ; and at Gloucester, in 1757, to three 

mornings, for the purpose of introducing Handel's 

" Messiah," which was waimly received, and has 



been performed annually ever since. JIusical fes- 
tivals on a gTeat scale are now annually held at 
various cathedrals in England, See IJandel and 
Crystal Palace. 

Musical Institutions. The Ancient Academy of 
Mtisic was instituted in 1710. It originated with 
numerous eminent performers and gentlemen 
wishing to promote the study of vocal harmony. 

The Madrignl Society was estubhshed in 1741, and 
other musical societies followed. 

The Royal Society of Music arose from the pi-incipal 
nobility and gentry imitiiig to promote the pei- 
formance of operas composed by Handel, 1785. 

The Philharmonic concerts began in 1813. 

The Royal Academy of Music, established 1822, 
(xildck gee). 

The Musical Society of London established 1858. 

The "Popular Monday Concerts" at St. J.ames's 
Hall commenced with a " Mendelssohn night " on 
Feb. J4, 1859. 

The London Academy of Music founded in i860. 

The centenary of the "Noblemen's Catch Club "' was 
kept in July, 1861. 

The Cecilian Society, Loudon, founded about 1785 ; 
ceased in 1862. 

The " Musical Education Committee" of the Society 
of Arts, Loudon, with the prince of Wales as 
chairman, held its first meeting May 22, 1S65. 



EMINENT MODERN MUSICAL COMPOSERS. 





Born 


Died 




Born 


Died 




Born 


Died 


Tallis . 




1585 


H. Lawes 


. . 1600 


1662 


G. F. Handel 


. . 1684 


1759 


P.alestrina 


■ 1529 


1594 


Lully 


• 1633 


1672 


T. A. Arne 


. 1710 


1778 


T. Morlev . 




1604 


Purcell 


. . 1658 


1695 


C. Gliick 


• • 1714 


1787 


Orlando Gibbons 


. 1583 


1624 


J. Seb. Bacht . 


. 1685 


1754 


AV. A. Mozart . 


• 1756 


1791 



* Pythagoras (about 555 B.C.) maintained that the motions of the twelve spheres must pro • 
delightful sounds, inaudible to mortal ears, which he called " the music of the spheres " St. Ceci 
Roman lady, is said to have excelled so eminently in music, that an angel was enticed from the cek 
rejjions by the fascinating charms of her melody ; and this hyperbolical tradition has been deemed suffii 
authority to make her the patroness of miisic and musicians. She died in the 3rd century. 

t He had eleven sons ; four of them distinguished musicians. 







MUS 








497 








MYC 








MUSIC, 


ooniinued. 
Bora 


Died 








Borii 


Died 






Bo)-n 


Died 


Joseph Haydn 


■ ■ 1732 


1S09 


11 


Bishop 




■ 1787 


1855 


J. 


Meyerbeer . . 


1794 


1864 


c. 


Dibdm 


. 1748 


1814 


i\l 


Cherubin 




. 1760 


1842 


J. 


E. Halevy . 


'799 


1S62 


«. 


Webhe . 


, . 1740 


1817 


K. 


Mendelsso 


lin- 


[1809 


184S 


.1 




1792 
1808 




J. 


W. Cullcott 


. 1766 


1821 




Baitholdy 




M 


W. Balfe . 




C. 


Weber . 


. . 1786 


1826 


L. 


Spohr 




• 1783 


1859 


W.Stemdale Bennett 


1816 




L. 


Beethoven 


• 1770 


1827 


U. 


T. Auber 




17S4 













MUSKETS. See Fire-arms. 

MUSLIN, a fine cotton cloth, so called, it is said, as not being bare, but having a downy 
nap on its surface, resembling moss, which the French call mousse. According to others, it 
was first brought from Moussol, in India, whence the name. Muslins were first worn in 
England in 1670. Anderson. By means of the Mule {wlikk sec), British have superseded 
India muslins. 

MUTE. A prisoner is said to stand mute, when, being arraigned for treason or felony, he 
either makes no answer, or answers foreign to the purpose. Anciently, a mute was subjected 
to torture. By 12 Geo. III. 1772, judgment was awarded against mutes, as if they were 
convicted or had confessed. A man refusing to plead was condemned and executed at the 
Old Bailey on a charge of murder, 1778, and another on a charge of burglary at Wells, 1792. 
An act was passed in 1827, by which the court is directed to euter a plea of "not guilty" 
when the prisoner will not plead.* 

MUTINIES, British. The mutiny throughout the fleet at Portsmouth for an advance 
of wages, April, 1797. It subsided on a promise from the Admiralty, which not being 
quickly fulfilled, occasioned a second mutiny on board the London man-of-war ; admiral 
Colpoys, and his captain, were put into confinement for ordering the marines to fire, whereby 
some lives were lost. The mutiny subsided May 10, 1797, when an act was passed to raise 
the wages, and the king pardoned the mutineers. A more considerable one at the Nore, 
which blocked up the trade of the Thames, broke out on May 27, 1797, and subsided .June 13, 
1797, when the principal mutineers were put in irons, and several e.YCCuted (including the 
ringleader, nicknamed rear-admiral Richard Parker), June 30, at Sheerness. Mutiny of the 
Danae frigate ; the crew carried the ship into Brest harbour, March 27, 1800. Mutiny on 
board admiral Mitchell's fleet at Bantry Bay, Dec. 1801, and January following (see Bantnj 
Bay). Mutiny at Malta, began April 4, 1807, and ended on the 12th, when the mutineers 
blew themselves up by setting fire to a large magazine, consisting of between 400 and 500 
barrels of gunpowder. See Madras, 1806, and India, 1857. 

MUTINY. A statute for the discipline, regulation, and payment of the army, &c., was 
passed in 1689, and has since been re-enacted annually. 

MUTINY OF THE Bounty, April 28, 1789. For particulars see i?0M»<i/. 

MYC'ALE (Ionia, Asia Minor), Battle of, fought between the Greeks (under 
Leotychides, the king of Sparta, and Xanthippus the Athenian) and the Persians, 
Sept. 22, 479 B.C. ; being the day on which Mardonius was defeated and slain at Plataea by 
Pausanias. TJie Persians (about 100,000 men), who had just returned from the unsuccessful 
expedition of Xerxes in Greece, were completely defeated, thousands of them slaughtered, 
and their camp burnt. The Greeks sailed back to Samos with an immense booty. 

MYCEN^-E, a division of the kingdom of the Argives, in the Peloponnesus. It stood 
about fifty stadia from Argos, and flourished till the invasion of the Hcraclida?. 

Persens removes from Ai-gos, and founds My- 

cenas ..... B.C. 1431, 1313, or 1282 
Reign of Eury.stheus . . 1289, 1274, or 1258 

[Towards the close of his reign is placed the 

story of the several dangerous euteipriscs 

surmounted by Hercules.] 
JEgisthus assassinates Atreus .... 1201 
Agamemnon succeed.s to the throne ; becomes 

king of Sicyon, Corinth, .and perhaps of Argos ,, 
He is chosen generalissimo of the Grecian forces 

going to the Trojan war . . . .about 1193 



iEgisthus, in the absence of A»amemnon, lives 
iQ adultery with the queen Clytemnestr.a. On 
the return of the king they assassinate him ; 
and iEgisthus mounts the throne . . b.c. 

Orestes, son of Agamemnon, kills his mother 
and her paramour 

Orestes dies of the bite of a serpent . 

The Achaians are expelled 

Invasion of the Heraclidas, and the conquerors 
divide the dominions 

Mycen.e destroyed by the Argives . . . 



1183 

1 1 76 
1 106 



* Walter Calverly, of Calverly in Yorkshire, esq., having murdered two of his children, and stabbed 
his wife in a fit of jealousy, being arraigned for his crime at York asbizes, stood mute, and was thereupon 
pressed to death in the castle, a 1,-u-ge iron weight being jilaced upon liis breast, Aug. 5, 1605. Stow's 
C/iron. Major Strangeway suScred death in a similar manner at Newgate in 1657, for the murder of his 
brother iu-law, Mr. Fu.ssell. 

K K. 



MYL 498 NAN 

MYL/E, a liay of Sicily, -wlK-re the Komaiis, imder their consul Duilius, gained their first 
naval victory over the Carthaginians, and took fifty of their ships, 260 B.C. Here also 
Agrippa defeated the lleet of kSextns Pompeius, 36 B.C. 

MYSOEE (S. India), was made a flonrishing kingdom by Hydcr Ali in 1761, and hy his 
son, Tippoo Sahib, who considerably harassed the English. Ti])poo was chastised by them 
in 1792, and on ilay 4, 1799, his capital, Seringapatam, was taken by assault, and himself 
slain. The English now hold the country. 

MYSTERIES. "Jlystery " is said to be derived from the Helirew mistar, to hide. _ The 
Sacred mysteries is a term applied to the doctrines of Christianity, the chief of which is the 
incarnation of Christ, called tlie "mystery of godliness," i Tim. iii. 16. The Profane 
mysteries were the secret ceremonies performed by a select few in honour of some deity. 
From the Egyptian mysteries of Isis and Osiris sprang those of Bacchus and Ceres among 
the Greeks. Tlie Eleusinian mysteries were introduced at Athens by Eumolpus, 1356 B.C. — 
Mystery Plays. See Drama, 

MYTHOLOGY (Greek mylhos, fable), the traditions respecting the gods of any people. 
Thoth is supposed to have introduced mythology among the Egyptian.?, 1521 e.g. ; and 
Cadmus, the worship of the Egyptian and Phcenician deities among the Greeks, 1493 B.C. 



N. 

NAAS (E. Ireland), an ancient town. Here a desperate engagement took place between 
a body of the king's forces and the insurgent Irish, during the rebellion of 1798. The latter 
were defeated with the loss of 300 killed and many wounded, Jlay 24, 1798. 

NABONASSAE, Era of, received its name from the celebrated prince of Babylon, under 
whose reign astronomical studies were much advanced in Chaldfea. The years are vague, 
containing 365 days each, without intercalation. The first day of the era was Wednesday 
(said, in mistake, to be Thursday, in I! Art cle. Verifier Ics Dates), Feb. 26, 747 B.C. — 3967, 
Julian period. To find the Julian year on which the 3'ear of Nabonassar begins, subtract the 
year, if before Christ, from 748 ; if after Christ, add to it 747. 

NAG'S HEAD STOllY. Matthew Parker was consecrated archbishop of Canterbury at 
Lambeth, Dec. 17, 1559, by bishops Barlow, Coverdale, Scory, and Hodgkins. Many years 
after, the Eomish ^Titers asserted that Parker and others had been consecrated at the Nag's^ 
Head Tavern, Cheapside, by Scory. This tale was refuted by Burnet. 

NAHUM, Festival of. Nahum, the seventh of the twelve minor prophets, about 
713 B.C. ; the festival is the 24th of December. 

NAJARA or Navarete (N. Spain). Here Edward the Black Prince defeated Henry do 
Trastamere, and re-established Peter the Cruel on the throne of Castile, April 3, 1367. 

NAMES. Adam and Eve named their sons. Gen. iv. 25, 26. The popes change their 
names on their exaltation to the pontificate, "a custom introduced by pope Sergius, whoso 
name till then was swine-snout," 687. Platina. Onuphrius refers it to John XII. 956 ; and. 
gives as a reason that it was done in imitation of SS. Peter and Paul, who were first called 
Simon and Saul. In France it was usual to change the name given at baptism. The two 
sons of Henrjr H. of France were christened Alexander and Hercules ; at their confirmation 
these names were changed to Henry and Francis. Monks and nuns, at their entrance into 
monasteries assume new names, to show that they are about to lead a new life. See 
Surnames. 

NAMUR, in Belgium, was made a county in 932, was ceded to the house of Austria by 
the peace of Utrecht, and was garrisoned by the TJutch as a barrier town of the United 
Provinces in 1715. Namur was taken by the French in 1746, but was restored in 1748. In 
1 781, the emperor Joseph expelled the Dutch garrison. In 1792 it was again taken by the 
French, who were compelled to evacuate it the following year ; but they regained possession 
of it in 1794. Tlie French, however, delivered it up to the allies in 1814. It was a site 
of a severe conflict in June, 1815, between the Prussians and the French under Grouchy, 
when retreating after the battle of Waterloo. 

NANCY (Lorraine, France), founded in the 12th century. Charles the Bold of Burgundj" 
endeavoured to conciuer Lorraine, and besieged Nancy in 1476 ; but on Jan. 5, 1477, he was 
defeated and slain by the duke of Lorraine and his Swiss allies. 



XAX 



490 



NAP 



NAXKIX, said to have hcen made the central capital of China, 420. On Anr;. 4, 1842, 
tlio r.iiti.sh sliips arrived at Nankin, and peace was made. The rebel Tae-pin{,^s took it on 
March 19, 20, 1853. It was recaptured by the Imperialists, July 19, 1S64, and found to be 
in a very desolate condition. 

NANTES. Sec Edict. 

NAPIER'S BONES. Sec LorjarUIms. 

N.APLES, formerly the continental division and scat of government of the kingdom of 
the Two Sicilies, began with a Greek colony named Parthenope (about 1000 B.C.), wliicli was 
afterwards divided intoPahiiopolis (tlie old) and Neapolis (the new city), from which latter 
tlic present name is derived. The colony was con(juered liy tlic Komans in the Samnite war, 
326 B.C. Na])les, after resisting the power of the Lombards, Franks, and Germans, was 
subjugated by the Normans under Roger Guiscard, king of Sicily, a.d. 1131. Few countries 
have had so many political changes and cruel and despotic rulers, orsntfered so mucli by 
convulsions of nature, .such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, &c. In 1856, the population 
of the kingdom of Najdes was 6,886,030, of Sicily, 2,231,020 ; total, 9,117,050. It now 
forms part of the revived kingdom of Italy. 



Naples conquered by Xlieodoric the Goth . . 

Hotakcn by Bclisarius 

Taken again by Totila 

Hetnkcn by N.arses 

Bcctinics a duchy nominally .subject to the 

Kastcrn empire 568 or 

Duchy of Najilcs greatly extended 

Robert Giiisc.ird, the Xorman, made duke of 

Ajmlia, fi.miKl.s tile kiiii^dom of Naples . . 
Naples conquered, and the kingdom of the two 

SiciHcs founded bj' Ro^j-er Guiscard II. . 
The imperial Ikjuso of Ilohcnstauicn (sec Ocr- 

men;/) ijl)tains the kingdom V;)y mamagc ; aud 

rules 1194- 

The pope appoints Charles of Anjou, king, who 

dcl'cat.s the regent Manfred (son of Ffederic II. 

of Germany) at Bcnevento (Manfred slain) 

Feb. 26, 
Cliarles also defeats Conr.adin (the last of tlio 

Ilohenstaufens), who had come to Naples by 

invitation of the GhibcUines, at Tagliacozzo, 

Aug. 23 ; Conradin beheaded . . Oct. 29, 
The massacre called the Sicilian vespers (wliick 

nee) March 30, 

Andrew of Hung.ary, hi\.sband of Joanna I., 

mm-dered Sept. 18, 

lie is avenged by his brother Louis king of 

Hungary, who invades Naples . . . . 
Abihonso V. of Arr.agon (called the Wise and 

ilagnanimous), on the death of Joanna II. 

sei;:es Naples ....... 

Naples conquered by Charles VIII. of Fr.anco . 
And by Louis XII. of France and Ferdinand of 



493 
5i6 
543 
552 

572 

593 

1059 
1131 

1266 



1268 
1282 
1345 
1349 



_Sp; 



Naples and Sicily united to Spain 

InsuiTcetiou of Mas.aniello.* 

Another insurrection supi)re.s.scd by don John 
of Austria Oct. 

Henry II. dukeof Guise Lands .and is proclaimed 
king, but in a few days is taken prisoner by 
the Spaniards ..... April, 

Naples eonqiiercd by prince Eugene of Savoy, 
for the emjieror ...... 

Discovery of ilercul.aneum {which nee) 1711 or 

Tlie Spaniards Viy the victory at Bitonto (May 
26) having made themselves masters of both 
kingiloins, Charles (of Bourbon), son of the 
king cif Spain, .ascends the throne, with the 
ancient title renewed, of the king of the Two 
Sicilies 



M35 
1494 

1 501 

1504 
1647 



1706 
1713 



Order of St. Januarius instituted by king 

Charles 

Ch.arles, becoming king of Spain, vacates the 
throne of the Two Sicilies in favour of his 
third son Ferdinand, agrccaljly to treaty . . 
Expulsion of the Jesuits . . . Nov. 3, 
Dreadful earthquake in Calabria . . Feb. 5, 
Enrolment of the Lazzaroni {icldch see) as pike- 
men or spontoneers 

The king flies on the approach of the French 
republicans, who establish the Parthenopean 

republic Jan. 14, 

Nelson appears : Naples retaken ; the restored 

king rules tyrannically . . . Juno, 

Prince Caraeciolo tried and executed by order 

of Nelson June 29, 

The Neaijolitans occupy Rome . . Sept. 30, 
Dreadful earthquake felt throughout the king- 
dom, and thousands perish . . July 26, 
Treaty of neutrality between Franco and Naples 

ratified Oct. 9, 

Ferdinand, through perfidy, is compelled to fly 
to Sicily, J.an. 23 ; the French enter N.aples, 
and Joseph Bonaparte made king . Fob. 

The French defeated at Maida . . July 4, 
Joseph Bonaparte, after beginning many re- 
forms, abdicates for the crown of Spain, Juno, 
Joachim Murat made king (rules well), July 15, 
His first quarrel with Napoleon . ..... 

His alli.ance with Austria . . . .Jan. 

Death of queen Caroline of Austria . Sept. 7, 
Joachim declares war against Austria, March 15, 
Defeated at Tolcntino .... May 3, 

Ho retires to France, May 22, and Corsica ; he 
madly attempts the recovery of his throne 
by handing at Pizzo, Sept. 28 ; is seized, tried, 

and shot Oct. 13, 

Ferdinand, re-estaljlished, soon returns to 

tyrannical meas\ircs .... J<inc, 

A i^l.ague r.ages in Naples, Nov. 1815 to June 

Establishment of the society of the Carbonari . 

Successfid in.surrection of the Carbon.ari under 

general I'uiie : the king compelled to swear 

S(jlemnly to a new con.stitution . July 13, 

The Austrians invade tliekingdom, .at the king's 

instigation : general I'epc defeated M.arch 7, 

Fall of the constituti(jnal government, March 23, 

Death of Ferdinand ; (reigned 66 years), Jan. 4, 

[In 30 years, 100,000 Ncaijolitans perished by 

various kinds of death.] 



173S 

1759 
1767 
17S3 

1793 
1799 



1804 
1805 



laii 
1814 



i8t6 
1819 

1820 
1821 
1825 



* Occasioned by the extortions of the Spanish viceroys. One day an impost was cl.aimed on a basket 
of figs, and refused by the owner, with whom the populace took part headed by Masaniello (Thomas 
Aniello), a fisherman ; they obtained the command of Naples, many of the nobles were slain and their 
palaces hunit, and the viceroy was compelled to abt)lish the taxes and to restore the privileges granted by 
Charles V. to the city. Mas.aniello Viecamc intoxicated by his success and was slain by his own followers 
after a few days' rule, on July 16, 1647. 



NAP 



500 



NAP 



NAPLES, continual. 

Insurrection of the Carbonari sxippressed . . 1S28 

Accession of Ferdinand II. (as faithless and 
tyrannicHl as his predecessors) . Nov. 8, 1830 

Dispute with England respecting the sulphur 
trade; settled March, 1840 

Attilio and Emilio Bandiera, with eighteen 
others, attempting an insurrection in Cala- 
bria, are shot' .... Jan. 17, 1844 

Prospect of an insun-ection in Naples ; the king 
grants a new constitution . . Jan. 29, 1848 

Great fighting in Naples ; the liberals and the 
national guard almost annihilated by the 
royal troops, aided by the lazzaroni, May 15, 1848 

A martial anarchy prevails ; the chiefs of the 
liberal party aiTCsted in . . . Dec. 1849 

Settembrini, Poerio, C'arafa, and others, after a 
mock trial, are condemned, and consigned to 
horrible dungeons for life . . . June, 1850 

After remonstrances with the king on his tyran- 
nical govenament (May), the English and 
French ambassadors are witli drawn Oct. 28, 1856 

Attempted assassination of the king by Milano, 

Dec. 8, ,, 

The CagVari\ seized .... June, 1857 

Italian refugees, under count Pisaccane, land 
in Calabria, are defeated, and their leader 
killed .... June 27 — July 2, ,, 

A dreadful earthquake in the Aisennines (see 
Earlhquak(s) Dec. 16, ,, 

Amnesty granted to political offenders, Dec. 27, 1858 

Poerio and sixty-six companions released and 
sent to N. America, Jan. ; on their way, they 
seize the vessel ; sail to Cork, March 7 ; and 
proceed to London .... March 18, 1859 

Death of Ferdinand II., after dreadful suffer- 
ings ....... May 22, ,, 

Diplomatic relations resumed with England 
and France June, ,, 

A subscription for Poerio and his companions 
in England amounted to 10,000/. . July, „ 

Insubordination among the Swiss troops at 
Naples ; many shot, July 7 ; major Latour 
sent to Naples by the Swiss confederation, 

July 16, ,, 

Anny increased ; defences strengthened, Oct. ,, 

Many political imprisonments ; the foreign am- 
ba.ssadors collectively address a note to the 
king stating the necessity for reform in his 
states, March 26 ; the count of Syracuse re- 
commends reform and alliance with England 

April, i860 



Revolution in Sicily (io/ijc^ .'ce) . May 11, 14, i860 

Francis II. proclaims an amnesty ; promises a 
liberal ministry; adopts a tricolor flag, &c., 

June 26, ,, 

Baron Brenier, French ambassador, wounded 
in his carriage by the mob . ' June 27, ,, 

A liberal ministi y formed ; destruction of the 
commissariat of the police in 12 districts ; 
state of siege proclaimed at Naples ; the 
queen-mother flees to Gaeta . . June 28, ,, 

Revolutionary committee af Naples, June 15, ,, 

Garibaldi lands in Sicily, May 11 ; defeats the 
Neapolitan army at Calatifimi, May 15 ; and 
at Melazzo, July 20 ; enters Messina, July 
21 ; the Neaijolitans agree to evacuate Sicily, 

July 30, ,, 

The king of Sardinia in vain negotiates with 
Francis II. for alliance . . . July, ,, 

Francis II. proclaims the re-establisbment of 
the constitution of 1848, July 2; the army 
proclaim count de Trani king . July 10, ,, 

Garibaldi lands at MeU to, Aiig. 18; takes Reggio, 

Aug. 21, ,, 

Defection in army and navy ; Francis II. retires 
to Gaeta, Sept. 6; Garibaldi enters Naples 
without troops .... Sej^t. 7, ,, 

Garibaldi assumes the dictatorship, Sept. 8 ; 
and gives up the Neapolitan fleet to the Sar- 
dinian admiral Persano, Sept. 11 ; expels the 
Jesuits ; establishes trial by jury ; releases 
political prisoners .... Sept. ,, 

He repulses the Neapolitans at Cajazzo, Sept. 
ig, and defeats them thoroughly at the Vol- 
turno ....... Oct. i, „ 

The king of Sardinia enters the kingdom of 
Naples, and takes command of his army, 
which combines with Garibaldi's Oct. ii, ,, 

Naples unsettled thro>igh intrigues . . Oct. ,, 

Cialdini defeats the Neapohtans at Isernia, Oct. 
17 ; at Venafro .... Oct. 18, ,, 

The Plebiscite at Naples, &c. ; almost unani- 
mous vote for annexation to Piedmont 
(1,303,0641010,312) .... Oct. 21, ,, 

Garibaldi meets Victor Emmanuel, and salutes 
him as king of Italy .... Oct. 26, ,, 

The first English pi-otestant church built on 
ground given by Garibaldi ; consecrated, 

March 11, 1S65 

[Historj' continued, under Itali/.] 



SOVEREIGNS OF NAPLES AND SICILY. 



1131. Roger I. (of Sicily, 1130) Norman. 

1154. William I. the Bad ; son. 

1 166. William II. the Good ; son. 

1 1 89. Tancred, natural son of Roger. 

1194. William III. son, succeeded by Constance, 

married to Henry VI. of Germany. 

1197. Frederic II. of Germany {Hohenstaufen). 



1250. Conrad ; son. 

1254. Conradin, son ; but his uncle, 

1258. Manfred, nat. son of Frederick II., seizes the 

government ; killed at Benevcnto, in 1266. 
1266. Charles of Avjou, brother of St. Louis, king of 

France. 
1282. Insurrection in Sicily. 



(Separation of the kingdoms in 1282.) 



* It was asserted, but denied by lord Aberdeen, that his government had given warning of this 
attempt, of which they had obtained information by opening lelters directed to Mazzini. 

t The Cagliari, a Sardinian mail steamboat plying between Genoa and Tunis, sailed from the former 
port on June 25, 1857, with thirty-three passengers, who, after a few hoiu-s' sail, took forcible possession 
of the vessel, and compelled the two English engineers (Watt and Park) to steer to Ponza. Here they 
landed, released some prisoners, took them on board, and sailed to Sapri, where they again landed, and 
restored the vessel to its commander and crew. The latter steered immediately for Naples ; but on the 
way the vessel was boarded by a Neapolitan cruiser, and all the crew were landed and consigned to 
dungeons, where they remained for nine months waiting for trial, suffering great privations and insults. 
This caused great excitement in England : and after much negotiation, the crew were released and the 
vessel given up to the British government, 3000/. being given as a compensation to the sufferers. 



NAP 



501 



NAS 



NAPLES, continued. 

NAri.ES. 

1282. Charles I. of Anjou. 

12S5. Charles II. ; son. 

1309. Robert the Wise ; brother. 

1343. Joanna (reigns with her husband, Andrew of 

Hungary), 1343-45 ; with Louis of Tarento, 

1349-62 ; Joanna put to death by 
1381. Chai'les III. of Durazzo, grandson of Charles 

II.: he becomes king of Hungary, 15S6; 

assassinated there. 
13S5. Ladislas of Hungary, son. 
1414. Joanna II., sister, dies in 1435, and bequeaths 

her dominions to Regnier of Anjou. They 

are acquired by 

1435. Alphonsus I. thus 
(Separation of Naplt 



1458. 
1494. 
1495- 



1501. 
1516. 
1556. 
1598. 



NAPLES. 

Ferdinand I. 

Alphonso II. abdicates. 

Ferdinand II. 

Frederic II. expelled by the French, 1501. 



8icii,v. 

1282. Peter I. (III. of Arragon.) 

1285. James I. (II. of Arragon.) 

1295. Frederic II. 

1337- Peter II. 

1342. Louis. • 

1355- Frederic III. 

1376. Maria and Martin (her husband). 

1402. Martin I. 

1409. Martin II. 

1410. Ferdinand I. 
1416. Alphonsus I. 



king of Naples and Sicily. 
•s and Sicily in 1458.) 

Sicily. 

1458. John of Arragon. 

1479. Ferdinand the Catholic. 



Ferdinand III. (king of Spain). 
Charles I. (V. of Germanj-). 
Philip I. (II. of Spain). 
Philip II. (III. of Spain). 



Naple.s. 
Charles III. of Austria. 



1735. Charles IV. (III. of Spain.) 



Naples. 
Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte. 
Joachim Murat, .shot Oct. 13, 1815 



THE CROWNS UNITED. 

1623. Philip III. (IV. of Spain). 
1665. Charles II. (of Spain). 
1700. Philip IV. (V. of Spain), Bourbons. 
1707. Charles III. of Austria. 
(Separation in 1713-) 

Sicily. 

1713. Victor Amadeus of Savoy ; exchanges Sicily 
for Sardinia, 1720. 

THE TWO SICILIES. 
(Part of the empire of Germany, 1720-34.) 

I 1759. Ferdinand IV., a tyrannical and cruel sove- 
1 reign, flies from Naples in i8o5 to Sicily. 

(Separation in 1S06.) 

Sicily. 
1S06-15. Ferdinand IV. 



THE TWO SICILIES. 



1025. 
1830. 



Ferdinand I., formerly Ferdinand IV., of 

Naples and Sicily. 
Francis I. 
Ferdinand 11., Nov. 8 (termed King Bomba). 



1859. Fr.incis II., May 22 ; born Jan. 16, 1836, last 

King of Naples. 
1861. Victor-Emmanuel II. of Sardinia, as Kino of 

Italy ; March. 



NAPOLEON, CODE. See Codes. 

NAKBONNE (S.E. France), the Roman colony, Narbo Martins, fonndetl 118 B.C., was 
made the capital of a Visigothic kingdom, 462. Gaston de Foix, the last vicomte (killed 
at tlic battle of Puivenua, April 11, 15 12), resigned it to the king in exchange for the duchy 
of Nemours. 

NARCEINE AND NARCOTINE, alkaloids obtained from Opium {which sec). Narceiue 
was discovered by Pelletier in 1832 ; and uarcotine by Derosne in 1803. 

NAPvVA (Esthonia, Russia). Here Peter the Great of Russia was totally defeated by 
Charles XIL of Sweden, "the Madman of the North," then in his nineteenth year, Nov. 30, 
1700. The army of Peter is said to have amounted to 60,000, some Swedish writers affirm 
100,000 men, while the Swedes did not much exceed 20,000. Charles attacked the enemy 
in iiis intrenchments, and slew 30,000 ; the remainder, exceeding that number, sur- 
rendered. He had several hor.ses shot under him, and as he was mounting a fresh one he 
said, "These people seem disposed to give me exercise." The place was taken by Peter 
iu 1704. 

NASEBY (Northamptonshire), Battle of, between Charles L and the parliament 
army under Fairfax and Cromwell. Tlie main body of the royal army was commanded by 
lord Astley ; prince Rupert led the right wing, sir Marmaduke Langdale the left, and the 
kinc himself lieaded the body of reserve. The victory was witli the i)arliament forces, 
and°wa.s decisive against the king, who fled, losing his cannon, baggage, and 5000 prisoners, 
June 14, 1645. 



NAS 



NAT 



1839. Adolphus-William- Charles, boi'u July 24, 1817. 
The PRESENT duke. 



NASHVILLE (Tennessee, N. America), Avas occupied by the Confederates in 1S61, and 
taken by the Federals, Feb. 23, 1862. 

NASSAU, a German duchy, was made a county by the emperor Frederic L about 11 80. 
for "Wolram, a descendant of Conrad L of Germany ; from whom are descended the royal 
house of Orange now r(ygning in Holland (see Orange and Hullancl), and the present duke of 
Nassau. AViesbaden was made the capital in 1839. On April 25, i860, the Nassau chamber 
strongly opposed the conclusion of a concordat Avith the pope, and claimed liberty of faith 
and conscience. Population of the duchy in 1865, 468,311. 

1788. Count Frederic- William joins the Confedera- 
tion of the Rhine, and is made duke in 1S06. 
1S14. WilUam-George, Aug. 20. 

NATAL (Cape of Good Hope), Vasco da Gama landed here on Dec. 25, 1497, and hence 
named it Terra Natalis. The Dutch attempted to colonize it about 1721. In 1S23 lieut. 
Fai'ewell and a small band of emigrants settled here. It was annexed to the British crown 
in 1843 ; and made a bishopric in 1853, and an indejiendent colony in 1856. 

NATIONAL ASSEMBLY. Upon the proposition of the Abb(^ Si<5yes, the states-general 
of France constituted themselves as the National Assembly, June 17, 1789. On the 20th, 
the hall of this new assembly was shut by order of the king ; upon which the deputies of 
the Tiers Etat repaired to the Jeu cle Pmune, or Tennis-court, and swore not to dissolve until 
they had digested a constitution for France. On the 22nd they met at the clmrch at St. 
Louis. This assembly abolished the state religion, annulled monastic vows, divided France 
into departments, sold the national domains, established a national bank, issued assignats, 
and dissolved itself Sept. 21, 1792. St^e National Convention. In 1848 the legislature was 
again termed the National Assembly. It met May 4, and a new constitution was proclaimed 
Nov. 12. A new constitution was once more proclaimed by Louis Napoleon in Jan. 1852, 
after triumphing over the National Assemblj'. 

NATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS. One was formed in 1584, headed by the carl of Leicester, 
to protect queen Elizabeth from assassination, in consequence of the discuveiy of various 
plots. Another for the defence of William III. against assassins was established in 1696, of 
which all persons holding office under government were required to be members. See Social 
Science and Volunteers for two other National associations. 

NATIONAL CONVENTION of France, constituted in the hall of the Tuileries 
Sept. 17, and formally opened Sept. 21, 1792, when M. Gregoire, at the head of the 
National Assembly, repaired thither and announced that that assembly had ceased its 
functions. It was then decreed, "That the citizens named by the French ]ieople to form the 
National Convention, being met to the number of 371, after having veritied their powers, 
declare that the National Convention is constituted." This convention continued until a 
new constitution M'as organised, and the Executive Directory was installed at the little 
Luxembourg, Nov. 1,1795. ^QQ Directory. The Chartists (i«7w'cA sec) in England formed a 
National Convention in 1 839. 

NATIONAL DEBT. The first mention of parliamentary security for a debt of the nation 
occr;rs in the reign of Henry VI. The present national debt commenced in the reign of 
William III. 1690. It amounted, in 1697, to about five millions sterling, and was then 
thought to be of alarming magnitude. The sole cause of the increase has been war. 





Debt. 






DeU. 






Debt. 


1702. 


Anne . ahout £14,000,000 


1817. 


English and Irish 


i860. 


Funded debt 


£785,962,000 


I7I4. 


George 1. . . 54,000,000 




Exchequers con- 




Unfunded 


. 16,228,300 


1749. 


George II. (after 




solidated 


£848,282,477 


1861. 


Funded debt 


• 785.119,609 




Spanish war) . 78,000,000 


1830. 


Total amount 


. 840,184,022 




Unfunded 


. 16,689,000 


1763. 


George III. (end 


1S40. 


Ditto . 


• 789,578,720 


1S62. 


Funded debt 


. 784,252,338 




of the Seven 


1850. 


Ditto . 


. 787,029,162 




Unfunded 


. 16,517,900 




Years' War) . 139,000,000 


1854. 


Ditto . 


• 775,041,272 


1863. 


Funded debt 


• 783,306,739 


1736. 


After American 


tS55- 


Ditto . 


■ 793,375,199 




Unfunded 


, 16,495,400 




war . . 268,000,000 


1856. 


Ditto . 


. 807,981,788 


1864. 


Funded debt 


• 777.429,224 


179S. 


Foreign war . . 462,000,000 


1857- 


Funded debt 


. 780,119,722 




Unfunded 


. 13,136,000 


1S02. 


Close of French 




Unfunded 


. 27,989,000 


1865. 


Funded debt 


• 775.768,295 




Bevolutionary 


1858. 


Funded debt 


. 779,225,495 




Unfunded 


. 10,742,500 




war . . 571,000,000 




Unfunded 


. 25,911,500 




[Exclusive 


of terminable 


1S14. 


Close of war with 

Napoleon , 865,000,000 


1S59. 


Funded debt 
Unfunded 


. 786,801,154 
. 18,277,400 




aunuitio 


s.] 



Tlie annual interest in 1S50 was 23,802, 257L ; and the total interest, including annuities, amovmted to 
27,699,740/. On Jan. i, 1S51, the total nnrcdeemed debt of Great Britain and Ireland was 769,272,562/., the 
charge on which for interest and management was 27,620,449?. The total churge on the debt in 1S61 was 
26,090,260/. 



NAT 503 NAT 

NATIONAL GALLERY, London (containing now abuut 750 pictures), began with the 
purchase, Ijy the British government, of the Angerstein collection of 38 pictures, for 57,000?., 
in Jan. 1824. The iirst exhibition of them took place in Pall-mall, on Jilay 10, 1824. Sir 
(t. lieauinont (1826), Mr. Holwell Carr (1831), and many other gentlemen, as well as the 
British histitution, contributed many tine jiictures ; and the collection has been since greatly 
augmented by gifts and purcliases. Tiie present edilice in Trafalgar-square, designed by Mr, 
Wilkins, was completed and opened April 9, 1838. Li July, 1857, a commission appointed 
to consider the propriety of removing the pictures reported in favour of their remaining in 
their ])resent locality ; and in i860, 15,000/. were voted, to be exi)ended in adapting the 
central ])art of the building to exhibition purposes. On May 11, 1861, the National Gallery 
was reopened, after having been closed eight months, during which time great improvements 
Avere made in the internal arrangements. On June 19, 1S65, the house of commons voted 
20,000?. to buy laud to enlarge the building. 

NATIONAL GUAED of Filanck was instituted by the Committee of Safety at Paris 
on July 13, 1789 (the day before the destruction of the Bastile), to maintain order and 
defend the public Liberty. Its first colours were blue and red, to which white was ad.ded, 
when its formation was approved by the king. Its action was soon paralj'sed by the revo- 
lutionary factions, and it ceased altogether under the consulate and empire. It was revived 
by Napoleon in 1S14, and maintained by Louis XVIII. , but was broken up by Charles X. 
after a tumultuous review in 1827. It was revived in 1830, and helped to place Louis 
Philijipe on the throne. In 1848 its reconstitution and its enlargement from 80,000 to 
100,000 men led to the frightful conflict of June, 1848. Its constitution was entirely 
changed in Jan. 1852, when it was subjected entirely to the control of the government. 
Formerly the National Guard had many jirivileges, such as choosing their own officers, &c. — 
National Guards have been established in Spain, Naples, and other countries, dui'iug the 
present century. 

NATIONAL PORTEAIT GALLERY was established in Feb. 1S57 in pursuance of votes 
from both houses of ]>arliament. The sum of 2000?. was appropriated for the ]nirchase of 
jiortraits of persons eminent in British history, and apartments were assigned for their 
reception. Donations are received under certain restrictions. A valuable collection of 
National Portraits appeared at the Manchester Exhibition in 1857.'" 

NATIONAL SCHOOLS. See Education. 

NATIONAL TESTIMONIALS (subscribed for) were presented to Rowland Hill (for his 
exertions in obtaining the penny postage), June 17, 1846 : and to Miss Florence Nightingale 
(for her beneficent exertions for the sufferers during the Crimean war), Nov. 29, 1855. 

NATIVITY. There are two festivals in the Roman and Greek churches, under this 
name. The Nativity of Christ, also observed by the Protestants on December 25tli (see 
Christmas) ; and the Nativity of the Virgin Mary, not obser^'ed liy the Protestants at all. 
Pope Sergius I., about 690, established the latter; but it was not generally received in 
France and Germany till about 1000 ; nor by the eastern Christians till the 12th century. 

NATURAL HISTORY was studied by Solomon, 1014 B.C. (i Kings iv. 33), and by 
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.). See Botany, Zoologij, &c. 

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. See PUloso'pliy. 

NATURAL SELECTION. See Slides. 

NATURALISATION is defined to be "the making a foreigner or alien a denizen or 
freeman of any kingdom or city, and so becoming, as it were, both a subject and a native ot 
a king or country, that by nature he did not belong to. " The first act of naturalisation 
passed in 1437 ; and various similar enactments were made in most of the reigns from that 
time : several of them special acts relating to individuals. An act for the naturalisation of 
the Jews jiassed May, 1753, but was repealed in 1754, on the petition of all the cities in 
England ; for the jirivileges since granted them, see Jcv:s. The act for the naturalisation of 
prince Albert passed 3 Vict. Feb. 7, 1840. 

NATURE-PRINTING. This process consists in impressing objects, such as plants, 
mosses, feathers, &c., into plates of metal, causing these objects, as it were, to engrave them- 
selves ; and afterwards taking casts or copies fit for printing from. Kniphof of Erfurt, 

* The formation of a Xatioual Portrait Exhibition was proposed by the earl of Derby, earl Granville, 
and others, at a meeting' in London on J uly 13, 1S65. It is to be held in April, 1866, in the old refrgshmcnt 
room of tho exliibitiou building of i8Gj. 



NAV 



504 



NAV 



■between 1728 and 1757, prodnced liis Herbarium vivian by pressing the plants themselves 
(previously inked) on paper ; the impressions being afterwards coloured by hand. In 1833, 
Peter Kyhl, of Copenhagen, made use of steel rollers and lead plates. In 1842, Mr, Taylor 
printed "lace. In 1847/Mr. Twining printed ferns, grasses, and plants ; and in the same 
year Dr. Branson suggested the application of electrotyping to the impressions. In 1S49, 
professor Leydolt, of Vienna, by the able assistance of Mr. Andrew "Worring, obtained 
impressions of agates and fossils.' The first practical application of this process is in Von 
Heufler's work on the Mosses of Arpasch, in Transylvania ; the second (the Jirsf. in this 
country) in "The Ferns of Great Britain and Ireland," edited by Dr. Lindley, the illus- 
trations to which were prepared under the superintendence of Mr. Henry Bradbury in 
1855-6, who also in 1859-60 printed "The British Sea-weeds," edited by W. G. Johnstone 
and Alei. Croall. 

NAVAL ARCHITECTS' INSTITUTE was established in Jan. i860. The members 
give much attention to the consideration of the strength of iron ships. 

NAVAL ASYLUM, Eoyal, began at Paddington in 1801, and was transferred to Green- 
•wich in 1807. The interior of the central portion was commenced in 1613 by Anne, queen 
of James I., and completed in 1635 by queen Henrietta-Maria, whose arms still adorn the 
ceiling of the room in which her son Charles II. was born in 1630. 

NAVAL BATTLES. The Argonautic expedition undertaken by Jason is the first upon 
record, 1263 B.C. Dufresnoy. The first sea fight on record is that between the Corinthians 
and Corcyreans, 664 B.C. Blair. The following are among the most celebrated naval 
engagements ; for the details of which see separate articles. 

gagfiiig 40 English, six of which are taken or 
destroyed ; and the Dutch admiral sails in 
triumph through the channel, with a broom 
at his mast-head, to denote that he had swejit 
the English from the seas . . Nov. 29, 1652 

The English gain a victory over the Dutch fleet 
off Portsmouth, ttikiiig and destroying n 
men-of-war and 30 merchantmen. Van Tromp 
was the Dutch, and Blake the English admiral, 

Feb, 18-20, 1653 

Again, off the North Foreland. The Dutch and 
Engli.'^h fleets consisted of near 100 men- 
of-w.ir each. Van Tromp commanded the 
Dutcii ; Blake, Monk, and Deane, the Eng- 
lish. Six Dutch sbi[is taken; 11 sunk, and 
the rest ran into Calais roads . June 2, ,, 

Again, on the coast of Holland ; the Dutch lose 
30 men-of-war, and admiral Tromp was killed 
(the seventh and last battle) . . July, „ 

At Cadiz, when two galleons, worth 2,000,000 
pieces of eight, were taken by Blake . Sept. 1656 

Sjianish fleet vanquished, and burnt in the 
harbour of Santa Cruz, by Blake . April 20, 1657 

English and French : 130 of the Bordeaux fleet 
destroyed by the duke of York (afterwards 
James II.) Dec, 4, 1664 

The duke of York defeats the Dutch fleet off 
Harwich ; Opdam, the Dutch admiral, blown 
n-p with all his crew ; i8 capit.al ships taken, 
14 de,stroyed June 3, 1665 

The earl of Sandwich took 12 men-of-war and 2 
India sliips Sept. 4, ,, 

A contest between the Diitch and Englisli 
fleets for four days. The English lo.<!e 9, and 
the Dutch 15 ships .... June 1-4, 1666 

Decisive engagement at the mouth of the 
Thames, the English gain a glorious victory. 
The Dutch lose 24 men-of-war, 4 admirals 
killed, and 4,000 seamen . . July 25, 26, ,, 

The Dutch admiial De Ruyter sails up the 
Thames and destroys some ships , June 11, 1667 

Twelve Algerine ships of war destroyed by sir 
Edward Spragg .... May 10, 167 1 

Battle of Southwold-bay. See SoUhay. May 28, 1672 

Coast of Holland ; by prince Rupert, May 28, 
June 4, and Aug. 11, sir E. Spragg killed; 
d'Etrees and Ruyter defeated , . . . 1673 

Off Beaehy Head ; the English and Dutch de- 
feated by the French . . . June 30, 1690 
Victory near Cape La Hogue . . May 19, 1692 



394 
260 



249 



241 



Battleof'Salamis (Greek victory) Oct, 20, b.c, 4S0 

Battle of Evuymedon (ditto) 466 

Battle of Cyzicus ; the Lacedjuraonian fleet 

taken by Alcibiades, the Athenian , . . 410 

Battle of Arginusffi 406 

Battle of zEgospotamos (Spartans victors). . 405 
The Persian fleet, under Conon, defeats the 

Spartan, at Cnidos ; Pisander, the Athenian 

admiral is killed ; and the maritime power 

of the Lacedamionians destroyed . 
Battle of Mylaj (Romans defeat Carthaginians) 
The Roman fleet, off Trepan um, destroyed by 

the Carthaginians ..... 

The Carthaginian fleet destroyed by the consul 

Lutatius 

Battle of Actium 31 

The emperor Claudius II. defeats the Goths, 

.and sinks 2000 of their sliips . . . A,D, 269 
Battle of Lepanto (Turks defeated) . Oct, 7, 1571 
Bay of Gibraltar ; Dutch and Spaniards (a 

bloody conflict and decisive victory, giving for 

atime the superiority to the Dutch,) April 25, 1607 

NAVAL ENGAGEMENTS IN BHITISH HISTORY. 

Alfred with 10 galleys, defeated 300 stil of 
Danish pirates on the Dorset and Hampshire 
coast. Axstr's Lifeof Alfi-ed .... 897 

Edward III, defeats the French near Sluys, 

June 24, 1340 

Off Winchelsea ; Edward III, defeated the 
Spanish fleet of 40 large ships,and captured 26, 

A>ig, 29. 1350 

The English and Flemings ; the latter signally 
defeated 1371 

Earl of Arundel defeats a Flemish fleet of 100 
sail, and captures 80 . . . March 24, 1387 

Near Milford Haven ; the English take 8, and 
destroy 15 French ships 1405 

Off Harfleur ; the duke of Bedford takes or 
destroys nearly 500 French ships . Aug. 15, 1416 

In the Downs ; a Spanish and Genoese fleet 
cajitured by the earl of Warwick . . . 1459 

Bay of Biscay ; Enghsh and French, indecisive, 

Aug. 10, 1512 

Sir Edward Howard attacks the French under 
Prior John ; repulsed and killed April 25, 1513 

The S'ttitish Armada destroyed. . July 19, 1588 

Dover straits ; between the Dutch admiral Van 
Tromp, and admiral Blake. The Dutch sur- 
prise the English in the Downs, 80 sail en- 



NAV 



50/ 



NAY 



NAVAL BATTLES, continued. 

Off St. Vincent ; tlie English and Dutch squad- 
rons, under admiral Kooke, defeated hy the 
French June i6, 1693 

OflE Carthagena, between admiral Benhow* 
and the French fleet, commanded by admiral 
l)u Casso. Fought .... Aug. 19, 1702 

Sir George Kooke defeats the French fleet off 
Vigo {which see) Oct. 12, ,, 

Off Malaga ; bloodj' engagement between the 
French, under the count of Thoulouse, and 
the English, luider sir George Rooke, when 
the former entirely relinquished the dominion 
of the seas to England . . . Aug. 24, 1704 

At Gibraltar ; French lose 5 men-of-war, Nov. 5, ,, 

In the Mediterranean, admiral Leake took 60 
French vessels, laden with iirovisions, May 22, 1708 

Spanish fleet of 29 sail totally defeated by sir 
George Byng, in the Faro of Messina, July 31, 1718 

Bloody battle off Toulon ; Matthews and Les- 
tock against the fleets of France and Spain. 
Here the brave captain Cornwall fell with 42 
men, including officers ; and the victory was 
lost by a misunderstanding between the 
EugUsh admirals .... Feb. 9, 1744 

Off Cape FinisteiTO, the French fleet of 38 sail 
taken by admiral Anson . . . May 3, 1747 

Off Finistcrre, when admiral Hawke took 7 
men-of-war of the French . . Oct. 14, ,, 

Off Newfoundland, when admiral Boscawen 
took 2 menof-war . . . " . June 10, 1755 

Off Cape Fran?oise : 7 ships defeated by 3 Eng- 
lish Oct. 21, 1757 

Admiral Pocock defeats the French fleet in the 
East Indies, in two actions, 1758, and again . 1759 

Admiral Boscawen defeats the French under 
De la Clue, off Cape Lagos . . Aug. 18, „ 

Admiral Hawke defeats the French fleet, com- 
manded by Conflans, in Quiberon Bay, and 
thus prevents a projected invasion of Eng- 
land. See Quiberon Lai/ . . . Nov. 20, ,, 

Keppel took 3 French frigates, and a fleet of 
merchantmen ..... Oct. g, 1762 

On Lake Champlain the provincial force totally 
destroyed by admiral Howe . . Oct. 11, 1776 

Off Ushant ; a drawn battle between Keppel 
and d'Orvilliers .... July 27, 1778 

In New England ; the American fleet totally 
destroyed July 30, 1779 

Near Cape St. Vincent ; admiral Rodney de- 
feated a Spanish fleet under admiral Don 
Langara. See Rodnen . . . Jan. 16, 1780 

At St. Jago ; Mons. Suflrein defeated by com- 
modore Johnstone .... April 16, 17S1 

Dogger-bank, between adm. Parker and the 
Dutch adm. Zoutman : 400 killed on each side, 

Aug. 5, ,, 

Admir.al Rodney defeated the French going to 
atblek Jamaica ; took 5 ships of the line, and 
sent the Frencla admiral, Comte de Grasse, 
prisoner to England . . . April 12, 1782 

The Bntish totally defeated the fleets of France 
and Spain in the Bay of Gibraltar, Sept. 13, „ 

East Indies : a series of actions between sir 
Edward Hughes and Suffrein, viz.: Feb. 17, 
1782, the French had 11 ships to 9; April 12 . 
they had 18 ships to 11, yet were completely 



1796 
1797 



1798 



1799 
iSoo 



beaten. Again, Julj' 6, off Trincomaleo, they 
had 15 to 12, and were again beaten with loss 
of 1000 killed, Sept. 3, 1782 ; again, June 20, 17S3 

Lord Howe defeated the French off Ushant, 
took 6 .ships of war, and sunk one June i, 1794 

Sir Edward Pellow took 15 sail ; burnt 7, out of 
a fleet of 35 sail of transports . March 8, 1795 

French fleet defeated, and 2 sliiiis of war taken 
by admiral Hotham. Fought March 14, ,, 

Admiral Cornwallis took 8 transports, cjnvoyed 
by 3 French men-of-war. Fought June 7, ,, 

Eleven Dutch East Indiamen taken by the 
Scejiire, man of- war, and some armed British 
Indiamen in company . . . June 19 ,, 

L'Orient ; the French fleet defeated by lord 
Biidport, and 3 ships of the line taken. See 
L'Oi'ieat June 25, ,, 

Dutch fleet, under admiral Lucas, in Sald.anha 
Bay surrenders to sir George Keith Elphin- 
stone. See ScUdanka Bay . . Aug. 17, 

Cape St. Vincent {which see) . . . Feb. 14, 

Unsuccessful attempt on Santa Cruz ; admiral 
Nelson loses his right arm . . July 24, 

Camperdown (jo/iic/t sec) . . .Oct. 11, 

N ilo (?p/iic/i ««f) -^ug. I, 

Off the coast of Ireland ; a French fleet of 9 sail, 
full of troops, as succours to the Irish, engaged 
by sir John Borlase Warren, and 5 taken, 

Oct. 12, 

The Te.'cel fleet of 12 ships and 13 Indiamen 
surrenders to admiral Mitchell . Aug. 28, 

Capture of the CerOere {which see) . . July 29, 

Copenhagen bombarded. See Copenhagen, 

April 2, 1801 

Gibraltar'Bay ; engagement between th^ French 
and British fleets; thu Hannibal of 74 guns 
lost July 6, „ 

Off Cadiz: sir James Saunoarez obtains a vic- 
tory over the French and Spanish fleets ; i 
ship captured. Fought . . . July 12, ,, 

Sir Robert Calder, with 15 sail, takes 2 ships 
(both Spanish) out of 20 sail of the French 
and Spanish fleets, off Fen-ol . July 22, 1805 

Off Trafalgar {lohich see) .... Oct. 21, „ 

Sir R. Strachan, with 4 sail of British, captures 
4 French ships, off Cape Ortegal Nov. 4, „ 

In the West Indies : the French defeated by sir 
T. Duckworth; 3 sail of the line taken, 2 
driven on shore .... .Feb. 6, iSo5 

Sir John Borlase Warren captures 2 French 
ships March 13, ,, 

Admiral Duckworth effects the passage of the 
Dardanelles. See article Dardanelles, Feb. 19, 1807 

Copenhagen fleet captured . . Sept. 8, ,, 

The Russian fleet of several sail, in the Tagus, 
surrenders to the British . . . Sept. 3, 180S 

Basque Roads : 4 sail of the line, &c. , destroyed 
by lord Gambler .... April 12, iSog 

Two Russian flotillas of numerous vessels taken 
or destroyed by sir J. Sauniarez . . July, ,, 

French ships of the line driven on shore by 
lord Collingwood (2 of them burnt by the 
French ne.xt day) .... Oct 25, „ 

Bay of Rosas, where lieut. Tailour by direction 
of captain Hallowell takes or destroys 1 1 war 
and other vessels. See Rosas Bay. Nov. i, ,, 



* In the engagement, the other ships of admiral Benbow's squadron falling astern, left this brave 
commander alone to maintain the unequal battle. In this situation a chain-shot shattered his leg, yet he 
■would not be removed from the quarter deck, but continued fighting till the morning, when the French 
sheered off. He died in Oct. following, of his wounds, at Jamaica, where, soon after his arrival, he 
received a letter from the French admiral, of which the following is a literal translation : — 

" Cortharfena. Aug. 22, 1702. 

"Sir, — I had little hopf.s, on Monday last, but to have supped in your cabin ; yet it plea.sed God to 
order it otherwise. I am th:inkful for it. As for those cowardly captains who deserted you. hang them 
uji, for by G—d they deserve it. "DuCasse." 

Two of those unworthy cowards, captain.^ Kirby and Wade, ■were shot on their arrival at Plymouth, 
h.aving been previou.sly tried by a court-martial. 



NAV 



506 



NAV 



NAVAL BATTLES, continued. 

Basseterre : La Loire and La Seine, French 
frigates, destroyed by sir A. Cochrane, 

Dec. 1 8, : 

The Spartan frigate gallantly engages a large 
French force in the bay of Naples May 3, : 

Action between the Tribune, captain Reynolds, 
and 4 Danish brigs. Fought . May 12, 

Isle of Rhe ; 17 vessels taken or destroyed by 
the A rmide and Cadmus . . . July 17, 

Captain Barrett, in the nierchant vessel, Cam- ' 
bcrltmd, with 26 men, defeats four privateers 
and take.s 1 70 prisoners . . Jan. 16, 

Twenty-two vessels from Otranto taken by the 
CerOerus and Active .... Feb. 22, 

Ama::on French frigate destroyed off Cape Bar- 
fleur . • March 25, 

8agone Bay : 2 French store-ships burnt by 
captain Barrie's ships . . . May i, 

The British slooij, Little Belt, and American 
ship President : their rencontre . May 16, 

Off Madagascar ; 3 British frigates under cap- 
tain Schomberg, engage 3 French larger-sized, 
with troops on board, and capture 2, May 20, 

The Thames and Cephalus capture 36 French 
vessels July, 

The Naiad frigate attacked in presence of 
Bonaparte by 7 armed praams ; they were 
gallantly repulsed .... Sept. 21, 

French frigates Paidine and Pomoue, captured 
by the British frigates Alctste, Active, and 
Unitd Nov. 29, 

Ilivoli, 84 guns, taken by Victorious, 74, Feb. 21,. 

L'Orient; 2 French frigates, (fee, destroyed by 
the Northumherlaiul, Capt. Hotham May 22, 

Guerriere, Britisli frigate, 46 small gvins, cap- 
tured by the American shij^ Constitution, 54 
guns (an unequal contest) . . Aug. 19, 

British brig Frolic, captured by the American 
sloop IVasp Oct. 18, 

British frigate Macedonian taken by the Ame- 
rican ship United States, large class, Oct. 25, 

British frigate Java, taken by the American 
ship Constitution, large class . . Dec. 29, 

British frigate Amelia loses 46 men killed and 
95 wounded, engaging a French frigate, 

Feb. 7, 

British sloop Peacock captured by the Ameri- 



aio 



can ship Hornet : she was so disabled that 
she sunk with part of her crew Feb. 25, 

American frigate Chesapeake taken by the Shan- 
non, caiJtain Broke. See C/iesapeakc. June i, 

American ships Growler and £ar/le taken by 
British gun-boats .... June 3, 

American sloop Argus taken by the British 
sloop Pelican Aug. 14, 

French frigate La Trave, 44 guns, taken by the 
Andromache of 38 guns . . Oct. 23, 

French frigate Ceres taken by the British ship 
Tag us Jan. 6, 

French frigates Alcmene and Ijjhigenia taken 
by the Venerable .... Jan. 16, 

French frigate Terj^sichore taken by the Majestic 

Feb. 3, 

French ship Clorinde taken by the Dr;md and 
Achates, after au action with the Eurotas, 

Feb. 25, 

French frigate L'Eloile captured by the Hebrus, 

March 27, 

American frigate Essex captured by the Phobe 
and Cherub March 29, 

British sloop Avon sunk by the American sloop 
Wasp Sept. 8, 

Lake Champlain : the British squadron cap- 
tured by the American, after a severe conflict, 
Sept. II, 

American ship president captured by the Endy- 
mion ...... Jan. 15, 

Algiers bombarded by lord Exmouth. Sec 
Algiers Aug. 27, 

Navarino (which see) .... Oct. 20, 

Action between the British ships Voluge and 
Ili/aciiith and 29 Chinese war-junks, which 
were defeated Nov. 3, 

Bombardment and fall of Acre. The British 
squadron under admiral Stopford achieved 
this triumph with trifling loss, while the 
Egyptians lost 2000 killed and wounded, and 
3000 prisoners. See Syria . . Nov. 3, 

Lagos attacked and taken by commodore Bruce, 
with a squadron consisting of the Penclox>e, 
Bloodhound, Sampson, and Tcazer, war- 
steamers, and the Philomel brig of war, 
Dec. 26, 27, 

[For naval actions which cannot be called 
regular battles, see China a.nd. Japan.l 



1813 



181G 
1827 



1S40 



1851 



.Sllirs TAKEN on DESTROYED BY THE N.VVAL AND MARINE FOKCES OF GREAT BRITAIN : — 



In the French "War, ending 1802. 


1 In the French \Yar, ending 1814. 


Force. 




R 


•3 

'3 
p. 

OS 




1 




'S 

1 


a 
R 


1 


a 

S 
< 


*« 
H 


Of the line 

Fifties 

Frigates .... 
Sloops, &c 

Total .... 


45 
2 

133 
iGi 


25 

I 

31 
32 


II 


20 

55 


2 


7 
16 


83 

3 

191 

,264 


70 

7 

77 

188 


27 



36 
64 


23 

I 

24 
16 


4 

6 
7 




I 

5 
13 


124 

9 
143 
288 


341 


89 


86 


25 


541 


342 


127 


64 


17 


19 


569 



NAVAL llEVIEWS, SALUTE, and VOLUNTEEKS. See under Navy. 

NAVARINO (S.W. Greece), Battle of, Oct. 20, 1S27, Ijehveeu the combined fleets of 
England, France, and Rus.sia, under command of admiral Codringtou, and the Turkish navy, 
in which the latter was almost wholly annihilated. More than thirty ships, many of them 
four-deckers, Avere hi own up or burnt, chiefly by the Turks themselves, to prevent their 
falling into the hands of their enemies. This destruction of the Turki.sh naval power was 
characterised by the duke of AVelliugton as being an "untoward event" — a memorable 
phrase applied to it to this day. 



NAV 



507 



NAV 



NAVARRE, now a province of Spain, formed a part of tlie Roman dominions, and was 
conqncrcd by Charlemague, 778. His descendants appointed governors, one of whom, 
Garcias Ximencs, took tlie title of king about 860. In 1076, king Sanclio IV. was poisoned, 
and Sanclio Ramorez of Arragon seized Navarre. In 1 134 Navarre, became again independent 
nnder Garcias Ramorez IV. In 1234, Tliibault, count of Cliampague, became sovereign of 
Navarre, as nephew of Sanclio VII., and in 1284, by the marriage of the heiress Jane with 
riiilip IV. le Bel, Navarre was united to France. 



SOVEREIGNS OF NAVARRE. 



1274. 

1 SOS- 
IS 16. 
1322. 



1349. 
1387- 
1425- 



Jane I. and (12S4) Philip-lc-Bcl of Fi-aucc. 

Louis X. Uutm of France. 

Philip V. the Long, of France. 

Charles IV., the Fair. 

Jane II. (daughter of Jane I.), and her hus- 
band Philip d'Evreux. 

Charles II., the Bad. 

Charles III., the Noble. 

Blanche, his daughter, and her husband, John 
of Arragon. 

John II., alone, who became king of Arragon, 
in 1458. He endeavoured to obtain the crown 
of Castile also. 

Eleanor de Foix, his daughter. 



1479. Francis Phcebus de Foix, her son. 

14S3. Catherine (his sister) and her husband John 
d'Albret. Ferdinand of Arraijoa conquers 
and anne.xes aU Navarre south of the Pyi-e- 
iiees, 1512. 

Lower Navarre (in France). 

1516. Henry d'Albret. 

1555. Jane d'Albret and her husband, Anthony de 
Bourbon, who died 1562. 

1572. Henry m. who became in 1589 king of 
France, to which Lower Navarre was for- 
mally united in 1609. 



NAVIGATION. It owes its origin to the Phcenicians, about 1500 B.C. The first laws 
of navigation origiuated with the Rhodians, gi6 B.C. The first account we have of any con- 
siderable voyage is that of the Phcenicians sailing round Africa, 604 B.C. Blair. See under 
Steam. 



Logarithmic tables applied to navigation by 
Gunter 

Middle latitude sailing introduced . . . 

Mensuration of a degree, Norwood 

Hadley's quadrant 

Harrison's time-keeper used .... 

Nautical almanac fii-st published . . . . 

Barlow's theory of the deviation of the com- 
pass 

See Compass, Latitude, Zonoilude, dc. 



1620 
1623 
1631 

1731 
1764 
1767 



Plane charts and mariner's compass used about 1420 

Variation of the compass discovered by Colum- 

biis ......... 1492 

That the oblique rhomb lines are sph'als, disco- 
vered by No uius 1537 

First treatise on navigation .... 1545 

The log first mentioned by Bourne . . . 1577 

Mercator's chart 1599 

Davis's quadrant, or backstaff, for measuring 

angles, about 1600 

NAVIGATION, INLAND. See Cancels. 

NAVIGATION LAAVS. A code of maritime laws is attributed to Richard I. of England, 
said to have been decreed at the isle of Oleron, 1194 (see Olcron), and further enactments 
were made by Richard II. in 1381. — In Oct. 165 1, the parliament of Cromwell passed an act 
entitled " Goods from foreign parts, by whom to be imported," the principles of which were 
affirmed by 12 Charles II. c. 18, "an act for the Encouraging and Increasing of Shipping 
and Navigation." The latter act restricts the importation and exportation of goods from 
or to Asia, Africa, or America, to English ships, of which the masters and three-fourths of 
the mariners .are to be English. This was followed by many acts of similar tenor ; which 
were consolidated by 3 & 4 AVill. IV. c. 54 (1833). These acts were in the whole or in part 
rejiealed bj^ the act "to amend the laws in force for the encouragement of British shipping' 
and navigation," j)assed 12 k 13 Vict. c. 29, June 26, 1849, after much opposition. This 
last act came into operation Jan i, 1850. The Steam Navigation act passed 14 & 15 Vict, 
c. 79, 1851, came into operation, Jan. i, 1852. The act regulating the navigation of the 
river Thames was passed in 17S6. — In Feb. 1865 the emperor recommended the modification 
of the French navigation laws. 

NAVIGATORS (or Navvies). These important helpers in the construction of railways 
derived their name (about 1830) from their formerly making the inland navigation in Lin- 
colnshire, &c., and are said to be descendants of the original Dutch canal labourers. 

NAVY OF ExGL.VND, "whereon, under the good providence of God, the wealth, safety, 
and strength of the kingdom chiefly depends." Act fur the government of the Navy. 



The first fleet of galleys, like those of the 
Danes, built by Alfred 897 

The number of gallej-s greatly increased under 
Ji^dgar, who claimed to be lord of the ocean 
surrounding Britain, about .... 965 

A formidable fleet equipped by the contri'uu- 



tion of every town in England, in the reign of 
Ethelred II. when it rendezvoused at Sand- 
wich, to be ready to oppose the Danes . . 1007 
Edward tlie Confessor collected a fleet to resist 
the Norwegians, 1042 ; and Hai-old to resist 
the Normans 1066 



NAV 



308 



NAV 



NAVY, continued. 

Richard I. collected a fleet and enacted naval 
laws about iigi 

[The Cinque ports and maritime towns fre- 
quently furnish fleets commanded by the 
king or his officers.] 

Edward III.'s fleet defeat the French at the 
battle of Sluys, June 24, 1340 ; and the Spanish 
off Winohelsea .... Aug. 29, 1350 

Henry V. made great eff irts to increase the 
navy 1415-1422 

Henry VII. built the Royal Hany ; considered 
to be the beginning of the Royal Navy . . 1488 

The Trinity House established and the Navy 
office appointed with commissioners. (See 
Admiraltii) 151 2 



[The navy then consisted of the "Great Harry," 
1200 tons, two ships, of 800 tons, and six or 
seven smaller.] 

James I. and Charles I. improve the navy. The 
" Sovereign of the Seas " launched ; 

Frigates said to have been first built . . . 

James II. systematises sea-signals and improves 
the navy i( 

Reign of George III. ; dimen.sions of ships in- 
creased ; copper sheathing adopted for ships 
of every class ; establishments of naval s-tores 
provided at all dockyards and naval stations ; 
and various improvements made in shipbuild- 
ing 1760- 



1637 
1649 



Years. 


Ships. 


Tons. 


Men. 


Navy Estimates. 


Years. 


Ships. 


Tons. 


Men. 


Navy Estimates. 


1546 


S8 


12,455 


8,546 


no account. 


1702 


272 


159 020 


40,000 


£1,056,915 


1558 


27 


7,110 


3.565 


no account. 


1760 


412 


321.134 


70,000 


3.227,143 


1578 


24 


10,506 


6,700 


no account. 


1793 


498 


433,226 


45,000 


5.525,331 


1603 


42 


17.055 


8,346 


no account. 


1800 


7b7 


668,744 


135,000 


12,422,837 


1658 


157 


57,000 


21,910 


no account. 


1808 


869 


892,800 


143,800 


17,496,047 


1688 


173 


101,892 


42,000 


no account. 


1814 

j 


901 


966,000 


146,000 


18,786,509 



Groat Britain had 901 ships, of which 177 were 
of the line ; and in 1S30, she had 621 ships, 
some of 140 guns each, and down to survey- 
ing vessels of two guns only. Of these 148 
sail were employed on foreign and home 

service 1814 

The screw propeller introduced in the Royal 

Navy 1840 

The total number of ships of all sizes in com- 
mission, I S3 Jim I, 1841 

The Navy consisted of 339 saiUng and 161 steam 
vessels ..... ... 1850 

Naval Coast Volunteers' act passed . . Aug. 1853 
Of 315 sailing ves-scls, 97 screw steamers, and 
114 paddle steamers .... April 1854 

The queen reviews the Baltic fleet at Spithead, 

March 10, 1854, ami April 23, 1856 
Of 271 .sa'ling vessels, carryhig 9594 guns, and 
258 steam vessels, carrying 6582 guns ; to- 
gether 573 vessel-*, can-yhig 16,176 guns ; also 
155 gun-boats, and 111 vessels on harbour 

service July ,, 

Proclam.ation for manning the navy, April 30, 1859 
Naval Reserve Force authorised . . Aug. „ 
Flogging not to be inflicted on first-class sea- 

meii except after a trial . . . Dec. ,, 
Great excitement respecting the French govern- 
ment building the plated frigate Gloire (see 

next page) i860 

The Warrior, our first iron-plated steam frigate, 
the largest vessel in the world except the 
Great Eaatern (see Steam), length, 380 ft. ; 
breadth 58 ft. ; iron-plate 4I inches thick ; 
6170 tons burthen ; cost about 400,000?. ; 
launched [censured in 1864] . . Dec. 29, ,, 
A royal commission recommends the abolition 
of the board of admiralty, and the axipoint- 
nient of a minister of the navy department, 

March, 1861 
Lord Clarence Paget, secretary of admiralty, 
.states that England has 67 steam ships of the 
line ; while France has 37, Russia 9, Spain 3, 

and Italy I April 11, „ 

New act for the government of the navy (the 

Naval Discipline Act) passes . . Aug. 6, „ 
Four iron-plated vessels (400 ft. long: 59J ft. 
wide ; and cost about 600,000?. each) build- 
ing Dec. „ 

Capt. Cowper Coles' mode of constructing iron- 
plated vessels, with a cupola for firing from, 
made known in 1855, and recommen led to 



the admiralty in 1861 ; adopted by Ericsson in 
the Monitor, 1862 ; proposed to be adopted by 

the British government 1862 

Six different kinds of plated vessels said to be 
constructing ; E. J. Reed authorised to build 
the Enterprise as a specimen of an iron-plated 
sea-going vessel ..... April, ,, 
Rnijal Oak, iron-clad steamer, launched at Chat- 
ham Sept. 10, ,, 

Twin or double-screws for vessels of light 

draught introduced 1863 

Mr. E. J. Reed appointed chief constructor in 
the Royal Navy .... Jan. ,, 

Navy consists of 1014 vessels of all classes ; 85 
bne of battle ships ; 69 fi-igates ; 30 screw 
corvettes ....... Jan. ,, 

Steam ram ra^jftiii launched . . Oct. 14, ,, 
Minotaur iron-steamer launched . Dec. 12, ,, 
Royal School of Naval Architecture, South 

Kensington, established 1864 

The turret-ship Sorenign, constructed on Coles' 
principle, put out of commission, and placed 
among reserve shij^s ; this blamed by some, 

Oct. ,, 
Naval models from the time of Henry VIII. 
collected early in the present century by sir 
Robert Seppings, removed to South Kensing- 
ton Museum Dec. ,, 

29 ironclad vessels building "to be ready for 

sea this year" March, 1865 

Bellernphon, iron-clad, by Mr. E. J. Reed ; and 

the Lord Warden, iron-clad, launched May, ,, 
A Briti.sh fleet entertained at Cherbourg, Brest, 
&c. , Aug. 15, <fcc. ; and a French fleet at Ports- 
mouth Aug. 29-37, ,, 

Annual Expenditure ox the British Navy. — 
1850, 6,942,397?.; — 1854, 6,640,596?.; — 1855, (to 
March 31, Hussian war), 14,490,105?.; — 1856, 
19.654,585?. ;— 1859, 9 215,487;— 1861, 13,331,668?. ; 
— 1862, 12,598,042?.; — 1863. ^11,370,588?.; — 1864, 
10,821,596?. ; — t'siiireate for year'1865-6, 10,392,224?. 
The Naval Salute to the British Flao began in 
Alfred's reign, and though sometimes disputed, 
may be said to have been continued ever since. 
The Dutch agreed to strike to the English coloiu-s 
in the British seas, in ''1673. The honour of the 
flag salute at sea was also formerly assented to by 
France in 1704, although it had been long pre- 
viously exacted by England. See Flag and Salutes 
at S a. 
Naval Uniforms. The first notice of the establish- 



NAV 



509 



NEL1 



NAVY, continued. 

niciit of a unifonii in the British ri.ival service, 
which wc have niet with, occurs in the Jacobite's 
Journal of March 5, 1748, under the head of " Do- 
mestic News," ill these terms: — "An order is 
said to be issued, requiring all his majesty's sea- 
offtcers, from the admiral down to the midship- 
man, to wear a uniformity of clotliingf, for which 
purpose pattern coats for dress suits and froclcs 
for each rank of officers are lodged at the Navy- 
office, and at the several dock-yards for their in- 
spection." This is corroborated by the Gazette of 
July 13, 1757, when the first alteration in the uni- 
form took place, and in which a reference is made 
to the order of 1748, alluded to in the journal 
above mentioned, and which, in fact, is the year 
■when a naval uniform was first established. 
James I. had indeed granted, by warrant of 6th 
April, i6og, to six of his principal masters of the 
navy, " liverie coats of fine red cloth." The war- 
rant is stated to have been drawn verbatim from 
one signed by queen Elizabeth, but which had not 
been acted upon by reason of her death. This 
curious document is in the British Museum ; but 
king James's limited red Uveiy is supposed to 
have been soon discontinued. Quarterly Riview. 

The NiWV Pay Office, organised in 1644, was abo- 
lished in 1S36, when the army and navy pay de- 
partments were consolidated in the Paymaster 
General's office. 

The Navy List was first officially compiled by John 



Finlaison, the celebrated actuary, and published 
monthly in 1814 

Naval Reviews. The queen reviewed the fleet at 
Portsmouth in Jlarch, 1854, before it .sailed to the 
Baltic, at tlie commencement of the Russian war ; 
and again at Portsmouth, on the conclusion of 
peace, in the presence of the parliament, &e., on 
April 23, 1856. The fleet extended in an unbroken 
line of 5 miles, and consisted of upwards of 300 
men-of-war, with a tonagc of 150,000, carrying 
3S00 guns, and manned by 40,000 seamen. There 
were about 100,000 spectators. 

Naval Volunteers (or Reserve). By 16 and 17 Vict, 
c. 73(1853), the admiralty were empowered to raise 
a body of seafaring men to be called the " Naval 
Coast Volunteers," not to exceed 10,000, for the 
defence of the coast, and for actual service if re- 
quired. On Aug. 13, 1859, an act was passed to 
enable the admiralty to raise a number of men, 
not exceeding 30,000, as a reserve force of seamen, 
to be called the "Royal Naval Volunteers." In 
November following the admiralty issued a state- 
ment of the "qualifications, advantages, and obli- 
gations" of this reserve. The enrolment com- 
menced on Jan. i, i860 The engagement is for 
five years, and the volunteers are entitled to a 
Ijension when incapacitated after the expiration 
of the term. At the prospect of war with the 
United States in Dec. 1861, a great number of sea- 
men at Hartlepool, Dundee, London, Aberdeen, 
itc., offered their services. 

NAVY OF France. It is first mentioned in history, 728, ■wlier, like that of England at 
an early period, it consisted of galleys ; in this year the French defeated the Frisian fleet. It 
^vas considerably improved under Louis XIV. at the instance of his minister Colbert, about 
1697. The French navy was, perhaps, in its highest splendour about 1781 ; but it became 
greatly reduced in the wars with England. See Naval Battles. It has been greatly increased 
by the present emperor, and in 1859 consisted of 51 ships of the line (14 sailing vessels and 
37 steamers), and 398 other vessels, in all 449 ; including vessels building, converting, or 
ordered to be built. The new French iron-plated frigate Gloire, launched in i860, has been 
subjected to much criticism, but appears to be generally considered as successful.* The 
Solfcrino and Magenta were launched in June, 1861. Other iron vessels are in course of 
construction. 

NEBRASKA, a N.W. territory of North America, was organized May 30, 1854. Capital, 
Omaha city. 

NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS, put forth by sir Wm. Herschel, in 181 1, suppo.ses that the 
universe was formed out of shapeless masses of nebulae or clusters of small stars. It has not 
been generally received. In Oct. i860, Mr. Lassell strictly scrutinised the dumb-bell nebula, 
and stated that the brightest parts did not appear to be stars. In 1865 Air. Wra. Huggins 
reported that he had analysed certain nebulai by their spectra, and believed them to be 
entirely gaseous. 

NECTARINE, the Avnjgdalis Pasica, originally came fiom Persia about 1562. 
Previously, presents of nectarines were frequently sent to the court of England from the 
Netherlands ; and Catharine, queen of Henry VIII., distributed them among her friends. 

NEEDLES were first made in England in Cheapside, London, in the time of Mary I. 
by a negro from Spain, but was lost at his death, and not recovered till 1566, in the reign of 
Elizabctli, when Elias Growse, a German, taught the art to the English. Slow. 

NEGRO TRADE. See Slavery. 

NELSON'S VICTORIES, &c. See sejKtratc articles. 



Horatio Nelson, born at Burnham Thorpe, Nor- 
folk Sept. 29, 175S 

Sailed with captain Phipjis to the North Pole, 1773 



Distinguished himself in the West Indies . . 1780 
Lost an eye at the reduction of Calvi, Corsica, 1794 
Captured Elba Aug. 9, 1796 



* Mr. Scott Russell .says :— " The Gloire has been built by M. Dupuis de Lome, after a most exact 
calculation of the effect of iron plates upon the weight and speed of a vessel. She is perfectly fit to 
carry a broadside of guns of as heavy a calibre as any that can be carried and worked in our own wooden 
ships, and she is driven at as least as high a speed as any vessel of similar <iimeusions in our own service." 



NEM 



510 



NEXT 



NELSON'S VICTORIES, continued. 

TVith Jervis, at the victory off St. Vincent, Feb. 
14 ; made admiral . . . Feb. 20, 1797 

Lost his right arm at the unsuccessful attack 
on Santa Cruz .... July 25, 26, „ 

Gained the battle of the Nile, Aug. i ; created 
Baron Nelson of the Nile . . . Oct. 6, 179S 

Attacks Coi^enhagcn, i\pril 2 ; created viscount, 
May 22 ; attacks Boulogne and destroys 
several ships Aug. 3, iSoi 

Appointed to chief command in the Mediter- 
ranean May 20. 1S03 

Pursues the French and Spanish fleets, March 
to Aug. ; returns to England, Aug. ; re-ap- 
pears at Cadiz, and defeat.s the fleets in 
Trafalgar Bay, where he is killed Oct. 21, 1805 

The Victory man-of-war arrived off Portsmoutli 
with his remains . . . . • Dec. 4, ,, 



The body lay in state in the Painted Hall, at 
Greenwich, Jan. 5 ; on the 8th was removed 
to the Admiralty ; the funeral took place, 

Jan. g. 

The prince of AVales (afterwards George IV.), 
the diike of Clarence (afterwards William IV.), 
and other royal dukes ; almost all the peers 
of England, and the lord mayor and corpora- 
tion of London, with thousands of military 
and naval officers and distinguished men, 
followed the funeral car to St. Paul's. The 
military assembled on this occasion amounted 
to near 10,000 regulars, independent of volun- 
teers. The regulars con.si.stcd chiefly of the 
regiments that had fought and conquered in 
Egypt. 



NEMEAN GAMES, celebrated at Nemea, in Acliaia, were originally instituted by tlie 
Argives, in honour of Arcliemorus, Avho died by the bite of a serpent, and Hercules some 
time after reirewed them, 1226 B.C. The conqueror M'as rewarded with a crown of olives, 
afterwards of green i^arsley, in memoiy of the adventure of Arcliemorus, whom his nurse 
laid down on a sprig of that plant. They were celebrated every third year, or, accordiiig to 
others, on the first and third year of every Olympiad, 1226 B.C. Herodotus. They were 
revived by the emperor Julian, a.d. 362, but ceased in 396. 

NEPAUL (India). The East India Company's war with the state of Nepaul commenced 
Nov. I, 1814, and terminated April 27, 1815. A treaty of peace was signed between the 
jiarties Dec. 2, 1S15. AVar renewed by an infraction of the treaty by the Nepaulese, Jan. 
1816 : and after several contests, unfavourable to the Nepaulese, the former treaty was ratified, 
March 15, 1816. An extraordinary embassy from the king of Nepaul to the queen of Great 
Britain arrived in England, landing at Southamxiton, May 25, and remained till Aug. 1850 ; 
it consisted of the Nepaulese prince, Jung Bahadoor and his suite, to Avhom many honours 
were paid. He supported the English during the English mutiny in 1857. 

NEPHALIA, sacrifices of sobriety among the Greeks, when they offered mead instead of 
wine to the sun and moon, to the nymphs, to Aurora, and to Venus ; and burnt any wood 
but that of the vine, fig-tree, and mulberry-tree, esteemed symbols of drunkenness, 613 B.C. 

NEPTUNE, a primary planet, first observed on Sept. 23, 1846, by Dr. Galle at Berlin, 
in consequence of a letter from M. Le Verrier, who had conjectured from the anomalous 
movements of Uranus, that a distant planet might exist neaidy in the position where Neptune 
is situated. Calculations to the same eflfect had been previously made by Mr. J. Couch 
Adams. Neptune is said to have been seen by Lalande, and thought to be a fixed star. 

NERWINDEN. See Landcn. 

NESTORIANS, the followers of Nestorius, bishop of Constautiuople (428-431), who is 
represented as a heretic for maintaining that though the Virgin Mary was the mother of 
Jesus Christ as man, j^et she was not the mother of God, since no human creature could 
impart to another what she had not herself ; he also hehl that God was united to Christ 
under one person but remained as di.stinct in nature and essence as though he had never 
been rmited at all. He was opposed by Eutyches, and died 439. See Eui>jchians. Nestorian 
Christians in the Levant administer the sacrament with leavened bread and in both kinds, 
jjermit their priests to marrj% and use neither confirmation nor auricular confession. DuPin. 
A Nestorian priest and deacon were in London in July, 1862. 

NETHERLANDS. See Flanders, Holland, and Belgium. 

NEUFCHATEL, a canton in Switzerland, formerly a lordship, afterwards a principality. 
The first known lord was Ulric de Fenis, about 1032, whose descendants ruled till 1373, 
after which by marriages it frequently changed governors. On the death of tlie last of the 
Longuevilles, the duchess de Nemours, in 1707, there were many claimants ; among them 
our William III. He and the allies however gave it to Frederic I. of Prussia with the title 
of prince. In 1806 the y)rincipality was ceded to France, ajid Napoleon bestowed it on his 
general Berthier, who held it till 1814, when it fell to the disposal of the allies. They 
restored the king of Prussia the title of prince with certain rights and privileges ; but 
constituted it a part of the Swiss confederation.* 

* After an unsuccessful attempt in 1831, the inhabitants in 1S48 repudiated their allegiance to Prussia, 



NEU oU NEAV 

NEUSTRIA or "West Fraxce, a kingdom allotted to Clotaire by his father Clovis, at his 
death in 711. His descendant, Charlemagne, became sole king of France, in 771. 

NEUTRAL TOWERS. By the treaty of Paris, signed by the representatives of Great 
Britain, France, Anstria, Russia, Prussia, Turkey and Sardinia, on April 16, 1856, it was 
determined that privateering should be abolished ; that neutrals might carry an enemy's 
goods not contraband of war ; that neutral goods not contraband were free even under au 
enemy's flag ; and that blockades to be binding must be effective. The president of the 
United States acceded to these j)rovisions in 1 86 1 . 

NEVADA, a western territory of the United States of N. America, organised March 2, 
1 86 1. Capital, Carson city. 

NEVILLE'S CROSS, or Durji.vjr, Battt.e of, between the Scots under king David 
Bruce, and the English under Philipjia, consort of Edward III. and lord Percy, Oct. 17, 1346. 
More than 15,000 of the Scots were slain, and their king taken prisoner. 

NEVIS, Island op (W. Indies), planted by the English in 1628 ; taken by the French, 
Feb. 14, 1782 ; restored to the English in 1783. The capital is Charleston. 

NEWARK (Nottinghamshire), Battle of, in which the royal army under prince Rupert 
repulsed the army of the parliament, besieging the town, March 21, 1644. The church was 
erected by Henry IV. Here, in the midst of troubles, died king John, Oct. 9, 1216; and 
here, I\Iay 5, 1646, Charles I., after, his defeat at Naseby, put himself into the hands of the 
Scotch army, who afterwards gave him up to his enemies. Newark was first incorporated 
by Edward VI. and afterwards by Charles II. 

NEW BRUNSWICK was taken from Nova Scotia, and received its name as a separate 
colony in 1785. In 1865 it opposed the plan for uniting all the British North American 
colonies in a confederation. 

NEWBURY (Berkshire). Near here were fought two desperate battles — (i.) Sept. 20, 
1643 : between the army of Charles I. and that of the parliament under Essex ; it termi- 
nated somewliat favourably for the king. Among the slain was the amiable Lucius Cary, 
viscoimt Falkland, deeply regretted. (2.) A second battle of dubious result was fought 
betAveen the royalists and the parliamentarians, Oct. 27, 1644. 

NEW CALEDONIA (Pacific Ocean), discovered by Cook on Sept. 4, 1774, was seized by 
the French and colonised in 1852. The French government in Dec. 1S64, redressed the 
outrages committed upon the British missionaries at a station established here in 1854. 

NEWCASTLE tpon Tyne (Northumberland), the Roman Pons yElia. The first coal 
port in the world,* and the metropolis of the north of England. The coal-mines were 
discovered here about 1234. The first charter granted to the townsmen for digging coal 
was by Henry III. in 1239. 



The castle built by Robert Courthose, son of 
William I. ....... 1080 

The town fortified by William II ,, 

St. Nicholas church Imilt, about 1091 ; burnt in 
1216 ; restored by Edward I., to whom John 
Baliol did homage here, 1292 ; rebuilt . . 1359 
Newcastle surrenders to the Scotch in 

1640 and 1646 
Who here gave up Charles I. to the parliament 1644 
Occupied by general Wade in . . . . 1745 

The Literary and Philosophical Society founded 
1793 ; liberally endowed by Robert Stephenson 

in 1S5S-9 

T. Bewick, the wood engraver, dies . . . 1828 



The magnificent market erected by Richard 
Grainger, who otherwise greatly improved 
the town 1835 

High level bridge erected by Robert Stephen- 
son : and grand central station built . 1849-30 

1538 persons die of cholera, Aug. 31 to Oct. 26, 1853 

Great fire through the explosion at Gateshead 
(lehich see) Oct. 6, 1854 

Great distress through faihn-e of Northumber- 
land Joint- Stock Bank . . . .Nov. 1857 

Richard Grainger dies, aged 63 . . July 4, 1861 

Enthusiastic reception of Mr. W. E. Gladstone, 

Oct. 7-9, 1S62 



and proclaimed Neufchatcl a free and independent member of the Swiss confederation. The king of 
Prussia protested .against this ; and in 1852 a protocol was signed between England. France, and Austria, 
recognising his claims. In Sept. 1856, some of his adherents, headed by the coimt de Pourtalfes, broke out 
into insurrection against the republican authorities, who, however, quickly sulidued and imprisoned them, 
with the intention of bringing them to trial. War was threatened by the king of Prussia, and gi-eat energy 
and determination manifested by the Swiss. On the intervention of the English and French governments, 
after many delays, a treaty was signed on June 11, 1S57, by which the king of Prussia virtually renounced 
his claims, on receiving a pecuniary compensation, which he eventually gave up. He retains the title of 
prince of Neufchatcl without .any political rights. The prisoners of Sept. 1856 were released without 
trial, J.an. 18, 1857. 

' In 1306 the use of coal for fuel was prohibited in London, by royal proclamation, chiefly because it 
injured the sale of wood for fuel, great quantities of which were then gi-owing about the city ; but this 
interdiction did not long continue, and we may consider coal as having been dug and exported from this 
place for more than 500 years. 



NEW 



51^ 



NEW 



NEWCASTLE ADMINISTRATION, formed April, 1754; resigned Nov., 1756; when 
the duke of Devonshire became first lord of the treasury. 

Lord Anaon. first lord of the admiralty. 

Lord Grenville, lord president. 

Lord Gower (succeeded by the duke of Marlborough), 
lord privy seal. 

Duke of Grafton, earl of Halifax, George Gren- 
ville, &c. 

Lord Hardwicke, lord chancellor. 



Thomas Hoiks Pelham, duke of Newcastle, jirsi lord 
of the treasury. 

Henry Bilson Leggo, chancellor of the erchequer. 

Earl of Holdernesse and sir Thomas Robinson (after- 
wards lord Grantham), secretaries of state. The 
latter succeeded by Henry Fox (afterwards lord 
Holland). 



NEWCASTLE AND PITT ADMINISTRATION (see Chathavi Ad ministration), formed 
June, 1757 ; resigned May, 1762 ; lord Bute coming into power. 



Earl of Holdernesse, secretary of state for the southern 

departmnd. 
Duke of Rutland, lord steward. 
Lord Anson, admiralty. 
Duke of Marlborough (succeeded by lord Ligonier), 

ordnance. 
Heniy Fox, George Grenville, viscount Barrington, 

lord HaUfax, James Grenville, &c. 
Sir Robert Henley, lord keeper of the great seal. 



Thomas Holies Pelham, duke of Newcastle, first lord 

(f the treasury. 
William Pitt (afterwards lord Chathajn), secretary 

of state fir the northern department, and leader of the 

hov.se of commons. 
Lord Grenville, lord president. 
Earl Temple, privy seal. 
Mr. Legge, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Duke of Devonshire, lord chamberlain. 

NEW CHURCH. See Swcdenhorgians. 

NEW COLLEGE (St. John's-wood, London), erected by the Independent dissenters for 
the education of their ministers, 1850-1, is founded on the union of Homerton, Highbury, 
and Coward colleges. See Oxford. 

NEW ENGLAND (N. America), comprising the states of Massachusetts, New Hamp- 
shire, Connecticut, and Rhode Lsland, was settled by the Puritans who were driven from 
England. The first attempt to form a settlement was made in 1607, whicli was named 
New England by captain Smith, in 1614. Settlement of the Plymouth comjian}' in 1620. 

NEW FOREST (Hampshire), was made ( " aff"orcsted ") by William the Conqueror, 
1079-85. Many populorxs towns and villages, and indeed the whole country, for above 
thirty miles in compass, were laid waste, and no less than thirty-six churches were destroyed. 
William Rufus was killed in this forest by an arrow, shot by Walter Tyrrel, that accidentally 
glanced against a tree, Aug. 2, iioo, the site of which is now pointed out by a triangular 
stone. The New Forest Deer Removal act was passed 14 & 15 Vict. c. 76, Aug. 7, 1851. 

NEWFOUNDLAND (N. America), discovered by Sebastian Cabot, who called it Prima 
Vista, June 24. 1497. It was formally taken possession of by sir Henry Gilbert, 1583. In 
the reign of Elizabeth, other nations had the advantage of the Euglish in the fishery. 
In 1577 there were 100 fishing vessels from Spain, 50 from Portugal, 150 from France, and 
only 15, but of larger size, from England. Hakluyt. But the English fishery in some years 
afterwards (1625) had increased so much that the ports of Devonshire alone emjiloyed 150 
ships, which sold their fish in Spain, Portugal, and Italj'. The sovereignty of England was 
recognised in 17 13. Nearly 1000 English families reside here all the year ; and in the fishing 
season (May to September) more than 15,000 persons resort to Newfoundland (one of our 
finest nurseries for seamen). It obtained the privilege of a colonial legislation in 1845, and 
the bishopric was established in 1839. — Appalling fire at St. John's, a great portion of the 
town destroj'ed, the loss estimated at 1,000,000?. sterling, June 9, 1846.* 

NEWGATE, London. The prison derives its name from the gate which once formed a 
part of it, and stood a little beyond the Sessions-house in the Old Bailey. It was used as 
a prison for persons of rank, as early as 1218 ; but was rebuilt about two centuries afterwards 
by the executors of sir Richard Whittington, whose statue with a cat stood in the niche till 
the time of its demolition by the great fire of London, in 1666. It was then reconstructed 
in its late form ; but the old jirison being an accumulation of misery and inconvenience, was 
pulled down and rebuilt between 1778 and 1780. During the riots in the latter year, the 
interior was destroyed by fire, but shortly afterwards restored. In 1857 the interior was 
pulled down to be re-erected on a plan adapted to the reformatory system. The market, 
established in 1681, was ordered to be abolished by an act passed in 1 861. A meat and 
poultry market is to be erected in Smithfield. 



* On Jan. 14, 1857, a convention was concluded between the English and French governments, con- 
firming certain French jirivileges of fishery in exchange for others. The English colonists were dissatisfied 
with this convention. 



NEW 513 NEW 

NEAV GRENADA (S. America), discovered by Ojeda in 1499, and conquered and settled 
by the Spaniards in 1536. It formed part of the new republic of Bon;ota, established in 
181 1 ; and, combined with Caracas, formed the republic of Colombia in Dec. 17, 1819. See 
Colo7nbia. 



President M. Ospina entered on office, April i, 1857 

After several reunions and dissolutions, the re- 
public of New Granada merged into the Grena- 
dine Confederation, which includes Bolivar, 
Autioquia, Tauama, and other small states, 

June 15, 1858 

Strupcjles between the conservatives, partisms 
of the old government, and the liberals, Jan. 1861 , 

General Mosquera{ liberal) deposes Ospina ; and j The troops of F]quator defeated, Dec. 6 ; peace 

seizes the government . . . July 18, ,, ensues, and Equator remains independent, 

A congress of the states determine on union, j Dec. 3, 



under the name of the United States of 
Colombia Sept. 20, 1861 

Arboleda, chief of the conservatives, assassi- 
nated (.succeeded by Cassal) . Nov. i, 1862 

New constitution established . . May 8, 1863 

Mosquera invites Venezuela and Equator to 
join the confederation , . . Avig. „ 

Equator declines — war ensues . . Nov. 20, ,, 



NEW HAMPSHIRE, one of the original united states of N. America, was settled in 
1623, and separated from Massachusetts in 1679. Capital, Concord. 

NEW HARMONY. See Harmonists. 

NEW HEBRIDES (S. Pacific Ocean), discovered by Quires, who believing them to be a 
continent named them Tierra Australia del Espiritu Santo, in 1606. Bougainville in 1768 
found them to be islands ; and in 1774 Cook gave them their present name. 

NEAY HOLLAND. See Australia, New South Wales, &c. 

NEW JERSEY, one of the original united states of N. America, was settled by the Dutch 
from New York, 1620 ; and by Swedes in 1627. Capital, Trenton. 

NEW LANARK (W. Scotland). Here Robert Owen eudeavoui-ed to establish socialism 
in 1801. 

NEWMAPJvET (Cambridgeshire), renowned for its horse-races. It is first mentioned in 
1227 ; and probably derived its name from the market then recently established. James I. 
erected a hunting-seat here, called the king's house, to which Charles I. was taken as a 
prisoner in 1647, ^vhen the parliament army was quartered in the neighbouring village ot 
Kennet. Charles II., who was fond of racing, built a stand-house for the sake of the 
diversion, about 1667,* and from that period races have been annual to the present time ; 
and many extraordinary races have been run. See Races. 

NEW MEXICO (N. America), ceded to the United States in 1848, and organised as a 
territory, Sept. 9, 1850. Capital, Santa Fe. 

NEW ORLEANS, capital of Loui.siana, N. America {uMch see), founded in 1717, ttnder 
the regency of tlie duke of Orleans. In 1788, seven-eightlis of the city were destroyed by 
fire ; but it is now rebuilt. The British attacked Nev,^ Orleans in Dec, 1814, and were 
repulsed with great loss, by the Americans under general Jackson, Jan. 8, 1815. New 
Orleans was surrendered to the Federals on April, 1862. The strong feeling of the inhabi- 
tants in favour of the Confederates and against the Fedei'als induced general B. Butler to rule 
them with military rigour, occasionally degenerating into brutal tyranny, especially towards 
females. May to October, 1862. He was replaced by general Banks, Dec. 16, 1862. 

NEAYPORT (Monmouthshire). Chartist riots here were suppressed, Nov. 4, i839.t 

* During the races, on Jlarch 22. 1683, Newmarket was nearly destroyed by an accidental fire, which 
occasioned the hasty departure of the company then assembled, including the king, the queen, the duke 
of York, the royal attendants, and many of the nobility ; and to this disaster historians have ascribed the 
failure of the Hyo-house plot, the object of which was said to be the assassination of the king and his 
brother on the road from Newmarket to London, if the period of their journey had not been thus antici- 
pated. See Riie-Hovse Plot. , j 1. ii, i 

t The chartists {which see) collected from the mines and collieries in the neighbourhood, to the number 
of 10,000, armed with guns, pikes, clubs, &c., arrived at Newport, Nov. 4, 1839. They divided them- 
selves into two bodies— one, under the command of Mr. John Frost, an ex-magistrate, proceeded down the 
principal street • whilst the other, headed by his son, took the direction of Stow-hill. They met in front 
of the Westgatu hotel, where the magistrates were assembled with .about 30 soldiers of the 45th regirnent, 
and several special constables. The rioters commenced breaking the windows of the house, and fared on 
the inmates, by which the mayor, Mr. (now sir Thomas) Phillips, and several other persons were wounded. 
The soldiers returned the fire, and succeeded in di.spersing the mob, which, with its leaders, fled from the 
town, leaving about 20 rioters dead, and many others dangerously wounded. A detachment of the loth 
royal Hussars having arrived from Bristol, the town became tranquil. Frost was apprehended on the 
following dav, together with his printer, and other influential persons among the cliartists. He and 
several others were tried and convicted in Jan. 1840, and sentenced to death ; afterwards commuted to 
transportation. An amnesty was granted them on May 3, 1836 ; and they retui-ned to England in Sept. 
following. 

L L 



NEW 



314 



NEW 



NEW RIVER. An artificial river for the supply of London with water, commenced in 
1609, and finished in 1613, when the projector, Hugh Mj^ddelton, was knighted by James I. 
Stnjpe. This river, which rises in Hertfordshire, and which, with its windings, is forty- 
two miles long, was hronght to London, and opened Sept. 29, 1613. So little Avas the 
benefit of it understood, that for above thirty years the seventy-two shares, into which it 
was divid!ed, netted only 5?. apiece. Each of these shares M-as sold originally for lOoZ. 
"Within the last few years they were sold at 9000?. a share, and some lately at io,oool. 

NEW ROSS (Wexford), S. E. Ireland. Here general Johnston totally defeated the rebels 
under Beauchamp D. Bagenal Harvey, June 4, 1798. 

NEWRY (N. Ireland). In the rebellion of 1641, Newry was reduced to a ruinous con- 
dition ; it was surprised by sir Con. Magenis, but was retaken by lord Conway. After the 
Restoration the town was rebuilt. It was burnt by the duke of Berwick when flying from 
Schomberg and the Englisli army, and only the castle and a few houses escaped, 1689. 

NEW SOUTH WALES, the principal colony of Australia {which see). The eastern coast 
of New Holland was explored and taken possession of by captain Cook in 1770. At his 
recommendation a convict colony was first formed here. Captain A. Phillip, the first 
governor, arrived at Botany Bay with 800 convicts, Jan. 20, 1788; but he subsequently 
preferi-ed Sydney, about seven miles distant from the head of Port Jackson, as a more eligible 
situation for the capital. A new constitution was granted in 1855 (18 & 19 Vic. c. 54). See 
Sydney. Population, in 1856, 269,722 ; in 1859, 342,062 ; in 1862, 367,495. The imports 
for 1859 amounted to 6,597,053?. ; the exports 1:04,768,049/. Governor, sir John Young, 
appointed i860. 

NEWS-LETTERS. News- writers in the reign of Charles II. collected from the coffee- 
houses information, which was printed weekly and sent into the conntrj''. The London 
Gazette, then the only authorised newspaper, contained little more than proclamations and 
advertisements. 

NEWSPAPERS. The Roman Acta Diurna were issued, it is said, 691 B.C. In modern 
times, a Gazetta, which derived its name from its price, a small coin, was published in Venice 
(about 1536). The Gazette de France, now existing, first appeai-ed in April, 163 1, edited by 
Renaudot, a physician. It was patronised by the king, Louis XIII., who wrote one article 
for it, and by Richelieu. The first real newspajier published in England* was established 
by sir Roger L' Estrange, in 1663 ; it was entitled the Public Intelligencer, and continiied 
nearly three years, Avhen it ceased, on the appearance of the Gazette. In the reign of 
James I., 1622, appeared the London Weekly Courant ; and in the year 1643 (the period of 
the civil war) were printed a variety of publications, certainly in no respect entitled to the 
name of newspapers, of which the following were the titles : — 

England's Memorable Accidents. 
The Kingdom's Intelligencer. 
The Diurnal of Certain Passages in 

Parliament. 
The Mercurius Aiilicus. 



The Scotch Intelligencer. 
The Parliament's Scont. 
The Parliament's Scout's Dis- 
covery, or Certain Information. 



A paper called the London Gazette t was published 
Aug. 22, 1642. The London Gazette of the existing 
series was published first at Oxford, the court 
being there on account of the plague, Nov. 7, 1665, 
and afterwards at London, Feb. 5, i666. 

Pi-iuting of newspapers and pamphlets prohibited, 
31 Chas. I. 1680. Salmon's Chron. 

The regular newspapers commenced on the abolition 
of the censor.ship of the pre.ss, in 1695. 

Daily Courant fii-st published in 1709. 

Newspapers first stamped in 1713. 

NUMBER OF STAMPS ISSUED TO BRITISH NEWSPAPERS. 

1753 7.411.757 

1760 . . . . . . 9,404,790 

1774 ..... 12,300,000 



The Mercurius Civicus, or London's 

Intelligencer. 
The Country's Complaint, <S:c. 
The Weekly Accounts. 
Mercurius Britannicus. 

1790 i4>o35,639 

1800 ..... 16,084,905 
1810 . . .... 20,172,837 

1820 24,862,186 

1825 . . .... 26,950,693 

1830 ..... 30,158,741 

1835 32-874.652 

1840 ..... 49,033,384 

1843 56,433.977 

1850 65,741,271 

[In 1850 there were also issued supplement 
stamps at id., 11,684,423.] 

In the year ending Jan. 5, 1851, there were 159 Lon- 
don newspapers, in which appeared 891,650 adver- 
tisements ; 222 English provincial newspapers, 
having 875,631 advertisements. In Scotland, same 



"' Some copies of a publication are in existence called the Engluh iJcrcvry, professing to come out 
tinder the authority of queen Elizabeth, in 1588, the period of the Spanish Armada. The researches of 
Mr. T. Watts, of the British Museum, have proved these to he forgeries, executed about 1766. The full 
title of No. 50 is " The EnfjUsh Mercurie, published by authoritie, for the prevention of false reports, 
imprinted by Christopher Barker, her highness's printer. No. 50." It describes the Spanish Armada, 
giving " A journall of what passed since the 21st of this month, between her majestie's fleet and that of 
Spayne, transmitted by the Lord Highe Admiral, to the Lordes of council." 

t On May 22, 1787, a London Gazette Extraordinary was forged, with a view of affecting the funds. 



NEW 



515 



NEAV 



NEWSPAPERS, continued. 

year, no newspapers, having 249,141 advertise- 
ments. In Ireland, 102 newspapei's, having 236,128 
advertisements. The number of stamps issued 
wa.s — in England, 65,741,271 at id, and 11,684,423 
supplement stamps at jd. ; in Scotland, 7,643,045 
stamps at ic/., and 241,264 at |d ; in Ireland, 
6,302,728 stamps at id., and 43,358 at i'V. 

Reduction of newspaper duty from 4(1. to id. took 
effect on Sept. 15, 1836. 

The distinctive die came intense Jan. i, 1837. 

Duty on advertisements abolished, 1853. 

IRISH NEWSPAPERS. 

The first was the Dublin News-Letter, by Joseph Ray, 
1685 ; Piie's Occurrences, 1700. Faulkner's Journal 
was established by George Faulkner, "a man 
celebrated for the goodness of his heart, and the 
weakness of his head," 1728. The oldest of the 
existing Dublin newsi^apers are Saunders' (then 
Jisduile s) JS'ews-Letler, 1745 ; and Freeman's Journal, 
founded as the Public Jiepister, by the patriot Dr. 
Lucas, about 1755. The Limerick Chronicle, the 
oldest of the provincial i^rints, 1768. 

PROVI>-CIAL NEWSPAPERS. 

Norwich Postman, 1706. Worcester Postman, 1709. 
Kewcastle-oa-Ti/ne Cov.runt, 1711. 

FOREIGN NEWSPAPERS. 

Gazette de Venise, early in 17th century ; Gazette de 

France (now publishing), 1631. 
The first newspaper set up in Germany, 1715. 



The first published in America, the Boston News- 
Letler, in lyo^; the first at Philadelphia in 1719 ; 
and the first in Holland in 1732. 

"America, whose population is 23 millions and a 
half, supports Soo newspapers (50 of these pubUsh- 
ing daity), and their annual cii-culation is stated 
at 64,000,000. In Paris there exist 169 journals, 
literary, scientific, religious, and poUtical."—ires<- 
ininster Meviezo, 1830. 



REGISTERED NEWSPAPERS. 

London new^japers, daily . 
United Kmgdom, daily 
London newspapers, weekly . 
English provincial newspapers . 
Irish newspapers .... 
Scotch newspapers .... 
British isles 



IS50. 


1S65. 


12 


22 





73 


5« 


166 


222 


750 


102 


132 



14 



140 

14 
By the act passed June 15, 1855 (iS & 19 Vict. c. 27), 
the stami5 on newspapers, as such, was totally 
abolished, and will be employed henceforth only 
for postal purposes. Many new papers were then 
started, which were but of short duration. 
In 1857, 71 million newspapers passed through the 
post-office. Ill Jan. i860, 1060 newspapers, and 
in Jan. 1S62, 1165 newspapers were in course of 
pubUcation in the United Ivingdom. 
On Oct. I, i86i, when the paper duty came off, the 
Times, Daily News, and Moniing Post reduced 
their price to yl. each copy unstamped. 



ESTABLISHMEXT OF THE PRINCIPAL LOXDON NEW.SPAPERS. 



Public Ledger (commercial) . 1759 
Morning Chronicle {liberal), 

extinct .... 1770-1862 
Morning Post (whig) . . . 1781 
Morning Herald (conservative) 17S1 



St. James's Chronicle (con- 

seri^ative) .... 1761 
Observer (whig) . . . . 1792 
Bell's Jile&senger (lib. conserv.) 1796 
Dispatch (/iftfrt/O . . . 1801 
Examiner (liberal) . . . 1S08 
Literary Gazette (extinct) 1817-62 
John Bail (conservative) . . 1820 
Bell's Life in London (s/Jorfi)i£?) 1820 
Sunday Times (lib. conserv.) . 1822 
Ailcis (liberal) . . . . 1826 
Attienicuin(littrari/andscien.) 1S2S 
Spectator (liberal) . . . „ 
Jiecord (liberal conservative) . ,, 
Court Journal (neiriraO . • 1829 



Times (independent) . . 1788 

Sun (liberal) . . . . 1792 

Moniing Advertiser ( I ibera I) . 1 794 

Globe (loldg), evening . . 1803 

Standard (conservo.tive) . . 1827 

PRINCIPAL WEEKLY. 

United Service Gazette . . 1833 

AVatchman ( irfs(c;/a?i) . . 1835 

Musical World . . . . 1836 

Jiu-ist (legal) .... 1837 
lilagnet (agricultural) . . ,, 

Railway Times . . . ,, 
Era (theatrical) . . . . ,, 

Tablet (Roman Catholic). . 1840 

Gardeners' Chronicle . . 1841 
Nonconformist . . . ,, 

Punch 1 841 

Illus. London News (liberal). 1842 
Lloyd's Weekly Paper (radcl.) „ 

Builder 1843 

English Churchman (//ii/^ Ch.) „ 

News of the World (liberal) . 1843 



Daily News (liberal). . . 1S46 

DaUy Telegraph* (liberal) . 1855 

Morning Star (liberal) . , 1856 

International (in French) . 1S63 

Pall MaU Gazette (liberal). . 1S65 



Economist (liberal) . . 1S43 

Jewish Chronicle (HfeemO. . 1845 

GuardiSLU (High Church) . . 1846 

Press (conservative) . . . 1853 
Field (couriiry gentl(men's) . „ 

Saturday Review (neutral) . 1855 

Engineer .... 1856 

City Press (neutral) . . . 1857 

News (fiarU-frs, ct-c.) . . 1858 

Chemical News . . . 1859 

London Review (liberal) . i860 

Reader (literary and scientific) 1863 

Age (neutral) .... 1864 
Owl (satirical) . . . . „ 

Index (Confederate) ^tinct . 1S65 



NEW STYLE. Pope Gregory XIII., in order to rectify the errors of the current 
calendar, published a new one, in which ten days were omitted — Oct. 5, 15S2, becoming 
Oct. 15. The new style was adopted in France, Italy, Spain, Denmark, Flanders, Portugal, 
in 1582, and in Great Britain in 1751. In 1752 eleven days were left out of the calendar — 
Sept. 3, 1752, being reckoned as Sejjt. 14. 

NEW TESTAMENT. See Bible. 

NEWTONIAN PHILOSOPHY, the doctrines respecting gravitation, &c., taught by sir 
Isaac Newton in his " Principia," published in 1687. He was born, Dec. 25, 1642 ; became 
Master of the Mint, 1699 ; President of the lioyal Society, 1703 ; and died March 20, 1727. 
A statue of him in marble by Koubilliac was set up at Trinity College, Cambridge, July 14, 
1755, and one in bronze by Theed, at Grantham, Sept. 21, 1858, when lord Brougham 
delivered an excellent discourse on the life and works of Newton. The latter statue cost 
1600^., which sum was obtained by public subscription. 



* 144,000 copies sold on Dec. 16, 1861. The prince consort died on the 14th 



L L 2 



NEW 



516 



NEW 



NEWTOWNBAERY EIOT (S. E. Ireland). On a seizure of stock for tithes, a lament- 
able conflict ensued here between the yeomanry and tlie people, when thirty-five persons 
were killed or wounded, June i8, 1831. The jury at the coroner's iufiuest was unabld to 
agree on a verdict. 

NEWTOWN-BUTLER (N. Ireland). On July 30, 1689, the Enniskilleners under Gustavus 
Hamilton thoroughly defeated the adherents of James II. commanded by general Maccarty, 
taking him prisoner with his artillery, arms, and baggage. 

NEW YEAR'S DAY, &c. The feast was instituted by Numa, and was dedicated to 
Jauus (who i^resided over the new year), Jan. i, 713 B.C.* 

NEW YORK, the " emx)ire state " of the United States of N. America, was settled by the 
Dutch in 1609. The city was named by them Manhattan and New Amsterdam ; but the 
English under colonel Nichols dispossessed them and the Swedes, Aug. 27, 1664, ami 
changed its name. Population in i860, 805,651. 



New York was confii-med to England by the 
peace of Breda .... Aug. 24, 1667 

The city was one of the principal points of the 
struggle for independence among the states 
of America. It .surrendered to the British 
forces under general Howe . Sept. 15, 1776 

The city was evacuated )jy the British ; 
" Evacuation day " made one of i-ojoicing 
ever since Nov. 25, 1783 

Academy of the fine arts, and a botanical 
garden, established in 1804 

Awful fire here ; 674 buildings destroyed, and 
property valued at nearly 20,000,000 dollars, 

Dec. 16, 1835 

The Park theatre destroyed Vjy fire . Deo. 16, 1848 

Serious riot (several lives lost) at the theatre, 
originating in a dispute between Mr. Mac- 
ready (English) and Mr. Forrest (American) 
actors May 10, 1849 

The Crystal Palace, containing an exhibition of 



goods from all nations, was opened in the 
presence of the president of the United 
States and many other dignitaries, July 14, 1853 
New York suffered severely by large commer- 
cial failures, and "hunger demonstrations" 
took place during the j)anic . . . Nov. 1857 
The Crystal Palace destroyed by fire . Oct. 5, 1858 
A magnificent cathedral erected in . . . 1859 
Great fire ; about 50 lives lost . . Feb. 2, i860 
During the civil war of 1861 New York strongly 
supported the government of president Lin- 
coln (republican, or abolitionist); but during 
1862 a re-action gradually took place, and the 
opposition (democrat) candidates for con- 
gress were elected by large majorities, Nov. 1862 
Fierce riots against conscription ; many per- 
sons killed and much property destroj'cd, 

July 13-17, 1863 
Barnum's mu.seum burnt ; great loss, July 13, 1865 
See under L'aiied States. 



NEW ZEALAND (in the Pacific Ocean), discovered by Tasman in 1642. From his time 
the country, except that j)art of the coast which was seen by him, remained unknown, and 
was b}' many supposed to make ]iart of a southern continent, till 1769-70, when it was cir- 
cumnavigated by captain Cook. In 1773, he planted several spots of ground on this i.sland 
with European garden seeds; and in 1777, he found some fine potatoes, greatly improved by 
change of soil. European population, in i860, 84,294. Valueof imports, in 1859, 1,551,030/.; 
exports, 551,484/. Sir George Grey, governor, reappointed June, 1861. 



The right of Great Britain to New Zealand re- 
cognised at the peace in . . . . . 1814 

No constitutional axithority was placed over it 
until a resident suburdinate to the govern- 
ment of New South Wales was sent out with 
limited powers 1833 

New Zealand company established ; Wellington 
founded 1839 

Capt. Hobson, the first governor, landed Jan. 
29 ; treaty of Waitangi signed, by which the 
chiefs cede a large amount of land . Feb. 5, 1840 

Becomes an independent colony and made a 
bishop's see ....... April, 1841 

Capt. (aft. admiral) Fitzroy, governor, Dec. 

1843 to Nov. 1845 

Sir George Grey, governor ' 1846 

A charter, founded upon an act passed in 1846, 



creating powers municipal, legislative, and 

administrative Dec. -^9, 1847 

This charter was not acted on ; a legislative 

council opened by the governor . Dec. 20, 1848 
Foundation of Auckland, 1840 ; Nelson and 

Taranaki (or New Plymouth), 1841 ; Otago, 

1S48 ; Canterbury 1850 

New Zealand company relinquish charter . ,, 
Bishopric sulidivided to form another called 

Christchurch ....... 1852 

New constitution granted ,, 

Col. Wynyard, governor . Jan. 1854 to Sept. 1855 
Governor Browne ..... Oct. ,. 
An earthquake ; not much damage done, Jan. 23, ,, 

Constitution modified 1857 

Insurrection of the natives (Maoris) under a 

chief named William King (Win-imu Kingl), 



* On this day the Romans sacrificed to Janus a cake of new sifted meal, with salt, incense, and wine : 
and all the mechanics began something of their art of trade ; the men of letters did the same, as to bc>oks, 
poems, <tc. ; and the consuls, though chosen before, took the chair and entered upon tlieir office this day. 
Nonius Marcellus refers the origin of New-year's gifts among the Romans to Titus Tatius, king of the 
Sabines, who having considered as a good omen a present of some branches cut in a wood consecrated to 
Strenia, the goddess of strength, which he received on the first day of the new year, authorised the custom 
afterwards, and gave these gifts the name of Stren;*^, 747 B.C. 



NEW 



NIC 



NEW ZEALAND, conlinutd. 

arising out of disputes respecting the sale of 
land : the bishop Selwyn and others consider 
the natives to have been unjustly treated, 

March, i860 

Indecisive actions between the militia and 
volunteers and the Maoris . March 14-2S, ,, 

War breaks out at Tarauaki : the British re- 
pulsed with loss .... June 30, ,, 

("iroat excitement in Australia; troops sent to 
New iiealand, under gen. Pratt, land, Aug. 3, ,, 

Indecisive actions Sept. 10, 19, Oct. 9, 12, ,, 

Gen. Pratt defe^its the Maoris at Mahoet;ihi, 
and destroys their fortified places . Nov. 6, ,, 

The New Zealand colonists in England meet 
and justify the conduct of the governor, 

Nov. 22, ,, 

The JIaoris defeated, Dec. 29, i860 ; Jan. 23, 

Feb. 24, March 16-18, 1 860-1 

The war ends : surrender of natives. March 19, 1861 

!Sir George Grey re-appointed governor, June, ,, 

Gold discovered at Otago, and other places, 

June, ,, 

A native sovereignty proclaimed ; 5000 British 
soldiers in the islands . . . July, ,, 

Ixiyalty of the natives increasing . . May, 1862 

The JIaori chiefs sign a poetical address of 
condolence to the queen on the death of 
the prince consort ; received . . . Nov. 1862 

Natives attack a mihtary escort and kill 8 per- 
sons ...... May 4, 1863 

Waikato tribe driven from a fort . July 17, ,, 

The war spreading ; natives construct rifle pits, 

Aug. ,, 

Proposed confiscation of Waikato lands . Sept. ,, I 

NEY'S EXECUTION. Nej', duke of Elcliiiigeu, prince of the Moskwa, and one of the 
most valiant of the marshals of France, was shot as a traitor, Dec. 7, 1815.* On Dec. 7, 1853, 
his statue was erected on the spot where he fell. 

NIAGARA (N. America). At the head of this river, on the western shore, is ForfErie.t 
which was taken by the English, July 24, 1759. It was abandoned in the war with the 
United States, May 27, 1813, but was retaken, Dec. 19, following. A suspension bridge of 
a single span of 800 feet over the Niagara, connecting the railways of Canada and New 
York, was opened in March, 1855. It is elevated 18 feet on the Canadian, and 28 feet on 
the American side. 

NICiEA. See Nice. 

NICARAGUA, a state in Central America {wliicli see). Population about 300,000 ; 
president, T. Martinez; elected in 1859, and re-elected in 1863. The present constitution 
was establi.shed, Aug. 19, 1858. At the commencement of 1855 it was greatly disturbed by 
two political parties : that of the president, Chamorro, who held Grenada, the capital, and 
that of the democratic chief, Castellon, who held Leon. The latter invited Walker, the 
fdibuster, to his assistance, who in a short time became sole dictator of the state. J By the 



Gen. Cameron severely defeats the Maoris at 
R;int,'ariri Nov. 20, 1863 

Continued success of gen. Cameron ; capitula- 
tion of the Maori king . . . Dec. 9, ,, 

British attack on Galepa repulsed with loss of 
officers and men .... April 29. 1864 

Loan of i,ooo,oooi. to New ZeaLind ; guaranteed 
by iJarliament July, >, 

Several tribes submit Aug. ,, 

Maori prisoners escape and form a nucleus of a 
new insurrection Sept. „ 

Sir George Grey issues proposals of peace, Oct. 
25 ; the Aborigines Protection Society send 
religious, moral, and political advice to the 
Maoris (considered injudicious) . Nov. ,, 

Change of ministry and policy ; seat of govern- 
ment to be removed from Auckland to Wel- 
lington on Cook's Strait . . Nov. 24, „ 

Maoris attack on Cameron severely defeatea, 
Jan. 25 ; again, Feb. 25 ; outbreak of the Pai 
Maviri or H.au-hau heresy, a compound of 
Judaism and paganisn, amongst the Maoris ; 
the rev. C. S. Volkner murdered and many 
outrages committed, March 2 ; proclamation 
of governor sir George Grey against it ; it is 
checked by the agency of a friendly native 
chief We-tako ..... -\pril, 1865 

WilUam Thomp.son, an eminent chief, sur- 
renders on behalf of the Maori king Slay 25, ,, 

New Zealand still unsettled . . . July, ,, 

The Hau-haus beaten in several conflicts, Aug. ; 
the governor proclaims peace, Sept. 2 ; British 
troops about to leave . . . Sept. 15, ,, 



■ • After the abdicatton of N.apoleon I., 5th April, 1814, he took the oath of allegiance to the kmg, 
Louis XVIII. On Napoleon's return to France from Elba, he marched against him ; but his troops de- 
serting he regarded the cause of the Bourbons .as lost, and opened the inv.ader's way to Pans, March, 1815. 
Neyled the .attack of the French .at Waterloo, where he fought in the midst of the slam, his clothes 
pierced with bullet-holes, five horses having been shot under him : night and defeat obliged him to flee. 
Though included in the decree of July 24, 181 5, which guaranteed the .safety of all Frenchmen he w.as 
sought out and on Aug. 5, taken at the castle of a friend at Urillac, and brought to trial before the 
Ch.amber of Peers, Dec. 4. The 12th article of the capitulation of Paris, fixing .a general amnesty, was 
quoted in his favour, yet he w.as sentenced to death and met his fate with fortitude, Dec. 7, 1815. 

t About eighteen miles below Fort Erie, are the remarkable falls. The river is here 740 yards wide. 
The half-mile immediately above the cataracts is a rapid, in which the water falls 58 feet : it is then 
thrown with .astoni.shing grandeur, down a stupendous precipice of 150 feet perpendicular in three 
distinct and collateral sheets : and, in a rapid that extends to the distance of nine miles below, f;ills nearly 
as much more. The river then flows in a deep channel till it enters lake Ontario, at Fort Niagara. The 
falls were visited by the prince of Wales in Sept. i860. , ,. , • 1 j i 

X William Walker was bom at Tennessee, in the United States, where he became successively doctor. 



NIC 51S KIC 

united efforts of the confederated states the filibusters were all expelled iu Maj', 1857. 
Ou May i, 1858, Nicaragua and Costa Eica appealed to the great European powers for 
protection. 

NICE or Nrc.¥A, a town in Bithynia, Asia Minor, N. W. Antigonus gave it the name 
Antigoneia, which Lysimachus changed to Nicaja, in memory of his wife. It became the 
residence of the kings of Bithynia about 208 B.C. At the battle of Nice, a.b. 194, the 
emperor Severus defeated his rival, Niger, who was again defeated at Issus, and soon after 
taken prisoner and put to death. In "325, the first general council was held here, which 
composed the Nicexe Ckeed and condemned the Arians. It was attended by 318 bishops 
from divers parts, who settled both the doctrine of the Trinity and the time for observing 
Easter. The creed was altered, 381, and confirmed, 431, when it was decreed unlawful to 
make further additions. When the Crusaders took Constantinople, and established a Latin 
empire there in 1204, the Greek emperors removed to Nice and reigned there till 1261, when 
they returned to Constantinople. See Eastern Eminre, p. 261. Nice was taken by the 
Ottoman Turks in 1330. 

NICE (N. Italy), a colony of Massilia, now IMarseilles. It was taken by the French, and 
retaken by Eugene of Savoy, in 1706; and by the Austrians in 1800. After the mind of 
the people had been ascertained by universal suffrage (the votes being nearly unanimous 
for annexation to France), the province of Nice was given up to France by the Sardinian 
government. The French troops occupied Nice on April i, in conformity with a treaty 
signed March 24, i860. The people are said to have been really unwilling for the change, 
<and Garibaldi vehemently protested against the annexation. Population of the province, in 
1857. 256,593- 

NICIAS, Peace of, between Athens and Sparta, 421 B.C., so named on account of its 
being negotiated by that eminent and unfortunate Athenian general, who, with his colleague, 
Demosthenes, was put to death after the disastrous termination of the expedition against 
Syracuse, 413 B.C. 

NICKEL, a white, ductile, malleable, magnetic metal, employed in the manufacture of 
German silver. Cronstedt in 1751 discovered nickel in the mineral copper-nickel. 

NICOLAITANES, a sect mentioned in Rev. ii. 6, 15, said to have sprung from Nicolas, 
one of the first seven deacous {Acts vi.), and to have maintained the legality of a communit}^ 
of wives, as well as all other heresies, and to have denied the divinity of Christ. 

NICOMEDIA, the metropolis of Bithynia, Asia Minor, N. W., founded by king Nico- 
medes I., 264 B.C., on the remains of Astacus ; destroyed by an earthrpiake, A.D. 115 ; and 
restored Ijy the emperor Adrian, 124. The Roman emperors frequently resided here during 
their eastern wars. Here Diocletian resigned the purple, 305 ; and Constantine died at his 
villa in its neighbourhood, 337. It surrendered to the Seljukian Turks, 1078 ; and to 
Orchan and the Ottoman Turks in 1338. 

NICOPOLIS (now in Bulgaria), Battle of, Sept. 28, 1396, between the allied Christian 
powers under Sigismund, king of Hungary, afterwards emperor, and the Turks luider 
Bajazet ; said to have been the first battle between the Turks and Christians ; the latter 
were defeated, losing 20,000 slain, and as many woimded and prisoners. 

witli loss. He then joined col. Kinney, who had ocouijicd and governed Grey Tovm, Sept. 6. On Oet. T-f, 
V\^alker captured Grenada by surprise when in a defenceless state, shot Mayorga, one of the ministers, and 
established a rule of terror. By intervention of the American consul he made peace with the general of 
the state army, Corral, but shot him on Nov. 7, on finding him corresponding with fugitives at Costa Rica. 
"Walker at first was only general-in-chief ; but on Rivas, whom he had made president, deserting him, he 
became sole dictator. On May 14, 1856, his envoy Vijil was recognised b^' the president of the United States, 
whence also he obtained reinforcements during his retention of power. Costa Rica declared war against 
him, Feb. .8, 1856; the other states of Central America soon followed the example, and a sanguinary 
struggle ensued, lasting tiU May, 1857. On Nov. 25, 1856, Walker tot,ally burnt Grenada, being unable to 
defend it, and removed the seat of government to Rivas. This place he surrendered to gen. Mora on May i, 
1857, on the intervention of capt. Davis, of the at. Mari/'s, U.S. Himself, his staff, and 260 men were 
conveyed in that vessel to New Orleans, wliere they were received with great enthusiasm. On' Nov. 25, 
1857, he again invaded Nicaragua, landing at Punta Arenas with 400 men ; but on Dec. 8, was compellecl 
to surrender to capt. Paulding. U.S., and was conveyed to New York. He escaped punishment by nolle 
prosequi (Jane 2, 1858); but capt. Paulding was tried for exceeding orders, and blamed — yet excused by 
president Buch.anan. On Aug. 5, i860, Walker landed near Truxillo, Honduras, .and took the fort on the 
6th. On the 7th ho proclaimed that he made war on the government, not on the people of Honduras. 
On being summoned to surrender his booty by capt. Salmon, R.N., of the Ica7-u», he refused, and fled. Ho 
was pursued, caught, given up to the Honduras government, tried, and shot (on Sept. 12). His followers 
were dismissed. 



KIE 519 NIN 

NrELLO-WOilK, said to have been produced by rubbing into engravings on silver, &c., 
a mixture of silver, lead, copper, sulphur, and borax, was an art known to the ancients and 
practised in the middle ages, and to have given to Maso Finiguerra the idea of engraving 
upon cojiper, about 1460. 

NIEMEiSr or Memel, a river flowing into the Baltic, and separating Prussia from Russia. 
On a raft on this river the emperor Napoleon met Alexander of Russia, June 22, 1807 ; and 
made peace with him and Prussia. He crossed the Niemen to invade Russia, June 24, 1812, 
and re-crossed with the remains of his army, Dec. 28. 

NIGER EXPEDITION, undertaken with a view to plant an Englisli colony in the centre 
of Africa, and supported by a government grant of 60,000?., started in the summer of 1841, 
and commenced tlie ascent of the river, Aug. 20, in that year. The expedition consisted of 
the Albert, Wilberforce, and Soudan. Fever broke out among the crews, Sept. 2, when 
these vessels had arrived at Iddah. The confluence of the Niger, and the Chadda (270 miles 
from tlie sea) was reached Sept. il. The Soudan then returned with the sick ; the Wilber- 
force ascended the Chadda, and the Albert the Niger. But the Wilberforce was almost imme- 
diately compelled to return, and follow the track of the Soudan. The Albert arrived at Egga, 
on the Niger (320 miles from the sea), Sept. 28 ; but so great had been the progress of 
disease, that orders were now given for the third vessel to return, which she did, after the 
necessary delay for procuring firewood, on Oct. 4. This last vessel cast anchor in Clarence 
cove, Fernando Po, Oct. 17, all the same year. 

NIGHTINGALE FUND. On Oct. 21. 1854, Miss Florence Nightingale left England 
with a staff of thirty-seven nurses, and arrived at Scutari, Nov. 5 ; they rendered invaluable 
services to the army ; she returning to London, Sept. 8, 1856. In memory, a meeting was 
held at Willis's Rooms on Nov. 29, 1855, to raise funds to establish an institution for the 
training of nurses and other hospital attendants. Madame Jenny Lind Goldschmidt 
sang at Exeter Hall on Maixh 11, 1S56, and gave the proceeds (1872/.) to the fund. The 
subscriptions closed, April 24, 1857, amounting to 44,039?. The queen gave Miss Nightin- 
gale a valuable jewel. 

NIKA CONTESTS. See Circu.?. NIL DARPAN. See India, June, 1861. 

NILE (Egypt). This great river rises in the Mountains of the Moon, in about ten 
degrees of N. lat. and in a known course of 1250 miles receives no tributary streams. The 
ti'avels of Bruce were undertaken to discover the source of the Nile ; he set out from England 
in June, 1768; on the I4tli of November, 1770, he discovered the source of the Blue Nile, 
and returned home in 1773. — This river overflows regularly every year, from about the I5tli 
of June to the I7tli of September, when it begins to decrease, having given fertility to the 
land. It must rise 16 cubits to ensure that fertility. In 1829, the inundations of the Nile 
rose to 26 instead of 22, by which 30,000 people were drowned and immense propertj'^ lost. 
Mr. Petherick set out earlj- in 1861 to explore the country at the source of the Nile. For 
recent discoveries, see Africa, 1863 — 5. 

NILE, Battle of the (or Aboukir), Aug. i, 1798, near Rosetta, between the Toulon 
and British fleets, the latter commanded by lord (then sir Horatio) Nelson. Nine of the 
French liue-of-battle ships M'ere taken, two were burnt, and two escaped. The French ship, 
L' Orient, with admiral Brueys and 1000 men on board, blew up, and onlj^ 70 or 80 escaped. 
Nelson's exclamation upon commencing the battle was, "Victory or Westminster Abbey !" 

NIMEGUEN (Holland). Here was signed the treaty of peace between France and 
the L'nited Provinces, 1678. The French were successful against the British under the 
duke of York, before Nimeguen, Oct. 28, 1794; but were defeated by the British, Nov. 8, 
following. 

NINEVEH, the capital of the Assyrian empire (sec Assyria), founded by Ashur, who 
called it after liimself, about 2245 e.g. Ninus reigned in Assyria, and called this city also 
after hiurself, Nineveh, 2069 B.C. Abbe Lcnglct. Jonah preached against Nineveh (about 
862 B.C.), which was taken by Nebuchadnezzar, 606 B.C. The discoveries of Mr. Layard and 
others in the neighbourhood of Mosul, the supposed site of this ancient capital, since 1839, 
have in a manner disinterred and re-peopled a city which for centuries has not only ceased 
to figure on the page of history, but whose very locality had long been blotted out of the ma}) 
of the earth.* In 1848 Mr. Layard published his "Nineveh and its Remains," and in 1S53 
an account of his second visit in 1849-50. 

* Tlie fonus, features, costume, reliccion, modes of warfare, and ceremonial customs of its inhabitants 
stand before us as distinct as those of a living people ; and it is anticipated that, by help of the sculptures and 



NIS 5-10 NON 

NISBET or Nesbit (Northumberland). Here a battle was louglit between the English 
and Scotch armies, the latter greatly disproportioned in strength to the former. Several 
thousands of the Scots were slain upon the field and in the pursuit, May 7, 1402. 

NISllES (Nimes), S. France, was the flourishing Eoman colony, Nemausus. Its noble 
amphitheatre was ruined during the English occupation in 141 7. Nismes embraced Protest- 
antism, and suffered much persecution in consequence, and has frequently been the scene of 
fierce religious contests. The treaty termed the Pacification of Nismes (July 14, 1629) gave 
religious toleration for a time to the Huguenots. 

NITRE. See Saltpetre. 

NITRIC ACID, a compound of nitrogen and oxygen, fonnerly called aqua fortis, first 
obtained in a separate state by Raymond Lully, an alchemist, aliout 1287; but we are 
indebted to Cavendish, Priestle}', and Lavoisier for our present knowledge of its properties. 
Mr. Cavendish demonstrated the nature of this acid in 1785. Nitrous acid was discovered 
by Scheele about 1774. Nitrous gas was accidentally discovered by Dr. Hales. Nitrous 
oxide gas was discovered by Dr. Priestley, in 1776. 

NITROGEN or Azote (from the Greek a, no, and zoo, I live), an irrespirable elementary 
gas. Before 1777, Scheele separated the oxygen of the air from the nitrogen, and almost 
simultaneously with Lavoisier discovered that the atmosphere is a mixture of these two gases. 
Nitrogen combined with hydrogen forms the volatile alkali ammonia, so freely given off by 
decomposing animal and vegetable bodies. 

NOBILITY. The Goths, after they had seized a part of Europe, rewarded their heroes 
with titles of honour, to distinguish them from the common people. The right of peerage 
seems to have been at first territorial. Patents to persons having no estate were first granted 
by Philip the Fair of France, 1095. George Neville duke of Bedford (son of John, marquess 
of Montague), ennobled in 1470, was degraded from the peerage by parliament, on account of 
his utter want of property, 19 Edw. IV., 1478. Noblemen's privileges were restrained in 
June, 1773- See Lords, and the various orders of the nobility. 

NOBILITY OF France preceded that of England. On June 18. 1790, the National 
Assembly decreed that hereditary nobility could not exist in a free state ; that the titles of 
dukes, counts, marquesses, knights, barons, excellencies, abbots, and others, be abolished ; 
that all citizens take their family names; liveries and armorial bearings also to be abolished. 
The records of the nobility, 600 volumes, were burnt at the foot of the statue of Louis XIV., 
June 25, 1792. A new nobility was created by the emperor Napoleon I., 1808. The heredi- 
tary peerage was abolished, Dec. 27, 183 1. 

NOBLE, an ancient English coin, first struck in the reign of Edward III. about 1337. 
It was stamped with a rose, and was thence called a rose noble ; value 65. 8d. 

" NOLUMUS LEGES ANGLIC MUTARI." See Bastards and Mcrton. 

NON-CONFORMISTS. The Protestants in England are divided into conformists and 
non-conformists, or, churchmen and dissenters. The first place of meeting of the latter, in 
England, was established at Wandsworth, near London, Nov. 20, 1572. The name of non- 
conformists was taken by the Puritans when the Act of Uniformity came into operation on 
Aug. 24, 1662 (termed "Black Bartholomew's day"), when 2000 ministers of the established 
religion resigned, not choosing to conform to the statute passed "for the uniformity of public 
prayers and administration of the .sacrament.s." ^e& Puritans and I) isseaters. The laws 
against them were relaxed in 1690. — The Nonconformist newspaper (edited by Mr. Edward 
Miall) began in 1841. 

NONES, in the Eoman Calendar, were the fifth day of each month, excepting March, 
May, July, and October, when the nones fell on the seventh day. 

NON-JURORS. In 1689, they considered James II. to have been unjustly deposed, and 
refused to swear allegiance to AVilliam 111. Among them were Sancroft, archbishop of 
Canterbury ; Ken, bishop of Bath and Wells, and the bishops of Ely, Gloucester, Norwich, 

their cuneiform inscriptions, the researches of the learned may go far in filling Tip the vast blank in A.ssyrian 
annals. Among the sculptnre.s that enricli the British Museum may be mentioned the winged bull and 
lion, and numerous hunting and battle-pieces ; but perhaps the most interesting as confirmatory of the 
tnith of Holy Scripture, is the bas-relief of the eagle-headed human figure, presumed to be a representation 
of the Assyrian god Nisroch (from Nisr, an eagle or iMuk), whom Sennacherib was in the act of worshipping 
when he was assassinated by his two sons, about 710 b.c. 2 Kings xix. 37. 



NON 521 NOR 

and Peterborouf^h, and many of the clerfcy who were deprived, Feb. i, 1691. Non-jurors 
were subjected to a double taxation, and were obliged to register their estates, May, 
1723. They formed a separate communion, which existed till the beginning of the present 
century. 

NON NOP.IS. DOMINI*:! ("Not unto us, Lord!"&c., Psalm cxv. i), a musical 
canon, sung as a gi-ace at public feasts, was composed by W. Bird in 16 18. 

NON-RESISTANCE OATH, occurring in the Corporation Act, 1661, was repealed 
in 1719. 

NOOTKA SOUND (Vancouvers Island), discovered by captain Cook in 1778. It was 
settled by the British in 1786, when a few British merchants in the East Indies formed a 
settlement to supply the Chinese market with furs : but the Spaniards in 17S9 captured two 
English vessels and took possession of the settlement. The British ministry demanded 
reparation, and the affair was amicably terminated by a convention, and a free commerce 
was confirmed to England in 1 790. 

"NO-POPERY RIOTS." See Gordoii. 

NORDLINGEN (Bavaria). Here the Swedes under count Horn were defeated by the 
Austrians, Aug. 27, 1634 ; and the latter by Turenne in 1645. 

NORE MUTINY. See MiUimcs. 

NORFOLK ISLAND, a penal colony of England, discovered in 1774, by captain Cook, 
who found it uninhabited, except by birds. The settlement was made by a detachment from 
Port Jackson under governor Phillip, in 178S, in Sydney bay, on the south side of the island. 
This was at one time the severest penal colony of Great Britain. The island was abandoned 
in 1809 ; but re-occupied as a penal settlement in 1825. The descendants of the mutineers 
of the Bounty were removed to it in June, 1856, from Pitcairn's Island (ivhich see). 

NORMANDY (N. France), part of Neustria, a kingdom founded by Clovis in 511 for his 
son Clotaire, which, after various changes, was united to France by Charles the Bald in 837. 
From the beginning of the 9th century it was continually devastated by the Scandinavians, 
called Northmen or Normans, to purchase repose from whose irruptions Charles the Simple 
of France ceded the duchy to their leader RoUo, 905. From its conqufsrors it received its 
present name. Rollo, the first duke, held it as a fief of the crown of France, and several 
of his successors after him, until William, the seventh duke, acquired England, in 1066. It 
remained a province of England with some intermissions till the reign of king John, 1204, 
when it was re-nnited to France. It was re-conquered by Henry V., 1418, and held by 
England partially till 1450. The English still possess tlie islands on the coast, of which 
Jersey and Guernsey are the principal. 



<5i2. Rollo (or Raoul), baptised as Robert. 
920 or 927. Willi;iin I. Loiigsword. 

943. Richard I. the Fearless. 

996. Richard II. the Good. 

1027. Ricliard III. 

1028. Robert I. the Devil. 

1Q35. Willi.am II. (I. of England). 



1087. Robert II., Courthose (his son), after a contest 

despoiled by his brother. 
1 106. Henry I (king of England). 
1 1 35. Stephen (king of England). 
1144. Matilda and Geoffrey Plantagenet. 
1151. Henry II. (king of England in 1154). 
1189. Richard IV. (I. of England). 
1 199— 1203. Arthur and John of England. 

NORTH ADMINISTRATION, formed by lord North, Jan., 1770. After his retirement 
from office, March 30, 1782, lord North entered into a league with the AVhigs : this led to 
the short-lived Coalition ministry (1783). He succeeded to the earldom of Guildford in 
1790, and died in 1792. See " Coalition." 

Frederick, lord North, //•.'!< lo7-d 0/ the treasunj, and 1 Sandwich), and lord Hillsborougli, secretaries of 

chancellor 0/ the exchequer. state. 

Earl Gower, lord president. Sir Edw.ard Hawke, admiraltij. 

Earl of Halifax, privy seal. Marquess of Granby, ordnniice. 

Lord Ruchford, lord Weymouth (succeeded by lord Sir Gilbert Elliot, lord Hertford, duke of Ancaster. 

I lord Carteret, &c. 

NORTHALLERTON (Yorkshire). Near here was fought the "battle of the Standard," 
where the English totally defeated tiie Scotch armies, Aug. 22, 1138. The archbishop of 
York brought forth a consecrated standard on a carriage at the moment when they were 
hotly pressed by the invaders, headed by king David. 



NOR 



522 



NOR 



NORTHAMPTON was burnt by the Danes in loio. Here Henry III. proposed to found 
a university in 1260, and held a parliament in 1269. On July 10, 1460, a conflict took place 
between the duke of York and Henry VI. of En^jland, in which the unfortunate monarch 
was defeated, and made prisoner (the second time) after a sanguinary fight which took place 
in the meadows below the town. Northampton was ravaged by the plague in 1637. It was 
seized and fortified by the parliamentary forces in 1642. The memorable fire, which almost 
totally destroyed the town, occurred Sept. 3, 1675. 

NORTH BRITON NEWSPAPER: Number 45* (Wilkes's number), dated Saturday, 
April 23, 1763, was, by order of both houses of parliament, publicly burnt in London by the 
hands of the common hangman, Dec. 3, 1763. Wilkes by this newspaper (commenced in 
1 762), increased the antipathy to the Scotch then very prevalent in England ; having been 
f'reatly favoured by the minister, the earl of Bute. 

NORTH CAROLINA. See Carolina. 

NORTHMEN or Norsemen. See Scandinavia and Normandij. 

NORTHUMBRIA, a Saxon kingdom, founded by Ida, 547. 

NORTH -WEST PASSAGE. The attempt to discover a north-west passage was made 
by a Portuguese named Corte Real, about 1500. In 1585, a company was formed in London 
called the " Fellowship for the Discovery of the North- West Passage." From 1745 to 1818 
parliament ofli'ered 20,oooZ. for this discovery. In 1818 the reward was modified by pro- 
posing that 5000Z. should be paid when either 110°, 120°, or 130° W. long, should be passed : 
one of which payments was made to sir E. Parry. For their labours in the voyages enume- 
rated in the list bcloio, Parry, Franklin, Ross, Back, and Richardson, were knighted. 



Sir Htigh "Willoughby's expedition to find a 
noi-th-east passage to China, .sailed from the 

Thames t May 20, 1533 

Sir Martin Frobisher's attempt to find a north- 
west passage to China 1576 

Capt. Davis's expedition to find a north-west 

passage 1585 

Barantz's expedition 1594 

Weymouth and Knight's 1602 

Hudson's voyages ; the last undertaken. See 

Hudson's Bay 1610 

Sir Thomas Button's 161 2 

Baffin's, ^ee Baffin's Bay 1616 

Foxe's expedition 163 1 

[A number of enterprises, undertaken by 
various countries, followed.] 

Jliddleton's exi^editiou 1742 

Moore's and Smith's 1746 

Heame's land expedition 1769 

Capt. Phipps, afterwards loi-d Mulgrave, his 

expedition i773 

Capt. Cooke, in the Resolution &l Discovery , July, 1776 

Mackenzie's expedition 1789 

Capt. Duncan's voyage 1790 

The Discovery, capt. Vancouver, returned from 
a voyage of survey and discovery on the 
north-west coast of America . . Sept. 1795 
Lieut. Kotzebue's expedition . . . Oct. 1815 
Capt. Buchan's andlieut. Franklm's expedition 
in the Dorothea and Trent .... 1819-22 



Capt. Ross and Ueut. Parry in the Isabella and 
Alexander ........ iSiS 

Lieuts. Parry and Linddon, in the Hecla and 
Griper May, 4, 1819 

They return to Leith .... Nov. 3, 1820 

Capts. Parry and Lyon in the Fury and Hecla, 

May 8, 1821 

Capt. Parry's third expedition with the Hecla, 

May 8, 1824 

Capts. Franklin and Lyon, after having 
attempted a land exjoedition, again sail from 
Liverpool . . . , . Feb. 16, 1825 

Capt. Pan'y,t again in the Hecla, sails from 
Deptford, and reaches a spot 435 miles from 
the North Pole, June 22 ; returns . Oct, 6, 1827 

Capt. lloss t arrived at Hull, on his return from 
his Arctic expedition, after an absence of four 
years, and when all hoije of his return had 
been nearly abandoned § . . . Oct. 18, 1833 

Capt. Back and his companions .arrived at 
Liverpool from their perilous Arctic land 
expedition, after having visited the Great 
Fish River and esammed its course to the 
Polar Seas Sept. 8, 1835 

Capt. Back sailed from Chatham in command 
of his majesty's ship Terror, on an exploring 
adventure to Wager River . . June 21, 1836 

[The Geographical Society awarded the king's 
annual premium to capt. Back for his polar 
discoveries and enterprise, Dec, 1835.] 



* Number 45 contained a commentary on the king's speech, couched in such caustic terms, that a pro- 
secution was commenced against Wilkes. Having been arrested on a general warrant, he was brought by 
a writ of habeas carious before chief justice Pratt, of the com'mon pleas, who declared tlie judgment of that 
court, th.at general warrants were illegal, and he was consequently discharged. But, not content with 
this escape, he reprinted the obnoxiovis number, which produced a regular prosecution to conviction. See 
War7-aiits, General. 

t The gallant sir Hugh Willoughby took his departureTrom Ratcliffe, on his fatal voyage for discovering 
the north-east passage to China. He sailed with great pomp by Greenwich, where the court then resided. 
The council and courtiers appeared at the windows, and the people covered the shores. The young king, 
Edward VI., alone lost the noble and novel sight, tor he then lay on his death-bed ; so that the principal 
object of the parade was disappointed. Sir Hugh Willoughby was unfortunately entangled iu the ice, and 
frozen to death on the coast of Lapland. Hakluyt. 

I Sir John Franklin died June 11, 1847 (see Franklin) ; sir E. Parry died July 8, 1855, aged 65 ; and sir 
John Ross died Aug. 30. 1856, aged So. 

§ In 1831 he discovered Boothia Felix : on June 31, same year, he came to a spot which he considered 
to be the true magnetic pole, in 70° 5' 17" N. lat., and 96° 46' 45" W. long. 



XOR 



XOKTH-WEST PASSAGE, continued. 



5 •2d 



Sir John Franklin, and capts. Crozier and Fitz- 
J.imos. in the ships Erebus and Terror, leave 
I'^ngland May 24, 1845 

Commanders Collinson and Jl'dure, in the 
EnterpHie and Investigator, sailed eastward in 
_ search of sir John Franklin . Jan. 20, 1850 

XoRTH - WEST PASSAGE discovered ■ by capt. 
M'Clure * Oct. 26, „ 






[Another expedition to Hie NortH Pdle,' under 
the command of capt. Bherard Osborne, was 
proposed to 'the Royal Geographical Society 
in the spring of 1 865. J 

[For the other expeditions in search of Frank- 
lin, <fcc., see i^-rt)it(!/i.J •; '\ i 



NORWAY, until tlie ytli century, was governed by petty rnlcrs. Aliont 630, Olaf 
Trajtclia, of tlie race of Odin, termed Ynglings or youths, expelled fronl Sweden, established 
a colony in Verraeland, the nucleus of a monarchy, founded by his descendant, HalMah III. 
the black, a great wan-ior and legislator, whose memory was long revered. 



Olaf Trietelia, 630 ; slain by his subjects, 640.^ 
Ualfdan I., 640; Eystein I., 700; Halfdan II., 730; 

Gudrod, 7S4; Olaf Geirstade and Halfdan III., 

824. 
Ualfdan recovers his inheritance from his brother, 

whom he subdues, together witli the neighbom'ing 

chiefs, 840 ; accidentally drowned, 863. 
The chiefs regain their power during the j'outh of 

his son, Harold Hiirfager, or fairhaired, who vows 

neither to cut nor comb his hair till he recovers his 

dominion, 865. 
He defeats his enemies at Hafursfiord, 885 ; dies, 934. 
Eric I. (the bloody Axe), his .?on, a tyrant, expelled ; 

and succeeded by Hako the good, 940. 
Uako endeavours in vain to establish Christianity ; 

dies, 963. 
Harold 11., Graafeld, son of Eric, succeeds ; killed in 

battle with Harold of Denmark, 977. 
Hako, Jarl, made governor of several provinces ; 

becomes king ; his Ucentiousness leads to his ruin; 

deposed by Olaf I., Trygvfeson ; and slain by his 

slave, 995. 
Olaf I. establishes Christianity by force and cnielty, 

998 ; defeated and slain, during an expedition 

against Ponierania, by the kings of Denmark and 

Sweden, who divide Norway between them, 1000. 
Olaf II., tlie saint (bis son), lands in Norway, 1012 ; 

defeats his enemies and becomes king, 1015; 

fiercely zealous in the diffusion of Christianity, 

IOt8-2I. 

Successful invasion of Canute, who becomes king, 

1028, 1029 ; Olaf expelled ; returns and is killed in 

battle, 1030. 
Sweyn, at the death of Canute, .succeeds as king of 

Norway, but is e.xpelled in favour of Magnus I., 

bastai'd son of Olaf II,, 1035 ; Magnus becomes 

king of Denmark, 1036; dies, 1047. 
Harold Hardrade, king of Norway, 1047, invades 

England ; defeated and slain by Harold II. at 

Stanford-bridge, Sept. 25, 1066. 
Olaf HI. and Magnus II. (sons), kings, Sept. 25, 1066 ; 

Olaf alone (pacific), 1069-1093 ; Olaf HI. founds 

Bergen, 1070. 
Magnus III. (barefoot), son of Olaf, 1093 ; invades the 

Orkneys and Scotland, 1096 ; killed in Ireland, 



Sigurd I., E3'.stein II., and Olaf IV. (sons), 1103 ; 
Sigurd visits the Holy Land as a warrior-pilgrim, 
110710 ; becomes sole king, 1122 ; dies, 1130. 

Magnus IV. (his son) and Harold IV., 1130 ; Magnus 
dethroned, 11 34. 

Harold IV. murdered ; succeeded by his sons, Sigurd 
II., &c. ; civil war rages, 1136. 

Nicolas Breakspear (afterwards pope Adrian IV.), the 
papal legate, arrives, reconciles the brothers, and 
founds the archbishopric of Trondheim, 1152. 

Numerous competitors for the crown ; civil war ; 
Inge I., Eystein III., Hako III., Magnus V., 
1136-62. 

Magnus V. alone, 1162; rise of Swerro, an able ad- 
venturer, who becomes king ; Magnus defeated ; 
drowned, n86. 

Swerro rules vigorously ; dies, 1202. 

Hako, his son, king, 1202; Guthrum, 1204; Inge II. 
1205. 

Hako IV., bastard son of Swerro, 1207; imsuccess- 
fully invades Scotland, where he dies, 1263. 

Magnus VI., his son (the legislator), dies, 12S0. 

Eric 11., the priest-hater, marries Margaret of Scot- 
land ; their daughter, the Maid of Norway, be- 
comes heiress to the crown of Scotland, 1286. 

Hako v., his brother, king, 1299-1319. 

Decline of Norwegian prosperity. 

Jlagnus VII. (III. of Sweden), king, 1319-43. 

Hako VI., 1343-80. 

Olaf V. of Norway (II. of Denmark), 1380-87. 

Norway united with Denmark and Sweden under 
Margaret, 1389. 

At an assembly at Calmar the three states are 
formally united, 1397. 

Sweden and Norway separated from Denmark, 
1448 ; re-united, 1450. 

Denmark and Norway separated from Sweden, 1523. 

Christiania, the modern capital, built by Chris- 
tian IV., 1624. 

Norway given to Sweden by the treaty of Kiel ; 
Pomerania and Bugen annexed to Denmark, Jan. 
14, 1814. 

The Norwegians declare their independence. May 17. 

The Swedish troops enter Norway, July 16, 1814. 

Charles Frederic, duke of Holstein, elected king of 
Norway ; abdicates, Oct. 10, 1814. 



* Capt. M'Clure .mailed in the Inrrslif/nfor in company with com. Collinson in the Enterprise in search 
of sir John Franklin, Jan. 20, 1850. On Sept. 6 he discovered high land, which he named Baring's land ; 
on the gth, other land, which he named after jirince Albert ; on the 30th, the ship was frozen in. Enter- 
taining a strong conviction that the waters in which th.a Investigator then lay communicated with Barrow's 
straits, he set out on Oct. 21, with a few men in his sledge, to test his views. OiiOct. 26, he reached Point 
Russell (73° 31' N. lat. , 114° 14' W. long.), where from an elevation of 600 feet he saw Parry or Melville 
Sound beneath them. The strait connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans he named after the prince of 
Wales. The Inrestigator was the first ship whicli traversed the Polar sea from Behriiig straits to Behring 
island. Intelligence of this di.scovcry was brought to England by com. Inglefield, and the Admiralty chart 
was published Oct. 14, 1853. Capt. M'Clure returned to England, Sept. 1854. In 1855, 5000I. were paid to 
capt. (afterwards sir Robert) M'Clure, and 5000^ were distributed among the officers and crew. On Jan. 
30, 1855, the Admiralty notified that the Arctic medal would be given to all persons engaged in the expe- 
ditions from 1818 to 1855. 



NOR 52i NOV 



NORWAY, continued. 

Charles XIII. of Sweden proclaimed king by the 
National Diet (Storthing) assembled atChristiania; 
he accepted the constitution which declares Nor- 
way a free, independent, indivisible, and inalien- 
able state, united to Sweden, Nov. 4, 1814. 



Nobility abolished, 1821. 

The national order of St. Olaf, instituted by kins 
Oscar, 1847. 

See Denmork and Sioeden. 



NORWICH (Norfolk), mentioned in history in the Saxon Chronicle at the period when 
Sweyn, king of Denmark, destroyed it by fire, 1004. Artisau.s from the Low Countries 
established here the manufacture of baizes, arras, &e., about 1132. A great plague in 1348 
carried off many thousand persons ; and in 1505 Norwich was nearly consumed by fire. The 
cathedral was first erected in 1088, by bisliop Herbert Losinga ; and was completed by bishop 
Middleton, about 1280. The church of the Black friars, now St. Andrew's hall, was erected 
in 1415. The public library was instituted in 1784. The Norwich new canal and harbour 
were opened June 3, 1831. 

NORWICH, Bishopric of, originally East Anglia : the first bishop was Felix, a Bur- ' 
gundian, sent to convert the East Anglians about 630. The see was divided into two distinct 
bishoprics — Pjlmham, in Norfolk, and Dunwich, in Suflblk, about 673. Both sees suffered 
extremely from the Danish invasions, insomuch that after the death of St. Humbert, they 
lay vacant for a hundred years. At last the see of Elmham was revived, and Dunwich was 
united to it ; but Arfustus removed the seat to Thetford, where it continued till Herbert 
Losinga removed it to Norwich, 109 1. This see has given to the church of Rome two saints ; 
and to the nation five lord chancellors. It was valued in the king's books at 899Z. i8s. "Jr^d. \ 
per annum. Present income, 4500^. See Blslwprks. j 

RECENT BISHOPS OF NORWICH. i 



1790. George Home ; died Jan. 17, 1792. 

1792. Charles Manners Sutton ; translated to Can- 
terbury, Feb. I, 1805. 

1805. Henry Bathurst ; died April 5, 1837. He was 
a strenuous supporter of catholic emancipa- 



tion, and for a long time the only liberal 

bishop in the house of peers. 
1837. Edward Stanley ; died Sept. 6, 1849. j 

1849. Samuel Hinds ; resigned 1857. 
1857. Hon. John T. Pelham, May ; present bishop. 



NOTABLES. An assembly of the notables of France was convened by Calonne, the 
minister of Louis XVI., on Feb. 22, 1787, on account of the deranged state of the king's; 
finances, and again, in 1788, when Calonne opened his plan : but any reform militated too 
much against private interest to be adopted ; Calonne was dismissed, and soon after retired 
to England. Louis having lost his confidential minister, De Vergennes, by death, called 
De Brienne, an ecclesiastic, to his counsels. The notables were re-assembled on Nov. 6, 
1788. In the end, the States General were convoked Dec. 5 ; and from this assembly sprang 
the National Assembly (ivhich see). The notables were dismissed by the king, Dec. 12, 1788. 
— The Simnish notables assembled and met Napoleon (conformably with a decree issued by 
him commanding their attendance), at Bayonne, May 25, 1808. 

NOTARIES PUBLIC, said to have been appointed by the primitive fathers of the 
Christian church, to collect the acts or memoirs of the lives of the martyrs in the ist century. 
Du Fresnojj. This office was afterwards changed to a legal employment, to attest deeds and 
writings, so as to establish their authenticity in any other country. An important statute to 
regulate notarial transactions was passed in 1800, and some statutes on the subject have 
been enacted since. 

"NOTES AND QUERIES," a medium of intercommunication for literary men and 
general readers, was first published on Nov. 3, 1849. 

NOTRE DAME, the cathedral at Paris, was founded in 11 63. 

NOTTINGHAM. The castle here was defended by the Danes against king Alfred, and 
his brother Etlielred, who retook it, 868. It was rebuilt by William I. in 1068 ; and ulti- 
mately became a sti'ong fortress. It was burnt by rioters during the Reform excitement, 
Oct. 10, 183 1. The riots at Nottingham, in which the rioters broke frames, &c., commenced 
Nov. 14, 1811, and continued to Jan. 1812. Great similar mischief was done in April, 1814, 
The Watch and Ward act was enforced, Dec. 2, 1816. The British Association is to meet 
here in 1866. 

NOVARA, Battle of, March 23, 1849, when the Austrian marshal Radetzky totally 
defeated the king Charles Albert and the Sardinian army. 'I he contest began at 10 a.m. 
and lasted till late in the evening; the Austrians lost 396 killed, and had about 1850 



XOV 525 NUN 

voniulcd ; the Sardinians lost between 3000 and 4000 men, 27 rannon.s, and 3000 prisoners. 
riie king soon after abdicated in favour of his son Victor Emmanuel. 

NOVA SCOTIA (N. America). Settled in 1622, by the Scotcli under sir William 
Alexander, in the reign of James I. of England, from whom it received the name of Nova 
■^cotia. In 1710 the French included it in Acadia. Since its first settlement it has more 
llian once changed proprietors, and was not confirmed to England till the peace of Utrecht, 
n 1713. It was taken in 1745 and 1758 ; but was again confirmed to England in 1760. 
Nova Scotia was divided into two provinces in 1784; and was erected into a bishopric 
n August, 1787. King's College, Windsor, was founded in 1788. See Baronets. Gold was 
bund in Nova Scotia in 1S61. 

NOVATIAXS, a sect which denied restoration to the church to those who had relapsed 
luring times of persecution, begun with Novatian, a Roman presbyter, in 250. 

NOVELS (Novella;), a part of Justinian's Code published 535. See Romances. 

NOVEMBPjR {novem, nine), anciently the ninth month of the year. When Numa added 
January and February, in 713 B.C., it became the eleventh as now. The Eomau senators 
«'ished to name this month in which Tiberius was born, by his name, in imitation of Julius 
L'tesar, and Augustus; but the emperor refused, saying, "What will 3'ou do, conscript 
fathers, if you have thirteen Casars ? " 

NOVGOROD (central Russia), made the seat of his government by Ruric, a Varangian 
diief, in 862, is held to be the foundation of the Russian empire. In memory of the event 
the czar inaugurated a national monument at Novgorod, on Sept. 20, 1862. 

NO VI (N. Italy), Battle of, in which the French army, commanded by Joubert, was 
iefeated by the Russians under Suwarrow, with immense loss, Aug. 15, 1799. Among 
[0,000 of the French slain was their leader, Joubert, and several other distinguished officers. 

NOVUM ORGANON, tlie great woi"k of lord Bacon containing his sj'stem of philosophy, 
Tas published 1620. 

NOVADES. See Drowning. 

NUBIA, the ancient ^Ethiopia supra ^Egyptum, said to have been the seat of the king- 
lom of Meroe, received its name from a tribe named Nubes or Nubates. The Christian 
vingdom, \vith Dongola, the capital, lasted till the 14th century, when it was broken up into 
Mahometan principalities. It is now subject to the viceroy of Egypt, having been conrjuered 
liy Ibrahim Pacha in 1822. 

NUISANCES REMOVAL ACT ; passed in 184S ; amended 1S49. See Sanitanj Leg is- 
'ation. 

NUMANTINE WAR. The war between the Romans and the Celtiberians (Celts who 
possessed the country near the Ibcr, now the Ebro) began, 140 B.C., on account of the latter 
liaving given refuge to their allies the Sigidians, who had been defeated by the Romans. 
Numantia, an unprotected city, withstood a long siege. The army of Scipio Africanus, 
fio,ooo men, was bravely opposed by no more than 4000 men able to bear arras. The 
Xumantines fed upon horse-flesh, and afterwards on their own dead, and at last drew lots to 
kill one another. At length they set lire to their houses, and destroyed themselves, so that 
not even one remained to adorn the triumph of the conqueror, 133 B.C. 

NUMIDIA (N. Africa), the seat of the war of the Romans with Jugurtha, which began 
III B.C., and ended with his subjugation and captivity, 106. The last king, Juba, joined 
Cato and was killed at the battle of Thapsus, 46 B.C., when Numidia became a Roman pro- 
vince. See Mauritania. 

NUMISMATICS, the science of coins and medals, an important adjunct to the study of 
Uistory. In this country Evelyn (1697), Addison (1726), and Phikerton (1789), published 
works on medals. Ruding's Annals is the great work on British coinage (new edition, 1840). 
—The Numismatic Society in London was founded by Dr. John Lee in 1836. It publishes 
the Numismatic Chronicle. — Mr. Yonge Akerman's Numismatic Manual (1840) is a useful 
introduction to the science. Foreign works are numerous. 

NUNCIO, an envoy from the pope of Rome to Catholic states. The pope deputed a 
•luncio to the Iri.sh rebels in 1645. The arrival in London of a nuncio, and his admission to 
m audience by James II., July, 1687, is stated to have hastened the Revolution. 

NUNNERY. The first founded is said to have been that to which the sister of St. 
Anthony retired at the close of the 3rd century. The first founded in France, near Poictiers, 



NUR 



OBE 



by St. Marcellina, sister to St. Martin, 360. Da Fresno}/. Tlie first in England was at 
Folkestone, iu Kent, bj^ Eadbald, or Edbald, king of Kent, 630. DugdaUs Monasiicum 
Anglicanum. See Abbeys and Monachism. The nuns were expelled from their convents iu 
Germany, iu Julj% 1785. They were driven out of their convents in France, in Jan. 1790. 
In Feb. 1861, monastic establishments were abolished in Naples, comjieusation being made 
to the inmates. For memorable instances of the constancy and fortitude of nuus, see Acre 
and Coldingham. 

NUPtEMBERG, a free imperial German city in 1219. In 1522, the diet here demanded 
ecclesiastical reforms and a general council, and in 1532 secured religious liberty to the 
Protestants. 



0. 

OAK, styled the monarch of the woods, and an emblem of strength, virtue, constancy, 
and long life. That produced in England is considered to be best calculated for ship-building. 
The constellation Robur C'aroli, the oak of Charles, was named by Dr. Halley in 1676, iu 
memory of the oak tree in which Charles II. saved himself from his pursuers, after the battle 
of Worcester, Sept. 3, 1651. See Boscobel. Heme's oak, Windsor park, mentioned in 
Shakspeare's Merry Wives of Windsor, was finally destroj'ed by the wind, Aug. 31, 1863. 
The evergreen oak, Quercus Ilex, was brought from the south of Europe before 1581. The 
scarlet oak, Quercus Coccinea, was brought from North America before 1691. The chestnut- 
leaved oak, Quercus Prunus, from North America before 1730. The Turkey oak, Quercus 
Bcrris, from the south of Europe, 1735. The agaric of the oak, in pharmacy, was known as 
a styptic iu 1750. In June, 403, the " Synod of the oak" was held at Chalcedon. 

OATES'S PLOT. Titus Oates, at one time chaplain of a ship of war, Avas dismissed for 
immoral conduct, and became a lecturer in Ivondon. In conjunction M'ith Dr. Tongue, he 
invented a plot against the Roman Catholics, who he asserted had conspired to assassinate 
Charles II., and extirjiate the Protestant religion. He made it known Aug. 12, 1678, and 
in consequence about eighteen Roman Catholics were accused, and upon false testimony con- 
victed and executed ; among them the aged viscount Stafford, Dec. 29, 16S0. Oates was 
afterwards tried for perjury (in the reign of James II.), and being fouud guilty, was fined, 
put in the pillory, publicly whipped from Newgate to Tyburn, and sentenced to imprison- 
ment for life, May, 1685. On the accession of William and Mary he was pardoned, antl a 
pension of 3?. a week granted Iiim, 1689. 

OATHS were taken by Abraham, B.C. 1892 {Gen. xxi. 24), and authorised (b.c. 1491) 
Exod. xxii. 11. The administration of an oath in judicial proceedings was introduced by the 
Saxons into England, 600. Rapin. That administered to a judge was settled 1344. 



1 701 



l3:!I 



Of supremacy, first admhiistered to British 
subjects, and ratified by parliament, 26 Hen. 
VIII. (Slow's Chron.) 1535 

Oaths were taken on the Gospels so early as 
528 ; .and the words " So help me God and all 
saints," concluded an oath until . . . 1550 

The ancient oath of allegiance, which contained 
a promise "to be true and faithful to the 
king and his heirs, and truth and faith to 
bear of Hfe and limb and terrene honour ; and 
not to know or hear of any ill or damage in- 
tended him without defending him there- 
from," was modified by James I. in 1605, a 
declaration against the pope's authority being 
added. It was again altered in . . . 1689 

The affirmation of a Quaker was made equiva- 
lent to an oath, by statute, in 1696, et leq. 

Of abjuration, being an oblig.ation to maintain 
the government of king, lords, and commons, 

OBELISK. (Greek ohelos, a spit, vionoUthos, a single stone). The first mentioned in 
history was that of Rameses, king of Egypt, about 1485 B.C. The Arabians called them 
Pharaoh's needles, and the Egyptian priests the finger of the sun ; they differed very much 
as to their costliness, magnitude, and magnificence. Several were erected at Rome ; one 
was erected by the emperor Augustus in the Campus Martins, on the pavement of which was 



the church of England, and toleration of Pro- 
testant dissenters, and abjuring all Roman 
Catholic pretenders to the crown, 13 "Will. III. 

The Test and Corporation oaths modified by 
stat. 9 Geo. IV. 1828. See Tests. 

Act abolishing oaths in the customs and excise 
departments, and in certain other cases, and 
substituting declarations in lieu thereof, i & 
2 Will. IV 

Afiirmation, instead of oath, was permitted to 
Quakers and other dissenters by acts passed 
hi 1833, 1837, 1838, and 1863. See Affirmation. 

In 1858 and i860, Jews elected ALP. were re- 
lieved from part of the oath of allegiance. 
See Jtws. 

A bill for modifying the oath taken by Roman 
Catholics (jiassed by the commons) was re- 
jected by the lords . . . June 26, 1865 



OBL 527 ODE 

an liorizontal dial that marked tlic hour, about 14 B.C. Of the obelisks brought to Rome by 
the emperors, several have been restored and set up by various popes, especially Sixtus Y. 
In London arc tlu'ec obelisks : first in Fleet-street, at the top of Bridge-street, erected to the 
famous John "Wilkes, lord mayor of London in 1775 ; and immediately opposite to it at the 
south end of Farringdon-strect, stands another of granite to the memory of Eobert 
"Waithman, lord mayor in 1S24, erected June 25, 1833 ; the third at the south end of the 
BLickfriars-road, mui-ks the distance of one mile and a fraction from Fleet-street. An 
obelisk from Luxor was set up in the Place de la Coucoide, Paris, in Oct. 1836. 

OBLIVIOiSr. In 1660 was passed an act of "free general pardon, indemnity, and 
oblivion for all treasons and state oifences committed between Jan. i, 1637, and June 24, 
1660." The regicides and certain Irish j)opish priests were excepted. 

OBSERVATORIES. The first is said to have been erected on the top of the temple of 
Belus at Babylon. On the tomb of Osymandyas, in Egypt, was another, and it contained a 
golden circle 2CX) feet in diameter ; that at Benares was at least as ancient as these. The 
first in authentic history was at Alexandria, about 300 B.C., erected by Ptolemj' Soter. 



First modera meridional instrument by Coper- 
nicus 1540 

First observatory at Cassel 1561 

Tycbo Brahe's, at Uranieuburg .... 1576 
Astronomical tower at Copenhagen . . . 1657 
Royal (French) 1667 



At Bologna 1714 

At St. Petersburg 1725 

At Pekin, about ....... 1750 

Oxford, Br. Radcl'ffe 1772 

Caltoii Hill, Edinburgh 1776 

Dublin, Br. Andrews 17S3 



Royal observatory at Greenwich (m7u'c/i iff) . . 1675 Armagh, Primate Rubinsan 179^ 

Observatory- at Xuremburg .... 1678 Cambridge, England 1824 

At Utrecht 1690 Cambridge, U.S 1840 

Berlin, erected tuider Liebnitz's direction . . 1711 | Washington, U.S. 1842 

OCAXA (central Spain), near which the Spaniards were defeated by the French com- 
manded by Mortier and Soult, Nov. 19, 1809. 

OCEAN MONARCH, an American emigrant ship, left Liverpool bound for Boston, 
Aug. 24, 1848, having 396 passengers on board. She had not advanced far into the Irish 
Channel, being within six miles of Great Ormshead, Lancashire, when she took fire, and in 
a few hours was burnt to the water's edge, and 178 persons perished.* 

OCTARCH, the chief of the kings of the lieptarchy, was called Hex gcntis Ancjlorum. 
Hengist was the first octarch, 455, and Egbert the last, 800. See Britain. Some authors 
insist that the English heptarchy should have been called the octarchy, and that hcptarchij is 
not the correct term. 

OCTOBER, the eighth month in the year of Romulus, as its name imports, and the tenth 
in the year of Numa, 713 B.C. October still retained its first name, although the senate 
ordered it to be called Faudinus, in \\o\\o\\v oi Faustina,\y\ie of Antoninus the emperor ; and 
Commodus called it Inrictus, and Domitianus. October was sacred to Mars. 

OCTROIS (from the low Latin cmctorium, authority), a term applied to concessions from 
sovereigns, and to the taxes levied at the gates of towns in France on articles of food before 
entering the city. These octrois, of ancient origin, were suppressed in 1791, but re- 
established in 1797, and were re-organised in 1816, 1842, and 1852. In 1859, the octrois of 
Paris jiroduced above 54 million francs. The Belgian government became very popular in 
July, i860, by abolishing the Octrois. 

ODES are nearly as old as the lyre ; amongst the Greeks they were extempore compo- 
sitions sung in honour of the gods. Anacreon's odes were composed about 532 B.C. ; Pindar's 
498 to 446 ; and Horace's from 24 to 13, all b.c. Anciently, odes were divided into stroiihe, 
antistrophe. and epode. See Poets Laureate and Lyric Poetry. 

ODESSA, a port on the Black Sea, built by the empress Catherine of Russia, in 1784- 
1792, after the peace of Jass}'. In 1817 it was made a free port, since when its pro.sperity 
has rapidly increased. It was partially bombarded by the British April 21, 1854, in conse- 
ijucnce of "the Russian batteries haA-ing fired on a flag of truce, April 6. On ]\Iay 12, tht- 

* The Brazili.in stc.im-frigatc, Alfonzo, happened to be oiit on a trial trip at the time, with the prince 
and princess de Joiuville and the duke and dvichcss d'AumiCe on board, who witnessed the catastrophe, 
and aided in rescuing and comforting the sufferers with exceeding humanity. They, with the crews and 
passengers of the Alfonzo .and the yacht Queen of the Ocean, so effectually rendered their heroic and 
imwearicd services as to save 156 persons from their dreadful situation, and 62 others escaxied by various 
neaus. 



ODO 



528 



OLD 



English frigate Tigrr stranded here, and was destroyed by Russian artillery. The captain. 
Giti'ard, and many of his crew were killed, and the rest made prisoners. 

ODONTOLOGY (from the Greek odontcs, teeth), the science of the teeth, may be said to 
have really begun with the researches of i)rofessor Richard Owen, who in 1839 made the first 
definite announcement of the organic connection between the vascular and vital soft parts ol^ 
the frame and the hard substance of a tooth. His comprehensive work, " Odontography" 
(illustrated with beautiful plates), was published 1840-5. 

ODYL, the name given in 1845 by baron von Reichenbach to a so-called new 
"imponderable or influence," said to be developed by magnets, crystals, the human body, 
heat, electricity, chemical action, and the whole material universe. The odylic force is said 
to give rise to luminous phenomena, visible to certain sensitive persons only. The baron's 
" Researches on Magnetism, &c., in relation to the Yital Force," translated by Dr. Gregory, 
%vere published iu 1850. Emanuel Swedenborg (died 1772) described similar phenomena. 

(ECUMENICAL BISHOP (from the Greek oikoumcne, the habitable understood fjlohc), 
"universal bishoi^ ;" a title assumed by John, bishop of Constantinople, 587. 

OFFA'S DYKE, the intrenchment from the Wye to the Dee, made by OlTa, king oC 
Jlercia, to defend his country from the incursions of the AVelsh, 779. 

OGYGES, Deluge of (which laid Attica waste for more than two hundred years 
afterwards, and until the arrival of Cecrops), is stated to have occurred 1764 B.C. See Deluge . 

OGULNIAN LAAY, carried by the tribunes Q. and Cn. Ogulnii, increased the number of 
the pontiffs and augurs, and made plebeians eligible to those offices, B.C. 300. 

OHIO, a western state of North America, was ceded to the British with Canada, iu 
1763 ; settled in 1788, and admitted into the Union, Nov. 29, 1802. 

OHM'S LAW, for determining the quantity of the electro-motive force of the Voltaic 
battery, was published in 1827. It is in conformity with the discovery that the earth may 
be employed as a conductor, thus saving the return wire in electric-telegrajiliy. 

OIL was used for burning in lamps as early as the epoch of Abraham, about 1921 c.c. 
It was the custom of the Jews to anoint with oil persons appointed to high offices, as the 
priests and kings. Psalm cxxxiii. 2 ; i Sam. x. i ; xvi. 13. The fact that oil, if passed 
through red-hot iron pipes, will be resolved into a combustible gas, was long known to 
chemists ; and after the process of lighting by coal-gas was made apparent, Messrs. Taylor 
and Martineau conti'ived apparatus for producing oil-gas on a large scale, 1815. Oil Spiungs. 
See Petroleum. 

OLBERS, the asteroid, discovered by M. Olbcrs, in 1802, is now termed Pallas. 

OLD BAILEY SESSIONS-COURT is held for the trial of criminals, and its jurisdiction 
comprehends the county of Middlesex as well as the city of London. It is held eight times 
in the year by the royal commission of oyer and terminer. The judges are, the lord mayor, 
those aldermen wdio have passed the chair, the recorder, and the common-serjeant, who are 
attended by both the sheriffs, and one or more of the national judges. The court-house was 
Iniiltin 1773,* and enlarged in 1808. See Central Criminal Court. 

OLD MAN OF THE Mountain. See Assassins. OLD STYLE. See Neio Style. 

OLEFIANT GAS, a combination of hydrogen and carbon, which burns with much 
brilliancy. In 1862, Berthelot formed it artificially by means of alcohol. 

OLDENBURG, a grand duchy in North Germany, was annexed to Denmark in 1448 ; 
in i773i Christian YII. ceded the country to Russia in exchange for Holstein Gottoip, and 
soon after the present dignity was established. Population in 1864, 301,812. 



DUKES. 

1773. Frederick Augustus. 

1785. Peter Frederick. The duchy was seized by 

Napoleon, and annexed to his empire in 

1811 : but restored iu 1814. 



GRAND-DUKES. 

1829. May 21. Paul Frederick. 

1853. Feb. 27. Nicholas Frederick (Ijom July 8, 

1827), the PRESENT grandduke. 
Heir : Prince Frederic Augustus (born Nov. i6, 1852). 



During some trials in the old court, the lord mayor, one alderman, two judges, the greater part of 
t)ie jury, and numbers of spectators, caught the gaol distemper, and died May, 1750. Again, this disease 
was fatal to several in 1772. Twenty-eight persons were killed at the execution of Mr. Steele'.s murderers ^ 
•at the Old Bailey, Feb. 22, 1807. ^ 



OLE 529 OPE 

OLEROX, Laws of, relating to sea affairs, are said to have been enacted by Richard I. 
of England, when at the island of Oleron in Fi-ance, 1194 ; which is now doubted. 

OLIVES are named in the earliest accounts of Egypt and Greece ; and at Athens their 
cultivation was taught by Cecrops, 1556 r,.c. They were first planted in Italy about 562 B.C. 
The olive has been cultivated in England since 1648 a.d. The Cape olive since 1730. 

OLTENITZA, Battle of. A large Turkish force having crossed the Danube, under 
Omar Pasha, established themselves at Oltenitza, in spite of the vigorous attacks of the 
Russians, who were repulsed with loss, Nov. 2 and 3, 1853. On the 4th a most desperate 
attempt to dislodge the Turks by general Danneberg with 9000 men, was defeated with 
great loss. 

OLYMPIADS, the era of the Greeks, which dates from July i, 776 B.C., being the year 
in which Corcebus was successful at tlie Olympic games. This era was reckoned by periods 
of four years, each period being called an Olympiad, and in marking a date the year and 
Olympiad Avere both mentioned. The computation of Olympiads ceased with the 305th, 
A.D. 440. 

OLYMPIC GAMES, so famous among the Greeks, are said to have been instituted by 
the Idan Dactyli, 1453 B.C., or by Pelo]>s, 1307 B.C. ; revived by Iphitus, 884 B.C., in 
honour of Jupiter, and were held at the beginning of every fifth year, on the banks of the 
Alpheus, near Olympia, in the Peloponnesus, now the Morea, to exercise the youth in live 
kinds of combats. The conquerors in these games were highly honoured. Tlie prize 
contended for was a crown made of a kind of wild olive, appropriated to this use. In 1858, 
M. Zappas, a wealthy Peloponnesian, gave funds to re-establish these games, under the 
auspices of the queen of Greece, to commence in Oct. 1859. Olympic Theatre. See 
Theatres. 

OLYNTHUS, a city, K Greece, subdued in war by Sparta in 382 — 379 B.C. It resisted 
Philip of Macedon, 350 B.C., by whom it was destroyed, 347. 

OMENS. '?,Q(i Augury. Amphictyon was the first who is recorded as having drawn prog- 
nostications from omens, 1497 B.C. Alexander the Great and Mithridates the Great are said 
to have studied omens. At the birth of the latter, 131 B.C., there were seen for seventy 
days together, two large comets, whose splendour eclipsed that of the noon-day sun, occupying 
.so vast a space as the fourth part of the heavens ; and this omen, we are told, directed all 
the actions of Mithridates throughout his life. Justm. 

OMMIADES, a dynasty of Mahometan caliphs, beginning with Moawiyah, of whom 
fourteen reigned in Arabia, 661 — 750 ; and eighteen at Cordova, in Spain, 750—1031. Their 
favourite colour was green. 

OMNIBUSES (from omnibus, for all) began to run in Paris in April, 1828. The idea of 
such conveyances is ascribed to Pascal, about 1662, when similar carriages were started, but 
soon discontinued. They were revived in Paris, April 11, 1828 ; and introduced into London 
by a coach proprietor named Shillibeer. The first omnibus started from Paddington to the 
Bank of England on Saturday, July 4, 1829. The omnibus is usually licensed to carry from 
ten to twelve passengers inside, and from ten to fourteen outside, and is attended by a foot- 
man, called a " conductor'." Regulations were made respecting omnibuses by 16 & 17 Vict. 
c- 33 (1S53). See Cahriolds and Hackney Coaches. The London Omnibus Company was 
established in Jan. 1856. The saloon omnibuses ran in 1857-60. In Sejit. 1865, it was 
stated that there were then running about 620 omnibuses belonging to the General Omnibus 
Company, and 450 belonging to private proprietors. 

ONE POUND NOTES were issued by the bank of England, March 4, 1797 ; for England 
only, 1823 ; re-issued for a short time, Dec. 16, 1852. Rosse. 

0. P. RIOT began on the opening of the new Covent Garden theatre, London, with 
increased prices of admission, Sept. 18,* and lasted tiU Dec. 10, 1809. 

OPERAS. Adam de la Hale, a Trouvere, surnamed " le Bossu d' Arras," born in 1240, 
is, as far as has yet been ascertained, the composer of the first comic opera, Li Gieus (Le Jeu) 
dc Robin ct de Marion. The Italian opera began with the II Satire of Cavaliere, and the Dafnc 

* The play was Macbeth, and not one word from the stage wa.q heard. The concurrence of all parts of 
the house in the desire for reduction, gave a furious and determined party in the pit courage to proceed, 
and gTe.it injury was done in pit, boxes, and galleries. For many successive nights the audience, too 
strong to be controlled, continued their demand, and renewed their depredations, while the managers 
seemed, on their part, resolved not to give way. 

M M 



OPE 530 OPT 

of Eimiccini, with music by Peri, aljout 1590. Their Eurydicc was represented at Florence, 
1600, on the marriage of Marie de Medicis with Henry IV. of France. VOrfco, Favola in 
Musica, composed by Monteverde, was performed in 1607, and is supposed to have been the 
first opera that was ever published. About 1669, the abbot Perrin obtained a grant from 
XIV. to set up an opera at Paris, where, in 1672, Avas acted Pomona. — Rossini's Barhiere and 
Otcllo, appeared, 1816; Gazsa^Ladra, 1817 ; Scmumnide, 1823; GuiUaume Tell, 1829. 
Weher's her F7-eischu(z, 1821; Obcron, 1826. Donizetti's Z^(crc2m Borgia, 1840. Meyerbeer's 
Robert le Diahle, 1831 ; Hugxienois, 1836 ; Prophete, 1849. 

OPERAS IN England. Sir "William Davenant introduced a species of opera in London 
in 1684. The first regularly performed opera was at York buildings in 1692. The first at 
Drury-lane was in 1705. The operas of Handel were performed in 1735, and they became 
general in several of tlie theatres a few years after. Gay's Beggars' Oinra., first performed in 
1727 at the Lincoln's Inn theatre. It ran for sixty- three successive nights, but so offended 
the persons in power, that the lord chamberlain refused a licence for the performance of a 
second part of it entitled " Polly." This resentment induced Gay's friends to come forward 
on its publication with so handsome a subscription, that his profits amounted to 1200/., 
whereas the Beggars' Opera, had gained him only 400/. Life of Gay. See Theatres. 

OPERA-HOUSE, The Italian, or Queen's Theatre. The original building is generally 
supposed to have been constructed by sir John Vanbrugh, though Mr. Pennant attributes it 
to sir Christopher Wren. It was built, according to this authority, in 1704, and opened 
April 9, 1705 : and burnt down June 17, 1789. The foundation of the new theatre was laid 
April 3, 1790 ; and the house was opened Sept. 22, 1791, on an improved plan ; the present 
exterior was erected in 1818, from designs by Mr. Nash. — The English Opera (or Lyceum) 
was opened June 15, 18 16. It was entirely destroyed by fire, Feb. 16, 1830. The new 
English Opera-house, or Lyceum, was erected from designs by Mr. S. Beazley, and opened 
in July, 1834. See Theatres. 

OPHTHALMIC HOSPITALS. See Hospitals. 

OPHTFTALMOSCOPE, an apparatus for inspecting the interior of the eye, invented by 
professor H. Helmholtz, and described by him in 1851. 

OPIUM, the juice of the white poppy, was known to the ancients, its cultivation being 
mentioned by Honiei-,' and its medicinal use by Hippocrates. It is largely cultivated in 
British India, and was introduced into China by merchants. It conduced to the war of 1834. 
The revenue derived from opium by the Indian government in 1862 was about 7,850,000/. 
Laudanum, a preparation of opium, was employed early in the 17th century. A number of 
alkaloids have been discovered in opium : narcotine by Derosne, and morphia by Sertiirner, 
in 1803. 

OPORTO (W. Portugal), the ancient Callc, by nature one of the most impregnable cities 
in Europe ; the great mart of Portuguese wine known as "Port." A chartered company 
for the regulation of the port-wine trade "was established in 1756. The French, under 
marshal Soult, were surprised here by lord "Wellington, and defeated in an action fought 
May II, 1809. The Miguelites attacked Oporto, and were repulsed by the Pedroites, with 
considerable loss, Sept. 19, 1832. It has since been the scene of civil war. See Portugal. 
The Oporto wine company was abolished in 1834, but re-established by a royal decree, 
April 7, 1838. An international exhibition was opened here by the king, Sept. 18, 1865. 

OPTICS, a science studied by the Greeks ; and later by the Arabians about the 12th 
century. 



Burning lenses known at Athens . b.c. 424 

The magnifying power of convex glasses and 
concave mirrors, and the piismatic colours 
produced by angular glass, mentioned by 



Telescope made by Jansen (said also to have in- 
vented the microscope) about 1609, and inde- 
pendently, by Galileo, about . . . . 1630 

Microscope, according to Huyghens, invented 



Seneca, about . . ... a.d. 50 ; by Urebbel, about 1621 



Treatise on Optics, by Ptolemy . . . . 120 
First treatise on optics by Euclid, about . . 280 
Two of the leading principles known to the 

Platonists 300 

Greatly improved by Alhazen . . . . 1108 
Hints for spectacles and telescopes, given by 

Roger B.acon, about 1280 

Spectacles said to have been invented by Sal- 

vinus Armatus, of Pisa, before . . . . 1300 
Camera obscvira said to have been invented by 

Baptista Porta ....... 1560 

Telescopes invented by Leonard Digges, about 1571 



Law of refraction discovered by Snellius, about 1624 
Reflecting telescope, James Gregory . . . 1663 
,, ,, Newton .... 1666 

Motion and velocity of light discovered by Roe- 

mer, and after him by Cassini . . . . 1667 
[Its velocity demonstrated to be 190 milUous of 

miles in sixteen minutes.] 
Double refraction explained by Bartholinus . 1669 

Cassegraini.an reflector 1672 

Newton's discoveries 1674 

Telescopes with a single lens by Tschirnhausen, 

about 1690 



OPT 



531 



OR A 



OPTICS, continued. 

Polarisation of light, Huyghens, about . . 1692 
Structure of the eye explained by Petit, about 1700 
Achromatic telescope constructed by Mr. Hall 

(Ijut not made public) in . . . ^ . 1733 
Constructed by DoUond, most likely without 

any knowledge of Hall's 1757 

Horschel's great rcUecting telescope erected at 

Slough 1789 

Dr. T. Young's discoveries (undulatory theory, 

&c.) 1800-3 

Camera Lucida (Dr. 'VTollaston) . . . . 1807 
Malus (polarisation of light by reflection) . . 1808 



Fresncl (double refraction, &c.) . . . . 1817 
Large telescope constructed by Lord Rosse . . 1845 
Arago (colours of polarised hght, <tc.) . 1811-53 
Dr. Tyndall's Lectures on Light, illustrated by 
Duboscq's electric lamp, at the Royal Insti- 
tution, London jScQ 

Sir D. Brewster, optical researches (see Pholo- 

0>-apliy) 1814-57 

The spectroscope constructed and used by 

Kirchhoff and Bunsea 1861 

See Telescope, Microscope, Stereoscoj^e, Pscmc^o- 
scope. Spectrum, Photograph)/, <S:c. 



OPTIC NERVES are said to have been discovered by N. Varolo, a surgeon and physician 
of Bologna, about 1538. Nouv. Diet. 

ORACLES. The most ancient was that of Dodona ; but the most famous that of Delphi, 
1263 B.C. See Delphi and Dodona. 

ORANGE. The sweet, or China orange, was first brought into Europe from China by 
the Portuguese, in 1547 ; and it is asserted that the identical tree, whence all the European 
orange-trees of this sort were produced, is still preserved at Lisbon, in the gardens of one of 
its nobility. Orange-trees were first brought to England, and planted, with little siiccess iu 
1595 ; they are said to have been planted at Beddington park, near Croydon, Surrey. The 
duty on imjjorted oranges was repealed in i860. 

ORANGE, a principality in S.E. France, formerly a lordship in the 9th or loth century. 
It has been ruled by four houses successively: that of Giraud Adhemar (to 1174); of I'aux 
(1182 to 1393) ; of Chalons (to 1530); and of Nassau (1530 to 1713). See Nassau. Philibert 
the Great, prince of Orange, the last of the house of Chalons, having been wronged by 
Francis I. of France, entered the service of the emperor Charles V. to whom he rendered 
great services by his military talents. He was killed at the siege of Florence, Aug. 3, 1530. 
He was succeeded by his nephew-in-law Rdnee of Nassau. See 2Jrmces of Orange under 
Holland. The eldest son of the king of Holland is styled the prince of Orange, although the 
principality was ceded to France in 17 13. 

ORANGE RIVER, a free state in South Africa. The British government transferred 
(by sir George Clerk) their powers over this territory to a provisional government, March 29, 
1854. A Volksraad (legislative council) and governor have been appointed. 

ORANGEMEN. The battle of the Diamond, fought in Armagh in Sept. 1795 ; and the 
treachery experienced by the Protestants on that occasion, convinced them they would become 
an easy prey to the Roman Catholics, from their small numbers, unless they associated for their 
defence. The first Orange lodge was formed in Armagh, Sept. 21, 1795; but the name of 
Orangemen already existed. An Orange lodge was formed in Dublin ; the members published 
a declaration of their principles (the maintenance of church and state) in Jan. 1798. It is 
stated that in 1836, there were 145,000 Orangemen in England, and 125,000 in Ireland, the 
duke of Cumberland being grand-master. After a parliamentary inquiry Orange clubs were 
broken tip at the request of the house of commons ; but revived in 1845. In Oct. 1857, the 
lord chancellor of Ireland ordered that justices of the peace should not belong to Orange clubs. 
The Orangemen in Canada were greatly excited during the visit of the prince of Wales 
in Sept. i860. Orange demonstrations in Belfast have led to desperate riots. See Belfast. 

ORATOR HENLEY. An English clergyman of some talents, and great eccentricity, 
obtained this name by opening what he called his "Oratory" in London, in 1726. He had 
a kind of chapel in Newport market, where he gave lectures on theological topics on Sundays, 
and on other subjects on "Wednesdays, every week. Novelty procured him a multitude of 
hearers ; but ho was too imprudent to gain any permanent advantage from his project. 
After having served as a butt for the satirical wits, poets, and painters of his time, he 
removed his oratory to Clare-market, and sank into comparative obscurity and contempt 
previously to his death, in 1756. 

ORATORIANS (from the Latin orare, to pray), a regtilar order of priests established by 
St. Philip Neri, about 1564, and so called from the oratory of St. Jerome, at Rome, where 
they prayed. They had a foundation in France, commenced by father de Berulle, after- 
wards cardinal. 1612. — The rev. Frederick Faber and others, as "Fathers of the Oratory," 
established themselves first in King William-street, Strand, in 1848, and afterwards at 
Brompton. 

M M 2 



ORA 532 Oi;i 

ORATOEIO, a kind of sacred drama, the subject of it being generally taken from the 
Scriptures, set to music. Mason. The origin of oratorios, so named from having been first 
performed in an oratory, is ascribed to St. Philip Neri, about 1550. The first oratorio in 
London was performed in Lincoln's-inn theatre in Portugal-street, in 1732. Handel's 
oratorio of " Israel in Egypt" was produced in 1738, and the "Messiah" in 1741 ; Haydn's 
"Creation" in 1798; Mendelssohn's "St. Paul" in 1837, and "Elijah" in 1846. 

ORCHOMENUS, a small Greek state in Boeotia, was destroyed by the Thebans, 368 B.C.; 
restored by Philip II. of Macedon, 354 ; and given up by hira to Thebes, 346. 

ORDEAL was known among the Greeks and Jews (Num. v. 2). It was introduced into 
England by the Saxons. A prisoner who pleaded not guilty, might choose whether he would put 
himself for trial upon God and his country, by twelve men, as at this day, or upon God only. 
The ordeal was abolished in 1261. 

ORDERS. See Knighthood. 

ORDERS IN Council were issued by the British government Jan. 7, and Nov. Ii, 1807, 
prohibiting trade with the ports occupied by the French. They were reprisals for Napoleon's 
Berlin decree (which see). These restrictions greatly checked the progress of manufactures in 
this country, and caused much distress till their removal in 1814. 

ORDINATION of ministers in the Christian church began with Christ and his apostles. 
See Marh iii. 14, and Acts vi. and xiv. 23. In England in 1549 a new form of ordination 
of ministers was ordered to be prepared by a committee of six prelates and six divines. 

ORDINANCE. See Self-Denying Ordinances. 

ORDNANCE-OFFICE. Before the invention of guns, this office was supplied by officers 
under the following names : the bowyer ; the cross-bowyer ; the galeater, or purveyor of 
helmets ; the armourer ; and the keeper of the tents. Henry VIII. placed it under the 
management of a master-general, a lieutenant, surveyor, &c. The master-general was chosen 
from among the first generals in the service of the sovereign. The appointment was formerly 
for life ; but since the Restoration, was held durante bene 'placito, and not unfrequently by a 
cabinet minister. Bcatson. The letters patent for this office were revoked May 25, 1855, 
and its duties vested in the minister of war, lord Panmure. The last master-general was 
lord Fitzroy Somerset, afterwards lord Raglan. 

ORDNANCE SURVEY. The trigonometrical survey of England was commenced by 
gen. Roy, in 1783, continued by col. Colby, and completed by col. (now sir Henry) James in 
1856. The publication of the maps commenced in 1819, under the direction of col. Mudge, 
and was completed in 1862 ; the southern part on the scale of one inch to the mile, the 
northern six inches to the mile : a large part of these maps have been coloured geologicalh'. 
The survey of Ireland has been completed and published ; that of Scotland is still going on, 

OREGON TERRITORY. A dispute respecting boundaries arose in 1845 between the 
British government and that of the United States, which was settled by treaty, June 12, 
1846. Oregon was admitted as a state by the Union in Feb. 1859. 

ORGANIC SYNTHESIS. See Cheviistry. 

ORGANS. Their invention is attributed to Archimedes, about 220 B.C. ; and to one 
Ctesibius, a barber of Alexandria, about 100 B.C. The organ was brought to Europe from 
the Greek empire, and M-as first applied to religious devotions in churches, in a.d. 657 
Eellarmine. Organs were used in the western churches by pope Vitalianus, in 658. 
Ammonius. It is affirmed that the organ was known in France in the time of Louis I. 815, 
when one was constructed by an Italian priest. The organ at Haarlem is one of the largest 
in Europe ; it has 60 stops and 8000 pipes. At Seville is one with 1000 .stops and 5300 
pipes. The organ at Amsterdam has a set of pipes that imitate a chorus of human voices. 
Of the organs in England, that at St. George's hall, Liverpool, by Mr. AVillis, is the largest ; 
■ next in order, that at York minster, and that in the Music-hall, Birmingham. In London, 
the largest is, perhaps that of Spitalfields church ; and that in Christ Church is nearly as 
extensive. The erection of the famous Temple organ was competed for by Schmidt and 
Harris ; after long disputes, the question was referred to vote, and Mr. Jeff"eries, afterwards 
chief justice, gave the casting vote in favour of Schmidt (called Father Smith), about 1682. 
A monster oigan was erected in the Crystal Palace, Sydenham, in June 1857. 

ORIEL COLLEGE (Oxford), founded in 1337, by Adam de Brome, archdeacon of Stow, 
and almoner to king Edward II. This college derives its name from a tenement called 
rOriole, on the site of which the building stands. 



OKI 533 ORP 

ORIFLAMME. See Aurijlamma. 

ORIGENISTS pretended to draw their opinions from the ■WTitin<:;s of Origen (who lived 
1S5-253). They maintained that Clirist was the son of God no other way than by adoption 
and grace ; that souls were created before the bodies ; that the sun, moon, stars and the 
waters that are under the firmament, had all souls ; that the torments of the damned shall 
have an end, and that tlie fallen angels shall, after a time, be restored to their first condition. 
They were condemned by councils, and the reading of Origen's works was forbidden. Burke. 
These doctrines were coudenined by the council of Constantinople in 553. 

OKIOX Steam-Ship. On June 18, 1850, this splendid vessel, bound from Liverpool to 
Glasgow, struck on a sunken rock, northward of Port])atrick, within a stone's throw of land, 
and instantly filled. Of two hundred passengers, more than fifty were drowned. 

ORKNEY AND SHETLAND ISLES (North of Scotland), were conquered by Magnus IH. 
of Norway, 1099, and were ceded to James 111. as the dowry of his wife Margaret, in 1469. 
The Orkneys were the ancient Orcades : united with Shetland, they now form one of the 
Scotch counties. The bishopric of Orkney, founded by St. Servanus early in the 5th centurj'-, 
some affirm by St. Colm, ended with the abolition of episcopacy in Scotland, about 16S9. 
See Bishops. 

ORLEANS (a city in central France), formerly AurcUanum ; gave title to a kingdom, 
491, and afterwards to a duchy, usually held by one of the royal family. It was besieged by 
the English under John Talbot, afterwards earl of Shrewsbury, Oct. 12, 1428, and was 
bravely defended by Gaucour, the more so, as its fall would have ruined the cause of 
Charles VI. king of France. It was relieved by the heroism of Joan of Arc, afterwards 
surnamed the Maid of Oileans, April 29, 1429, and the siege was raised. See Joan of Arc. 
Siege of Orleans, when the duke of Guise was killed, 1563. 

DUKES OF ORLEANS. 



Louis contended for the regency with John the 

Fearless, dvike of Burgundy, by whose instigation 

lie was assassinated in 1407. 
Charles taken prisoner at Agincourt, 1415 ; released, 

1440 ; died, 1465. 
Louis, became Louis XII. of France in 1498, when 

the duchy merged in the crown. 

BOUEBON BRAMCH. 

Philip, youngest son of Louis XIII., bom 1640; died, 

1701. 
Philip II., son, born 1673; becomes rkgent, 1715 ; 

dies, 1723. 
Louis, sou, bom 1703; died, 1752. 



ORLEANS NEW. See New Orleans. 



Louis Philippe, son, born 1725; died, 1785. 

Louis Philippe Joseph, son, born, 1747 ; opposed the 
court in the French revolution ; takes the name 
Ecialit^, Sept. ii, 1792 ; voted for the death of Louis 
XVI. ; was guillotined, Nov. 6, 1793. 

Louis Philippe, son, born, Nov. 6, 1773 ; chosen king 
of the French, Aug. g, 1830 ; abdicated, Feb. 24, 
1848 ; died, Aug. 26, 1850. See France. 

Ferdinand Philippe, son, duke of Orleans, born 
Sept. 3. 1810; died, through a fall, July 13, 1842. 

Louis Philippe, son, count of Paris, born, Aug. 24, 
1838, married Maria Isabella, daughter of the duko 
of Alontpensier, May 30, 1864. A daughter, Maria 
Amelia, born, Sept. 28, 1865. 



0R1\IU'HJM, a metrical version of the Gospels and Acts, in early English, made by 
Orm, an ecclesiastic, in the 12th century, printed at Oxford in 1852, from a MS. in the 
1 Bodleian. 

ORNITHOLOGY. See Birds. 

• ORNITHORHYNCHUS, the duck-billed platypus, or water-mole, a singular compound 
■ of the mammal and the bird, a native of Australia, was first described by Dr. Shaw, in 1819. 

' ORPHAN-HOUSES. The emperor Trajan first formed establishments for this purpose. 

I Pliny relates in his Panegyric tiiat Trajan had caused five thousand free-born children to be 
sought (mt and educated, about 105. Orphan-houses, properly so-called, are mentioned for 
the first time in the laws of the emperor Justinian. At the court of Byzantium, the office 
of inspector of orphans, orphanotrophos, was so honourable, that it was held by the brother 

,oi the emperor Michael IV. in the nth century. See Foundling Hospitals.* 

ORPHEONISTES. Scq Crystal Palace, i860. 

* The Orphan Workin:r Asylum for 20 boys was established at Hoxton, in 175S. It is now situated at 
Havorstock hill, and contains 350 boys .ind girls. Tlie asylum for Female Orphans, Lambeth, instituted in 
1758. Similar institutions are now numerous. The London Orphan Asylum (in 1813 ; removed to Clapton 
in 1823 ; to Slough, Bvicks, opened June 25, 1863) ; the Infant Orphan Asylum at Wanstead (1827) ; and the 
1 Asyltun for Fatherless Children (in 1844 ; settled at Reedham, SuiTey), were established mainly through 
the exertions of a congregational minister, the rev. Andrew Reed, D.D. 



ORR 534 OTT 

ORRERY, a planetary machine to illustrate and explain the motions of the heavenly 
bodies, appears to have been coeval with the clepsydra. Ptolemy devised the circles and 
ejiicycles that distinguish his system al)0ut 130. The planetary clock of Finee was begun 
1553. The planetarium of De Rheita was formed about 1650. The ])lanetariuni, now termed 
the Orrery, it is said, was constructed by Rowley, after a pattern devised by the clock-maker, 
George Graham, at the expense of Charles Boyle, earl of Orrery, about ijiS- 

ORSmrS PLOT against the emperor Napoleon III. See Fra)ice, Jan. 1858. 

ORTHES or Orthez (S. France), Battle of, between the British and Spanish armies 
on one side, and the French on the other, the former commanded by AVellington, and the 
latter by marshal Soult. In this engagement the British gained a great and decisive victory, 
Feb. 27, 1814. The victory was soon followed by the battle of Toulouse [ivhkh see). 

OSBORNE HOUSE (Isle of Wight), was purchased by the queen in 1845, and rebuilt 
by Mr. Cubitt. 

OSMIUM, the heaviest known metal, discovered in platinum ore by Tennant in 1804. 

OSSORY (S.E. Ireland), Bishopric of, was first planted at Saiger, about 402 ; trans- 
lated to Aghavoe, in Upper Ossory, in 1052 ; and to Kilkenny about the end of the reign of 
Henry II. It was united to Ferns and Leighlin in 1842. 

" OSTEND (Belgium) is famous for the long siege it sustained against the Spaniards, from 
Jul}% 1601, to Sept. 1604, when it honourably capitulated. On tlie death of Charles II. of 
Spain, the French seized Ostend ; but in 1706, after the battle of Ramilies, it was retaken 
by the allies. It was again taken by the French in 1745, but restored in 1748. In 1756, the 
French. garrisoned this town for the empress-queen Maria Theresa. In 1792, the French 
once more took Ostend, which they evacuated in 1793, and repossessed in 1794. The 
English destroyed the works of the Bruges canal ; but tlie wind shifting before they could 
re-embark, they surrendered to the French, May 19, 1798. See Cuba, note. 

OSTRACISM (from the Greek ostrakon, a potsherd or shell), a mode of ])roscription at 
Athens, is said to have been first introduced by the tyrant Hippias ; by others it is ascribed 
to Cleisthencs, about 510 B.f. The people wrote the names of those whom they most 
suspected upon small shells ; these they put in an urn or box, and presented it to tlie senate. 
Upon a scrutiny, he whose name was oftenest written was sentenced by the council to be 
banished from his altar and hearth. 6000 votes were required. Aristides, noted for 
his justice, !Miltiades, for his victories, &c., were ostracized. It was abolished by ironically 
jn'oscribing Hyperbolus, a mean person. 

OSTROGOTHS, or Eastern Goths, were distinguished from the Visigoths (Western 
Goths) about 330. After ravaging eastern Europe, Tlirace, &c., their great leader, Theodoric, 
established a kingdom in Italy, Avhich lasted from 493 to 553. See Italy. 

OSTROLENKA, Battle of, between the Poles and Russians, May 26, 1831. The 

slaughter was immense, but the Poles remained masters of the field. 

OSTRICH (the slruthios of the ancients), a native of Africa (see Job xxxix. 14). Ostriches 
were hatched and reared at San Donato, near Florence, 1859-60. 

OTAHEITE, or Tahiti, an island in the S. Pacific Ocean, seen by Byron in 1765, and 
visited in 1767 by cajitain Wallis, who called it George the Tlnrd Island. Captain Cook 
came hither in 1768 to observe the transit of Venus ; sailed round the whole island in a boat, 
and stayed three months ; it was visited twice afterwards by that celebrated navigator. See 
Cook. Omai, a native of this island, was brought over to England by captain Cook, and 
carried back by him in his last voyage. In 1799, king Pomare ceded the district of Matavai 
to some English missionaries. Queen Pomare was coni])elled to put herself under the 
pi-otection of France, Sept. 9, 1843. She retracted, and Otaheite and the neighbouring 
islands were taken possession of by admiral Dupetit-Thouars in the name of the French 
king, Nov. 1843. The French imprisoned Mr. Priehard, the English consul, March 5, 1844, 
but tlie act was censured in France. 

OTTAWA (formerly Bytown), on the river Ottawa, received its name when it was 
appointed to be the capital of Canada by the queen in August, 1858. The executive council 
met here, Nov. 22, 1865. Population in 1861, 14,669. 

OTTERBURN (Northumberland). In 1388 the Scots besieged Newcastle and were driven 
off by Henry Percy (Hotspur), son of the earl of Northumberland. Percy pursued them to 
Otterburn, where a battle was fought on Aug. 10, in which the earl of Douglas was killed 
and Percy taken prisoner. On this battle the ballad of Chevy Chase is founded. 



OTT 535 OXF 

OTTOMAN EiiriRE. See Txwkey. 

OUDP] (North India), formerly a vice-royalty held by the vizier of the great mogul. 
About 1760, it was seized by the vizier Sujah-ud-l)o\vlah, ancestor of the late king. 



And grandson, Wajid Ali Shah, exceed all their 
predecessors in profligacy .... 1847-56 

In consequence (by virtue of the treaty of 1801) 
Oude is annexed to the British territories, by 
decree, proclaimed . . . Feb. 7, 1856 

The queen and prince of Oude, &c., an-ive in 
London to appeal .... Aug. 20, ,, 

Oude joins the Indian mutiny : ex-king of Oude 
imprisoned (on suspicion) . . June 14, 1857 



Battle of Buxar, where Sujahand his ally, Meer 

Cossim, are totally defeated, and the British 

became virtually masters of Oude . Oct. 23, 1764 
Ileigaof Asoph-ud-Dowlah, who cedes Benares, 

Ac, to the East India Company, who jilace 

troops in Oude (see CImnar) . . . 1775-81 
[The annual subsidy to the company in 1787 

was soo,oooi. ; in 1794, 760,000^. ; in 1801, 

i,3S2,347i.J More territories ceded to the 

company iSoi ■ The queen dies at Paris, Jan. 24 ; and the prince 

Ghazec-ud-deen becomes Icinff, with the consent [ at Loudon Feb. 26, 1858 

of the British 1819 [For the war, see Iixlia, 1857-8.] 

Dreadful misgovernment of Nusser-ud-decn, 1827-37 Triumphal entry of the governor-general into 
j_.\t his death, the British resident, colonel Lowe, I Luckuow. The Talookdars (landholders) re- 

prom))tly suppresses an insurrection.] ceive a free grant of their estates . Oct. 22, 1859 

Mahomed Ali governs well . . . 1837-42 Oude is said to be prospering under British rule. 

But his Son Umjeed AU Shah . . . 1842-7 ■ 

OUDENARDE (Belgium), where, on July 11, 1708, the English and allies nnder the 
duke of Marlborough and prince Eugene, thoroughly defeated the French besiegers. 

OULART (S.E. Ireland), where a body of 5000 Irish insurgents attacked the king's 
trooiis, in small number, May 27, 1798. The North Cork militia, after great feats of bravery, 
were cut to pieces, five men only escaping. Musgravc. 

OUNCE, the sixteenth part of the pound avoirdupois, and twelfth of the pound troy. 
The word is from uncia ; and its precise weight was fixed by Henry III., who decreed that an 
English ouncft should be 640 dry grains of wheat ; that twelve of these ounces should be a 
pound ; and that eight pounds should be a gallon of wine, 1233. 

OURIQUE (Portugal), where Alfon.so, count or duke of Portugal, encountered five 
Saracen kings and a prodigious army of Moors, July 25, 1139, and signally defeated them. 
He was hailed king upon the spot. Lisbon, the capital, was taken, and lie soon after was 
here crowned as the first king ; the Moorish dominion being overthrown. 

OUTLAW, one deprived of the benefit of the law, and out of the king's protection : a 
punishment for such as being called in law do contemptuously refuse to appear. In the reigu 
of Edward III. all the judges agreed that none but the sheritf only, having lawful warrant 
therefor, should put to death any man outlawed. Cowcl. 

OUZEL GALLEY SOCIETY. In 1700, the case of a ship in the port of Dublin, the 
Ouzel Galley, excited great legal perplexity, and was referred to an arbitration of merchants, 
whose prompt decision was highly approved. This led to the formation of the present society 
in 1705. 

OVATION, an inferior triumph whicli the Ptomans allowed those generals of their army 
■whose victories were not considerable. Publius Postliumius Tubertus was the first who 
•was decreed an ovation, 503 B.C. A sheep {ovis) was offered by the general instead of a bull. 

OVERLAND MAIL. See Waglwrn. 

OVERSEERS of the poor for parishes were appointed in 1601. See Poor Laws. 

OWHYHEE or Hawaii, an island in the N. Pacific Ocean, discovered in 1778, by cajit. 
Cook. On Feb. 14, 1779, he here fell a victim to a sudden resentment of the natives. A 
boat having been stolen by one of the islanders, the captain went on shore to seize the king, 
and keep him as a hostage till the boat was restored. The people would not submit to this 
insult, and their resistance brought on hostilities, and captain Cook and some of his com- 
panions were killed. Great progress has been recently made in civilisation here ; and an 
order of nobility and a representative assembly were instituted in i860. The population then 
was about 120,000. 

OXALIC ACID, which exists in several jdauts, especially in sorrel, is now abundantly 
obtained, for use in the arts, from sawdust acted upon by caustic potash or soda, according to 
Dr. Dale's process, patented in 1862. 

OXFORD, an ancient city, restored by king Alfred, who resided here and established a 
mint, &c. 



OXF 



536 



OXF 



OXFORD, continued. 

Canute held a national council here . . . loiS i 

Stormed by William 1 1067 

Charter by Henry II., the city granted to the 

burgesses by John 1199 

Henry III. holds the "mad" parliament hero 1258 
The BISHOPRIC, established by Henry VIH., 
formed out of Lincoln, first placed at Osney 
in 1542 ; removed to Oxford (Cathedral, for- 
merly St. Frideswide, now Christ church) . 1545 



Bishops Ridley and Latimer burnt here, Oct. 
16, 1555 ; and archbishop Cranmer, JIarch 21, iss^ 

Fatal (or Black) Oxford A^sizes, — when the high 
sheriff and 300 other persons died suddenly, 
of an infection caught from the prisoners . 1557 

Charles I. took Oxford, 1642, and held a parlia- 
ment here 1644 

Taken by the parliament 1646 

Charles II. held parliaments here . 1665 & 1681 



iiECEXT BISHOPS OF OXFORD. (Present income, 5000Z.) 



1807. Charles Moss ; died, Dec. 16, 181 1. 
1812. William Jackson ; died, Dec. 2, 1815. 
1815. Edward Legge; died, Jan. 27, 1827. 



1827. Charles Lloyd ; died. May 31, 1829. 

1829. Richard B^igot : translated to Bath, Nov. iS 

1845. Samuel Wilberforce, present bishop. 



OXFORD ADMINISTRATION, formed May 29, 171 1. 



Robert, earl of Oxford (previously right hon. Robert 

Harley), lord treasurer. 
Sir Simon (afterwards lord) Harcourt, lord keeper. 
John, duke of Normanby and Buckingham, lord 

president. 
John, bishop of Bristol (aft. London), privy seal. 
Henry St. John (aftei-wards viscount Bolingbroke), 

and WiUiam, lord Dartmouth, secretaries of state. 



Robert Ben.son (afterwards lord Bingley), chancellor 
of the exchequer. 

The duke of Shrewsbury succeeded lord Oxford, re- 
ceiving the lord treasurer's staff on July 30, 1714, 
three days before the death of queen Anne. From 
the reign of George I. the office of lord treasurer 
has been e.xecuted by commissioners. 



OXFORD DECLARATION. See Church of England, 1S64. 
OXFORD MARBLES. See Arundelian. 

OXFORD UNIVERSITY. An academy here i.s described as ancient by pope Martin II. 
in a deed, 802. Alfred founded "the schools" about 879. 



Charter gi-anted by Henry III 1248 

The university incorporated by Elizabeth . . 1571 
Receives the elective franchise (to send two 

members to parliament) 1603 

Bodleian Library opened, Nov. 8. 1602 : present 

building completed 161 3 

The botanic garden, (fee, estabhshed by the 
earl of Danby ....... 1622 

Radcliffe Library opened, April 13, 1749: the 

RadclifTe observatory completed . . . 1786 
A commission appointed (Aug. 31, 1850) to in- 
quire into its "state, studies, discipline, and 
revenues ;" reported . . . April 27, 1852 
Act making alterations passed . . 1855, 18=6 
University Museum opened . . July, i860 

Examination statutes passed 1801, 1807, 1850, 1862 
Extension of the university proposed at a 
meeting held .... Nov. 16, 1865 

COLLEGES. 

University. Said to have been founded by king 
Alfred, 872 ; founded by William, archdeacon 
of Durham, about 1232 

Baliol. John Baliol, knt, (father to Baliol, king 
of the Scots), and Deborah, his wife . . 1263 

Merton College. Walter de Merton, bishop of 
Rochester 1264 

Hertford College (dissolved in 1818, and a Hert- 
ford scholarship appuinted) .... 1312 

Exeter. Walter Stapleton, bi.shop of Exeter . 1314 

Oriel College. King Edward II. ; Adam de 
Brome, archdeacon of Stowe . . . . 1326 

Queen's College. Robert de Eglesfield, clerk, 
confessor to queen Philippa, consort of Ed- 
ward III 1340 

New College. William of Wykehana, bishop of 
Winchester: first called St. Mary of Wm- 
chester 1386 



All Souls' College, founded by Henry Chichely, 
archbishop of Canterbury . . . -1437 

Magdalen. William of AVajTiflete, bishop of 
Winchester 1456 

Lincoln College. Richard Fleming, 1427 ; 
finished by Rotherham, bishop of Lincoln . 1479 

Brazenose. William Snij'th, bishop of Lincoln, 
and sir Richard Sutton ... . . 1509 

Corpus Christi. Richard Fox, bishop of Win- 
chester . . 15 16 

Christ Church. Cardinal Wolsey, 1525 ; and 
afterwards by Henry VIII 1532 

Trinity. Sir Thomas Pope, on the basis of a 
previous institution, called Durham College, 1554 

St. John's. Sir Thomas Whyte, lord mayor of 
London 1555 

Jesus College. Dr. Hugh Price ; queen Eliza- 
beth 1571 

Wadham. Nicholas Wadham, and Dorothy, his 
wife 1613 

Pembroke. Thomas Tecsdale and Richard 
Wightwiok, clerk 1624 

Worcester. Sir Thomas Coke of Bentley, in 
Worcestershire ; it was originally called Glou- 
cester College 1714 

HALLS (not incorporated). 

St. Edmund's 1269 

St. Mary's 1333 

New Inn Hall 1392 

St. Mary Magdalen 1487 

St. Alban's 1547 

[^Oxford Universiti/ Calendar.] 

First Professorshi2JS— Divinity (Margaret), 1502, 
Divinity, Law, Medicine, Hebrew, Gireek, 
1540, &c. 



1809. Lord Grenville. 

1834. The duke of Wellington. 



RECENT CHANCELLORS. 

I 1852. The Earl of Derby. 



OXF 



537 



PAD 



OXFORD'S ASSAULT ox the Queex. A yoiitli named Edward Oxford, who had been 
a servant in a public-house, disehari^ed two pistols at her majesty queen Victoria and pi-ince 
Albert, as they were proceeding up Constitution-hill in an open phaeton from Buckingham 
palace, June lo, 1840. He stood within a few yards of the carriage ; but fortunately neither 
her majesty nor the prince was injured. Oxford was subsequently tried at the Old Bailey 
(July 10), and being adjudged to be insane, was sent to Bethlehem hospital. 

OXYGEi^, a gas (named from the Greek oxici, sharp, as being generally found in acids), 
is the most abundant of all substances, constituting about one-third, of the solid earth, aud 
forming by weight nine-tenths of water and one-fourth of the atmosphere. It was first 
separated from red oxide of mercury by Priestley, Aug. i, 1774, and by Scheele, who was 
ignorant of Priestley's discovery, in 1775. It is the chief supporter of animal life by 
respiration, and of combustion.* See Ozone. 

OYER AND Terminer, a commission directed to the judges of the courts, by virtue 
whereof they have power to hear and determine treasons, felonies, &c., 1285. 

YES ! A corruption of the French oijc~, hear ye ! The ancient term used hy a public 
crier to enjoin silence and attention. 

OYSTER (the Latin Ostrea edidis), is said to have its capital in Britain, for though 
found elsewhere on the coasts of Europe, in no part of them does it attain such perfection as 
in our seas. British oj'sters are celeln'ated by the Roman satirist Juvenal (Sat. IV. 140) 
about 100. The robbery of oyster-beds is prohibited by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 29 (1826). About 
15,000 bushels of oysters are said to be produced from the Essex beds alone. In 1S58 
M. Coste commenced rearing oj'sters in great numbers on the coast of Brittany, and his plan 
has been found successful. 

OZONE (from ozciii, to yield an odour), a name given in 1840 by M. Schoubcin of Basel 
to the odour in the atmosphere developed during the electric discharge. It is considered to 
be a modification of the oxygen (which see), and when occurring naturally, to have an effect 
on health. It is also produced by the action of moist air on phosphorus. In 185S 
ozonometers had been constructed by Dr. Lankester and others. M. Schonbein lias since 
discovered aiiother modification of oxygi'U, which he terms antozone (1859), which hitherto 
has been found only iu the compound state (in peroxides of sodium, potassium, &c.). On 
Dec. 4, 1865, the French Academy of Sciences appointed a committee of eminent philo- 
sophers to inquire into the natm-e and relations of ozone. 



P. 

PACIFICATION, Edicts of. The name usually given to the edicts of toleration 
granted by the French kings to the Protestants. See Ghent. 



First edict, by Cliarles IX., permitting the exer- 
ci.se of tbe reformed religion near all the 
cities aud towns in the realm . . Jan. 1562 

The reformed religion permitted in the houses 
of lords justiciaries, and certain other persons, 

March, 1563 

These edicts revoked, and all Protestant minis- 
ters ordered to quit France in fifteen days . 1568 

Edict, allowing lords and others to have service 
in their houses, and granting pubUc service 
in certain towns 1570 



[In August, 1572, the same monarch authorised 
the massacre of St. Bartholomew. See Bar- 
tholomew.} 

Edict of Pacification by Henry III., April ; re- 
voked, Dec. 1576 ; renewed for six years, Oct. 1577 

[Several edicts were published against the Pro- 
testants after the six years expired.] 

Edict of Henry IV., renewing that of Oct. 1577, 1591 

Edict of Nantes (zckich see), by Henry IV., 

April 13, 1598 

Pacification (which see) of Nismes . July 14, 1629 



PACIFIC OCEAN. See J/ai/cZfeK.— Steam Vessel. See Steam, iS^i ; Wrecks, iS^6. 

PADLOCKS are said to have been invented by Becher at Nuremberg, 1540, but are 
mentioned much earlier. 

PADUA, the Roman Patavium, iu Venetia, N. Italy, said to have been founded by 
Anteuor, soon after the fall of Troy, 11 83 B.o. It flourished under the Ronums. Pataviau 
Latin was considered very corrupt, and is traced in Livy, a native of Padua. After being 
an independent republic, Padua was ruled by the Cari'ara family from 13 18 till 1405, when 
it was seized by the Venetians. The university was founded about 1228. 

* An oxygen gas company was announced in Dec. 1S64 : its object is the cheap manufacture of oxygen 
for its application to the production of perfect combustion in lamps, stoves, furnaces, ifec. 



PAG 



638 



PAI 



PAGANS, the lieatlieu, idolaters, gentiles, worshippers of idols, not agreeing in any set 
form or points of belief. Coustantine ordered the Pagan temples to be destroj'ed throughout 
tlie Koman empire, 331 ; his nephew, Julian, attempted their restoration, 361 ; but Paganism 
was renounced by the Roman senate, iu 388, and finally overthrown in the reigu of Tlieo- 
dosius the younger, about 391. 

PAINS AND PENALTIES. See Queen Caroline. 

PAINTING. Osymandyas (in Egypt) caused his exploits to be represented in painting, 
2100 B.C. Usher. Pausias of Sicyon was the inventor of the encaustic, a method of burning 
the colours into wood or ivorj'-, about 360-330 B.C. The ancients considered Sicyon the 
nursery of painters. Antiphiles, an Egyptian, is said to have been the inventor of the 
grotesque, 332 B.C. Pliny. The art was introduced at Eome from Etruria, by Quintus 
Fabius, styled Pidor, 291 B.C. Livy.* The first excellent pictures were brought from Corinth 
by Mummius, 146 B.C. After the death of Augustus, not a single painter of eminence 
appeared for several ages ; Ludius, who was very celebrated, is supposed to have been the 
last, about a.d. 14. Painting on canvas seems to have been known at Iiome in 66. Bede, 
the Saxon historian, who died in 735, knew something of the art. It revived about the end 
of the 13th century, and to Giovanni Ciraabue, of Florence, is awarded the honour of its 
restoration. It was at once encouraged and generously patronised in Italy. John Van Eyck, 
of Bruges, and his brother, Hubert, are regarded as the founders of the Flemish school of 
painting in oil, 1415. Dufresnoy. Paulo Uccello was the fir.st who studied perspective. 
About 1523 Henry VIII. patronised Holbein, and invited Titian to his court.f 







EMINENl 


PAINTERS. 










School. 


Bovn. 


Died. 


School. Born. 


Bkd. 


Cimabue 


. Florentine 


1240 


1300 


Ostade Dutch . . 1610 


1685 


■Giotto .... 


. Ditto . . 


1276 


1336 


Murillo 




. Spanish . 1613 


1685 


J. Van Eyck . 


. Flemish . 


1366 


1441 


Berghem 




. . Dutch . 1624 


1685 


Giorgione . 


. Venetian . 


1477 


1511 


Carlo Dolci . 




. Florentine. 1616 


1 686 


Leonardo da Vinci . 


. Florentine. 


1452 


1519 


Wouvermans . 




. . Dutch . 1620 


i68£ 


Raphael d'Urbino 


. Roman 


1483 


1520 


Le Brun 




. French . 1619 


1690 


Paolo Perugino 


. Ditto . . 


1446 


1524 


Teniers, jun. . 




. . Flemish . 1610 


1694 


Albert Diirer . 


. German . 


1470 


152S 


W. Vander Velde 




. Dutch . 1633 


1707 


Quentin Matsys . 


. Flemish 


1430 


1529 


Watteau 




. . French . 1684 


1721 


€orreg„ao 


. Lombardn. 


1494 


1534 


Sir Godfrey Knelle 


r . 


. German . 1648 


1723 


Parmegiauo 


. Ditto . . 


1503 


1540 


Sir J. Thomhill 




. . English . 1676 


1732 


Giulio Romano 


. Roman 


1492 


1546 


Huysum 




. Dutch . . 1682 


1749 


Sebastian del Piombo 


. Venetian . 


1485 


1547 


Hogarth . 




. . English . 1697 


1764 


Hans Holbein . 


. German 


1498 


1554 


Canaletti . 




. Venetian . 1697 


1768 


Michael Angelo Buonar 


otti Florentine, 


1474 


1564 


Gainsborough 




. . English . 1727 


1788 


Titian. 


. Venetian . 


1477 


1576 


Verne t 




. French . 1714 


1789 


Paul Veronese 


. Ditto . . 


1532 


1588 


Sir J. Reynolds 


. 


. . English . 1723 


1792 


Tintoretto . 


. Ditto . 


1512 


1594 


Romncy 




. Ditto . . 1734 


1802 


Annibal Caracci . 


. Lombardn. 


1568 


1609 


Moreland 




. . Ditto . . 1764 


1804 


Breughel . 


. Flemish . 


1565 


1625 


Barry . 




. Ditto . . 1741 


1806 


P. P. Rubens 


. Ditto . . 


1577 


1640 


Opie 




. . Ditto . .1761 


1807 


Domenichino 


. Bolognese . 


1581 


1641 


Bourgeois . 




. Ditto . . 1756 


1811 


Vandyck 


. Flemish . 


1599 


1641 


Copley . 




. . Ditto . .1738 


1815 


Guido .... 


. Lombardn. 


1575 


1642 


West . 




. Ditto . . 1738 


1820 


Both 


. Dutch 


1600 


1650 


Fusoli . 




. . Ditto . .1741 


1825 


P. Potter . 


. Ditto . . 


1625 


1654 


David . 




. French . . 1748 


1825 


Xe Sueur 


. French 


1617 


1655 


Lawrence 




. . English . 1769 


1830 


Spagiioletto 


. Spanish 


1589 


1656 


Northcote . 




. Ditto . . 1746 


1831 


Snyders . 


. Flemish . 


1579 


1657 


Beechey. 




. . Ditto . . 1753 


1839 


Velasquez . 


. Spanish 


1599 


1660 


Wilkie 




. Ditto , .1785 


1841 


N. Poussin . 


. French 


1594 


1665 


H.aydon . 




. . Ditto . . 1786 


1846 


Guercino . 


. Bolognese . 


1590 


1666 


Collins 




. Ditto . .1788 


1847 


Hobbima 


. Flemish . 


161 1 


1670 


Etty 




. . Ditto . .1787 


1849 


A. Cuyp 


. Dutch 


i6o5 


1672 


Turner 




. Ditto . .1775 


1851 


A. Vander Velde . 


. Ditto . . 


1638 


1672 


Martin . 




. . Ditto . . 1790 


1854 


Salvator Rosa . 


. Neapolitan 


1615 


1673 


Aug. Egg . 




. Ditto . . 1816 


1863 


Rembrandt . 


. Dutch 


1606 


1674 


Wm. Mulready 




. . Ditto . .1786 


1863 


Gerard Douw . 


. Ditto . . 


1613 


1680 


Wm. Hunt . 


. Ditto . . 


1864 


Sir Peter Lely 


. German 


1617 


1680 


W. F. Witherington 


. . Ditto . .1786 


1865 


Mieris. 


. Dutch 


1635 


1681 


H. Vernet . 


. French 


1863 


Ruysdael 


. Ditto . . 


1636 


1681 


E. De la Croix 


. . Ditto . 


1863 


Claude Lorraine. 


. French 


1600 


1682 


E. W. Cooke 




. English . 1810 





* Parrhasius of Ephesus and Zeuxis were contemporary painters. These artists once contended for 
pre eminence in their profession, and when they exhibited their respective pieces the birds came to peck 
the grapes which Zeuxis had painted. Parrhasius then produced his piece, and Zeuxis said, " Remove 
the curtain, that we may see the ijainting." The curtain itself was the painting, and Zeuxis acknow- 
ledged himself to be conquered, exclaiming, "Zeuxis has deceived the birds ; but Parrhasius has deceived 
Zeuxis ! " Parrhasius dressed in a jiurple robe, and wore a crown of gold, calUng himself king of painters, 
415 B.C. Plutarch. 

t In Aug. i860, the sale of lord Northwick's pictures occupied eighteen days. It produced 95,725!. A 



PAL 539 PAL 

PALACE COURT. See Marshalsca and Green Cloth. 

PALACES. See Buckingham, St. Jamnss, Parliament, Escurial, Tmlcrica, St. Cloud, 
Versailles, &c. 

PAL.EOLOGI, a family which reigned ay emperors of the East from 1260 to 1453. 
George Pahxologus raised Alexius Comnenns to the throne in 1081, and therehy founded his 
own family. Andrew, the last Palpeologus, son of Thomas, ruler of the Morea, after the 
overthrow of his father, became a Mahometau at Constantinople about 1533. 

PALAEONTOLOGY (from the Greek ^>aZaio5, ancient, and onta, beings), treats of the 
evidences" of organic beings in the earth's strata. It is a branch of geology {which see). 
Cuvicr, Mautell, Agassiz, Owen, Edward Forbes, and Blainville, all of the present century, 
may be reckoned as fathers of this science. The Palajontographical society, which publishes 
elaborate monogi-aphs of British organic remains, was founded in 1847. Professor Owen's 
" Palaiontology" was published in i860. "Nearly 40,000 species of animals and plants 
have been added to the Systema Nature by paloeoutological research." Huxley. See 3Ia7i. 

PALATINATE of the Rhine, one of the seven ancient electorates of Germany. It 
was long united to Bavaria ; but was separated in 1294. — Frederic V., the elector palatine in 
1610, married in 1613 Elizabetli, the daughter of James I. of England, and thus became the 
ancestor of queen Victoria. Sea Hanover. In 1619 he was elected king of Bohemia; but 
lost all by his defeat by the Austrians at Prague in 1620. The Palatinate was horribly ravaged 
by Tilly in 1622, and by the French in 1688.* The elector palatine, Charles Theodore, inherited 
Bavaria in 1778 : since when the two electorates have been united. See Bavaria. 

PALATINE. William the Conqueror made his nephew, Hugh D'Abrincis, count 
palatine of Chester, with the title of earl, about 1070. Edward III. created the palatine of 
Lancaster, 1539. See Lancaster, duchij of. The bishoprics of Ely (963) and Durham were 
also made county palatines. Tlie latter was vested in the crown in 1836. There is also 
mention made of the county palatine of Hexham, in 33 Henry Vlll. c. 10, which then 
belonged to the archbishop of York, but by the 14th of Elizabeth it was dissolved, and made 
part of the county of Northumberland. The palatinate jurisdiction of Durham was separated 
from the diocese, and vested in the crown, 6 Will. IV. c. 19, June 21, 1836. 

PALERMO (N.W. Sicily), the ancient Panormus. It has been held by the Carthaginians, 
415 B.C. ; taken by the Romans, 254 B.C. ; by the Saracens, A.D. 832 ; and by the Normans, 
1072. Here Roger II. was crowned king of Sicily, 1130. Palermo was the scene of the 
Sicilian Vespers {which see), March 30, 1282. It suffered from earthquake in 1726 and 1740. 
The king Ferdinand resided at Palermo from 1806 to 1815, while Naples was ruled by Joseph 
Bonaparte and Joachim Murat. It revolted against the tyranny of Ferdinand II., Jan. 12, 
1848. It was attacked by general Filangieri, March 29, 1849, and surrendered on May 14. 
It was taken by Garibaldi, June 6, i860. 

PALESTINE. See Jews. After being several times conquered by the Saracens, and 
retaken from the 7th to the loth century, and after being the scene of the wars of the 
Crusades (w/ticA sec), and other conflicts, Palestine was united to the Ottoman empire by 
Selim I. in 15 16. See Bible (note),^ Holy Places, and Syria, 

PALESTRO (N. Italy), where the Sardinians defeated the Austrians, May 30, 31, 1859. 

PALL, PALLIUM, in the Roman Church an ensign of dignity conferred by the pope 
upon archbishops. By a decretal of pope Gregory XL (about 1370), no archbishop coidd call 
a council, bless the chrism, consecrate churches, ordain a clerk, or consecrate a bishop, till 
lie had received his pall from the see of Rome. The pall was first worn by an Irish arch- 
bishop in 1 152, wdieu Gelasius was recognised as primate of all Ireland. 

PALLADIUM, the statue of Pallas. Some authors say it fell from heaven near the tent 
of Ilus, as he was building Ilium; and that on its preservation depended the safety of Troy; 
•which the oracle of Apollo declared should never be taken so long as the Palladium was 

Carlo Dolci fetched 2010?., and a JIurillo 1400?. The Bicknell collection, sold in April, 1S63, produced 
25,600?. 

* About 7000 of poor Protestants, from the banks of the Rhine, driven from their habitations by the 
French, arrived in England, and were encamped at Blackheath and Camberwell : a brief was granted to 
collect alms for them. Five hundred families went under the protection of the government to Ireland, 
and settled chiefly about Limerick, where parliament granted them 24,000/. for then- support. Three 
thousand were sent to New York and Hudson's Bay ; but not having been received kindly, they went to 
Pennsylvania, and being there greatly encour.aged liy the Quakers, they invited over some thousands of 
Gorman and Swiss Protestants, who soon made this colony flourishing, 7 Anne, 1709. Anderson. 

t By means of the Palestine exploration fund (see p. 103), capt. Wilson and a party left England for 
Palestine in Nov. 1865. 



PAL 



-)iO 



PAL 



found within its walls. This being made known, the Greeks stole it away during the Trojan 
Avar, 1 184 B.C., though some maintain that it was only a statue of similar size and shape, 
and tliat the real Palladium was conveyed from Troy to Italy by ^neas, 1183 B.C., and pre- 
served by the Romans with the greatest secresy in the temple of Vesta, and esteemed the 
destiny of Eome. — Palladium js a rare metal discovered in platinum ore by Dr. WoUastou 
in 1803. 

PALLAS,* the planet, was discovered by Olbers, at Bremen, March 28, 1802. 

PALL MALL, a street near St. James's palace, London, is named from a French game 
at ball {jKiillc-maille, being a wooden mallet), having been played there about 1621. Among 
eminent inhabitants were Nell Gwyn and Dr. Thomas Sydenham. 

PALMERSTON ADMINISTRATION, t The resignation of the Aberdeen adminis- 
tration was announced Feb. i, 1855, but nearly all its members returned to office soon after 
imder loi'd Palmerston, — lord Derby and lord John Russell having each in vain endeavoured 
to form an adndnistration. On Feb. 22, Mr. Gladstone, sir James Graham, and Mr. Sidney 
Herbert resigned on accoimt of the Sebastopol inquiry. Lord Jolni Russell resigned 
July 13. Lord Canning was appointed governor-general of India, July 4, 1855. This 
cabinet resigned Feb. 20, 1858, in consequence of a vote of censure upon the government 
for introducing the Foreign Conspiracy bill. It was succeeded by the Derby administration 
{which sec). 



First lord of the treasury, Henry viscount Palmer- 
ston. 

Lord chancellor, lord Crauworth. 

President of the council, earl Granville. 

Lord -privy seal, duke of Argyll ; eail of Harrowby ; 
afterwards the marquess of Clanricarde. 

Secretaries — home, sir George Grey ; foreign, earl of 
Clarendon; colonial, Sidney Herbert (resigned 
Feb. 22) ; afterwards lord J. Russell (resigned 
July 13) : sir William Molesworth (died Oct. 22, 
1855) ; next, Henry Labouchere ; war, Lord Pan- 
mure. 

Chancellor of the exchequer, W. Gladstone (resigned 
Feb. 22) ; next, sir G. Cornewall Lewis. 



First lord of the adtniralt;/, sir James Grabam (re- 
signed Feb. 22) ; next, sir Charles Wood. 

Board of control, sir Charles Wood ; next, R. Vernon 
Smith. 

Public work-', sir W. Molesworth ; next, sir B. Hall 
(appointed July 22, 1855). 

Postmasier-general, viscount Canning (appointed go- 
vernor-general of India, July 4) ; next, duke of 
Argyll. 

President of the hoard of trade, lord Stanley of Al- 
derley. 

Marquess of Lansdowne, without office. 

Chancellor of tlie duchy of Lancaster, M. T. Baines 
(aijpointed Nov. 24, 1855). 



PALMERSTON-RUSSELL ADMINISTRATION. The Derby administration [which 
see) resigned June 11, 1859. Earl Granville was requested by the queen to form an adminis- 
tration, and obtained the support of lord Palmerston, but not of lord John Russell : the two 
last then united to form a cabinet, which came into office June 18, 1859. On the decease 
of lord Palmerston, Oct. 18, 1865, earl Russell became premier. See Russell. 



First lord of thetreasury, Henry viscount Palmerston. 

Lord high chancellor, John lord Campbell (died, June 
23, 1861) ; succeeded bj' sir Richard Bethell, made 
lord Westburj', who resigned July 4, 1865 ; suc- 
ceeded by Lord Cranworth. 

Lord president of the council, earl Granville. 

Lord privy seal, duko of Argyll. 

Stcrdariei^— foreign affairs, lord John (afterwards 
earl) Russell ; colonies, duke of Newcastle ; suc- 
ceeded by Edward Cardwell, April 8, 1864 ! home, 
sir G. Cornewall Lewis ; succeeded by sir George 
Grey; war, Sidney (afterwards lord) Herbert; 
succeeded by sir G. C. Lewis (died April 13, 1863), 
and by earl Le Grey (May i^ ; India, sir Charles 
Wood. 



Chancellor of the exchequer, Wm. Bwart Gladstone. 

First lord of the admiralty, duke of Somerset. 

President of the board of trade, Thomas Milner Gibson. 
[This office was offered to Mr. R. Cobden, and de- 
clined by him. J 

Secretary of stede for Ireland, Edward Cardwell ; suc- 
ceeded by sir R. Peel (not in the cabinet). 

Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, sir George Grey, 
bart. ; succeeded by Edward Cardwell ; and by 
earl Clarendon, April 8, 1864. 

Postmasier-general, earl of Elgin (proceeded to China 
in April, i860); succeeded by lord Stanley of Al- 
derley, appointed Sept. i860. 

Poor-law board, Charles P. Villiers (July 9, i860). 



PALM-SUNDAY. When Christ made his triumphal entry into Jerusalem, multitudes 
of the people who were come to the feast of the Passover, took branches of the palm-tree, 

* It is distant from the sun about 263 millions of miles, and comjiletes its revolution in four years 
seven months and one-tliird of a month. Schroeter, a Germin astronomer, estimated its diameter to be 
2099 miles, and consequently nearly the size of our moon. It presents a ruddy aspect, and is surrounded 
with a nebulosity. It is distinguished from all the other planets by the very great inclination of its orbit 
to the i)lane of the ecliptic, which is no less than 34 degrees 35 minutes. 

t Henry John Temple was born, Oct. 20, 1784 ; was educated at Harrow, Edinburgh, and Cambridge ; 
succeeded his father, viscount Palmerston, 1802 ; became M. P., and a junior lord of the admiralty, 1807 ; was 
secretary-at war, 1809-28, and a secretary for foreign aifairs, Nov. 1830-34, April 1835 to Sept. 1841, and 
July 1846 to Dec. 1851 ; and home secretary, Dec. 1852 to March 1855, when he became first lord of the 
treasury. He was created lord warden of "the cinque ports, March 31, 1861 ; and master of the corporation 
of the Trinity house, June 16, 1862. He died, Oct. 18, 1865. He sat for Tiverton, 1835-65. 



PAL 541 PAN 

and went forth to meet liiin, with acchimations and hosannas, 33. It is usual, in some 
countries, to carry palms on the Sunday before Easter, hence called Palm-Sunday. 

PALMYRA (Syria). The ruins, chiefly of white marble, discovered by some English 
travellers in 1678, prove Palmyra to have been more extensive and splendidthan even Rome 
itself. It was supposed to have been the Tadmor in the wilderness built by Solomon, but 
was manifestly Grecian. The brilliant part of the history of Palmyra was under Odenatus 
and his queen Zenobia. Odenatus died, and Zenobia assumed the title of queen of the East, 
in 267. Aurelian defeated her at Adessa and made her captive, 273. From that time 
Palmyra ceased to make a figure in history. It is now inhabited by only a few Arab families. 
The ruins were visited in 175 1, by Mr. Wood, who published an account of them in 1753. 
Mr. Dawkins also visited Palmyra ; and Mr. Bruce, on ascending a neighbouring mount, was 
overcome with the magnificent sight. 

PAJIPELUNA (N. E. Spain, taken by the French on their invasion of Spain), was 
invested l)y the British, between whom and the French obstinate conflicts took place, July 
27 and 29, 1S13. It surrendered to the British, Oct. 31, in that year. 

PAMPHLET. The first appearance of pamphlets amongst us is generally thought to 
have been in opposition to the errors and corruptions of the church of Rome. Those who 
were first convinced of the reasonableness of the "new learning," as it was then called, pro- 
pagated their opinions in small pieces, which were cheaply printed, and (what was then of 
great importance) easily concealed. Political pamphlets began in Edward VI. 's time, and 
were very numerous in the 17th century. Large collections are in the libraries of the British 
Museum and the Royal and London Institutions. 

PANAMA, the isthmus which joins the two Americas. Across this a ship canal has 
been proposed : and a railway was opened in 1S55. In that year a new state. New Grenada, 
was divided into eight federal states, one of which is named Pan.\]\ia. A revolution took 
jilace in Panama on March 9, 1S65 ; the government was deposed, and don Jil Colunje 
became president. 

PANDECTS. A digest of the civil law made by order of Justinian, about 534. It is 
stated that these Pandects (which condensed all the then known laws) were accidentally 
discovered in the ruins of Amalfi, 1137; were removed from Pisa in 1415, and now pre- 
served in the library of the Medici at Florence, as the Pandccke Florentinm. 

PANIC'S, Commercial, generally the result of over-speculation. See Bubbles, South Sea, 
Lmcs. The last in this country were, in 1826, through bubble companies ; in 1847, 
through the railway mania ; in 1857, through American failures ; and in April, 1S59, 
through the fear of a continental war. 

PANNONIA, part of Illyria, now Hungary, was finally subdued by Tiberius, 8. 

PANOPTICON OF Science and Art, in Leicester-square, erected in 1S52-3 for a char- 
tered company, by Mr. T. H. Lewis, the architect ; was opened in 1854 for lectures, musical 
performances, &c. It had a very large electrical machine, battery, &c. The speculation did 
nut succeed ; the building was sold in 1857, and in Feb. 1858, was opened for concerts and 
horsemanship, and called the Alhambra. 

PANORAMAS, the invention of Robert Barker, are bird's-eye views painted in dis- 
temper round the wall of a circular building. In 178S he exhibited at Edinburgh a view of 
that city, being the first picture of the kind. He then commenced similar exhibitions in 
London, having adopted the name ' Panorama ' to attract notice, and was ultimatel}' 
enabled to build commodious premises in Leicester-square for that purpose. He died in 
April, 1806. 

PANORMUS. See Palermo. 

PANTHEON AT Rome. A temple built by Augustus Ca3sar, some say by Agrippa, his 
son-in-law, 27 r..c. It was in a round form, having niches in the wall, where, the image or 
representation of a particular god was set up ; the gates were of brass, the beams covered 
with gilt bra.ss, and the roof covered with silver plate. Pope Boniface III. dedicated it to 
the Virgin Mary, and all the saints, by the name of S. Maria della Rotouda, or "ad 
Martyres," A.D. 608. — The Pantheon in London was erected by subscription, and opened 
Jan. 25, 1772. It was formed into an opera-house; was burnt down Jan. 14, 1792; was 
rebuilt in 1795 and 1812 ; and made a bazaar in 1834. 

PANTOMIMES were representations by gestures and attitudes among the ancients, and 
were introduced on the Roman stage by Pylades and Bathyllus, 22B.C. Comic masques 



PAP 542 PAP 

were introdiiced lieie froin Italy about 1700. The first rcgiilarj<]nglish pantomime is said to 
have been " Harleijuin executed," produced by Rich at the Liucoln's-inu-fields theatre, 
Dec. 26, 1 71 7. 

"'papal aggression." In a consistory holden in Ptonie, Sept. 30, 1850, the pope 
(Pius IX.) named fourteen new cardinals, of whom four only were Italians. Among the ten 
foreigners raised to the dignity of cardinal, was Dr. Wiseman, Roman Catholic vicar- 
apostolic of the London district, who was at the same time created lord archbishop of West- 
minster. On Oct. 27, following, Dr. Ullathorne was enthroned as Roman Catholic bishop 
of Birmingham in St. Chad's cathedral in that town. The same day a pastoral letter from 
Dr. Wiseman was read in all the Roman Catholic chapels of his see ; and on its becoming 
generally known to the British people that all England had been parcelled out similarly 
into Romish dioceses, the strongest indignation of the assumption of the pope was expressed 
throughout the empire.* The answer of the bishop of London (Dr. Blomfield) to a memorial 
from the Protestant clergy of Westminster, against the pope's creation of a Romish hierarchy 
in this country, was followed by the celebrated "Durham" letter from lord John Rassell, then 
chief minister of the crown (Nov. 4), to the bishop of Durham, in which is severely censured 
not only the papal aggression, but also the proceedings of the tractarian clergy of the Church 
of England ; and immediately from every quarter of England addresses poured into her 
majesty the queen, calling upon her and the government to resist the usurpation. As 
many as 6700 addresses, it is said, had been voted from nearly as many influential meetings 
np to Dec. 31, 1850. The great agitation on this subject produced the Ecclesiastical Titles 
bill, 14 & 15 Viet. c. 60 (passed Aug. 185 1), which prohibited the constitution of bishops 
of pretended provinces under a penalty of lool. This statute, however, has not yet been 
acted upon. 

PAPAL STATES. See Rome and Popes. 

PAPER. See Pcqjyms. Paper is said to have been invented in China, 1 70 B. c. It was 
first made of cotton about a.d. iooo ; and of rags about 1300.! White coarse paper was made 
by sir John Speilman, a German, at Dartford, in England, 33 Eliz. 1590 : and here the first 
paper mills were erected. Stow. Paper for writing and printing manufactured in England, 
and an act passed to encourage it, 2 Will. III. 1690; before this time we paid for these 
articles to France and Holland ioo,oooZ. annually. The French refugees taught our people; 
they had made coarse brown paper almost exclusively, until they came among us. White 
paper was first made by us in 1690. Anderson. Paper-making by a machine was first suggested 
by Louis Robert, who sold his model to the celebrated M. Didot, the great printer. The 
latter brought it to England, and here, conjointly with M. Fourdrinier, he perfected the 
machinery. M. Fourdrinier obtained a patent for paper-making machinery in 1801 ; and for 
manufacturing paper of an indefinite length in 1807 ; it had previously been made tediously 
by the hand. The machinery was also improved by Mr. Bryan Donkin. A sheet of paper 
13,800 feet long, and 4 feet wide, was made at Whitehall-mills, Derbyshire, in 1830; and 
one 21,000 feet long, and 6 feet 3 inches wide, was made at Colyton in Devon in i860. The 
paper duty imposed in 1694 (producing latterly, about 1,400,000^. annually), after having 
been the subject of agitation for several years, was repealed in 186 1. Esparto, a Spanish 
grass, first imported in 1857, has been largely employed in the paper manufacture since 
1864. See Parclvment Paper. 

PAPER-HANGINGS, &c. Stamped paper for this purpose was first made in Spain and 
Holland, about 1555. Made of velvet and floss, for hanging apartments, about 1620. The 
manufacture of this kind of paper rapidly improved in this country during the present 
century. — Paper Bricks have been made in America ; and paper tubing for water and gas, 
made by M. Jaloureau of Paris, was shown in i860. 

PAPER-]\10NEY. See Banks. 

PAPIER MACHB. This manufacture (of ]iaper-pulp combined with girm and sometimes 
china clay) ias existed for above a century. Martin, a German snuff-box maker, is said to 

* Among other consecrations that followed, and continued the excitement, was that of Dr. Briggs, 
created Roman Catholic bishop of Beverley, and enthroned in St, George's chapel at York, Feb. 13, 1851 ; 
Dr. Browne created bishop of CUfton, and Dr. Burgess bishop of Shrewsbury : both consecrated in St. 
George's cathedral, Southwark, July 27, 1851 ; and other priests were similarly raised to new Roman 
Catholic prelacies. 

t Mr. Joseph Hunter (in the Archaologia, x-xxvli.) states that the earliest paper which he had seen 
was an MS. account book, dated 1302, probably of Bordeaux manufacture. He gives engravings of manu- 
fticturers' marks, French and English, the dates of which range from 1330 to 1431. He also gives an 
extract from a \<^ork by Bartholus, a writer of the middle of the 14th century, in which mention is made 
of a paper manufactory in the Marches of Ancona. 



TAP 543 4. PAR 

have learnt the art from one Lefevre about 1740. In 1745 it was taken np by Baskerville, 
the printer at Birmingham, and soon spread over tliat district. Papier machd is now largely 
employed in ornamenting the Interior of buildings, &c. 

PAPYEUS. The reed from M-hich was made the celebrated paper of Egypt and India, 
used for writings until the discovery of parchment, about 190 b.c. Ptolemy prohibited the 
exportation of it from Eg3^pt, lest Eumenes of Pergamus should make a library erpial to 
that of Alexandria, 263 B.C. A manuscript of the Antiq^iities of Jostphus on papyrus ol 
inestimable value was among the treasures seized by Bonaparte in Italy, and sent to the 
National Library at Paris ; but was restored in 1815, 

PAEACHUTE. See Balloons. 

PARADISE LOST, the great English epic by John Milton, appeared first in ten books 
in 1667; in twelve books in 1674, 

PARAFFINE (from ^x^rimi affinis, having little affinity with anything), also called 
photogen, a solid substance, somewhat like spermaceti, produced by distillation of coal, and 
first obtained by Reichenbach in 1S30. It was YJi'ocured fi'om mineral oil by ]\Ir. James 
Young about 1847, and is also obtained from Irish peat. It makes excellent candles. 
Much litigation has ensued through interference with Mr. Young's patent-right. 

PARAGITAY, a republic in S. America, discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1526; and 
conrpiered bj'' Alvarez Nuiiez in 1535, and civilised by the Jesuits, who in 160S commenced 
their missions there and established an exclusive government, which they held till their 
expulsion in 1768. Paraguay rose against the Spanish yoke in 181 1. In 1814 Dr. Francia 
was elected dictator ; he ruled well ; he was succeeded on his death in 1840 by Vival. From 
1814 to 1844 the country was rigidly closed against foreigners. The president, C. A. Lopez, 
.elected in 1844, was succeeded by his son, C. A. Lopez, in Sept., 1862, Paraguay was 
recognised as an independent state by the Argentine Confederation in 1852, and by Great 
Britain in 1853. Hostilities between Paraguay and Brazil began on Nov. 11, 1864; when 
a Brazilian steamer was captured as an intruder on the Paraguay. Brazil was invaded in 
December. On April 14, 1865, Lopez invaded tlie territories of the Argentine republic, 
which immediately made alliance with Brazil. The army of Lopez having been defeated 
in Septembei', retreated. On Oct. 18, the allies captured Uruguyana and an army of 
Paraguayans. There were prospects of peace in Dec. 1865. 

PARASOLS were used by the ancient Egyptians. In their present form (said to have 
been devised by the duchess of Rutland) they came into general use about 1820. 

PARCHMENT.* Invented for WTiting books by Eumenes (some say by Attains), of 
Pergamus, the founder of the celebrated library at Pergamus, formed on the model of the 
Alexandrian, about 190 B.C. Parchment-books from this time became those most used, and 
the most valuable as well as oldest in the world are written on the skins of goats. It should 
be mentioned that the Persians and others arc said to have written all their records on skins 
long before Eumenes' time. 

PARDONS. General jiardons were proclaimed at coronations: first by Edward III. in 
1327. The king's power of pardoning is said to be derived d lege succ dignitatis; and no 
other person has power to remit treason or felonies, stat. 27 Hen. VIII. 1535. Blackstonc. 
A pardon cannot follow an impeachment of the house of commons: stat. Will. III. 1700. 

PARIAN MARBLES were discovered in the island of Paros, A. D. 1610. Their 
chronology was composed, 264 B.C. They were brought to England, and were presented to 
the university of Oxford, by Thomas Howard, lord Arundel, whence they are called the 
Arundelian Marbles, which see. 

PARIS (formerly Lutctia Parisior\mi), the capital of France, situated on the river Seine, 
which cuts it into two unequal parts, the strongest being towards the north, and in which 
are three isles, la ville {tlic city), the ile St. Louis, and the ilc Louviers. In the time of Julius 
Cffisar, Lutetia comprised the city only. It was greatly improved by the emperor Julian, 
who made it his residence while he governed Gaul, 355 to 361, and Clovis also resided hero 
in 510. It became successively the capital of the kingdoms of Paris, Soissons, and Neustria, 

* Parchment paper (or vegetable parchment) was invented and patented in 1857, by Mr. W. B. 
Gaine, C.E., who discovered, that when paper is exposed to a mixture of two parts of concentrated sul- 
phuric acid and one part of water for no longer time than is required to draw it through the fluid, it is 
immediately converted into a strong tough skin-like material. It must be instantly washed with water. 
Its great strength points out many applications of this material, e.g., maps, school and account books, and 
drawing paper. In 1859 it appeared that a similar invention had been made in Paris by Figuier and Pou- 
marMe in 1846. 



PAR 



Ui 



PAR 



and eventually of all the kingdom. The representative of the house of Orleans, styled 
count of Paris, now resides in England. Population of Paris in 1856, 1,178,262 ; in i860, 

1,525,535. See France. 



St. Denis founded 613 

Paris ravaged by the Normans (or Danes) ; suf- 
fered from famine 845-940 

Gallantly defended ag.ainst them by the count 
Eudes and the bishoiJ Goslin . . . . 885 

Rebuilt 1231 

University founded 1206 

Church of Notre Dame built . . . 1163-1270 

The pavUamcnt established 1302 

Suffers by the factions of the Armagiiacs and 

Burgundiaus 1411-1418 

Taken by the English 1420 

Retaken by the French 1436 

Pont Notre Dame built i499 

The Louvre built (see Louvre) . . . .1522 

Hotel de VUle i533 

The Bovilevards commenced .... 1536 

Fountain of the Innocents 1551 

The Tuileries built (see jrM(7f)-;c.?) . . .1564 
Massacre of St Bartholomew's . Aug. 24, 1572 

The Pont Nuuf begun 1578 

Hospital of Invalids 159S 

Place Royale begun 1604 

The Hotel- Dieu founded 1606 

The Luxembourg, by Mary of Medicis . . 1615 

The Palais Royal built 1629 

The Val-de-Graco 1645 

Conflicts of the Fronde 1648-53 

The Academy of Sciences founded . . . 1666 

The Observatory 1667 

Champs Elys&s planted 1670 

Arch of St. Denis erected 1672 

Palais d'Elysee Bourbon 1718 

The Palace of the Deputies 1722 

The Military School 1751 



The Pantheon ; St. G&evifeve .... 1764 
The French revolution breaks out ; the Bastile 

taken July 14, 1789 

Pont de Louis XIV. finished 1790 

Cemetery of P6re La Chaise consecrated . . 1804 

Pont des Invalides 1S06 

Paris surrenders to the alhes . March 30, 1S14 

Paris lit with gas 1819 

Revolution (see France) . . . July, 1830 
Fortifications of Paris (for which 140,000,000 of 
francs were voted, 1833) commenced Dec. 15, 
1840 ; completed .... .March, 1846 

Revolution (see France) 1848 

Paris much improved by Louis Napoleon (pro- 
bable costs, i2,8oo,ooo( 1853-62 

Industrial exhibition opened by the emperor 
and empress. May 15 ; visited by queeu Vic- 
toria and prince Albert (the first visit of an 
Enghsh sovereign to Paris since 1422), Aug. 
24 ; exhibition closes . . . Nov. 15, 1855 
Conference at Paris respecting the Danubiau 

Principalities (which see) ; closes . . Aug. 1858 
Bois du Boulogne opened as a garden of accli- 
matisation Oct. 6, 1 860 

A building was erected for a permanent indus- 
trial exhibition by a company . . Oct. 1862 
The .scheme failed and the company was wound 

xip Feb. 1864 

Boulevard-prmce-Eugene opened by the emperor 

Dec. 7, 1862 
Decree for an International Exhibition of the 
products of Agriculture, Industry, and the 
Fine Arts, at Paris, in 1867 ; commissioners 

appointed Feb. 21, 1864 

See France. 



181S 



LATE GREAT TREATIES OF PARIS. 

Treaty of Paris, between Great Britain, Austria, 
Russia, and Prussia, styling Napoleon the 
prisoner of those powers and confiding his 
safeguard to England . . . Aug. 2, 

Establishing the boundaries of France, and 
stipulating for the occupation of certain for- 
tresses by foreign troops for three years, 

Nov. 20, ,, 

Treaty of Paris, confirming the treaties of Chau- 
mont and Vienna, same day . . Nov. 20, ,, 

Treaty of Paris, to fulfil the articles of the Con- 
gress of Vienna .... June 10, 1817 

Treaty of Paris between Russia and Turkey, 
England, France, and Sardinia March 30, 1856 

Treaty of Paris between England and Persia, 

March 4, 1S57 

Treaty of Paris between the European powers, 
Prussia, and Switzerland, rcsiJecting Neuf- 
chatel May 26, ,, 

Important commercial treaty between France 
and England .... Jan. 23, i860 



Between England, France, Spain, and Portii- 

gal ; cession to Great Britain of Canada by 

France, and Florida by Spain . . Feb. 10, 1763 
Between France and Sardinia ; the latter ced- 
ing Savoy, &c May 15, 1796 

Between France and Sweden, whereby Swedish 

Pomerania and the island of Rugen were 

given up to the Swedes, who agreed to adopt 

the French prohibitory system against Great 

Britain Jan. 6, 1810 

Capitulation of Paris : Napoleon renounces the 

sovereignty of France . . Api-il n, 1S14 

Convention of Paris, between France and the 

allied powers; the boundaries of France to 

be the same as on the ist of January, 1792, 

April 23, ,, 
Peace of Paris ratified by France and all the 

allies May 14, „ 

Convention of St. Cloud, between marshal I)a- 

voust, and Wellington, and Blucher, for the 

surrender of Paris . . . . July 3, 1815 
[The allies entered it on the 6th. J 

PARISHES. Their boundaries in England were first fixed by Honorius, archbishop of 
Canterbury, 636. They were enlarged, and the number of parishes was consequently 
reduced in the 15th centuiy, when there were 10,000. The parishes of England and Wales 
now amount to 11,077. Parish registers were commenced in 1538. By an act passed in 
1856 new parishes may be formed out of too extensive ones. See Registers and Benefices. 

PARK'S TRAVELS. Mungo Park set sail on his first voyage to 'Africa, under the 
patronage of the African Society, to trace the source of the river Niger, May 22, 1795 ; and 
returned Dec. 22, 1797, after having encountered great dangers, without his journey through 
intertropical regions having enabled him to achieve the great object of his ambition. He 
ao-ain sailed from Portsmouth on his second voyage, Jan. 30, 1804, appointed to a new 
expedition by government ; but never returned. The accounts of his murder at Broussa on 
tiie Nicer were a long time discredited ; but at length were too well authenticated. 



PAR 



545 



PAR 



PARKS. The Romans attached parks to their villas. Fulvius Lupinus, Pompey, ami 
Hoitensms, among others, had large parks. In England, the first great ^ark of which parti- 
cular mention is made, was that of Woodstock, formed by Henry I., 112=;. The parks of 
^ London are in a high degree essential to the health of its immense population. St. James's 
fur^JTf T'"^ \T Henry VIII. about 1537. It was improved, planted, and made a 

Hpnrv"Jn ;' T ^w^'^f "''', '^f • , ^^'^ ^''''' P''^^'^^ f°"^^^ ^ P'-^'-t «f ^^^^ g^^in'i inclosed by 
Weniy V III. In Hyde park, the sheet of water called the Serpentine river, although in the 
Z'LZ r P^'-a"elograni^ was made between 1730 and 1733, by order of cpieen Caroline, 
; consort ot George II. This queen once inrpiired (it is said) of the first Mr. Pitt (afterwards 
ear ot Chatham), how much it would cost to shut up the parks as private grounds. He 
replied. Three crowns, your majesty." She took the hint, and the design was never after- 
wards entertained. See G-reen, Hijdc, Ht. James s, Regent's, Victoria, Battcrsca, Alexandra, 
and People s Parks. ' 

PARLIAMENT (from the French, 2)arlemcnt, discourse) derives its origin from the Saxon 
general assernblies, called Wittenagemot. The name was applied to the general assemblies of 
the state under Louis VII. of France, about the middle of the 12th century, but it is said 
not to have appeared in our law till its mention in the statute of Westminster I., 3 Edw. I. 
1272 : and yet Coke declared in his Institutes, and spoke to the same effect, when speaker 
(1592) that this name was used even in the time of Edward the Confessor, 1041. The 
first clear account we have of the representatives of the people forming a house of commons, 
was in the 43rd Hen. III. 1258, wlien it was settled by the statutes of Oxford, that twelve 
persons should be chosen to represent the commons in the three parliaments, which, by the 
sixtli statute, were to be held yearly. Burton's Annals. The general representation by 
knights, citizens, and burgesses, took place 49 Hen. III. 1265. DugdaUs Summons to 
Parliament, edit. 1685. See Commons and Lords. The power and jurisdiction of parlia- 
ment are so transcendent and absolute, that it cannot be confined, either for causes or 
persons, within any bounds. It hath sovereign and uncontrollable authority in making and 
repealing laws. It can regulate or new-model the succession to the crown, as was done in 
the reigns of Henry VIII. and William III. It can alter and establish the religion of the 
c_ountry, as was df)ne in the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. Sir 
Ldicard Coke.* The fourth edition of May's "Practical Treatise on Parliament" was 
pubhshed m 1859. See Triennial and Septe^mial. 



First summons of barons, by writ directed to 

the bishop of SaUsbury, by John . . . 

Parliament of Merton 

The assembly of knights and burgesses. Burton 
First assembly of the commons as a confirmed 

representation. Dugdale 

First regular parliament according to many 

historians, 22 Edw. I 

First_ a deliberate assembly, they become a 
• legislative power, whose assent is essential to 

constitute a law 

The commons elect their first speaker, Peter De 

la Mere ••...... 

Parliament of but one session, of only one dayj 

Richard II. deposed 

Lawyers excluded from the house of commons 
Members were obliged to reside at the places 

they represented 

Forty- shilling freeholders only to elect knights 
The Journals of the Lords commenced . 
Acta 0/ parliament printed in 1501, and consecu- 
. tively from ■•..... 
'Members protected from arrest. See article 

Ferrars' Arrest ....... 

■Journals of the commons begun 

Francis Russell, son of the earl of Bedford, was 

the first peer's eldest son who sat in the house 

of commons 



1205 
1236 
1258 

1265 

1294 

1308 
1377 

1399 
1404 

1413 
1429 

1509 



1542 
1547 



The parliament remarkable for the epoch in 
which were first formed the parties of Court 
and Country/, 1614; disputes with James I. 

June 1620 

Charles I. dissolves parliament, which does not 
meet for eleven years 1629 

The long Parliament, which voted the house of 
lords as useless, first assembled . Nov. 3, 1640 

The Mump Parliament; it voted the trial of 
Charles I. Jan. 1649 

A peer elected and sat as a member of the house 
of commons . . . . . . . . ,, 

Cromwell roughly dissolves the Long Parlia- 
ment April 20, 1653 

A convention parliament. See Conventioii . . 1660 

Roman Catholics excluded from parliament, 30 
Charles II. 1678 

The commons committed a secretary of state to 
the Tower Nov. ,, 

The speaker of the commons refused by the 
liing 1679 

A convention parliament. See Convention . . 1688 

James II. convenes the Irish parliament at 
Dublin, which attaints 3000 Protestants . 1689 

Act for triennial parliament ; see Triennial . . 1694 

First parliament of Great Britain met Oct. 23, 1707 

The Triennial Act repealed, and Septennial Act 
voted. See Septennial Parliament . May 7, 1716 



• * Vnien the royal assent is given to a public bill, the clerk says " Le roi le veut." If the bill be a 
private bill he says " .^oil fait cumme il eH desire." If the bill have subs'idies for its object, he says, " Le roi 
-remercieses loyaux .mjet>, uccepte Itur UnhoUnce, et austi le veut." If the king do not think i^roper to as.sent 
to the bill, the clerk says, " Le roi s'avisera ;" which is a mild way of giving a refusal. It is singular 
that the sovereign of England should still make use of the French language to declare her intentions to 
aer parliament. 



PAR 



346 



PAR 



PARLIAMENT, continued. 

The Journals ordered to be printed . . . 1752 

Privilege as to freedom from arrest of the ser- 
vants of members relinquished by the com- 
mons 1770 

The lord mayor of London (Oliver) and alder- 
man Crosby committed to the Tower by the 
commons in Wilkes' affair . . . -1771 

Assembly of the first parliament of the United 
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland 

Feb. 2, 1 801 

Sir F. Burdett committed to the Tov?er, 

April 6, 1810 

Murder of Spencer Perceval, by BeUingham, at 
the house of commons . . May 11, 1812 

Return for Clare county, Ireland, of Mr. O'Con- 
uell, the first Roman CathoUc commoner 
elected since the Revolution . July 5, 1828 

The duke of Norfolk took his seat in the lords, 
the first Roman Catholic peer under the Re- 
lief BiU. See Moman C'alholics . April 28, 1829 



The reformed parliament meet. See Reform, 

Aug, 7, 1832 

E. Pease the first Quaker admitted on his affir- 
mation Feb. IS, 1833 

Houses of parliament destroyed by fire, Oct. 16, 1834 

New houses of parhunient commenced* . . 1840 

The members of the commons' and lords' houses 
relinquish the privilege of franking letters. 
See Franki-ny J^^- lO) >> 

Committal of Smith O'Brien by the commons 
for contempt. See Ireland . July 20, 1846 

The peers took possession of their house, that 
portion of the palace being ready, April 15, 1847 

The commons assemble in their new house, 

Nov. 4, 1852 

The two houses began to communicate by letter 



111 . . . . . . • • • 

Barou L. Rothschild, the first Jew admitted, 

July 26, 



1855 



NUMBEK AND DUKATION OF PARLIAMENTS, FROM 27 EDW. I. I299, TO 2$ VICT. 1862. 
. . 8 pari, in 8 yrs. reign. 



Edward I. 
Edward II. . 

Edward III 37 

Richard II. ... 26 
Henry IV 10 



50 



Henry V. 
Henry VI. 



Edward IV 5 

Richard III. . '. .1 
Henry VII 8 



II pari, in 9 yrs. reign 
39 .) 



Reign. 


Day of Meeting. 


AYhen Dissol-ved. 


Keign. 


Day of Meeting. 


"When Dissolved. 


Henry VIII. . 


Jan. 21 . 


1510 


Feb. 23 . 1510 


Charles I.. . 


June i8 . 


162s 


Aug. 12 . 


162s 




Feb. 4 . 


1511 


March 4 . 1513 




Feb. 6 . 


1626 


June II . 


1626 




Feb. 5 . 


1514 


Dec. 22 . 1515 




March 17 


1628 


March 10 


1629 




April 15 . 


1523 


Aug. 13 . 1523 




April 13 . 


1640 


May 5 . 


1640 




Nov. 3 . 


1530 


April 4 .1536 


Long Parliament 


Nov. 3 . 


,, 


April 20 . 


1653 




June 8 . 


1536 


July 18 . ,, 


Commonwealth 


Sept. 3 . 


i6s4 


Jan. 22 . 


1655 




April 28 . 


1539 


July 24 . 1540 




Sept. 17 . 


1656 


Feb. 4 . 


1658 




Jan. 16 . 


1541 


March 29, 1544 




Jan. 27 . 


i6s9 


April 22 . 


1659 




April 12 . 








May 6 . 




March 16 


1660 




Nov. 23 . 


154s 


Jan. 28 . 1547 


Chaeles II. 


April 25 . 


i56o 


Dec. 29 . 


,, 


Edward VI. . 


Nov. 4 . 


1547 


April IS . I5S2 


Pe-ixsionary Pari. 


May 8 . 


1661 


Jan. 24 . 


1679 




March i . 


1553 


March 31, 1553 




March 6 . 


1679 


July 10 . 


,, 


Mary 


Oct. 5 . 




Dec. 6 . ,, 




March 21 


1681 


March 28 


1681 




April s . 


1554 


May s . 1554 


James II. . . 


May 19 . 


1685 


July 22 . 


1687 




Nov. 12 . 




Jan. 16 . I5S5 




Jan. 22 . 


1689 


Feb. 6 . 


1690 




Oct. 21 . 


1555 


Dec. 9 . „ 


William III. . 


March 20, 


1690 


Oct. II . 


169s 




Jan. 20 . 


1558 


Nov. 17 . iss8 




Nov. 22 . 


169s 


July 7 . 


1698 


Elizabeth ^. . 


Jan. 25 . 


1559 


May 8 , 15S9 




Dec. 9 . 


1698 


July 19 . 


1700 




Jan. 12 


1563 


Jan. 2 , 1567 




Feb. 10 . 


1 701 


Nov. 11 . 


1 701 




April 2 . 


1571 


May 29 . 1S71 


Anne .... 


Dec. 30 . 


,, 


July 2 . 


1702 




May 8 . 


1572 






Oct. 20 . 


1702 


April s . 


1 70s 








Sept. IS . 1586 




Oct. 25 . 


1705 


April II . 


1708 




Oct. 29 


1586 


March 23, 1S87 




Nov. 18 . 


1708 


Sept. 28 . 


1710 




Feb. 4 


1589 


March 29, 1S89 




Nov. 25 . 


1710 


Aug. 8 . 


1713 




Feb. 19 


1593 


April 10 . 1593 




Nov. II . 


1713 


Jan. 15 . 


1715 




Oct. 34 


1597 


Feb. 9 . 1598 


George I. . . 


March 21, 


1715 


March 10, 


1722 




Oct. 27 . 


1601 


Dee. 19 . 1601 




Oct. 9 . 


1722 


Aug. 7 . 


1727 


James I. . . 


March 19 


1604 


Feb. 19 . 1610 


George II. . . 


Jan. 28 . 


1728 


April 18 . 


1734 




April 5t 


1614 


June 6 . 1614 




Jan. 14 . 


173s 


April 28 . 


1741 




Jan. 30 . 


1621 


Jan. 6 . 1622 




Dec. 4 . 


1741 


June 1 8 . 


1747 




Feb. '29 . 


1624 


March 27, 1625 




Nov. 10 . 
Nov. 14 . 


1747 
I7S4 


April 8 . 
March 21, 


1754 
1761 



* Termed the " Palace of Westminster." The first contract for the embankment of the river was taken 
in 1837, by Messrs. Lee ; this emUinkment, faced with granite, is 8f6 feet in length, and projected into the 
river in a hne with the imier side of the third pier of old Westminster-bridge. Sir Charles Barry (born, 
1795, died, i860) was the architect of the sumptuous pile of buildings raised since 1840. The whole stands 
on a bed of concrete twelve feet thick : to the east it has a front of about 1000 feet, and covers an area of 
nine statute acres. It contains 1 100 apartments, 100 staircases, and two miles of passages or corridors. 
The great Victoria tower at the southwest extremity is 346 feet in height, and towers of less magnitude 
crown other portions of the building. 

t Called The AddU Parliament. It remonstrated with the king on his levying benevolences, and 
passed no acts. He dismissed it in anger, and imprisoned some of the members. 



PAR 


547 


PAR 




PARLIAMENT, continued 










Eeign. 


Day of Meeting. 


■When DissolTed. 


Reign. 


Day of Meeting. 


When Dissolved. 


George III. . 


Nov. 3 . 1761 


March 12, 1768 


George IV. . 


April 27 . 1820 


June 2 . 1826 




M.iy 10 . 1768 


Sept. 30. 1774 




Nov. 14 , 1826 


July 24 . 1830 




Nov. 29 . 1774 


Sept. I .1780 




Oct. 26 . 1830 


April 23 . 1831 




Oct. 31 . 1780 


March 25,- 1784 


William IV. . 


June 14 . 1831 


Dec. 3 . 1832 




May 18 .1784 


June 12 . 1790 




Jan. 29 . 1833 


Dec. 30 . 1834 




Nov. 26 . 1790 


Sfay 20 . 1796 




Feb. 9 . 1835 


July 17 . 1837 




Oct. 6 .1796 


June 29 . 1802 j 


Victoria . . 


Nov. 15 . 1837 


June 23 . 1841 




Nov. 16 . 1802 


Oct. 24 . 1S06 




Aug. 18 . 1841 


July 23 . 1847 




Dec. 15 . 1806 


April 29 . 1807 




Nov. i8 . 1847 


July I . 1S52 




June 24 . 1807 


Sept. 29 . 1812 




Nov. 4 . 1852 


March 21, 1857 




Nov. 24 . 1812 


June lo . i8i8 




April 30 . 1857 


April 23 . 1859 




Jan. 14 . 1819 


Feb. 29 . 1820 




May 31 , 1859 
Feb. I , 1S66 


July 6 .1865 



PARLIAMENT of Ireland, began with conferences of the English settlers, it is said, 
on the hill of Tara, in 1173. Writs for knights of the shire were issued in 1295. The Irish 
parliament last met on Aug. 2, 1800; the bill for the Union having passed. 

^'■^I^LIAMENT OF Scotland consisted of barons, prelates, and abbots, and occasionally 
of burgesses. A great national council was held at Scone by John Balliol, Feb. 9, 1292; 
and by Robert Bruce at Cambuskenneth, in 1326. A house of commons was never formed 
in Scotland. The parliament of Scotland sanctioned the Act of Union on Jan. 16, 1707, and 
met for the last time on April 22, same year. 

PARLIAMENT of Paris was made the chief court of justice in France by Philip IV. ; 
at his suggestion it revoked a bull of pope Boniface Vlll., 1302. It was suppressed by 
Louis XY., 1771 ; restored by Louis XVI., 1774; demanded a meeting of the States-General 
in 1787; and was suspended by the National Assembly, Nov. 3, 1789. 

PARMA (N. Italy), founded by the ancient Etrurians. It took part with the Lombard 
legion m the wars with the German emperors. It was made a duchy (with Placentia), 1545. 



United to Spain by Philip V. 's marriage with 
Elizabeth Farnese 

Battle near Parma ; the confederates, England, 
France, and Spain, against the emperor; in- 
decisive; both armies claiming the victory, 

June 29, 

Battle near the Trebbia, the French, under 
Macdonald, defeated by Suwarrow, with the 
loss of 10,000 men and four generals, June ig, 

The duke of Parma made king of Etruria, Feb. 

Parma united to France (with Placentia and 
GuastaUa), and confeiTed on Maria Louisa, 
the ex-empress, by the treaty of Fontamebleau, 

April 5, 

Parma alternately occupied by the Austrians 
and Sardinian.s in the war of . 

The Sardinians retire after the battle of Novaraj 

March 23, 



1S14 



The duke Charles II. abdicates in favour of his 
son Charles III March 14, 

Charles III. stabbed by an assassin, March 26, 
dies March 27, 

Robert I., a minor (born July 9, 1848); whose 
mother becomes regent. 

War in Italy ; the Parmesans establish a pro- 
visional government ; the duchess-regent re- 
tires to Switzerland, May i, and died, Feb i, 
1864. 

Farina became dictator . . . Aug. 18, 

Annexation to Sardmia voted . Sept. 12, 

Col. Anviti, a former obnoxious police minister, 
having rashly returned, cruelly murdered by 
the mob Oct. 5, 

Pai-ma is now part of the province of iEmilia in 
the kingdom of Italy; to which it was an- 
nexed by decree after a plebiscite, March 18, 



1S49 
1854 



1S60 



PARRICIDE. There was no law against it in Athens or Rome, such a crime not beino- 
supposed possible. About 172 B.C., L. Ostius having killed his father, the Romans first 
scourged the parricide ; then sewed him up in a leathern sack made air-tight, with a live 
dog, a cock, a viper, and an ape, and thus cast him into the sea. Miss Blandy was executed 
at Oxford for the murder of her fiither, April, 1752. 

PARSEES, the followers of Zerdusht, dwelt in Persia till 638, when, at the battle of 
Kadseah, their army was decimated by the Arabs, and the monarchy annihilated at the battle 
of Ndhiirand in 641. Many submitted to the conquerors, but others fled to India, and 
their descendants still reside at Bombay, where they numbered 114,698 in 1849. Mr. 
Dadabhai Naoroji, a Parsee merchant, has been several years professor of Gujerati at 
University college, London. 

PARTHENON (from Greek parthene, virgin), a temple at Athens dedicated to Minerva, 
erected 442 b c. In it Phidias placed his renowned statue of that goddess, 438. 

N N 2 



TAR 548 PAS 

PARTHENOPEAN REPUBLIC was established by the French at Naples (anciently 
called Parthenope), Jan. 1799, and overthrown in June, same year. 

PARTHIA (Asia). The Parthians were originally a tribe of Scythians, who, being exiled, 
as their name implies, from their own country, settled near Hyrcania. Arsaces laid the 
foundation of an emjiire whicli ultimately extended over a large part of Asia, 250 B.C.; 
the Parthians were never wholly subdued by the Romans. The last king, Artabanus V., 
was killed A. D. 226: his territories were annexed to the new kingdom of Persia founded 
by Artaxerxes, who had revolted against Parthia. 

PARTITION TREATIES. The first treaty between England and HoUand for regulating 
the Spanish succession (declaring the elector of Bavaria next heir, and ceding provinces to 
France) was signed Aug. 19, 1698 ; and the second (between France, England, and Hol- 
land, declaring the archduke Charles presumptive heir of the Spanish monarchy, Joseph 
Ferdinand having died in 1699), March 13, 1700. Treaty for the partition of Poland; the 
first was a secret convention betM'een Russia and Pni.'jsia, Feb. 17, 1772; the second between 
the same powers and Austria, Aug. 5, same year ; the third was between Russia, Austria, 
and Prussia, Nov. 25, 1795. 

PARTNERSHIP. The laws respecting it were amended in 1863. See Limited Liahilitij. 

PASQUINADES.* Small satirical poems obtained this name about 1533. 

PASSAROWITZ TREATY concluded 1718, by which the house of Austria ceded certain 
commercial rights, and obtained the Banat of Temeswar, Belgrade, and part of Servia and 
AVallachia. 

PASSAU (Germany), Treaty of, whereby religious freedom was established, was 
ratified between the emperor Charles V. and the Protestant princes of Germany, July 31, 
1552. Ile'nault. In 1662 the cathedral and great jiart of Passau were consumed by fire. 

PASSENGERS— by public vehicles, are protected by i & 2 Will. IV. c. 22 (1831), 
I & 2 Vict. c. 79 (1838), and 16 & 17 Vict. c. 33 (1853). Mr. Cleghorn, under whom the 
front seat on the near side of one of the General Omnibus company's carriages had given 
way, recovered 400?. damages against the company, in a verdict by consent, in the Queen's 
Bench, Dec. 10, 1856. The Ships' Passenger act, 18 & 19 Vict. c. 119, passed in 1855, was 
amended in 1863. See Campbell's Act. 

PASSION- WEEK, the name given since the Reformation to the week preceding Easter, 
was formerly applied to the fortnight. Archbishop Laud says the two weeks were so called 
"for a thousand years together," and refers to an epistle by Ignatius, in the 1st century, 
in which the practice is said to have been " observed by all." 

PASSOVER, the most solemn festival of the Jews, instituted 1491 B.C. in commemo- 
ration of their coming out of Egypt ; because, the night before their dejiarture, the destroying 
angel, who put to death the firstborn of the Egyjitians, passed over the houses of the 
Hebrews without entering them ; the door posts being marked with the blood of the Paschal 
Lamb killed the evening before. The Passover was celebrated in the new temple, April 18, 
515 B.C. Usher. 

PASSPORT SYSTE]\I forbids subjects to quit one country or enter another without 
the consent of the sovereign thereof. In 1858 the system was somewhat changed in this 
country, and the stamp duty on passports was reduced from 5s. to 6d. Passports were 
abolished in Norway in 1859; in Sweden in i860; and (with regard to British subjects) 
in France, Dec. 16, i860; in Italy, June 26, 1862; in Portugal, Jan. 23, 1863 ; and are 
falling into disuse in other countries. The passport system was established in the United 
States on Aug. 19, 1861. 

PASTON LETTERS, the correspondence of a respectable family, 1422-83, giving a 
picture of social life in England, were edited by sir John Fenn, and published in five 
volumes, quarto, 1787-1823. Their authenticity was questioned Sept. 1865, but has been 
satisfactorily vindicated. 

* This uame origin.ated in the i6th century : At the stall of a cobbler named Pasquin. at Rome, a 
number of idle persons used to assemble to listen to his pleasant sallies, and to relate little anecdotes in 
their turn, and indulge themselves in raillery at the expense of the passers-by. After the cobbler's death 
the statue of a gladiator was found near his stall, to which the people gave his name, and on whicli the 
wits of the time, secretly at night, affixed their lampoons upon the state, and theii- neighbours. 



PAT 



549 



PAU 




Rheiins in triumph, and was crowned July 17, following year, Joan of Arc assisting in the 
ceremony in full armour, ami holding the sword of state. See Joan of Arc. 

PATENTS. Licences and authorities granted by the king. Patents granted for titles 
of nobihty were first made 1344, by Edward III. They were first granted for the exclusive 
privilege of printing books, in 1591. The property and right of inventors in arts and 
manulactures were secured by letters patent by an act passed in 1623. The later laws regu- 
lating patents are very numerous ; among them are 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 83 (1835), and 15 ki6 
Vict. c. 83 (1852).— By the latter, Commissioneus of Patents were appointed, viz., the 
lord chancellor, the master of the rolls, the attorney-general for England and Ireland, the 
lord advocate, and the solicitor-generals for England, Scotland, and Ireland. Since 1852, a 
journal has been published under their authority, and indexes of patents, from March, 16 17, 
to the present time. Specifications of patents" may be consulted by the public at the Free 
Library and Reading-Room, in Southampton-buildings, March 5, 1854. A museum con- 
taining models, portraits, &c., was established in 1859 at South Kensington, mainly by the 
exertions of Mr. Benuet "VVooderoft.* 

PATRIARCHS. The dignity among the Jews is referred to the time of Nerva, 97. 
The ecclesiastical historian Socrates gives this title to the chiefs of Christian dioceses about 
440. It was first conferred on the five grand sees of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, 
Antiocli, and Jerusalem. Tlie Latin Church had no patriarchs till the 6th century. The 
first founders or heads of religious orders are called patriarchs. 

PATRICIANS, the senators of Rome ; their authority began with the city itself. 
See Rome. 

PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL, ST. (Dublin), was erected in 1190, by archbishop Corayn, 
on the site of an old church. The cathedral was desecrated in 1546, and used as a law court 
till 1564. It has been restored by the munificence of Mr. Guinness. See Dublin. 

PATRICK, ST., Knights of, an order instituted by king George III., Feb. 5, 1783,- 
the statutes were signed Feb. 28. The number, originally fifteen, was increased in 1821, 
1 83 1, and 1833, and is now Lwenty-two. 

PATRIOTIC FUNDS, established to encourage the army and navy in times of war. 



1. Founded by the subscribers to Lloyd's, "to ani- 

mate the efforts of our defenders by sea and 
land " by providing a fund for tlie relief of 
themselves when wounded, and of their 
widows and orphans, and for granting pe- 
cuniary rewards and badges of distinction 
for valour and merit, July 20, 1803 : on Aug. 
24, 1809, 424,832?. had been received, and 
331,611?. expended. 
From 1803 to 1826 the total sum received was 
629,823?. 14s. id 

2. A commission (headed by prince Albert) was 

appointed to raise and distribute a fund 
bearing this name, for the relief of the 
families of those who might fall in the 
llusso-Tiu-kish war, Oct. 1854. 



Large sums were collected from this country and 
the colonies, amounting to 1,171,270?. in July, 
1855; to 1,296,282?. on Nov. i5, 1855; to 
1,460,000?. in June, 1857. 

The overplus, 200,000?., was appropriated to 
founding an asylum for 300 orphan girls (the 
Royal Victoria P.atriotic Asylum), on Wands- 
worth common, the first stone of which was 
laid b}' the queen, July 11, 1857. 

The royal femily and many of the aristocracy 
contributed drawings, some of which were 
sold for high prices, in May, 1855. 
3. A large fund collected for the relief of the 
sufferers by the Indian mutiny. See India, 
1857. 



PAUL JONES, a Scotchman, born 1742 ; died at Paris, 1792. He commanded an 
American privateer during the American war, and was memorable for his daring depredations 
oii_ British commerce. He landed and pillaged the house of lord Selkirk, near Kirkcud- 
briglit, and at VVliitehaven burnt shipping in the harbour, April, 1778. The Dutch per- 
mitted Paul Jones to enter their ports with two of the king's ships of war whicli he had 
taken, and which the stadtholder peremptorily refused to deliver up, 1779. 

PAULICIANS, a sect of Christian reformers, arose about 652. Although they were 
severely persecuted, they spread over Asia Minor, in the 9th century, and finally settled at 
Moutfort, in Italy, where they were attacked by the bisliop of Milan in 1028. Severe decrees 
against them were made in 1163, and they gradually dispersed ; very probably sowing the 
seeds of the great reformation of the i6th century. 

* In 1864, the detected defalcations of Mr. Edmunds, a clerk in the patents office and an official of 
the house of lords, led to his retirement, lie obtained a pension of 800?., which was t dieu from him by a 
vote of the house of lords, ou .May 9, 1S65. 



PAU 



550 



PAW 



PAUL'S CATHEDRAL, ST. (London), the noblest Protestant clmrcli in the world. 
Sir Christopher Wren's opinion, that there had been a church on this spot, budt bythe 
Christians in the time of the Romans, was confirmed when he searched for the foxrndations 
for his own design. He explodes the notion of there having been a temjile of Diana. 



The first church supfiosed to have been de- 
.stroj-cd d\iring the Diocletian persecution 
(302), and rebuilt in the reign of Constantiue, 

323-337 
Demolished by the pagan Saxons, and restored 

by Sebert in 603 

Injured by fire in 962, and destroyed by the 
gi-eat conflagration, after which Mauritius, 
then bishop of London, commenced the 
magnificent edifice which preceded the pre- 
sent cathedral * • • 1087 

A commission granted to Laud, then bishop 

of London, to restore the cathedral April 2, 1631 
It was totally destroyed by the fire of . . i656 
.First stone of the present edifice laid, June 21, 1675 
The choir oiDcned for divine worship Dec. 2, 1697 
The whole edifice completed (with the excep- 
tion of some of the decorations, not finished 
iintil 1723) under the illustrious architect, sir 

Christopher Wren 1710 

The total cost (including 200 tons weight of 
iron railing) was 1,511,202.] 



Ball and cross restored by Mr. Cockerell . . 1822 
Money having been subscribed to adapt St. 
Taiil's for the purpose, evening services 
began on Sunday, Nov. 28, when above 4000 
persons were present ..... 1858 
A national guinea subscription for completing 
the ornamentation of the interior began in 

Feb. 1864 

DIMENSIONS. 

Length of St. Paul's from the grand portico to feet. 

the east end, is 51° 

Breadth, north to south portico .... 282 
Exterior diameter of the dome . . . . i45 
Height from ground to top of cross . . . 404 
Campaniles, or bell towers, at each corner, 

height 2o3 

Breadth of western entrance . . . .180 

Circumference of dome . . . . . . 420 

Entii-e circumference of the building . . 2292 
Diameter of baU. 6 



PAUL'S CROSS, ST. (London), which stood liefore the cathedral, was a pulpit formed 
.flf wood, mounted upon .steps of stone, and covered with lead, from which the most eminent 
divines were appointed to preach every Sunday in the forenoon. To this place, the court, 
the mayor, the aldermen, and principal citizens used to resort. It was in use as early as 
1259, and was appropriated not only to instruct mankind by preaching, but to every purpose 
political or ecclesiastical :— for giving force to oaths, for promulgating laws, &c. Jane Shore, 
mistress of Edward IV., was brought before this cross in 1483, divested of all her splendour. 
It was demolished in 1643 by order of the parliament. 

PAUL'S SCHOOL, ST., was endowed in 1512 by John Colet, dean of St. Paul's, for 153 
boys " of every nation, country, and class," in memory of the number of fishes taken by 
Peter. {John xxi. 11.) The first sehoolhouse was burnt iu 1666 ; the second by Wren was 
taken down in 1824, and the present building erected by George Smith. William Lilly was 
the first master, and his grammar is still used by the school. Timbs. 

PAUPERS. See Poor. 

PAVEMENT. The Carthaginians are said to have been the first who paved their towns 
with stones. The Romans, in the time of Augustus, had pavement in many of their streets ; 
but the Appian Way was a paved road, and was constructed 312 B.C. In England there were 
few paved streets before Henrj'^ VII.'s reign. London was first paved about 1533. It was 
paved with flagstones between 1815 and 1825. Wood and asphalte paving was tried in 1839, 
and have been disused since 1847. See Wood Pavement. 

PAVIA (N. Italy), the ancient Ticinum or Papia. Its university, founded by Charle- 
magne, is the oldest in Eurox:)e. Pavia was built by the Gauls, Avho were driven out by the 
Romans, and these iu their turn were expelled by the Goths. In 568 it was taken by the 
Lombards, and became the capital of their kingdom. In the 12th century it was erected 
into a republic, but soon after was subjected to Milan and followed its fortunes. On Feb. 24, 
1545, a battle was fought near here between the French and the Imperialists, when the former 
were defeated, and their king, Francis I., after fighting with heroic valour, and kiUing seven 
men with his own hand, was at last obliged to surrender himself a prisoner. Francis wrote 
to his mother, Louisa of Savoy, regenfof the kingdom during his absence, saying. Tout est 
perdu, Madame, fors Vhonneur (All is lost, madam, except honour). 

PAWNBROKING. The origin of borrowing money by means of pledges deposited with 
lenders is referred to Perugia, in Italy, about 1462. The institutions were termed monti di 
2neta {v:Mch sec). Soon afterwards, it is said that the bishop of Winchester established a 
system of lending on pledges, but without interest. The business of pawnbrokers was regu- 
lated iu 1756, and licences issued in 1783. The rate of interest on pledges was fixed in 1800. 
In London there were, in 185 1, 334 pawnbrokers ; and in England, exclusively of London, 
1 127 ; the number is increasing iu prox3ortiou to the population. In i860 an act was passed j 



PAX 



-,51 



TEE 



enabling pawnbrokers to charge a halfpenny for every ticket describing things pledged for a 
sum nnder $s. The acts relating to pawnbrokers were amended in 1856. 

PAX, a small tablet, generally silver, termed tabula 2^acis or oscidatorium, kissed by the 
Roman Catliolic priests and laity ; substituted for the primeval kiss of peace in the early 
church. The pax is said to have been introduced about the 12th century. 

PAYMASTER-GENERAL. In 1836 the army and navy pay departments were consoli- 
dated into the Paymaster-general's office, sometimes held by a Cabinet minister. 

PEABODY FUND. On March 12, 1862, Mr. George Peabody, the American merchant, 
gave 150,000?. to ameliorate the condition of the London poor. A large pile of buildings, 
named Peabody dwellings, were erected in Spitalfields, as homes for the working classes. 

PP]ACE. A temple was dedicated to peace by Vespasian, 75. See Fire-works, Treaties, 
Justices, &c. — A Peace Society was founded in 18 16 for the promotion of universal peace. 
It held its 45th anniversary in Maj^, 1861. A congress of ther friends of peace, from all 
parts of the world, commenced its sittings at Paris, Aug. 22, 1849. It met in London at 
E.Ketcr hall, Oct. 30, following ; and at Frankfort, in St. Paul's church, Aug. 22, 1850 ; at 
Birmingham, Nov. 28, 1850 ; and at Exeter hall, July 22, 185 1. A meeting was held at 
Manchester, Jan. 27, 1853 ; and at Edinburgh, Oct. 12, 1853. Mr. Bright and Mr. Cobden 
are among the most conspicuous members of the society. A deputation from the Peace 
Society, consisting of Messrs. J. Sturge, Pease, and another Quaker friend, stated their views 
to the emperor of Russia at St, Petersburg, at an interview granted them in Feb. 1854. 

PE.ARLS. The formation of the pearl has embarrassed both ancient and modern 
naturalists to explain. M. Reaumur, in 171 7, alleged that pearls are formed like other stones 
in animals. An ancient pearl was valued by Pliny at 8o,oooZ. sterling. One which was 
brought in 1574, to Philip II., of the size of a j^igeon's egg, was valued at 14,400 ducats, 
equal to 13,996^. A pearl named the Incomimrahle, spoken of by De Boote, weighed thirty 
carats, equal to five pennyweights, and was about the size of a muscadine pear. The pearl 
mentioned by Tavernier, as being in possession of the emperor of Persia, was purchased of 
an Arab in 1633, and is valued at a sum equal to 110,400?. 

PEDESTRIANISM. Euchidas, a citizen of Plata;a, went from thence to Delphi to 
bring the sacred fire. This he obtained, and returned with it the same day before sunset, 
having travelled 125 English miles. No sooner had he saluted his fellow-citizens, and 
delivered the fire, than he fell dead at their feet. After the battle of Marathon, a soldier 
was sent from the field to announce the victory at Athens. Exhausted with fatigue, and 
bleeding from his wounds, ho had only time to cry out, " Rejoice, we are conquerors !" and 
immediately exjnred. 



Foster Powel, the English pedestrian, performed 
mauy astonishing- journeys on foot. His expedi- 
tion from London to York and back again, in 17S8, 
is said to have been completed in 140 hours. 

Captain Barclay, for a wager (on which many 
thousands of pounds depended), walked 1000 
miles in 1000 successive hours, each mile in each 
hour, in forty-two days and nights (less 8 hours). 
His task was accomplished on July 10, 1809. 

Richard Manks, a native of Warwickshire, under- 
took (in imitation of captain Barclay) to walk 
1000 miles in 1000 hours : the place chosen was the 



Barrack tavern cricket-ground, in Sheffield ; he 
commenced on Monday, June 17, 1850, and com- 
pleted the 1000 miles, July 29, following, winning 
a considerable sum. 

On Oct. 7, 1861, a 12 miles foot-race was held, when 
Levett, the champion of England, ran 7 miles in 
37 minutes 27 seconds \ Deerfoot, a Seneca Indian, 
ran 12 miles in 65 minutes 5 seconds ; and Mills 
ran 10 miles in 54 minutes 10 seconds ; other 
races followed. 

On May 11, 1863, Deerfoot was beaten by White, 
who ran 10 miles in 52 minutes 14 seconds. 



PEEL ADMINISTRATIONS.* The first succeeded the Melbourne administration, 
which was broken up on the retirement of lord Althorpe, the chancellor of the exchequer, 
in Nov. 1834. Sir R. Peel, then in Italy was summoned home, the duke of Wellington 
holding the seals of office in the interim. They resigned in April, 1835, In May, 1841, sir 
R. Peel carried a vote of want of confidence in the Alelbourne cabinet, but did not take 
office ; and in Sept, of that year, he became again premier. 

• Sir Robert Peel was born Feb. s, 1788 ; entered parliament in i8og ; became under-sccretary of the 
colonies in i8ii, chief secretary for Ireland in 1812, M.P. for Oxford in 1818 (when he resigned his office), 
secretary for home department in 1822 ; resigned office and reappointed in 1827 ; resigned again in 1830 : 
became premier in 1834 and 1841, see oboce. He was thrown from his horse June 29, and died July 2, 1850, 
He greatly relaxed theseverity of our criminal code in 1827, et seq. ; established the new police, and carried 
the Catholic Emancipation Bill in 1829, anil the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846. Statues have been 
erected to him — at Salford in 1852 ; at Tamworth, Leeds, Eury, and Manchester, in 1S53 ; and in London 
and Birmingham in 1855. 



PEE 



552 



PEL 



SECOND ADMINISTRATION (Sept. 1 841). 

Sir Robert Peel, first minister. 

Duke of Wellington, in the cabinet without office. 

Loid Lyndhvirst, lord chancellor. 

Lord Wharncliffe, lord president. 

Duke of Buckingbam, lord privy seal. 

Sir James Giaharn, earl of Aberdeen, and lord 

Stanley, home, foreign, and colonial secretaries. 
Henry Goulburn, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Earl of Haddington, first lord of the admiralty. 
Earl of Ripon, board of trade. 
Lord Ellenborongb, India board. 
Sir Henry Hardinge, sir Edward Knatcbbull, sir 

George Murray, &c. 

[Terminated, June 29, 1846, by sir Robert's 
resignation.] 



PEEL ADMINISTRATIONS, continued. 

FIRST ADMINISTRATION (DOC. 1834). 

Sir Robert Peel, first lord of the treasury and chan- 
cellor of the exchequer. 

Lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor. 

Earl of Rosslyn, lord president. 

Lord Wharncliffe, privy seat. 

Henry Goulburn, duke of Wellington, and earl of 
Aberdeen, home, foreign, and colonial secretaries of 
state. 

Earl De Grey, first lord of the admiralty. 

Lord EUenborough, and Alexander Baring, board of 
control and trade. 

Sir Edward Knatcbbull, paymaster of the forces. 

J. C. Herries, secretary at war. 

Sir George Murray, ina.'^ter-general of the ordnance, <ix. 
[herminated, April 1835.] 

PEELITES, a name given to gentlemen, wliigs and tories, who adliered to sir Robert 
Peel, after liis defeat by the conservative party, on account of his free-trade measures carried 
in 1846. The principal were Henry Goulburn, W. E. Gladstone, Sidney (aftewai-ds lord) 
Herbert, sir James Graham, Edward Cardwell, sir George Clerk, lord Lincoln (afterwards 
duke of Newcastle), lords Canning and Elgin, and others. 

PEEL'S BILLS. Among the most important were the Bank Acts of 1819 and 1844, 
and the act repealing the Corn Laws in 1846. 

PEEP-0' DAY-BOYS were insurgents in Ireland, who visited the houses of their antago- 
nists at break of day, in search of arms. They first appeared July 4, 1 784, and for a long 
period were the terror of the country. See Defenders. 

PEERS. See Lords. 

PEGU, a province of the Burmese empire, discovered by the Portuguese in 1520. Pegu, 
the capital, was taken by major Cotton, with 300 men, in June, 1852, without loss; and 
afterwards abandoned. It was again occupied by the Burmese and strongly fortified, with a 
garrison of 4000 men. It was re-captured by general Godwin with 1200 men and two guns, 
in two hours, with the loss of six killed and thirty-two wounded. The province was annexed 
to our Indian possessions, by proclamation, Dec. 20, 1852, and has since prospered. In Feb. 
1862, it was united with Arracan and Teuasserim as British Burmah. 

PEIHO. See China, 1859, i860. 

PEKIN, the northern capital of China, was rebuilt by Kublai in 1279 ; and by Yong-lo, 
147 1 ; visited by lord Macartney in 1793 ; surrendered to the allied English and French 
armies, Oct. 12, i860; and evacuated by them Oct. 26 following, after peace had been 
signed. It was described as being in a very desolate state, with a scattered, indigent 
population, estimated at 4,000,000. 

PELAGIANS, followers of Pelagius, a Briton, appeared at Rome about 400. Their 
doctrines wei-e condemned at Carthage, and other councils, 415, 416. They maiutained: — 



. That Adam was by nature mortal, and whether 
he had sinned or not would certainly have died. 
2. That the consequences of Adam's sin were con- 
fined to his own person. 3. That new-born infants 
are in the same condition with Adam before the 



fall. 4. That the law qualified men for the king- 
dom of heaven, and was founded upon equal pro- 
mises with the Gospel. 5. That the general resur- 
rection of the dead does not follow in virtue of 
Our Saviour's resurrection. 



PELASGI, the primitive inhabitants of Greece and Italy, appear to belong to the Indo- 
Germanic race. They were in Greece about 1900 B.C., and in Italy about 1600 B.C. Thej- 
have been termed Tyrrheni, Sicani, or Siculi, Apuli, &c. From the Pela.«gi came the 
Dorians, ^olians, and lonians ; all three being Hellenes or Greeks. 

PELEW ISLANDS (N. Pacific Ocean), discovered by the Spaniards in the 17th century. 
The East India Company's packet Antelope, captain Wilson was wreckeil here in 1783. The 
king, Abba Thulle, allowed captain Wilson to bring prince Le Boo, his son, to England, 
where he arrived in 1784, and died soon after of the smallpox. The East India Company 
erected a monument over his grave in Rotherhithe churchyard. 

PELHAM ADMINISTRATION. Mr. Henry Pelham replaced the earl of Wilmington, 
as premier, Aug. 1743. See Wilmington. In Nov. 1744, a new ministry Avas formed (termed 
"the broad bottom administration," because it comprehended a grand coalition of the 
parties). It was dissolved by the death of Mr. Pelliam, Mai'ch 6, 1754. 



PEL 553 PEN 



PELHAM ADMINISTRATION, continued. 



Henry Pelham, flvd lord of the treasuiy and chan- 
cel hr of the exchequer. 

Duko of Uor-set, presUlenl of the council. 

Eaii Gower, lord piivi/ seal. 

Duke of Newcastle and the earl of Harrington, 
secretaries of state. 

Bake of Montagu, master-general of the ordinance. 

Duko of Bedford, ;irs< lord of the admiralty/. 



Duke of Grafton, lord chamherlain. 

Duke of Richmond, master of the horse. 

Duke of Argyll, keeper of the great seal of Scotland. 

Maniuess of Tweeddale, secretary of utate for Scotland. 

Lord Hardwicke, lord chancellor. 

All of the cabinet. 
The duke of Devonshire and duke of Bolton were 
not of the caljinet. 



PELOPIUM. See Niobium. 

PELOPONNESIAN WAR continued for twenty-seven years between the Athenians and 
the people of the Peloponnesus, with their respective allies, and is the most famous of the 
wars ot Greece. It began by an attempt of the Boeotians to surprise Plata^a, 4:11 b c on 
May 7, and ended 404 B.C. by the taking of Athens by the Lacedremonians. 

PELUSIUM (now Tineli), formerly the key of Egypt. Here in ^zk, b c Psani 
Wdom ^^' '''''' '^^f^^t'^^1 by Cambyses, the Persian, who thereby obtained possession of the 

PENAL LAWS. ^q& Criminal Laws and Roman Catholics. Penal servitude was 
substituted for transportation by acts passed in 1853 and 1857, and amended in 1864. 

or.,}-^^^'^^'^f'^i^ sacrament in the Roman church, arose out of the practice of auricular 
confession {wJuchsee). The council of Trent, in its 14th session (155 1), decreed that everv 
one is accursed who shall affirm that this sacrament was not instituted by Christ. 

,-n ,^fr^t^^' "/■-^T'?'^ ?! W^i'Es's Island, was given up to the East India Company 
ln,„ f /?y °fPt'"'\F- I^i^'^' ''■''" ''^''''l^f It as a marriage portion with the daughter of the 
King ot Keddah. It now torms one of the Straits Settlements (which see). 

F'ENDULUMS are affirmed to have been adapted to clocks by Galileo the younger, 
about 1641. Christian Huyghens contested the priority of this discovery, 1656. Dufresnou 
See CTocfo. Experiments were made to determine the density of the earth by pendulums by 
Mr G 13 Airy (now astronomer royal) and others, in a mine in Cornwall, in 18^6 and 1828 ■ 
and at Harton colliery in 1854 In 185 1, M. Foucault demonstrated the rotation of the 
earth by tlie motion ot a pendulum. 

PENINSULAR WAR. See under .V»', 1808-14. 

PENITENTS. ^CQ Magdalens. The Penitents of the name of Jesus were a con^To-ation 
of religious in Spain who had led a licentious life, formed about 1550. The iieiuteuts of 
Orvieto were formed into an order of nuns about 1662. 

PENNSYLVANIA (N America), the first state in the Union in regard to mineral 
wealth 1 opulatiou in i860, 2,906,370. Sir Walter Raleigh was the first adventurer who 

}S5 u'°. ;I °^ 1''' r V '1' "\'i^' '"-?.''^ Elizabeth. Pennsylvania was granted by 
Clailes II. to the duke of ^ork, 1664; and it was sold to the Penn family 1681 Penn 
sylvania was afterwards purchased from the Indians by the celebrated William Penn (son of 
admiral Penn), who went out from England with a number of colonists ; from which period 
the settlement graduaUy increased. Mr. Penn granted a charter in May 1701 but the 
emigrants from the Low Countries refused it, ami separated themselves from the province of 
Pennsylvania They afterwards had their own assembly, in which the governor of Pennsvl- 
yania presided. This state adopted an indeiiendeut constitution in 1776, and established 
the present in 1 790 It was strongly Unionist during the civil war, 1861-5. See United States 
of America, and Petrolemn. 

PENNY. The ancient silver penny Avas the first silver coin struck in Enrrland and the 
only one current among the Anglo-Saxons. The penny until the reio-n of Edward I was 
struck with a cross, so deeply indented that it might be easily parted into two for halfpence 
and into four for farthings, and hence these names. Copper penny and two-peniiv pieces 
were coined by Boulton and Watt, at Soho, Birmingham, in 1797, and were aicouuted the 
finest of our copper currency. See Coins, &c.-Penxy-Post. See Post-Office —The Penny 
Magazine began in 1832 ; the Penny CvcLOP.EDiAin 1833 (supplements in 1846 and i8;8) 
Ihe Penny Receipt .stamp was appointed in 1853, and in 1S50 a penny stamp was directed 
to be placed on bankers cheques.- Penny Banks (in 1861 about 200) were established 
About 1050. 

. PENRUDDOCK'S REBELLION on behalf of Charles II. was suppressed, and sir John 
himself executed, in 1655. ' ^" >^o"n 



PE2^ 



554 



PER 



PENSION'S. The Crown's power of granting them, often much abused, was materially 
checked by statute i Anne, c. i (1702). 



English pension list fixed at 9s,ooof. . . . 1781 
Irish pension list said to amount to 489, oooC . 1793 
Provision made by parliament to reduce all the 
pension lists of the United Kingdom from 
i45,r.ooi. to a maximum of 7s,ooo(. . . . 1830 
A committee appointed to define the proper 
persons to whom pensions should be granted : 
it reported in favour of servants of the crown 



and public, and also of those who "by their 
useful discoveries in science and attainments 
in literature and the arts, have merited the 
gracious consideration of their sovereign and 
the gratitude of their countryj" . '■ ^ . 
The queen empowered to grant annually new 
pensions to the amount of i2ooZ. 



T834 
1837 



PENTECOST signifies the fiftieth, and is the solemn festival of the Jews, so called because 
it was celebrated fifty days after the feast of the Passover. Lev. xxiii. 15. It is called the 
feast of weeks, Exod. xxxiv. 22, because it was kept seven weeks after the Passover. See 
Whitsuntide. 

PENTLAND HILLS (near Edinburgh). Here, the Scotch presbyterians, since called 
Cameronians {which see), who had risen against the government, on account of the establish- 
ment of episcopacy, were defeated by the royal troops, Nov. 28, 1666. 

PEOPLE. The duke of Norfolk and C. J. Fox, at dinner in 1798, gave as a toast "the 
Majesty of the People," for wliieh their names were struck off the list of privy councillors. 
A "People's petition" was presented to parliament by Mr. T. Buncombe, and rejected, 
May 2, 1842. 

"PEOPLE'S PARKS," principally through private liberality, have been opened since 
1846, at Manchester, Halifax, Birmingham, Sheffield, Dundee, Bradford, Hull, Bath, and 
Bolton {tvhich see). 

PEPSIN, a peculiar organic substance found by Schwamm in the gastric juice, and 
named by him from jjc/jsis, digestion. It was experimented on by M. Blondlot in 1843, and 
has since been prescribed as a medicine. 

PERCEVAL ADMINISTRATION. It commenced on the dissolution of that of the 
<luke of Portland through his death, Oct. 30, i8og. Mr. Perceval was assassinated in the 
lobby of the house of commons, by Bellingliam, May 11, 1812. The earl of Liverpool suc- 
ceeded as premier. 



Lord Mulgrave, admiralty, 

Mr. Dumas and earl Batliurst, boards of control and 

trade. 
Earl of Chatham, ordno.nce. 
Viscount Palmcrston, secretarij-at-ioar, d:c. 
Lord Eldon, lord chancellor. 



Spencer PercevaljtrsJ lord of the treasury, cliancellor 

of the exchequer, and chancellor of the duchy of 

Lancaster. 
Earl Camden, lord president. 
Earl of Westmoreland, lord privy seal. 
Kichard Ryder, marquess of Wellesley, and earl of 

Liverpool, home, foreign, and colonial secretaries. 

PERCUSSION-CAPS. See Fire-arms. 

PERCY FAMILY. William de Percy obtained lands in Yorkshire from William the 
Conqueror, and di,ed at Antioch about 1096. 



The heiress of the last baron Percy married 
Jocfcline de Louvaine, son of Godfrey, duke 
of Brabant, in the reign of Henry II. . 1154-89 

Henry de Percy, their descendant, created earl 
of Noi-thumbei-land in 1377 

Many of his descendants were slain during the 
civil wars. 

Lady Elizabeth Percy, the heiress of Joscelinc 

• Percy, who died 1670, married Charles, duko 
of Somerset. 

Lady Elizabeth Percy, heiress of Algernon 



Seymour, duke of Northumberland, married 
sir Hugh Smithson, created duke of North- 
umberland in 1766 

Their descendant, duke Algernon, died without 
issue, Feb. 12, 1865, and was succeeded by 
his cousin, George Percy, earl of Beverley. 

The Percy Society, for the publication of 
ancient ballads, &c., was established in 1840, 
published 94 little volumes, and was dissolved 



PEREKOP, an isthmus, five miles broad, connecting the Crimea with the mainland. It 
-was called by the Tartars Orkapou, "gate of the isthmus," wliich the Russians changed to 
its present name, which signifies a barren ditch. The Tartar fortress was taken and destroyed 
by the Russian marshal Miinich in 1736, by assault, although it was defended by 1000 
Janissaries and 100,000 Tartars. It was again strongly fortified by the khan, but was again 
taken by the Russians iu 1771, who have since retained it. 

PERE LE CHAISE. See Cemeteries. 



PER 



PER 



PERFUMERY. Iii Exodus xxx. (b.c. 1490), directions are given for making the holy 
incense. Philip Angustns of France granted a charter to the master perfumers in 1190. 
Perfumes became fashionaljle in England in the reign of Elizabeth. In i860 there were 
about forty manufacturing perfumers in London ; in Paris about eighty. No such trade as a 
perfumer was known in Scotland in 1763. Creech. A stamp-tax was laid on various articles 
of perfumery in England, and the vendor was obliged to take out a licence in 1786. At the 
corner of Ikaufort-buildings, in the Strand, resided Lilly, the perfumer, mentioned in the 
SiKCtator. Leigh. 

PERGAMOS. ^Qd Seven Churches, 3. 

PERIODICAL LITERATURE, ^ea NetvsjicqKrs, Magazines, !i\\(!i Revicivs. 

PERIPATETIC PHILOSOPHY. See Lyceum. 

PERJURY. The early Romans threw the oifender headlong from the Tarpeian precipice ; 
but that penalty was afterwards altered, upon a supposition that the gods would vindicate 
their own honour by some remarkable judgment upon the offender. The Greeks set a mark 
of infamy upon him. After the empire became Christian, any one who swore falsely upon 
the Gospels, was to have his tongue cut out. The canons of the j)i"iniitive church enjoined 
eleven years' penance ; and in some states the false swearer became liable to the punishment 
he charged upon the innocent. Perhaps the greatest perjurer in modern times was Titus 
Gates. See Gates. A woman named Alice Grey was convicted of many perjuries in 1S56. 
In England perjury was punished with the j)illory, 1563. By the Abolition of Oaths bill, 
persons making a false declaration are deemed guilty of a misdemeanor; Act 5 & 6 Will. IV. 
cc. 60 and 61, 9 Sept. 1835. 

PERKINS' METALLIC TRACTORS. See Animal Magnetism. 

PERMISSIVE BILL (which would give power to two-thirds of the rate-payers of a 
parish to refuse licences for the sale of intoxicating liquors) was rejected by the house of 
commons, June 8, 1S64. 

PERONNE (N. France), Treaty of. Louis XI. of France, having placed himself in the 
power of the duke of liurgundy, was forced to sign this treaty, confirming those of Arras and 
Conflans, with some other humiliating stipulations, 1468. Louis XL had promised Champagne 
and Brie as appanages to his brother Charles, duke of Berry, not intending to keep his word, 
apprehending that those provinces, being so near Burgundy, would prove a fresh source of 
broils and disputes. Henault. 

PERPETUAL EDICTS. See Edicts. 

PERSECUTIONS. Historians usually reckon ten general persecutions of the Christians. 
See Jews, Heretics, Inquisition, Huguenots, Protestants, Masscccres, Bartholomeio, St., &c. 



1st, under Nero, wlio, having set fire to Rome, 
threw the odium upon the Christians ; mul- 
titudes were massacred ; wrapt up in the 
skins of wild beasts, .and torn and devoured 
by dogs ; crucified, burnt aUvo, &,c. . . 64-68 

2nd, under Domitian 95 

3rd, under Trajan 106 

4th, under Marcus Aurelius . . . 166-177 
5th, under Septimus Severus . . . 199-204 



6th, under Maximinus 235-8 

7th, under Decius, more bloody than any pre- 
ceding 250-2 

8th, under Valerian 258-60 

gth, under Aurelian 275 

loth, undei- Diocletian, who prohibited divine 
worship ; houses filled with Christians were 
set on fire, and droves of them were bound 
together with ropes and cast into the sea 303-13 



PERSEPOLIS, the ancient splendid capital of Persia. Alexander has been falsely accused 
of setting fire to it, while intoxicated, 331 B.C. The fire is said to have been accidental, and 
not extensive. Ruhns of this city still exist. 

PERSIA, in the Bible called Elam, is said to have received its appellation from Perseus, 
the son of Perseus and Andromeda, who settled here, and established a jietty sovereignty. 
The name is more proba1)ly of Indian origin. Persia was included in the first Assyrian 
monarchy, 900 e.g. ; when that empire was dismembered by Arbaces, &c., it ai^pertained to 
Media. Population of the present kingdom, about io,ooo,cxx}. 



Zoroaster, king of Bactria, founder of the 
Magi — Jaxtin B.C. 2115 

Zoroaster II., Persian philosopher, generally 
confounded witli tbc king of Bactria . . 1082 

Cyrus, king of Persia, 557 ; overthrows the 
Medo-Babyloniau monarchy, about 557 ; con- 



quers Asia-Minor about 548 ; becomes master 
of the east, 536 ; killed in a war with the 
Massagetaj 

Cambyses, his son, conquers Egypt (which see) . 

The false Smerdis killed ; Darius Hystasper 
king 

Revolt of the Babylonians subdued . 



529 
525 



S2I 
512 



PER 



556 



PER 



PERSIA, contimicd. 

Conquest of Ionia ; Miletus destroyed . . . 498 

Darius equips a fleet of 600 sail, with an army 
of 300,000 soldiers to invade tlie Peloponnesus, 
which is de'eated at Marathon (M-/iic/i «ec) . 490 

Xerxes (king, 485) ; recovers Egypt, 484 ; enters 
Gi-ecce in the sjiring of tliis year, at the head 
of an immense force ; the battle of Ther- 
moijyhe 4S0 

Xerxes enters Athens, after having lost 200,000 
of bis troops, and is defeated in a naval en- 
gagement off Salanris ,, 

The Persians defeated at Mycale and Platssa, 

Sept. 22, 479 

Cimon, son of Miltiafles, with a fleet of 250 ves- 
sels, takes several cities from the Persians, 
and destroys their navy, consisting of 340 
sail, near Cyprus 470 

Xerxes is murdered in his bed by Ai'tabanus . 465 

Artaxerxes Longimanus king . . . . ,, 

Xerxes IV. king, slain by Sogdianus, who is 
depo.sed Vjy Oehus Darius II., Nothus . . 425 

Artaxerxes II. Mnemon, king, 405 ; battle of 
Cunaxa, Cyrus the younger killed . . . 401 

Retreat of the 10,000 Greeks (see Retreat) . . ,, 

Artiixerxes III. (Oehus) kills all his relations at 
his accession 359 

He is killed by his minister Bagoas, and his 
son, Ai'ses, made king 338 

Bagoas kills him and sets up Darius III., Todo- 
manus, by whom he himself is killed . . 336 

Alexander the Great enters Asia ; defeats the 
Persians at the riv'er Granicus, 334; near 
Issus, 333 ; at Arbela 321 

Darius killed by Bessus, who is torn in pieces . ,, 

Alexander founds the 3rd or Grecian monarchy ,, 

Persia was partly re-conquered from the Greeks ; 
is subjugated by the Parthians . . . . 250 

Artaxerxes I., a common soldier, founder of 
the'Sassanides dynasty, restores the kingdom 
of Persia a.d. 226 

Religion of Zoroaster restored and Christianity 
l^ersecuted 227 

Artaxerxes murdered ; succeeded by Sapor I. ; 
Armeniabecomi-s independent under Chosroes 240 

Sapor conquers Mesopotamia .... 258 

Repels the Romans and slays the emj^eror 
Valerian 260 

Sapor a.ssas?inated ; succeeded by Hormisdas I. ; 
who favours the Manichees .... 272 

Varanes I. (Baharam) persecutes them and the 
Christians 273 

Varanes II. defeated by the emperor Probus ; 
makes peace 277 

Persia invaded by the emperor Carus, who 
conquers Seleucia and Ctesipon . . . 283 

Varanes III. king, 293 ; Narses .... 294 

The emperor Galeriu.s conquers Mesopotamia, 
Assyria, &c • . . 298 

Peace with Diocletian . . . . . . ,, 

Hormisdas II. king 301 or 303 

Ormuz built about ...... 303 

SajJor II. kiny, 309 ; proscribes Christianity, 
326 ; makes war successfully with Rome for 
the lost provinces ..... 337-360 

The emiJeroi- Julian invades Persia ; slain near 
the Tigris ; his successor Jovian purchases 
his retreat by surrendering provinces . . 363 



Sapor annexes Armenia, 365 ; and Iberia, 366 ; 

makes peace with Rome .... 372 

Artaxerxes II. king, 380; Sapor III. . . . 385 
Armenia and Iberia independent . . . . 386 
Varanes IV., 390; Yezdejird I., 404; conquer.s 

Armenia 412 

Varanes V. 420, persecutes Christians ; con- 
quer .5 Araliia Felix, 421 ; makes peace with 
the Eastern Empire for 100 years . . . 422 
Armenia again united to Persia .... 428 
Wars with Huns, Turks, (Sic. .... 430-2 
Yezdejird II. king, 440 ; Hormisdas III. 457 ; 
civil war, 458-86 ; Feroze king, 458 ; Pallas, 
484 ; Kobad, 4S6 ; Jamaspes, 497 ; Kobad again 497 
His son, Chosroes I. king ; long wars with 
Justinian and his successors, with various 

fortune S31-79 

Successful campaigns of Belisarius . 54i'2 

Hormisdas IV. continues the war ; degrades his 
general, Baharam, who deposes him ; but is 

eventually defeated 590 

Chosroes II. 591 ; renews the war with success, 

603 ; Egypt and Asia Minor subdued . 614-6 

Chosroes totally defeated by the enaperor 

Herachus, who advances on Persia . . . 627 
Chosroes put to death by his son, Siroes, 628 ; J 

Artaxerxes III. king, 629 ; Purandokt, I 

daughter of Chosroes, reigns 630 ; Shenen- I 

deh, her lover, 631 ; Arzemdokt, her .sister, j 

631 ; Kesra, 631 ; Ferokhdad, 632 ; Yesdeiird I 

Iir 632) 

Persia invaded by the Arabs ; the king flies, 
651 ; is betrayed to them and is put to death, 
and his ai-my exterminated . . . . 652 
Persia becomes the seat of the Shiite or Fatimite 

Mahometans 661 

The Taherite dynasty established, 813 ; the 

Safferide, 872 ;*the Samanide . . . . S74 
Persia subdued by Togrul Beg and the Seljukian 
Turks, 1038 ; who are expelled, 1194 ; subdued 
by Genghis Khan and the Mongols . 1223 
Bagdad made the capital . . ... 1345 
Is invaded by Timovir, 1380 ; ravaged by him, 
1399 ; Conquered by the Turcomans, 1468 ; 
who are expelled by the Shiites, or Fatimite 
Mahometans, who estabUsh the Sophi dy- 
nasty under Ismail I 1501 

Ispahan made the capital 1590 

The Turks take Bagdad ; great massacre . . 1638 

Georgia revolts to Russia 1783 

Teheran made the capital 1796 

War with Russia 1826-9 

Rupture with England in consequence of the 
Persians taking Herat {which see), Oct. 25 ; 

war declared Nov. i, 1856 

Persians defeated ; Bu&hire taken . Dec. 8-10, ,, 
Gen. Outram defeats the Persians at Kooshab, 

Feb. 8, 1857 
And at Mohammerah . . . JIarch 26, ,, 

Peace ratified at Teheran . . . Ajiril 14, ,, 
Commercial treaty with France, &c. . June, ,, 
Herat given up by the Persians . . July, ,, 
The shah decrees a re-organisation of the 

government . . . . . Sept. 9, 1858 
Railways in process of formation , . . . 1865 



SHAHS OF PERSIA. 



1502. Ismail or Ishiuael: conquers Georgia, 1519. 

1523. Tamasp or Thamas I. 

1576. Ismail II. Meerza. 

1577. Mahommed Meerza. 

1582. Abbas I. the Great ; made a treaty with the 

English 1612 ; died in 1628. 

1628. Shah Sophi. 

1641. Abbas II. 

1666. Shah Sophi II. 

1694. Hussein; deposed. 



1722. Mahmoud, chief of the Afghans. 

1725. Ashrafif, the Usurper ; slain in battle. 

1730. Tamasp or Thamas II. ; recovered the throne 

of his ancestors from the preceding. 
[Thamas-Kouli Kban, his general, obtained 

great successes in this and the subsequent 

reigns.] 
1732 Abbas III., infant son of Tamasp, under the 

regency of Kouli-Khan, who aftei-wards 

caused himself to be proclaimed king as 



PER 



557 



PES 



founds the reigning (Turcoman) dynasty ; 
assassinated, 1797. 

1798. Futteli A li- Shall. 

1S34. Mahonnned Shah, grandson of Futteh ; suc- 
ceeded by his son, 

1848. Nasr-ul-Deen, or Nausser-ood-deen, Sept. 4 ; 
born 1829; the present shah of Per.sia; 
said to be an able prince and friendly to 
Britain, 1865. 

The statute law.s respecting these were consolidated and 



PERSIA, continued. 

1736. Nadir Shah (the Victorious King) ; conquers 
India, 1739 ; as.sassinated at Korassan by hi.s 
nejihow. 

1747. Sh.ali Rokh. 

1751. [Interregnum.] 

1759. Kurccni Khan. 

1779. Ulany com]ietitors for the throne, and assassi- 
nations till — 

1795' Aga-Mahommed Khan obtains the power, and 

PERSON, Offences against. 
amended in 1861. 

_ PERSPECTIVE in drawing was observed by the Van Eycks (1426-46), and was treated 
scientitically by IMicliel Angelo, Leonardo da Vinci, and Albert Djirer, early in the i6th 
century. Guido Ubaldo published the first treatise in 1608 ; Dubreuil's treatise (the "Jesuits' 
perspective ") ajipeared in 1642, and the mathematical theory was demonstrated by Brook 
Taylor in 173 1. 

PERTH (Scotland), said to have been founded by Agricola, about A.D. 70. It was 
besieged by the regent Robert, 1339. On Feb. 20, 1437, James I. was murdered at the 
Black Friars' uiona.stery here, by Robert Graham and the earl of Athol, for which their bodies 
were torn with red-hot jiincers, burning crowns of irofi pressed down xipou their heads, and 
in the end their hearts taken out and thrown into a fire. — Gowrie's conspiracy occurred here, 
Aug. 6, 1600. The "Articles of Perth," relating to religious ceremonies, were agreed to by 
the General Assembly of Scotland, Aug. 25, 1618. Perth was taken by Cromwell in 165 1 ; 
and bjf the earl of Mar after the battle of Dumblane, in 1715. The statue of the prince 
consort was inaugurated in the presence of the queen, Aug. 30, 1864. 

PERU (S. Anlerica^, visited by the Spaniards in 15 13, and soon afterwards easily con- 
rpiered. Pizarro, in 1530, and others, with one vessel, 112 men, and four horse.s, set out to 
invade South America. Not succeeding he again, in 1531, embarked with three small vessels, 
140 infantry, and thirty-six horses ; with the.se and two reinforcements of thirty men 
each, he conrpiered the empire of Peru, and laid the foundation of that vast power which 
the Spaniards long enjoyed in the new world. Peru remained in subjection to the Spaniards 
(who murdered the Incas and all their descendants), without any attempt being made to throw 
off the oppressive yoke till 1782. 

The independence of the country achieved . 1825 
The new Peruvian constitution signed by the 

Iiresident of the Republic . . March 21, 1828 
The president general Ramon Castilla, elected . 1855 
Population (with(jut Indians) about 25 miUions 1859 
Marshal San Ramon president . Oct. 24, 1862 
General J. A. Pezet president . . April 3, 1863 
The Spanish admiral Pizon took possession of 

the Chincha isles (valuable for guano) belong- 

ingto Peru, stating thathe would occupy them 

till the claim of his government or that of 



Peru were satisfied . . . April 24, 1864 
American congress at Lima : plenipotentiaries 

from Chili and other states meet to concert 

measures for defence against Eurojieau 

powers ...... Nov. 1864 

Negotiations followed by peace with Spain, 

Jan. 28 ; Chincha islands restored . Feb. 3 1865 
Revolt against president Pezet, Feb. 28; several 

provinces soon lost .... May, ,, 
The insurgents take Lima ; Pezet flies, and 

Canseco becomes president . . Nov. , 

PERUGIA, a city- of Central Italy, anciently one of the Etruscan Confederation. It 
allied itself with the Samnites, but M-as ruined by two defeats by the Romans, 309 and 
295 B.C. It was taken by Octavius Caesar from the adherents of Antony : many of whom 
were immolated on altars by their victor. Leo X. took Perugia from the rival families Oddi 
and Baglioni, in 1520. An iu.surrection here against the pope was put down by the Swiss 
with great cruelty, June 20, 1859. It was taken by the Sardinian general Fanti, in Sejit. 
i860, when the cruel papal general Schmidt and 1600 men were made jirisoners. 

PERUKE, or "Wig. The ancients used false hair, but the present peruke was first worn 
in France aud Italy about 1620 ; and introduced into England about 1660.* 

PERUVIAN BARK. See Jesuits' Bark. 

PESCHIERA, a strong Austrian foiiress, on an island in the Minci6, near the Lake de 
Garda, N. Italy. It has been frequently taken by siege : — by the French, 1796; by the 
Austrians and Russians, 1799 ; by the French again, iSoi ; given up by them, 1814; taken 
by the Sardinians, 1848 ; retaken by Radetzky, 1849. The Sardinians were preparing to 
besiege it in July, 1859, when peace was made. See Quadramjlc. 

* It is said that bishop Blomfield (of London) obtained permission of William IV. for the bishops to 
discontinue wearing their wigs in parliament in 1830. 



PES 



558 



PET 



PESTALOZZIAN SYSTEM of education was devised by Henri Pestalozzi, born at Zurich 
in Switzerland, in 1746, died 1827. In 1775 he turned his farm into a school for educating 
poor children in industrial pursuits, reading, and writing ; but did not succeed. In 1798 he 
established an orphan school, where he began with the niirtual instruction, or monitorial 
sj'stem , since adopted by Lancaster ; but his school was soon turned into an hospital for the 
Austrian arni}\ In 1802, in conjunction with Fellcnberg, he established his school at 
Hofwyl, which at first was successful, but eventually declined through mismanagement. 
Pestalozzi certainly aided the progress of education. 

PESTH (Hungary), built about 889, was repeatedly taken and besieged in the wars of 
Hungary, particularly in the long contests with the Turks. The last time it changed masters, 
was in 1684, after the raising of the famous siege of Vienna by Sobieski. Buda-Pcsth was 
taken by the Imperialists, Jan. 5, 1849. The Hungarians afterwards defeated the Austrians, 
who were obliged to evacuate it April 18, same year. See Hungary. 

PESTILENCE. See Plague. 

PETALISM (from the Greek pctalon, a leaf), a mode of deciding upon the guilt of 
citizens of Syracuse, similar to the Athenian ostracism, the name being written on a leaf 
(generally of an olive) instead of a shell, about 460 B.C. If guilt were established, the 
sentence was usually banishment. Coigrare. 

PETAED, an instrument whose invention is ascribed to the Huguenots in 1579. Petards; 
were of metal, nearly in the shape of a hat, and were employed to blow up gates or other 
barriers, and also in countermines to break through into the enemy's galleries. Cahors was 
taken by Henry IV. by means of petards, in 1580, when it is said they were first used. 

PETER THE "Wild Boy. A savage creature found in the forest of Hertswold, electorate 
of Hanover, when George I. and his friends were hunting. He was found Avalking on his 
hands and feet, climbing trees like a sqirirrel, and feeding on grass and moss, Nov. 1725. At 
this time he was supposed to be thirteen years old. The king caused him to taste of all the 
dishes at the royal table ; but he preferred wild plants, leaves, and the bark of trees, which 
he had lived on from his infancy. No eflbrts of the many philosophic persons about court 
could entirely vary his savage habits, or cause him to utter one distinct syllable. He died 
Feb. 1785, at the age of 72. Lord Monboddo represented him to be a proof of the hypothesis 
that " man in a state of nature is a mere animal." 

PETER'S PENCE, presented by Ina, king of the AVest Saxons, to the pope at Rome, 
for the endowment of an English college there, 725 ; so called because agreed to be paid ou 
the feast of St. Peter. The tax was levied on all families possessed of thirty pence yearly 
rent in land, out of which they paid one penny. It was confirmed by Oflfa, 777, and was 
afterwards claimed by the popes as a tribute from England, and regularly collected, till 
suppressed by Henry VIII. Camden. A public collection (on behalf the pope) was forbidden 
in France in i860. 

PETERP>OROUGH (Northamptonshire), founded 633 ; anciently called Medcshamstede ; 
obtained its present name from a king of Mercia founding an abbey and dedicating it to 
St. Peter in 689. The church, destroyed by the Danes, was rebuilt with great beauty. The 
bishopric erected by Henry VIII. in 1541, out of the lands of the dissolved monastery, in the 
diocese of Lincoln. The first bishop was John Chambers, the last abbot of Peterborough. 
The see was valued in the king's books at 419?. 19s. iicl. Present income 4500Z. 

RECENT BISHOrS OF PETERBOROUGH. 



1839. Geoi'ge Davys ; died April 8, 1864. 

1864. Francis J eune, May. (Present bishop.) 



1794. Spencer Madan ; died Oct. 8, 1813 
1813. John Parsons ; died March 12, 1819. 
1819. Herbert Marsh ; died May i, 1839. 

PETERLOO. See Manchester Reform Meeting. 

PETERSBURG, ST., the modern capital of Russia, founded by Peter the Great, May 27, 
1703. He built a small hut for himself, and some wretched wooden hovels. In 17 10, the 
count Golovkin built the first house of brick ; and the next year, the emperor, with his owji 
hands, laid the foundation of a house of the same material. The seat of empire was trans- 
ferred from Moscow to this place in 1711. Here, in 1736, a fire consumed 2000 houses ; and 
in 1780, another fire consumed 11,000 houses ; this last fire was occasioned by lightning. 
A^ain in June, 1796, a large magazine of naval stores and 100 vessels were destroyed. The 
winter palace was burnt to the ground, Dec. 29, 1837. The railway to Moscow was finished 
in 185 1 ; to Berlin, opened May 5, 1862. The university was closed in Oct. 1861, on 



PET 



PEV 



account of tlie riotous behaviour of the students. On June lo, 1862, property to the 
amount of nearly a million sterling was destroyed by fire. — Petersburg, Virginia. See 
United Slates, 1864. 



Peace of St. Petersburg, between Russia and 
Prussia, the former restoring all her con- 
quests to the latter, signed . . . May 5, 

Treaty of St. Petersburg for the partition of 
Poliind, see'article (Partition Treaties), Aug. 5, 

Treaty of St. Petersburg, led to a coalition 
against France Sept. 8, 



1762 



Treaty of Alliance, signed at St. Petersburg, 
between Bernadotte, prince royal of Sweden, 
and the emperor Alexander; the former 
agreeing to join in the campaign against 
France, in return for which Sweden was to 
receive Norway .... March 24, 1812 



PETER'S CHURCH, ST. (Rome), originally erected by Con.stantine, 306. About 1450, 
pope Nicholas V. commenced a new church. The present magnificent pile was designed by 
Bramante ; the first stone was laid by pope Julius II. in 1506. In 1514, Leo X. employed 
Raphael and two otliers to superintend the building. Paul III. committed the work to 
Michael Angelo, who devised the dome, in the construction of which 30,000 lb. of iron wa.s 
used. The church was consecrated Nov. 18, 1626. The front is 400 feet broad, ri.sing to a 
height of 180 feet, and the majestic dome ascends from the centre of the church to a height of 
324 feet : the length of the interior is 600 feet, forming one of the most spacious halls ever 
constructed. The length of the exterior is 669 feet ; its greatest breadth within is 442 feet ; 
and the entire height from the gi'ound 432 feet. 

PETERSWALDEN (Germany), Conventiox of, between Great Britain and Russia, by 
which a firm and decisive alliance between those powers was made against France, and the 
course of action against Napoleon Bonaparte was planned, signed July 8, 1813. This alliance 
led to the overthrow of Bonaparte in the next year. 

PETERWARADEIN (in Austria) was taken by the Turks, July, 1526. Here prince 
Eugene of Savoy gained a great victory over the Turks, Aug. 5, 1716. 

PETITIONS. The right of petitioning the crown and parliament for redress of 
grievances is a fundamental principle of the constitution. Petitions are extant of the date 
of Edward I. In the reign of Henry IV. petitions began to be addressed to the house of 
commons in considerable numbers. In 1837, there were presented to parliament 10,831 
petitions, signed by 2,905,905 persons ; in 1859, 24,386, signed by 2,290,579 persons. See 
Sights, Petition of. 

PETRARCH AND Laura: celebrated for the refined passion of the former for the latter 
begun in 1327, which was the chief subject of his enchanting sonnets. He was born 1304' 
crowned with laurel, as a poet and writer, on Easter-day, April 8, 1341, ; and died at Arqua,' 
near Padua, July 18, 1374. Laura died April 6, 1348. 

PETROLEUM, rock oil or mineral oil, similar to paraffin, has been found in many parts 
of the world, especially at Rangoon. In 1860-1, a number of oil-springs were discovered in 
the bituminous coal regions of N.W. Pennsylvania, now termed " Petrolia," and others 
have been since discovered in Ohio and other states, and also in Canada. In consequence 
numerous artesian wells have been sunk, manufactories erected, and an almost unlimited 
supply obtained. In consequence of the importation of large supplies of this oil into this 
country, and many accidents having taken place through its inflammability at low tempe- 
rature, an act for " the safe keeping of petroleum" was passed in July, 1862. 

PETROPAULOVSKI, a fortified town on the east coast of Kamtschatka, was attacked hy 
an English and French squadron, Aug. 30, 1854. They destroyed the batteries, but failed 
in taking some Russian frigates, except the Sitka, a store-ship taken by the President, and 
a schooner taken by the Pique. Admiral Price was killed, it is supposed, by the accidental 
discharge of his own pistol. A party of 700 sailors and marines landed to assault the place, 
but fell into an ambuscade ; many were killed, including capt. Parker and M. Bourasset, 
English and French officers. The objects of the attack were not attained, it is thought from 
want of stores. After this the Russians greatly strengthened their defences, but on May 30, 
1855, the allied squadron in the Pacific arriving here found the place deserted. The fortifi- 
cations were destroyed, but the town was spared. The Rus.sian ships escaped. 

PEVENSEY (Sussex). The castle is very ancient. From the abundance of Roman 
bricks, it is supposed that there was a Roman fortress on the spot. Here William of 
Normandy landed, Sept. 28 or 29, 1066. The duke of York, in the reign of Henry IV., was 
for some time confined within the walls of this castle ; as was also queen Joan of Navari'e, 
the last wife of Henry IV., who, with her confessor, friar Randal, was accused of a design to 
destroy the king. 



PEW 560 PHI 

PEWS in churches were not in nse in England till long after the Reformation : about 
the middle of the 17th century. The earliest rcading-2)eio with a date is one at Geddington 
St. Mary, Northamiitonshire,' dated 1602. Hook. 

PFAFFENDORF, or Liegnitz (Silesia). Here was fought a battle between the Impe- 
rialists and Prussians, Aug. 15, 1760. The Austrians were signally defeated by the king of 
Prussia, who thus prevented the junction of the Paissian and Austrian armies. 

PHALANX, the Greek phalanx consisted of 8000 men in a square battalion, with shields 
joined, and spears crossing each other. The battalion fomied by Philip of JMacedon, 
called the Macedonian phalanx, was formed by him 360 b. g. 

PHARAOH'S SERPENTS, a chemical toy, composed of sulpho-cyanide of mercury, 
ajDpeared in Paris in the summer of 1865. 

PHARISEES, a sect among the Jews ; so called from j)/(«?'as7i, a Hebrew word which 
signifies separated, because they pretended to a greater degree of holiness than the rest of 
the Jews. Luke xviii. 9. The Talmud enumerates seven classes of Pharisees. 

PHARMACOPffilA, a book of directions for the preparation of medicines, published by 
colleges of physicians. In 1862 the General Medical Council were empowered to prepare 
and sell a new Pharmacopa-ia, to supersede those of the colleges of London, Edinburgh, and 
Dublin, which was published in June, 1864. 

PHARMACY : the knowledge of the chemical and medical properties of drugs and 
other tilings employed medicinally. The Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, founded 
in 1841, mainly by Mr. Jacob Bell, obtained its charter in 1843. It publishes a monthly 
journal. — 15 & 16 Vict. c. 56(1852), regulates the qualifications of pharmaceutical chemists. 

PHAROS, of Ptolemy Philadelphus of Alexandria, was esteemed as one of the wonders 
of the world. It was a tower built of white marble, erected about 280 B.C. On the top, 
fires were constantly kept, to direct sailors in the bay. The building cost 800 talents, which 
are equivalent to above 165,100?. English, if Attic; or, if Alexandrian, double that sum. 
There was this inscription upon it — " King Ptolemy to the gods, the saviours, for the benefit 
of sailors ; " but Sostratus, the architect, wishing to claim all the glory, engraved his own 
name \x\io\i the stones, and afterwards filled the hollow with mortar, and wrote the above 
inscription. When the mortar had decayed, Ptolemy's name disappeared, and the following 
inscription became visible: " Sostratus, the Cnidian, son of Dexiphanes, to the gods, the 
saviours, for the benefit of sailors." 

PHARSALIA, a strong city in Thessaly, N. Greece. Near it Julius Csesar defeated his 
rival Pompey, Aug. 9, 48 b. g. Ponipey fled to Egypt, where he was treacherously slain, 
by order of Ptolemy the younger, then a minor, and his body thrown naked on the strand, 
till it was burnt by his faithful freednian, Philip. 

PHILADELPHIA (Asia Minor). See Seven Churches. — Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 
was planned by William Penn in 1682. The first American Congress assembled here in 
1774, and promulgated the declaration of indejiendence on July 4, 1776. It was the capital 
of the Union till 1800, when Washington was selected in its place. 

PHILIPHAUGH, near Selkirk, S. Scotland, Avhere the marquess of Montrose and the 
royalists were defeated by David Leslie and the Scotch Covenanters, Sept. 13, 1645. 

PHILIPPI (Macedonia), so named by the great Philip. Here Octavius Csesar and Marc 
Antony defeated the republican forces of Brutus and Cassius, who both committed suicide, 
Oct., 42 B.C. Paul wrote an epistle to the Christians at Philippi, a.d. 64. 

PHILIPPICS, the term applied to the orations of Demosthenes against Philip II. of 
Macedon, 352-341 e.g., and also to the orations of Cicero against Marc Antony (the second 
of which, called divine by Juvenal, cost Cicero his life), 43 B.C. 

PHILIPPINE ISLES (in the Malay Archipelago), discovered by Magellan, in March, 
1521, who here lost his life in a skirmish. They were taken possession of in 1565 by a fleet 
from ^lexico, which first stopped at the island of Zeba, and subdued it. In 1570 a settle- 
ment was efi"ected at the mouth of the Manilla river, and Manilla became the capital of the 
Spanish possessions in the Philippines. See Manilla. 

PHILISTINES, a people of Palestine, conquered Israel, 11 56 B.C., and ruled it forty 
years. They were defeated by Samuel, 11 20; and by Saul and Jonathan, 1087. They 
again invaded Israel about 1063, when David slew their champion, Goliath. After David 
became king he thoroughly subdued them, 1040. In common with Syria their country 



PHI 561 PHO 

was subjugated by the Romans, under Pompej-, about 63. In Germany, about a.d. 1830, 
Heine and the liberal party applied the term " Philistines " to the opponents of progress, 
the conservative party. 

PHILOBIBLON SOCIETY was instituted in 1853 by Ih: Pt. Monckton Milnes (now 
lord Houghton), M. Sylvain Van de Weyer, the Belgian minister, and others. It publishes 
volumes of " Miscellanies," &c. 

PHILOSOPHER'S STONE. See Alchemy. 

PHILOSOPHY (love of wisdom), the knowledge of the reason of things, in opposition 
to history, which is only the knowledge of facts ; or to mathematics, which is the knowledge 
of the quantity of things :— the hypothesis or system upon which natural effects are 
explained. Locke. Pythagoras first adopted the name of philosopher (such men having 
been previously called sages) about 528 B.C. Philosophers were expelled from Rome, and 
their schools suppressed, by Domitian, a.d. 83. Philosophy is now divided into : — i. Moral 
or Ethical ; 2. Intellectual ; 3. Natural or Physical. 



MORAL AND INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY. 

Ancient Schools. — Pytkaaorean, about 500 B.C. ; 
Platonic (the Academy), lay Plato, 374 ; PeripaUtic 
(the Lyceum), by Aristotle, 334 ; Sceptic, by Pyrrho, 
334; Cynic, by Diogenes, 330 ; Epicurean, by Epi- 
curus, 306 ; Stoic, by Zeno, 290 : Middle Academy, 
by Arcesilaus, 278 ; New Academy, by Carneades, 
160. 

Modern Systems. — Rational, Bacon, about a.d. 1624 ; 
Cartesian, Descartes, about 1650; Reflective or Per- 



&c., iioo. Gerbert, Decimals, 959. Roger Bacon, 
Opus Ma jus, 1266. 
Inductive Philosophy : — 
Copernicus's system published . . . . i543 

Tycho Brahe 1 546-1601 

Kepler's Laws 1609-18 

Bacon's Novum Organwn ..... 1620 

Galileo's Dialogues 1632 

Royal Society beguis {which see) . . . 1645 
Otto Guericke — Air-pump and Electric 



ceptive, Locke, 1690 ; Idealistic, Berkeley, 1710 ; ; machine 1654 



Elective, Leibnitz, 1710; Common Sense, Reid, 
1750-70; Transcendental, Kant, Hamilton, &c., 
1770-1860; Scientijic, Fichte, 1800-14; Absolute 
Identity, SchelUng, 1800-20 ; Absolute Idealism, 
Hegel, 1810-30; Utilitarian, Bentham, 1790-1830; 
Positive, Comte, 1830. 

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 

Greek and Latin. — Thales, about 600 B.C. ; Pythagoras, 
590 ; Aristotle and Plato, 350 ; Euclid, 300 ; Ar- 
chimedes, 287 ; Hipparchus, 150 ; Lucretius, about 
100; Julius Caesar, 50; Ptolemy, a.d. 150. 

Middle Ages. — Arabians : Ben Musa, 800 : Alhazen, 



Huyghons on Pendulums .... 1658 
Newton— Fluxions, 1665 ; Analysis of Light, 
1669 ; Theory of Gravitation, 1684 ; Prin- 

cipia published, 16S7 ; death . . . . 1727 

Bi'adley discovers aberration . . . . „ 

Euler on Perturbation of the Planets . . . 1748 

Black on Heat 1762 

Laplace on Tides 177 5 

'ha,grim.^&, Mecanique Analytique . . . ■ 1788 

Galv.ani and Volta's researches . . . . 1791 

Laplace, Mecanique Celeste . . . ■ • i799 

[See Astronomy, Optics, Chemistry, Electricity, cfcc] 



PHIPPS' EXPEDITION. Tlie hon. captain Phipps (afterwards lord Mulgrave) sailed 
from England in command of the Sea-Horse and Carcase ships, to make discoveries, as near 
as possible, to the North Pole, 1773. In August of that year, he was for nine days envi- 
roned with impenetrable barriers of ice, in the Frozen Ocean, north of Spitzbergen, 80° 
48' N. lat. All further progress was not only impossible, but retreat also, and in this 
dreadful situation all on boaixl gave themselves up for lost ; but a brisk wind in two or three 
days accomplished their deliverance. They returned to England without having made any 
discoveries, Sept. 20, 1773. Nelson was coxwain to the second in command. 

PHOCIS, a state in Northern Greece. The Phocians seized Delphi 357 B.C. and com- 
menced the second Sacred War, They were opposed by Thebes and other states, and were 
utterly subdued by Philip II. of Macedon, in 346. 

PHffiNICIA, on the sea coast of Syria. The natives were the most eminent navigators 
and traders of antiquity ; their cities or allied states being Tyre, Sidon, Berytus, Tripoli, 
Byblos, and Ptolemais or Acre. From the 19th to the I3tli centuries before Christ, they 
established colonies on the shores or isles of the Mediterranean — Carthage, Hippo, Utica, 
Gades, Panorinus, and are said to have visited the British Isles. Phcenicia was conquered 
by Cyrus, 537 B.C.; by Alexander, 334; by the Romans, 47; and after partaking of the 
fortunes of Palestine, was added to the Ottoman empire, A.D. 1516. 

PHCENIX CLUBS, of a treasonable character, were formed in Ireland in 1858. They 
met at night to drill. Several persons were arrested and tried in March, 1859, at Tralee ; 
but the jury could not agree on their verdict. Eventually some of the prisoners pleaded 
guilty, and were discharged on being bound over to keep the peace. 

PHONOGRAPH, a machine which may be attached to pianofortes and other keyed 
instruments, by which any music that is played may be written down on blank paper, since 
it rules and prints the notes simultaneously. It was patented by Mr. Feuby, June 13, 1863. 





PHO 



562 



PHO 



The motive power is electro-magnetism, ilachines with a similar object were pi'ojected by 
Mr. Creed iu 1747; Mr. J. F. linger in 1774; and by Mr. Carreyre iu 1827. 

PHONOGEAPHY (from the Greek pJione, sound). The Phonetic society, whose object 
is to render onr mode of writing and printing more consonant to sound, was established, 
March i, 1843 ; sir W. C. Trevelj-an, president, and Mr. Isaac Pitman, secretary, the latter 
being the inventor of the system which was made known in 1837. Among other works 
published by the promoters of the system, was the " Phonetic News," in 1849. 

PHONOSCOPE, an apparatus for testing the quality of musical strings, invented by 
M. Kcenig, and exhibited at the International Exhibition in 1862. 

PHOSPHOEUS was discovered in 1667, by Brandt, of Hamburg, who procured it from 
urine. The discovery was prosecuted by John Kunckel, a Saxon chemist, about 1670, and 
by the lion. K. Boyle about the same time. Nouv. Diet. Phosphoric acid is first mentioned 
in 1743, biit is said to have been known earlier. Gahn pointed out its existence in bones in 
1769, and Scheele devised a process for extracting it. Canton's phosphorus is so called from 
its discoverer, 1768. Photophosphuretted hydrogen was discovered by sir Humphry Davy 
in 1812. The consumption of phosphorus has immensely increased since the manufacture of 
lucifer matches. In 1845, Schrotter, of Vienna, discovered what is termed allotropic or 
amorphous i^hosphorus, which is not so unwholesome to work as ordinary phosphorus. 

PHOTOGEAPHY. The action of light on chloride of silver was known as early as the 
l6th century. The phenomenon was studied by Scheele (1777), Senebier (1790), Eitter 
and "VVollaston (1801). From the results of these investigations, experiments were made by 
Thos. Wedgwood and Hum}>hry Davy, in the Eoyal Institution, London, which were pub- 
lished in its journal, 1802. Wedgwood may be regarded as the first photographer. His 
paper was entitled "An account of a method of copying paintings upon glass, and of making 
profiles by the agency of light upon nitrate of silver."* 



Further discoveries were made by Kiepce in 1814, 
and sir J. Herscliel in 1819. 

Daguerre commenced his experimrnts in 1S24 ; and 

^ in 1826 joined Ni^pce, and worked with him till 
the death of the latter in 1833. The production 
of Dayueti-eoiype plates was announced in Jan. 
1839 ; and the French chamber of deputies gi-anted 
a pension to Daguerre and to Isidore Niepce (the 
son). 

In 1839 Mr. Henry Fox Talbot first published his 
mode of multiijlying photographic impressions, 
by producing a negative photograph (i.e. with the 
light and shades reversed) from which any luimber 
of positive copies may be obtained. His patent 
for producing the Talbotype or Caloti/pe (on paper) 
is dated Feb. 1841. 

In 1851, Collodion {vhich see) was apphed to photo- 
graphy by Mr. F. Archer. 

The Photographic Society of London was estabhshed 
in 1853. It publishes a journal. On Dec. 22, 1852, 
774 si:)ecimens of pihot<igraphy were exhibited at 
the rooms of the Society of Arts, Adelphi. 

Celeittial Photography began with professor Bond, the 
astronomer of Cambridge, U.S., who exhibited a 
photograph of the moon in 1851. Since then, Mr. 
Wan-en De la Rue of London has produced ex- 
cellent photographs of the moon and other 
heavenly bodies, and on July 18, i860, photo- 
graphed the solar ecUpse. 

Cartes de Vi-iile portraits {which see) taken by M. 
Ferrier at Nice, 1857. 

In 1 861 Mr. Thompson of Weymouth photographed 
the bottom of the sea. 

Photography was successfully applied to the transfer 
of works of art to wood blocks, by Mr. John 
Leighton, in his illustrated edition of Lyra Ger- 
manica, 1861. 

In 1 861, professor O. M. Rood suggested the applica- 
tion of photography totho microscope. 

The tannin process introduced by major Russell 
about 1 861. 



The copyright of Photographs is secured by an act 

passed in 1862. 
Dr. Henry Wright photographed objects of surgical 

interest in Jan. 1863. 
The Wothlytype process, in which nitrate of silver 

and albumen arc, discarded and a double salt of 

uranium and collodion substituted, was announced 

in the autumn of 1864. 
The hght of ignited ^aagnesi^im was emijloyed for 

photographs by Mr. Brothers of Manchester in the 

spring of 1864. 

Photogalvanoobaphv, the art of producing engrav- 
ings by the action of light and electricity. The 
earliest specimens were produced by Nicephore 
Ni^poe and presented by him in 1827 to the great 
botanist Roljert Brown. Great advances have 
since been made in this art by MM. Niepce de St. 
Victor (who pulilisheda treatise on it in 1856), and 
Vitry, Mr. W. R. Grove, H. Fox Talbot, &c. In 
1852, Paul Pi-etsch patented a process which he 
called " Photogalvanography." 

Photoolyphic ENORA^^NO (a process by which the 
light actually etches a picture on a plate that may 
be and has been printed from), was jiatented by 
Mr. Fox Talbot, in 1858, and is described and ex- 
emplified in the Photographic News, Sept. g and 
16, 1859, a specimen being given in the latter 
number. 

Photozincography (a process by which photographs 
are transferred to zinc plates which may be printed 
from), was devised by sir Henry James, chief of 
the Ordnance Survey, and made known in i860. 
By it maps, charts, and engravings may be printed 
at a small cost. 

Photo-Sculptdre; M. Villfeme's employment of 
photogi-aphs in the formation of sculpture was 
announced in 1863. 



* Journal of the Roy.al Institution, 1802, p. 170. 



PHO 



563 



PIA 



PHOTOMETER (liglit-measurer): one was coiistrncted by Dr. W, Ritcliie in 1825. Many 
iniprovcnicnts have been made recently in connection with photography. 

PHOTOSPHERE. See Sun, note. 

PHRENOLOGY. See Craniologij. 

PHRYGIA (now Kerman), a province in Asia Minor, in which Troy was situated ; 
became part of the Persian empire in 537 B.C., and partook of its changes. It became a 
Roman province in 47 B.C., and a Turkish one, a.d. 1392. 

PHYSIC appears to have been first practised by the Egyptian priests. Pythagoras 
cndeavoiired to explain the philosophy of disease and the action of medicine, about 529 B.C. 
Hippocrates, the father of medicine, flourished about 422 B.C., and Galen, born a.d. 131, 
was the oracle of medical science. About 980, Avicenna, an Arab, wrote a system of medi- 
cine. The discovery of tlie circulation of the blood, by Dr. Harvey, furnished an entirely 
new system of physiological and pathological speculation, 1628.* 

EMINENT PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS. 





Born, 


Died 


Sorn 


Died 




Born 


Died 


Thos. Linacre . 


. 1460 


1524 


Malpighi . . . 1628 


1694 


John Hunter . 


. .728 


1793 


Paracelsus . 


• 1493 


1541 


Hermann Boerhaave 1668 


1738 


R. T. Laennec 


. 1781 


1826 


William Harvey 


. 1578 


1657 


R. Mead . . . 1673 


1754 


John Abernethy 


• 1764 


1831 


Thomas Sydenham 


. 1624 


1689 


WilUam Hunter . . 1718 


1783 


Astley Cooper 


. 1768 


1841 



PHYSIC GARDENS. The first cultivated in England was by John Gerard, surgeon of 
London, in 1567 ; that at Oxford was endowed by the earl of Danby, in 1652 ; that at Cam- 
bridge was commenced about the middle of the last century ; and that at Chelsea, originated 
by sir Hans Sloane, was given to the Apothecaries' Company, in 1721 ; this last was very 
much admired by the illustrious Linna."us. 

PHYSICIANS, Royal College of, of London (of England since 1858), was projected 
by Dr. Linacre, physician to Heniy VIII. ;+ who, through his interest with cardinal Wolsey, 
obtained letters patent, constituting a corporate body of regular physicians in London, Avith 
peculiar privileges, Sept. 23, 15 18. Linacre was elected the first president of the college. 
Dr. W. Harvey was a great benefactor to this institution, 1653. He built a library and 
public hall, which he granted for ever to the college, with his books and instruments. The 
college was afterwards held in a building in "Warwick-lane, erected by sir C. Wren, where it 
continued till 1825, when the present elegant stone edifice in Trafalgar-square was erected 
from designs by sir R. Smirke. — The College of Physicians, Dublin, was founded by charter 
of Charles II. 1667, and was re-incorporated in 1692. The Royal College of Physicians, 
Edinburgh, Nov. 29, 1681. 

PHYSICS. See under PhUosoiJhy. 

PHYSIOGNOMY, a science which affirms that the dispositions of mankind may be 
discovered from the features of the face. The origil^ of the term is referred to Aristotle; 
Cicero was attached to the science. It became a fashionable study from the beginning of the 
l6th century; and in the last century, the essays of Le Cat and Pernethy led to the modern 
system. Lavater's researches in this pursuit arose from his having been struck with the 
singular countenance of a soldier who passed under a window at which he and Zimmerman 
were standing ; his " Fi-agment " on this subject appeared in 1776. 

PHYSIOLOGY is that part of physics which treats of the inner constitution of animals 
and ]ilants, and the several functions and operations of all their organs and tissues. The 
works of Muller, Milne-Edwards, and Carpenter are much celebrated, and Todd's Cyclopaedia 
of Physiology (1836-59) is a library in itself. 

PIANO-FORTE, invented by J. C. Schroder, of Dresden, in 1717 ; he presented a model 
of his invention to the court of Saxonj^; and, some time after, G. Silvermixn, a musical 
instrument maker, began to manufacture piano-fortes with considerable success. The 
invention has also been ascribed to an instrument-maker at Florence, The square piano- 

* On Sept. 28, 1865, Miss Garrett, at Apothecaries' Hall, London, received the Ucence to practise 
medicine. 

t Physiciam to tue Ktko. The earliest mandate or warrant for the attendance of a physician at court 
is dated 1454, the 33 Henry VI., a reig:i fertile in the patronage which was afforded to practitioners in 
medicine ; but in that reign no appointment existed which can justly be called physician to the royal 
person. By this waiTant the king, with the consent of his privy council, deputed to thi-ce physicians and 
two surgeons the regulation of his diet, and the administration of .such medicines and remedies as might 
be sufficient for his cure, withovit any allusion to the previous existence or permanency of the office which 
they were authorised for a time to fill, or to a remuneration for their serN-ices. Life of Linacre. 

2 



riC 56 i PIL 

forte was first made by Freiderica, an organ-builder of Saxony, about 1758- Piano-fortes 
were made in London by M. Zumpie, a German, 1766 ; and have been since greatly improved 
by Broadwood, Collard, Kirkman, Erard, and others. 

PICENTINES, a Sabine tribe, subdued by the P.omans, and their capital, Asculum, 
taken, 268 B.C. They began the Social War in 90, and were conquered in 89 B.C. 

PICHEGRU'S CONSPIRACY. See Georges, &c. 

PICQUET, the first known game upon the cards, invented, it is said, by Joquemin, for 
the amusement of Charles VI. of France, then in feeble health, 1390. Mezeray. 

PICTS. A Scythian or German colony, who landed in Scotland much about the time 
that the ^Scots began to seize upon the Hebrides, or Western Isles (Hebudes). They after- 
wards lived as two distinct nations, the Scots in the highlands and isles, and the Picts in 
that part now called the lowlands. Between 838 and 842, the Scuts under Kenneth II. 
totally subdued the Picts, and seized all their kingdom. See Roman Wall. 

PICTURES. See Painting. 

PIEDMOXT {Pedcmontium, Latin, foot of the mountains), a region in N. Italy, the 
seat of government of the kingdom of Sardinia, ichich see. 

PIE-POUDRE COURT, the Court of Dusty Foot, whose jurisdiction was established for 
cases arising at fairs and markets, to do justice to the buyer and seller immediately upon 
the spot. By stat. 17 Edw. IV. it had cognizance of all disputes in the i^recincts of the 
market to which it miglit belong, 1477. 

PIER AND HARBOUR ACT, to facilitate the formation, management, and maintenance 
of piers and harbours in Great Britain and Ireland, was passed in 1862. 

PIGEONS were employed as carriers by the ancients.* 

PILGRIMAGE of GRACE. An insurrection, so called, began in Oct. 1536, headed 
by Aske, and other gentlemen of Yorkshire, joined by priests and 40,000 men of York, 
Durham, Lancaster, and other counties, against Henry VIII. They took Hull and York, 
with smaller towns. The duke of Norfolk marched against them and made terras, and they 
dispersed. In 1537 they again took arms but were promptly suppressed, and great numbers 
were executed. 

PILGRIMAGES + began with the pilgrimage of the empress Helena to Jerusalem, 326. 
They became frequent at the close of tlie loth century. Robert II. of France made several 
pilgrimages ; among others, one to Rome about the year 1016, perhaps in 1020, when he 
refused the imperial dignity and the kingdom of Italy. Hinault. 

"PILGRIM'S PROGRESS," written by John Bunyan, in Bedford gaol, where he was 
imprisoned twelve years, 1660-72. The first j^art was published in 1678. A Hebrew version 
appeared in 1851. 

PILLORY, a scaffold for persons to stand on, to render them ^mblicly infimous. This 
punishment was awarded against persons convicted of forgery, perjury, libelling, &c. In 
some cases the head was put through a hole, the hands through two others, the nose slit, the 
face branded with one or more letters, and one or both ears were cut off. There is a statute 
of the pillory, 41 Hen. III. 1256. Many persons died in the pillory by being struck with 
stones by the mob, and pelted with rotten eggs and ]>utrid offal. It was abolished as a 
punishment in all cases except peijury, 1815, and totally abolished in 1837. The last who 
suffered at the Old Bailey was Peter Jas, Bossy for perjury, June 24, 1830. 

PILNITZ, near Dresden, Saxony. The famous convention of Pilnitz took place between 
the emperor Leopold and the king of Prussia, July 20, 1791. On Aug. 27 the treaty of 
Pilnitz, or, as some style it, the Partition Treaty, was finally agreed upon at Pavia by the 
courts in concert. It was to the effect "that the emperor should retake all that Louis XIV. 

* When they took a long journey, thej- carritd tame pigeons with them. When they thought proper 
to write to their friends, they let one of these birds loose, with letters fastened to its neck ; the bird once 
released, would never cease its flight till it arrived at its nest and young ones. Taiirosthenes annoiuiced 
to his father his victory at the Olympic games by sending to him at jEgina a pigeon stained with purple. 
Ovid. Hirtius and Brutus corresponded by means of pigeons at the siege of Modena. In modern times, 
the most noted were the pigeons of Aleppo, which served as couriers at Alexandretta and Bagdad. Thirty- 
two pigeons sent to Antwerp were Uberated from London at 7 o'clock in the morning ; and on the same 
day at noon one of them arrived at Antwerp ; a quarter of an hour afterwards a second amved ; the 
remainder on the following day, Nov. 23, 1819. P/nlips. 

t Pilgrim Fathers is the name given in North America to a party of about 100 English Puritans who 
called in the Ma>/ Flower to North America in 1620. 



PIL 565 PIT 

hiul conquered in the Austrian Netherlands, and uniting these provinces to the Netherhmds, 
give thcni to his serene liighness the elector palatine, to he added to the palatinate ; Bavaria 
to he added to the Austrian possessions," &c. 

PILOT. The act relating to pilots, i6 & 17 Vict. c. 129 (1853), with other acts, is 
embodied in the Merchant Shipping act, 1S54. See Triiiitij-IIouse. 

PIXE-TKEES. The Stone pine (Pinus Pinca), brought to these countries before 1548. 
The Cluster pine (Pinus Pinaster), hrouglit from the South of Europe before 1596. The 
Weymouth pine (Pinus Strobus), from North America, 1705. Frankincense pine (Pinus 
Tccda), from North America, before 1713. There are other varieties. 

PINKEY (near Edinburgh), where the English under the earl of Hertford, protector, 
totally defeated the Scots, Sept. 10, 1547. There fell not 200 of the English, but above 
10,000 of the Scots. Above 1500 Avere taken prisoners. Hume. 

PINS are mentioned in a statute of 1483. Brass pins were brought from France in 1540, 
and first used in England, it is said, by Catherine Howard, queen of Henry VIII. Pins 
were made in England in 1543. Stoiv. They were first manufactured by machinery in 
England in 1824, under a patent of Lemuel Wellman Wright, of the United' States. 

PIRACY was severely repressed by the Romans. Pompey destroyed the Cilician pirates, 
67 B.C. See Buccaneers. An act of parliament to punish piracy was passed in 1837. 

PIRAEUS, the port of Athens, was united to the city liy two long walls, one erected by 
Themistocles, and the other by Pericles, 456 B.C., which were destroyed by Lysander, 
404 B.C. It was fortified by Couon, 393 b.c. The Piraeus was able to contain 400 Greek 
vessels. It was occupied by the French during the Russian war in 1854. 

PISA, an ancient city in Tuscany, was founded about six centuries before Clmst, and 
was favoured by the early Roman emperors. The citizens took an active part in the Italian 
wars of the middle ages, and eventually became subject to Florence, after a long siege, 1405-6. 
The university was founded in 1343, and revived by the Medici in 1472, and 1542. The 
celebrated Campanile or leaning tower was built abor^ 1 154,* and the Campo Santo about 
the same time. The rival ])opes, Benedict XIII. and iregory XIL, were deposed at a council 
held at Pisa in 1409, and Alexander V. elected in 1;' .eir room. 

PISCICULTURE. See Fisheries. 

PISTOLS, the smallest sort of fire-arms, carried sometimes at the saddle-bow, sometimes- 
in a girdle round the waist, sometimes in the pocket, &c. Pardon. Pistols were first used 
by the cavalry of England in 1544. Of late years they have been made with a revolving 
cylindrical breech, in which are formed several chambers for receiving cartridges, and bringing 
them in succession into a line with the barrel ready for firing. The earliest model of this 
kind of arm, is to be found in the United Service Museum, and is .sup])osed to date from the 
reign of Charles 1. The manufacture of pistols by machinery was first introduced into 
England from the United States, America, in tlie year 1853, by colonel Colt, the inventor of 
the celebrated Colt pistol, at which time nearly the whole of the machinery used was new to 
this country. The perfection and economy of this system of manufacture induced the British 
government to establish the Enfield armoury, in the year 1855. 

PITCAIRN'S ISLAND. A small island in the Pacific Ocean, said to have been dis- 
covered liy Pitcairn in 1768, and seen by Cook in 1773, ^^'^'^ since noted for being colonised 
by ten mutineers from the ship Bounty, captain Bligh, in I789.t See Bounty. 

* This celebrated tower was erected for tlie purpose of containing bells, and stands in a square close to 
the cathedral of Tisa, It is built entirely of white marble, and is a beautiful cylinder of eight stories, 
each adorned with a round of columns, rising one above anoth.r. It inclines so far on one side from the 
perpendicular, that in dropjiing a plummet from the top, which is 188 feet in height, it falls si.^teen feet 
from the base. Some think this was done pui-posoly by the architect ; others attribute it to an accidental 
subsidence of the foimdation. From this tower Galileo made his observation on gravitation (about 1635). 

t They remained unknown to England until discovered accidentally in 1814. A ship nearmg the island 
was hailed by a swarthy yt)uth in the English language, when it appeared that the mutineers, soon after 
settling there, had married some black women from a neighbouring island, and had become a singularly- 
well-conducted community uiidtr the fostering care of Adams, the principal mutineer. As their numbers 
increased, the island ])roved incapable of their support. Their priest, the rev. Mr. Nobbs, obtained for 
them the favour of the English government, which removed them with all their property in the ship 
Morayshire, on Jlay 3rd, and landed them, after a boisterous passage, on Norfolk islaniJ, prepared pre- 
viously for their reception, June 8, 185S. The government stocked Norfolk island with 2000 sheep, 450 
head of cattle, and twenty horses, and gave them stores to last twelve months ; their numbers were 96. 
males and 102 feinaljs. 



PIT 



566 



PLA 



PITT ADMINISTRATIONS.* The first administration was formed on the dismissal of 
the Coalition ministry {which sec), Dec. 27, 1783, and terminated by resignation in 1801. 
The second was formed May 12, 1804 ; and terminated by Mr. Pitt's death, Jan. 23, 1806. 
A public funeral was decreed to his honour by i)aiiiament, and a grant of 40,000^. to pay 
his debts. 



ADMINISTRATION OF I783. 

William Pitt, first lord of the treasury and chancellor 
of til e exchequer. 

Earl Gower, iorti pve'hlent. 

Duke of Rutland, jrririi seal. 

Marquess of Carmartlien and earl Temple, immedi- 
ately succeeded by lord Sydney, secretaries. 

Lord Thurlow, lord chancellor. 

Viscount Howe, admiralti/. 

Duke of Richmond, ordnance. 

William Wyndham Granville, Henry Dundas, &c. 

[Mr. Pitt continued minister until 1801. Many 
changes in his ministry, of course, occurred in the 
long period of seventeen years.] 



ADMINISTRATION OF 1804. 

William Pitt, first lord of the treasure/. 

Lord Eldon, lord chancellor. 

Duke of Portland, succeeded by lord Sidmoiith (late 

Mr. Addington ) lord president. 
Earl of Westmorland, lord privy seal. 
Lord Hawkesbury, lord Harrowby (succeeded by 

lord Mulgrave), and earl Camden (succeeded by 

viscount Castlereagh), /toyiic, /orei^B, and colonial 

secretaries. 
Viscount Melville (succeeded by lord Barham), 

admiraUy. 
Duke of Montrose, Mr. Dundas, &c. 



PITTSBURG LANDING (near Corinth, Tennessee). On Sunday April 6, 1862, a gi-eat 
battle was fought between the American federals under Grant and Prentiss, and the con- 
federates under Albert Sydney Johnston and Beauregard. The latter began the attack and 
were victorious, but lost their able general Johnston. The federals were reinforced the next 
<lay and renewed the attack ; the confederates maintained their ground ; but soon after 
retired in good order to Corinth. 

PIUS IV., Ckeed of. See Confessions. 

PLACENTIA, a city in North Italy, founded by the Romans about 220 B.C. It suffered 
in all the convulsions attending the fiill of the empire, and the wars of the middle ages. In 
1254 it fell under the rule of the family of tlie Scotti. In 1302 Alberto Scotto was overcome 
and Placentia was united to Milan, then ruled by the Visconti. On their extinction in 1447, 
Placentia revolted, but was taken by Sforza duke of JMilan, and treated very cruelly. In 
1513 it was given to jiope Leo X. In 1545, Paul III. gave it with Parma, as a duchy, to his 
son Peter Louis Farnese. See Parma. 

PLAGUE. The plagues of Egypt'(i49i b.c.) are described in Exodus, chap, ix., &c. 
The first recorded general plague in all parts of the world occurred 767 B.C. Petavius. At 
Carthage a plague was so terrible that people sacrificed their children to appease the gods, 
534 B.C. Baronius. At Rome prevailed a desolating plague, carrying off" a hundred thousand 
persons in and round the city, 461 B.C. The plague at Athens, which spread into Egypt and 
Ethiopia, and caused an awful devastation, 430 B.C., is admirably described by Thucydides. 
Another which raged in the Greek islands, Egypt, and Svria, destroyed 2000 persons everv 
day, 188 B.C. Pliny. See Cattle. 



At Rome, a most awful plague ; 10,000 persons 

perished daily, 80. 
Again ravaged the Roman empire, 167, 169, 189. 
Another in the Roman empire. For some time 5000 

persons died daily at Rome, and many towns were 

entirely depopulated, 250-265. 
In Britain, a plague swept away such multitudes 

that the living were scarcely sufficient to bury the 

dead, 430. 
A dreadful one began in Europe in 558, extended all 

over Asia and Africa, and it is said did not cease 

for many years. 
At Constantinople, when 200.000 of its inhabitants 

perished, and in Calabria, Sicily, and Greece, 

746-749. 
In London, 962. 
At Chichester, in England, an epidemical disease 

carried off 34,000 ijersons, 772. Will. Malms. 
In Scotland 40,000 i)ersons perished of a pestilence, 

954- 
In London, a great mortality, 1094 ; and in Ireland, 

1095. 



Again, in London : it extended to cattle, fowls, and 
other domestic animals, iiii. Holinshed. 

In Ireland : after Christmas this year, Henry II. 
was forced to quit the country, 1172. 

Again, in Ireland, when a prodigious number 
perished, 1204. 

The " Black Death " in Italy, 1340. 

A plague raged throughout Europe, causing exten- 
sive mortality. Britain and Ireland suffered 
grievovisly. In London .alone 200 persons were 
buried daily in the Charterhouse-yard, 1348. (That 
at Florence described by Boccaccio.) 

In London and Paris a dreadful mortality prevailed 
in 1362 and 1367, and in Ireland in 1370. 

X great pestilence in Ireland called the Fourth, 
destroyed a great number of the people, 1383. 

30,000 persons perished of a dreadful pestilence in 
London, 1407. 

Again, in Ireland, superinduced by a famine : great 
numbers died, 14^6 ; and Dublin was wasted by a 
plague, 1470. 

An awful jiestilence at C^ford, 1471 ; and throughout 



* William Pitt, the second son of the great earl of Chatham, was born March 28, 1759 ; became M.P. 
Jan, 23, 1782; moved for reform in parliament. May 7, 1782: and became chancellor of the exchequer 
in 17S2 ; died Jan. 23, 1806. 



PLA 



567 



TLA 



PLAGUE, continued. 

Euglanii, a plague wbicli destroyed more people 

than the continual wars for the fifteen preceding 

years, 1478. linpiii : S.dmon. 
The awful Sudor A,tglkug, or sweating sickness, very 

fatal in Loudon, 14S5. Selaiine. 
The plague in London so dreadful that Henry VIL 

and his court removed to Calais, 1499-1500. Stme. 
The sweating sickness (mortal in three hours), in 

London, 1506; and again in 1517. In most of the 

capifcil towns in England half the inhabitants 

died, and Oxford was depopulated, g Hen. VIII. 

Stow. 
Limerick was visited by a plague, when many 

thousands perished, 1522. 
The sweating sickness again in England, 1528 : and 

in North Germany in 1529 ; and for the fifth time 

in England, in 1 551. 
30,578 persons perished of the plague in London 

alone, 1603-1604. It was al-so fatal in Ireland. 
200,000 perished of a pestilence at Constantinople, 

in 1611. 
In London a great mortality prevailed, and 35,417 

persons perished, 1625. 
In France, a general mortality ; at Lyons, 60,000 

persons died, 1632. 
The plague brought from Sardinia to Naples (being 

introduced by a transport with soldiers on board), 

raged with such violence as to carry off 400,000 of 

the inhabitants in six months, 1656. 



The Great Plague of London, in 1664-5, which 
carried off 68,596 persons ; some say 100,000.* 
Fires were kept up night and day to purify the 
air for three days : and it is thought the infection 
was not totally destroyed till the great conflagra- 
tion of 1666. 

60,000 persons perished of the plague at Marseilles 
and neighbourhood, brought in a ship from the 
Levant, 1720 

One of the most awful plagues that ever raged, pre- 
vailed in Sj'ria, 1760. Abbe Mariti. 

In Persia, a fatal pestilence, which carried off 80,000 
of the inhabitants of Bassora, 1773. 

In Egypt, above 800,000 persons died of plague, 1792. 

In Barbary, 3000 died daily ; and at Fez 247,000 
perished, 1799. 

In Spain and at Gibraltar, immense numbers were 
carried off by a pestilent disease in 1804 and 1S05. 

Again at Gibraltar, an epiJemic fever much resemb- 
Img the plague, caused great mortality, 1828. 

The Asiatic Cholera (see Cholera) made its first ap- 
pearance in England, at Sunderland, Oct. 26, 1831 ; 
in Scotland, at Hadlington, Dec. 23, same year; 
and in Ireland, at Belfast, March 14, 1832. 

The Cholera again visited England, &c. 1848 and 
1849. See Cholera. 

The Cholera raged at Smyrna and Constantinople, 
and appeared in Paris, Marseilles, Naples ; July 
—Dec. 1865. 

A great cattle plague in England, resembling typhus, 
near London, begins June — increasing Dec. 1865. 

PLxVNETS. The planet Jupiter was known as a planet to the Chinese and the Chaldeans; 
to the former, it is said 3000 B.C. ; correctly inserted in a chart of the heavens, made 
about 600 B.C., and in which 1460 stars are accurately described ; this chart is said to be in 
the imperial library at Paris. The satellites of Jupiter are generally considered to have been 
discovered by Galileo, 1610; but Jansen, it is affirmed, claimed some acquaintance with them 
about twenty years before. We now know nine primaiy planets, termed major ; Mercury, 
Venus, the Earth, Mars, Ju2}iler, Saturn, Uramis, Nejytime, and Vulcan; and eighty-four 
secondary or minor, situated between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, f 



Uranus, formerly called Georgium, Sidiis and 
Herschel ; discovered by W. Herschel (see | 

Georglwn. Sidas) .... March 13, 1781 , 
Neptune, discovered by Galle (inconsequence of 
the calculations of Le Verrier and Adams, 

see Neptune) Sept. 23, 1846 ] 

Vv.lcaii (between Mercury and the Sun), dis- 
covered by M. Lesoarbault, a physician, 

March 26, 1S59 
Minor planets {according to Mr. G. F. Chambers). 
1. Ceres, discovered by Piazzi (visible to the 

naked eye) .... Jan. i, iSoi 



2. Pallas, discovered at Bremen 

(see Pallax) .... 

3. Juno, discovei'ed by Harding 

4. Vesta, discovered by Olbers . 

5. Astrcia, by K. C. Hencke . 

6. Hebe, by the same 

7. Iris, by J. R. Hind . 

8. Flora, by the same 

9. MetU, by A. Graham 

10. Hifgela, by A. De Gasparis 

11. Parthenope, by the same . 

12. Victoria, by J. R. Hind 



by Olbers 

March 28, 1802 

Sept. I, 1804 

March 29, 1807 

. Dec. 8, 1845 

July I, 1847 

Aug. 13, ,, 
. Oct. iS, ,, 

April, 25, 1848 

. April 12, 1849 

May II, 1850 
, Sept. 13, „ 



* The following passage is taken from De Foe's History of the Plague (a work of imagination) : — " It 
commenced in December, 1664. In May, June, and July, it had ooatinued with great severity ; but in 
August and September it quickened into dreadful activity, sweeping a:vay 8000 persons in a week. Then 
it was that the whole British nation wept for the sufferings of the metropolis. In some houses carcases 
lay waiting for burial ; and in others, per-ions were seen da\ibled up in their last agonies. In one room 
were heard dying groans ; and in the njxt the ravings of delirium, mingled with the wailings of relatives 
and friends, and the apprehensive shrieks of children. Infants passed at once from the w jmb to the grave. 
The yet healthy child hung upon the putrid breast of a dead mother ; and the nuptial bed was changed 
into a sepulchre. Some of the affected ran about staggering like drunken men, and fell and expired in the 
streets ; while others calmly laid ttiemselves down, never to rise but at the call of the last trumpet. At 
length, in the middle of Septiuiber, m)ro than 12,000 perished in one week ; in one night 4000 died ; and 
in the whole, not 68,000, as has been stated, but ioo.ood perished of this plague. The hearses were but 
dead-carts which coatinuxUy triver.sod the streets, while the appalling cry, ' Bring ou' your dead,' thrilled 
through every soul. Then it was that pirents, husbands, wives, and children saw all those that were dear 
to thelu thrown with a pitchfork into a cart, like the offal of a slaughter-house, to be conveyed without the 
walls, and flung into one promiscuous heap, without the rites of sepulture, without a coffin, and without 
a .shroud ! S jmo graves were dug so large as to hold a thousand bodies each ; and into those huge holes, 
the living, wrapt in blankets and rrigs, threw themselves am mg the dead, in their agonies and delirium. 
They were often found in this state hugging the flesh of their kindred that had not quite perished. People 
in the intoler.ible torment of their swellings, ran wild and mid, laving violent hands up in themselves ; 
and even mothers, in their lunacy, murdered their own children. When the carts were insufficient for their 
office, the houses an 1 streets were ren I jred tenfold mire pestilential by the unburied deal." Ds Foe. 

t Th3 numericil order differs in ths lists of Eaglish aa.i French astroium u-s. 



TLA 



568 



PLA 



PLANETS, continued. 

13. Egcria, by A. De Gasparis . . Nov. 2, 1S50 

14. Irene, by J. R. Hind . . . M;iy tg, 1851 

15. Eunoinia, by A. De GasiJaris . . July 29, ,, 

16. fs)/c/ic, by the same . . . March 17, 1852 

17. Thetis, by R. Luther . . April 17. ,, 

18. Melpomene, by J. R. Hind . . June 24, ,, 

19. i^o?'(M/ia, by the same . . Aug. 22, ,, 

20. Massilia, by A. De Gaspari.s . . Sept. ig, ,, 

21. lutetia, by H. Goldschraidt . Nov. 15, „ 

22. Calliope, by R. J. Hind . . . Nov. 16, ,, 

23. 2'lialia, by the same . . . Dec. 15, „ 

24. Ihemis, by A. De Gasparis . . April 5, 1853 

25. Phocea, by M. Chaconiac . . April 6, ,, 

26. Froserpinf, by R. Luther . . May 5, ,, 

27. FAderp)e,hy 3 .li. Hind . . Nov. 8, „ 

28. Bellomi, by R. Luther . . . March i, 1854 

29. Amphitrite, by Mr. Marth . . March i, „ 

30. f/^ronia, by J. R. Hind . . July 22, ,, 

31. Euplirosyite, by James Ferguson . Sept. i, ,, 

32. Pomona, by H. Goldschmidt . Oct. 26, „ 

33. Polyhymnia, by M. Chacornac . Oct. 28, ,, 

34. Circe, by the same . . . April 6, 1855 

35. Leucothea, by R. Luther . . April ig, „ 

36. Atalanla, by H. Goldschmidt . April ig, ,, 

37. Fides, by R. Luther . . . Oct. 5, ,, 

38. Leda, by M. Chacornac . . Jan. 12, 1856 

39. Icetitia, by the same . . . Feb. 8, ,, 

40. Harmoniu, by R. Luther . . March 31, „ 

41. Daphne, by H. Goldschmidt . . May 22, ,, 

42. Isia, by Norman Pogson . . May 23 ,, 

43. Ariadne, by the same . . . April 15, 1857 

44. Nyia, by H. Goldschmidt . . May 27, „ 

45. i't'(/eni«, by the same . . . June 28, ,, 

46. Hestia, by N. Pog.son . . . Aug. 16, ,, 

47. *il/^e?(;ft, by H. Goldschmidt . . Sejit. 9, ,, 
4S. Arflaia, by R. Luther. . . Sepr. 15, ,, 
49- Doris, by H. Goldschmidt . . Hept. ig, ,, 



84. 



Pales, by the same . . . Sejjt. 19, 1857 
Virginia, by James Fei-guson . . Oct. 4, ,, 
Nemausa, by M. Laurent . . Jan. 22, 1858 
Europa, by H. G<ildschmidt . . Feb. 6, ,, 
Calypso, by R. Luther . . . April 4, ,, 
Alexandra, by H. Goldschmidt . Sept. 10, ,, 
Pandora, by Mr. Searle. . . Sept. 10, ,, 
Mnemosyne, by R. Lutber . . Sept. 22, 1859 
Concordia, by R. Luther . March 24, i860 
Danae, by H. Goldschmidt . Sept. 9, ,, 
Olympia, by M. Chacornac . . Sept. 12, „ 
Erato, by MM. Forster and Lessing, Sept. 14, ,, 
iiV/io(orig. Titania), by J. Ferguson, Sept. 14, ,, 
Ausonia, by A. De Gasparis . Feb. 10, 1861 
Angelina, by M. Tempel . . March 4, ,, 
Cyhele (orig. Maximiliaha), by M. Tempel, 

March 8, „ 
Maia, by H. P. Tuttle . . . April 9, ,, 
Asia, by N. Pogson . . . Ax)ril 17, ,, 
Leto, by R. Luther . . . April 29, ,, 
Hesperia, by M. Schiaparolli . April 29, ,, 
Panopea, by H. Goldschmidt . . May 5, ,, 
Feronia, by Mr. Safford . . May 29, ,, 
Niole, by R. Luther . . . Aug. 13, „ 
Clytie, by H. P. Tuttle . . . April 7, 1862 
Galatea, by M. Tempel . . Aug. 29, ,, 
Eurydice, by C. H. Peters . . Sept. 22, ,, 
Freia, by M. D'Arrest . . Oct. 21, ,, 
Frigga, by C. H. Peters . . Nov. 12, ,, 
Diana, by R. I>uther . . March 15, 1863 
Earynome, by Jas. C. Watson . Sept. 14, ,, 
Sappho, by N. Pogson . . . May, 1864 
Terpsichore, by M. Tempel . . Sept. 30, ,, 
Alcmene, by R. Luther . . Nov. 27, ,, 
Beatrice, by A. De Gasparis . . April 26, 1865 
Wio, by R. Luther . . . Aug. 27, „ 
, by C. H. Peters . . Sept. 19, ,, 



PLANING-]\IACH1K"E. One for wood was cou.structcd by Bramali, about 1802 ; and one 
for iron by Joseph Clement in 1825. 

PLANTAGENET,t House of, to -wliich belonged fourteen English kings, from Henry II. 
1 154, to Piichard III. killed at the battle of Bosworth, 1485. See England, p. 279. 

PLANTATIONS. See Trade. 

PLASSEY, in Bengal, India, the site of a battle fought between the British under Clive, 
and the Hindoos under Surajah Dowlah, June 23, 1757. The nabob, although at the head 
of about 68,000 men, was vanquished by 1000 British, and about 2000 sepoys. The victory 
laid the foundation of our empire in India. See India. 

PLASTER OF Paris. Gyp.sum, sulphate'of lime, used for moulds, statuary, &c., first 
found at Montmartre, a village near Paris, whence it obtained its name. The method of 
taking likenesses by its use was first discovered by Andrea Verrochio, about 1466. 

PLATA, LA. See Argentine Rcpullic. 

PLATiEA (Boeotia, N. Greece), site of the battle between Mardonius, commander 
of the arm)' of Xerxes of Persia, and Pausanias, commanding the Lacedremonians and 
Athenians, Sept. 22, 479 B.C. ; the same day as the battle of Mycale. Of 300,000 Persians 
scarce 3000 escaped with their lives. The Grecian army, about 110,000, lost but few men. 
The Greeks obtained immense plunder, and were henceforth delivered from the fear of Persian 
invasions. Plattea was destroyed by the Thebans, 374 B.C. 

PLATE. In England, plate, with the exception of spoons, was prohibited in public- 
houses by statute 8 "VVill. III. (1696). The celebrated Plate Act passed in May 1756. This 
act was repealed in 1780. The act laying a stamp-duty upon plate passed in 1784. See 

* It was believed at first to be Do/;^)!", No. 41 ; and hence was called "Pseudo-Daphne," when E. 
Schubert proved it to be a new planet. It was not re-discovered by M. Goldsohmidtt till Sept. i, 1862, 
when it received its present name, that of the Muse of Meditation. 

t Fulke Martel, earl of Anjou, having contrived the death of his nephew, the earl of Brittany, in order 
to succeed to the earldom, his confessor sent him, in atonement for the murder, to Jerusalem, attended 
by only two servants, one of whom was to lead him by a halter to the Holy Sepulchre, the other to strii> 
and whip him there, like a common malefactor. Broom, in French genet, in Latin genista, being the onlj- 
tough, pliant shrub in Palestine, the noble criminal was smartly scourged with it, and from this instru- 
ment of his chastisement, he was called Planta-geni''ta, or Plantagenet. Skinner and Mh&ray. 



PLA 569 PLU 

Goldsmiths' Compaivj. B}- 17 & 18 Vict. c. 96 (1854), gold wares were allowed to be mami- 
fivctured at a lower standard ; but a later act excepted marriage-rings. — The art of covering 
baser metals with a thin plate of silver, either for use or for ornament (plating), saidto have 
been invented b}' a Birmingham spur-maker, who began with making the branches of a pair 
of spurs hollow, and filling the hollow with a slender rod of steel. He continued to make 
the hollow larger and the iron thicker, till at last he merely coated the iron spur with silver. 
See Elcdro-tijpe.. 

PLATINUil, the heaviest of all the metals, except Osmium. The name originated with 
tlie Spaniards on account of its silvery colour, from the word Plata, signifying silver. It 
was found in the auriferous sand of the river Pinto, in South America, and was unknown in 
Europe until 1741, when Don Antonio UUoa announced its existence in the narrative of his 
voyage to Peru. Grcig. In its ore have been found the metals Palladium, Rhodium, 
Osmium, Iridium, and Ruthenium {which see). In 1859, M. H. Ste. Claire Deville made 
kuoMHi a new method of obtaining platinum from its ore, in great abundance and purity, and 
at the international exhibition of 1862 was shown a mass worth 3840^., weighing 2665 ft., of 
a metal hitherto considered infusible, obtained hy his process. 

PLATONIC PHILOSOPHY, the most popular of all systems (see Philosoplnj) . Plato's 
dialogues have been termed " Philosophy backed by example." He was a disciple of Socrates, 
409 B.C. and died 347. The leading feature of his mind was comprehensiveness. 

PLATONIC YEAR, the period of time which the equinoxes take to finish their revo- 
lution, at the end of which the stars and constellations have the same place with regard to the 
equinoxes that they had at first. Tycho Brahe says that this year or period requires 25,816 
common years to complete it ; Ricciolus computes it at 25,920 ; and Cassini at 24,800 ; at 
the end of which time some imagined that there would be a total and natural renovation of 
the whole creation. 

PLxVTTSBURG. A British expedition against this place, a town of New York, on Lake 
Cham]dain, was designed under general sir George Prevost ; but was abandoned after the 
naval force of England had suffered a defeat in an engagement with the Americans, Sept. i r, 
1814, when the British squadron in Lake Cham^ilain was captured. See United States. 

PLAY-GROUNDS. In 1858 a society was established by the earl of Sliaftesbury and 
other benevolent persons to provide plaj'-grounds for the recreation of adults and the cliildren 
of the humble classes. Ground was liberally offered by the government, and by the marquess 
of Westminster and others ; and in 1859 an act of parliament Avas passed to facilitate grants 
of lands for this ])ui'pose, for which part of Smithfield was to be reserved. The scheme has 
not been successful hitherto. 

PLAYS. See Drama and Thcctlres. 

PLEADINGS. Clothaire held a kind of moveable parliament called x'^o.cita, whence 
came the word pleas, a.d. 616. Henatdt. In the early courts of judicature in England, 
pleadings were made in the Saxon language in 786 ; and in Norman-French from the period 
of the conquest in 1066 until 1362. Cromwell ordered all law jiroceedings to be taken in 
English in 1650. In English law the pleadings are the mutual statements of the plaintiff's 
cause of action, and the defendant's ground of defence. 

PLEBEIANS, Plebes, the citizens of Rome/distinct from the Patricians. See Rome, 

494-366 B. C. 

PLOTS. See Conspiracies and Rebellions. 

PLOUGH MONDAY, in January, the first Monday after the Epiphany. In 1866, Jan. 8; 
in 1867, Jan. 14. It received the appellation from its having been fixed ujDon by our forefathei"s 
as the day upon which they returned to the duties of agriculture after enjoying the festivities 
of Christmas. Ashe. On Plough Jlonda}', too, tlie ploughmen of the north country used to 
draw a plougli from door to door and beg plough money to drink. Bailey. 

PLUM. We have two native plums : our finer kinds came from Italy and Flanders about 
1522. The Diospyros Lotus, the date-plum, was brought from Barbary, before 1596. The 
Pishamin plum, Diospyros Virginiana, from America, before 1629. Former!}^ damsons, 
a^jricots, and peaches went by this name, as raisins do to this da}-. 

PLURALITIES. Clergymen have been restrained from holding more than one benefice- 
by several statutes ; the first being 21 Henry VIII. 1529. In 1S38 an act was passed 
prohiljiting the holding of more than two benefices except they were at a distance less 
than ten miles ; and the law on this subject was still further amended in 1850 and 1855, 
provisions being made for the amalgamation of neighbouring benefices. 



PLU 570 POE 

PLURAL NUMBER. See We. 

PLUS ( + ) and Minus (— ). Professor De Morgan attributes these signs to either 
Christopher Rudolf, who published a book on algebra about 1522, or Michael Stifelius, 
about 1544. 

PLYMOUTH, a fortified seaport in Devonshire. It was in 1588 the rendezvous of the 
English fleet of 120 sail under Howard, Drake, &c., which pursued the Spanish Armada. 
The fine hotel and assembly-rooms were burnt Jan. 6, 1863 ; loss about 50,000/. See Bivak- 
imfcr and Dock-yards. 

PLYMOUTH BRETHREN. A body of Christians calling themselves "the Brethren," 
which first appeared at Plymouth about 1830. In 1851 they had 132 x'laces of wor.ship in 
England and Wales. They object to national churches as too latitudinarian, and to dissenters 
as too sectarian. They receive into communion all who confess Christ, and own the Holy 
Ghost as his vicar. Their doctrines agree with those of most evangelical Protestant churches, 
but they recognise no order of ministers. 

PNEUMATIC DESPATCH COMPANY conveys letters and parcels through tubes by 
means of atmospheric pressure and a vacuum. The company's act was passed Aug. 13, 1859, 
and tubes were laid down in Threadneedle -street on Sept. 12, i860 : and on Aug. 20, 1861, 
successful experiments were performed at Battersea. In 1862 tubes were laid down from 
the Euston railway station to the N.W. post-office in Camden-town, and on Feb. 21, 1863, 
the conveyance of the mail-bags began. In Oct. 1865, tubes had been laid down between 
Euston railway and Holborn ; and on Nov. 7, several persons travelled in them. Engineer, 
Mr. Rammell. 

PNEUMATIC LOOM, in which compressed air is the motive power, invented by Mr. 
Harrison, was exhibited in London in Dec. 1864. A company has been formed to bring it 
into general use. 

PNEUMATICS, the science which treats of the mechanical projierties of air and gases. 
See Air and Atmospheric Raihvays. 

PODESTA (from 2^otestas, power), an Italian governor, afterwards a judge ; one with 
supreme authority was appointed at Milan by the emperor Frederick I., when he took the 
city in 1158. 

POET-LAUREAT. Selden could not trace the precise origin of this office.* Chaucer, 
on his return from abroad, assumed the title of poet-laureat ; and in the twelfth year of 
Richard II. 1389, he obtained a grant of an annual allowance of wine. James I. in 1615, 
granted to his laureat a yearly pension of 100 marks ; and in 1630, this stipend was 
augmented by letters patent of Charles I. to lool. per annum, with an additional grant of 
one tierce of Canary Spanish wine to be taken out of the king's store of wine yearly. 

POETS-LAUREAT FHOJI THE REIGN OF QUEEN ELIZABETH. t 

Edmund Spenser, died .... 1598-g I Rev. Laurence Eusden, died .... 1730 

.Samuel Daniel, died 1619 CoUey Gibber, died 1757 

Ben Jonson, died 1637 [ William Whitehead, died , . . . . 1785 

Sir William Davenant, died 1668 Rev. Dr. Thomas Warton, died . . . . 1790 

John Dryden : deposed at the revolution . . 1688 Henry James Pye, died 1813 

Thomas Shadwell, died 1692 Dr. Robert Southey, died . . March 21, 1843 

Nahnm Tate, died 1715 , William Wordsworth, died . . April 23, 1850 

Nicholas Rowe, died 1 718 | Alfred Tennyson (bom 1809) . . installed 1850 

POETRY, the oldest, rarest, and most excellent of the fine arts, and highest species of 
refined literature. It was the first fixed form of langu.age, and the earliest perpetuation of 
thought. It existed before music in melody, and before painting in description. Hazlitt. 

* Warton, in his History of English Pociry, states that in the reign of Henry III, there was a Versificator 
Regis, to whom an annual stipend was first paid of one hundred shillings. The fh-st mention of a Poet 
Laureat occurs, we believe, in the reign of Edward IV., when John Kay was laureat ; Andrew Bernard was 
laureat, temp. Henry VII. ; and John Skelton, temii. Henry VI 11. Edmund Spenser, as above, was poet- 
laureat in the reign of Elizabeth. MTiitehead wa% created on the refusal of Grey, Warton on the refusal of 
Mason, and Southey on the refusal of Scott. Laurence Eusden commenced a series of Birth-Day and New 
Year's Odes which continued till the death of Pye, in 1813. We believe that on Southey's appointment 
the tierce of Canary wine was commuted for 27/. 

■j- " At the accession of George I. Bowe was made poet-laureat, I am afraid by the ejection of poor 
Nahum Tate, who died in the Mint, where he was forced to seek shelter from extreme poverty." Dr. 
Johnson. On the death of Warton its abolition was recommended by Gibbon, whose elegant compliment 
on the occasion still more forcibly applied on Wordsworth's death, in 1850. — "This is the best time for not 
filling up the oftice, when the prince is a man of virtue, aud the poet Just departed was a man of genius." 
— Decline and Fall, <tc., chap. Ixx. 



POI 



571 



POL 



The soug of Moses on the deliverance of tlie Israelites, and their passage through the Eed 
Sea, 149 1 B.C. (Exodus xv.), is the most ancient poetry extant. Orpheus of Thrace is deemed 
the inventor of poetr3^(at least in the western part of the world) about 1249 r,.c. See Ei)ics, 
Odes, Satire, Comedy, Tragedy, Sonnets, Ballads, Hymns, and Verse. 

rOICTlEES (W. France), the site of the battle between Edward the Black Prince and 
John, king of France, in which the English arms triumphed, Sept. 19, 1356. The standard 
of France was overthrown, many of her iiobility slain, and her king was taken j^risoner, and 
l)rouglit to London. Carte. 

POISONING. A number of Roman ladies formed a conspiracy for poisoning their 
husbands, which they too fatallj'' carried into effect. A female slave denounced 170 of them 
to Fabius Maximus, who ordered them to be publicly executed, 331 B.C. It was said that 
this was the first public knowledge they had of poisoning at Rome.* Poisoning was made 
petty treason in England, and was punished by boiling to death (of which there are some 
remarkable instances) 23 Hen. VIII. 1532. See Boiling to Beatli. The frequency of cases 
of poisoning by means of arsenic, in England, caused the British legislature to pass a law 
rendering the sale of arsenic (which, until then, could be obtained without check by any 
l)erson from druggists' and apothecaries' shops) a matter of ditiiculty. This act regulated the 
.sale of arsenic, and was passed 14 Vict. c. 13, June 6, i85i.t Recent remarkable cases 
of poisoning are those for which W. Palmer was executed in 1856, and Miss M. Smith tried 
in 1857 (see Trials). Catherine Wilson, a noted poisoner, was executed on Oct. 20, 1862. 
Edward William Pritchard, M.D., was executed at Glasgow, July 28, 1865, for the slow 
murder of his wife and lier mother, by antimony. A committee of the commons on the 
subject of the sale of poisons was appointed in 1857, but no legislation has yet ensued. The 
Poisoned Grain Prohibition Act was passed July 28, 1863. 

POITOU, an ancient province W. France, part of the dowry of Eleanor, queen of 
Henr}' II. of England. It 2)artook of the fortunes of Aquitaiue {which see). 

POLAND (N.E. Europe), part of ancient Sarmatia. It is said to have become a duchy 
under Lechus or Lesko I. 550 ; and a kingdom under Boleslaus, about 992. The natives 
belong to the great Sclavonic fiimily. The word Pole is not older than the loth century. 
Population of the kingdom of Poland in 1857 was 4,789,379. 



Piastus, a peasant, is elected to the ducal 
dignity about 

f Piastus lived to the age of 120, and liis reign 
was so prosperous that every succeeding 
native sovereign was called a Piast.] 

Introduction of Christianity . . . about 

13olcslaus II. murders St. Stanislas, the bishop 
of Cracow, with his own hands, 1079 ; his 
kingdom laid under an interdict by the pope, 
and hi.s subjects absolved of their allegiance, 

lie Hies to Hungary for shelter ; but is refused 
it by order of Gregory VII., and he at length 
kills himself or dies in a monastery 

Tartar invasion ....... 

Premislas assassinated 

Louis of Hungary elected king . . . . 

Ladislas VI. defeated and slain by the Turks . 

War against the Teutonic knights 

The Wallichian invaders carry off 100,000 Poles, 
and sell them to the Turks as slaves . . . 

.Siilendidreign of Sigismund II. 



842 



1241 
1295 
1370 
1444 
1447 



1548 



Stephen forms a militia composed of Cossacks, 
on whom he bestows the Ukraine . . . 

Abdication of John Casimir .... 

Victories of John Sobieski over the Turks at 
Vienna 1683 

Many Protestants killed after an affray at Thorn 1724 

Stanislaiis abolishes torture .... 

An awful pestilence destroys 250,000 persons . 

The evils of civil war so weaken the kingdom, 
that it falls an easy prey to the empress of 
Russia, emperor of Austria, and king of 
Prussia ......... 

The first partition treaty . . . Feb. 17, 

The public partition treaty . . . Aug. 5. ,, 

A new constitution granted by the king May 3, 1791 

The Russians, <fcc., on various pretexts enter 
Poland 

The Poles, under Poniatowski and Kosciusko 
(battle of Maciejovice), defeated (Kosciusko 
is carried prisoner to Russia) . Oct. 4, 

Suwarrow's victories and niassacres . 

Battle of Warsaw Oct. 4. 



IS7S 
1668 



1770 



1772 



1792 



1794 



* A deadly poison freely administered by Italians in the seventeenth century, was called aqua to/ana, 
from the name of the woman Tofania, who made and sold it in small flat vials. She carried on this traffic 
ior half a century, and eluded the police ; but, on being taken, confessed that she had been a party in 
poisoning 600 people. Numerous persons were implicated by her, and many of them were publicly exe- 
cuted. All Italy was thrown into a ferment, and many fled, and some persons of distinction, on conviction, 
were strangled in prison. It appeared to have been chiefly used by married women who were tired of 
their husbands. Four or six drops were a fatal dose ; but the effect was not sudden, and therefore not 
suspected. It was as clear as water, but the chemists have not agreed about its real composition. A pro- 
clamation of the pope described it as aquafortis distilled into arsenic, and others considered it as a solution 
of crystallised arsenic. Between 1666 and 1676 the marchioness de Brinvilliers poisoned her father and two 
brothers and many others. She was executed July 16, 1676. 

t Nov. 1858, 17 persons died at Br.adford through eating sweetmeats in which arsenic had been mixed 
by mistake. Mr. Hodgson, a chemist, was tried for homicide, but was acquitted — though guilty of 
culpable negligenc;e. 



POL 



J72 



POL 



POLAND, continued. 

Courland is annexed to Russia .... 
Stanislaus i-esigns his crown at Grodno ; final 
partition of bis kintfdom . . Nov 25, 
Kosciusko set at liberty . . . Dec. 25, 
He arrives in London . . . May 30, 
Stanislaus dies at St. Petersburg . Feb. 12, 
Treaty of Tilsit (w/ue/i see) . . . July 7, 
General Diet at Warsaw . . J\me, 

The central provinces form the duchy at War- 
saw, between 1807 and 1813 ; which is made 
the kingdom of Poland under Alexander of 

Russia April 30, 

New constitution granted and Cracow declared 
to be a free republic . . . Nov. 27, 

Polish Diet opened Sept. 

A revolution at Warsaw ; the army declare in 

favour of the people . . Nov. 29, 

The Diet declares the throne of Poland vacant, 

Jan. 25, 

Battle of Grochow, near Praga ; the Russians 

lose 7000 menj the Poles, who keep the field, 

2000 Feb. 25, 

Battle of Wawz (u-hich see) . . March 31, 
The insurrection spreads to Wihia and Volhyiiia, 

Ajiril 3, 
Battle of Zelicho .... April 6, 

Battle of Seidlece April 10, 

Battle of Ostrolenka (ichich see), defeat of the 

Russians May 26, 

The Russian general Diebitsch, dies June 10, 

Battle of Wihia June 19, 

Grandduke Constantine dies . . June 27, 

Battle of Minsk July 14, 

AVarsaw taken (see Warsaw) . . Sept. 8, 

The insurrection suppressed . . Oct. 5, 
Ukase issued by the emperor Nicholas, decree- 
ing that the kingdom of Poland shall hence- 
forth form an integral pa:t of the Russian 

empire Feb. 26, 

Attempt at revolution in Poland* . Feb. 22, 

The courts of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, 

revoke the treaty of 181 5 which constituted 

Cracow a free republic, and it is declared 

Austrian territory .... Nov. 16, 

[This annexation was protested against by 

England, France, Sweden, and Turkey.] 
The kingdom of Poland finally made a Russian 
province ....-■ JMay, 

Great popular demonstration in commemora- 
tion of the battle of Grochow . Feb. 25, 
Six members of the Royal Agricultural Society 
killed by the military . . . Feb. 27, 
Great excitement at their funeral ; many citi- 
zens put on mourning; an address to the 
emperor Alexander signed by 60,000 persons ; 
mild conduct of prince Gortschakoff, the 

governor March 1-7, 

Jiiukhanoff, curator of Poland, who had written 
a circular exciting the peasantry against their 
lords, quits Warsaw, which is illuminated in 



1796 
1797 



1807 
1812 



i«i5 

1820 
1S30 
1S31 



1S61 



1832 



consequence 



March 



The government promises reforms and the re- 
estabhshment of Poland as a separate king- 
dom ; yet abolishes the Agricultural Society, 

April 7, 



Great meeting in consequence ; which is dis- 
persed by the military (now 32,000 strong) ; 
aljove 100 ai'e killed and wounded Aiiril S, 
Great agitation in the rural districts ; the Rus- 
sian ofiicials quit Lublin ; general Chruleff 
marches hither April, ,, 

80,000 soldiers in Poland; reign of terror in 
Warsaw May, ,, 

Death of Prince Gortschakoff, lieut.-gen. -of 
Poland May 30, ,, 

New administrative council appointed June, ,, 

Death of prince Adam Czartoryski at Paris, 
aged 91 . . . . . . July 15, „ 

Oppressive regulations issued respecting dress . ,, 

Fresh disturbances : Warsaw put in a state of 
siege Oct. ,, 

Military arrests in churches iu Warsaw, they 
are closed by the priests . . . Oct. 17, ,, 

The governor, count Lambert, leaves Warsaw, 

Oct. 23, „ 

General Gerstenzweig, the military governor, 
assassinated Oct. 25, ,, 

Bialobzeski, catholic archbishop of Warsaw, 
arrested, Nov. ig ; tried and condemned to 
death as a rebel for closing the churches [he 
died shortly after] . . . Dec. 18, ,, 

The new archbi.shop Felinski exhorts the Poles 
to submission Feb. 15, 1862 

Rigour of the government relaxed ; amnesty 
granted to 89 convicted political prisoners, 

April 29, ,, 

The gi-andduke Constantine appointed gover- 
nor. May 28 ; begins with lenient policj', but 
his life is attempted by Jaroszynsky, July 3, 
who is executed .... Aug. 21, ,, 

Attempted assassination of Wielopolski, a liberal 
Pole, president of the council . ■ . Aug. 26, „ 

Count Zanioyski, an eminent loyal Pole, exiled 
for presenting to the government the report 
of a meeting of nobles at Warsaw, for which he 
had been asked .... Sept. ,, 

Telkner, the chief of the secret police, found 
murdered ..... Nov. 9, ,, 

Severe military conscription without notice, 

Jan. 14, 1863 

Insurrection in the night ; at Warsaw Jan. 22, ,, 

Many Russians murdered ; Poland put in a 
state of siege .... Jan. 24, ,, 

The Polish provisional governnient issues its 
first proclamation .... Feb. 2, ,, 

Louis Mieroslawski announces himself as head 
of the Poles, Feb. 19 ; his band defeated and 
disiaersed Feb. 23, „ 

Marian Langiewicz declared dictator of Poland, 
Jilarch 10 ; after several defeats he enters the 
Austrian teriitory, is detected and imprisoned 

March 19, ,, 

The insurrection becomes general and is sup- 
ported by the landed proprietors, Feb. ; suc- 
cessful guerilla warfare March and xVpril, ,, 

The secret central committee assumes the 
supreme commivnd . . . March, ,, 

The czar's offer of an amnesty to all who 
lay down arms before May 13 ; rejected, 

April 12, ,, 



* On Feb. 22, 1846, an Austrian force under general CoUin, which had entered Cracow on the approach 
of armed bands of peasantry, was attacked and driven out of the town. A Provisional Government was 
then proclaimed by the insurgents, and two days afterwards they crossed the Vistula, expecting to bo 
ioined by the peasantry of Gallicia, who were solicited by the nobles and clergy to strike a blow in the 
cause of liberty. The Au.strian government, in order to prevent this junction, excited in the peasantry 
a suspicion of the motives of the nobles, .and offered a reward for every noble delivered up, alive or dead : 
a genei-al massacre of the nobility and clergy in the circle of Tarnow followed : the insurgents from Cracow 
were defeated at Gdow, whence they retreated to Podgorzo, a suburb of Cracow; here they were attacked 
by General Colhn, and driven into Cracow on the 27th of February. The forces of the three powers then 
began to concentrate on Cracow ; the people in the town opened negotiations with the Austrians about a 
surrender, and while these were going on, a Russian corps entered the town without resistance, and soon 
afterwards the revolution was at an end. 



roL 



POL 



POLAND, continued. 

European intervention on behalf of Polanil, 
April 17, &c. ; firmly replied to by the czar, 

April 26, &c., 1863 

The secret committee (as a provisional g-ovom- 
ment) levies taxes, May 3, and forbids pay- 
ment of taxes to Russia . . . May 9, ,, 

8o,ooo^ ttvken from the Russian treasury at 
Warsaw for the provisional government, 
June 12 ; the Poles claim the Poland of 1772, 

June 26, ,, 

Fruitless intervention of European powers ; 
sanguinary rule of Mouravietf at Wilna, June, , , 

General Berg rejilaces the marquis de Wie- 
polski, as lieut. -general, and governs with 
great rigour ..... July 7, ,, 

Unsuccessful invasion of Volhynia by the Poles 
under Wysocki and Horodyoki, July i ; 
Felinski, the R. C. archbishop of Warsaw, 
banished, July; frequent conflicts with 
varying results ; many captured priests and 
nobles executed Aug. ,, 

Leiewel, a brave Pole, after several victories 
killed in battle Sept. 6, ,, 

Earl R\isseU decides against armed interven- 
tion, Aug. : negotiation ceases . . Sept. „ 

Gen. Berg fired at from the Zamoyski hotel, 
Warsaw, Sept. 19: the hotel destroyed, Sept. ,, 

Many eminent Poles executed, Oct. ; Wm. 
Alger, an Englishman, shot at Warsaw for 
making grenades ; the hotel de vUle fired, 

Oct. 9, ,, 

Mourning forbidden to be worn for the Poles 



at Warsaw, Oct. 27 ; 41 ladies arrested at 
night Nov. 3, 

The Tunes correspondent expelled from Warsaw, 

Nov. 27, 

The abb^ Machie wicz, a warl ike priest, venerated 
as a martyr, hanged . . . Dec. 28, 

Mouravieff rules Lithuania with great rigour, 

Dec. 

Numerous skirmishes, and many exectitions of 
prisoners captured by the Russians ; the insur- 
rection gradually dying out Jan. to April, 

The pope promulgates an arrogant encyclical 
letter to the Polish church . . July 30, 

Romuald Traugott, formerly a Russian colonel, 
the head of the Polish provisional govern- 
ment since Oct. 1863, and five others, hanged, 

Aug. 5, 

Decree for reorganising education at Warsaw, 
founding a university, &c. . . Sept. 11, 

The secret provisional government, after stating 
that 50,000 men had been slain, and 100,000 
e.xiled to Siberia, still calls on the Polos to 
begin a "national man" , . Sejjt. 21, 

Many R. C. convents closed for pai'ticipating in 
the insurrection .... Nov. 

Further measures for denationalising Poland 
adopted Dec. 

The ex-dictator Langiewicz released by the 
Austrians and sent to Switzerland . Feb. 

The abbiS Stanislas Bizoski and his lieutenant, 
captured and executed . . . May 23, 
See Cracow, ]Varsaw, and Russia. 



1S65 



DUKES AND KINGS OF POLAND. 



842. 
861. 
892. 
921. 
962. 
992. 



1025. 
1034. 



1037. 
1041. 



1058. 
1082. 
1 1 02. 
1138. 
1145- 
"73- 
1178. 
1 194. 
1200. 
1202. 
1206. 

1227. 
1279. 
1289. 
1290. 

1296. 
1300. 
1304- 
'333- 



1370 
1382. 



1399- 
1434- 



Piastus, dul-e. 
Ziemovitus, his son. 
Lesko or Lescus IV. 
Ziemomislas, son of Lesko. 
Miecislas L becomes Christian. 
Boleslas I. sui-named the Lion-hearted ; ob- 
tained the title of king from the emperor 

Otho III. 
Miecislas II. 
Richense or Richsa, his consort, regent ; di'iven 

from the government. 
[Anarchy.] 
Casimir I. her son, sumamed the Pacific ; he 

had retired to a monastery, but was invited 

to the throne. 
Boleslas II. .styled the intrepid. 
Ladislas, called the Careless. 
Boleslas III. sumamed Wry-mouth. 
I^adislas II. son of the preceding. 
Boleslas IV. the Curled. 
Miecislas 111. the Old : deposed. 
Casimir II. sumamed the Just. 
Lesko V. the White : abdicated. 
Miecislas III. : restored. 
Ladislas III. : retired. 
Lesko V. restored ; assassinated ; succeeded 

by his son, an infant. 
Boleslas V. surnamed the Chaste. 
Lesko VI. sumamed the Black. 
[UoiTid Anarchy.] 
Premislas, styled king of Poland, governs 

wisely : assassinated. 
Ladislas I. (IV.) the Short : deposed. 
Wenceslas, king of Bohemia, abandons Poland. 
Ladislas IV. the Short. 
Casimir IIL the Great, one of the best princes 

of Poland ; encourages the arts a:id amends 

the law ; kiUed by a fall from his horse. 
Louis, king of Hungary. 
Maria, and 1384 Hedwige (daughters of Louis), 

and her consort, Jagello, dulic of Lithuania, 

by the style of Ladislas V. 
Ladislas II. (V.) alone : he united Lithuania to 

Poland. 
Ladislas III. (VI.) his son; succeeded as king 

of Hungary, 1440. 



1445. [Interregnum.] 

,, Casimir IV. 
1492. John (Albert) I. his son. 
1501. Alexander, prince of Livonia, brother of the 

preceding. 
1506. Sigismuud I. brother of Alexander; obtained 

the surname of the Great. 
1548. Sigismund II. Augustus, son of the last king; 

a splendid reign ; added Livonia to his 

kingdom ; died 1570. Interregnum. 

ELECTKD MONARCHS. 

1573. Henry de Valois, duke of Anjou, brother to 
the king of France ; he afterwards succeeded 
to the French throncf. 

1575. Stephen Bathori, prince of Transylvania : 
established the Cossacks as a militia. 

1586. [Interregnum.] 

1587. Sigismund III. son of the king of Sweden, to 

the exclusion of Maximilian of Austria, 

elected by the nobles. 
1632. Ladislas IV. (VII.) Vasa, son of Sigismund 

III. ; succeeded by his brother. 
1648. John II. or Casimir V. : abdicated, and retired 

to Franco, where he died in 1672. 

1668. [Interregnum.] 

1669. Michael-Koributh-Wiesnowiski : in this reign 

the Cossacks join the Turks, and ravage 

Poland. 
1674 John III. Sobieski; the last indeijendent 

king ; illustrious for victories over the 

Cossacks, Turks, and Tartars. * 

1697. [Interegnum] 
,, Frederick-Augustus I. son of John-George, 

elector of Saxony : and elector in 1694, 

deprived of his crown. 
1704. Stanislas I. (Lezinski) : forced to retire from 

his kingdom in 1709. 
1709. Frederick-Augustus again. 
1733. Frederick-Augustus II., son of the preceding 

sovereign. 

1763. [Interregnum.] 

1764. Stanislaus II. Augu.stus Poniatowski, resigned 

his sovereignty, Nov. 25, 1795; died at St. 
Petersburg, a state ijrisoner, Feb. 12, 1798. 



POL 574 POL 

POLAR CLOCK. An optical apparatus invented by professor "Wheatstone (about 1849), 
Tvliereby the hour of the day is found by means of the polarisation of light. 

POLARISATION" OF LIGHT. See OiMcs. 

POLAR REGIONS. See North-West Passage and South Pole. 

POLE STAR, or Polae Star. A star of the second magnitude, the last in the tail of 
the constellation called the Little Bear ; its nearness to the North Pole causes it never to set 
to those in the northern hemisphere, and therefore it is called the seaman's guide. Two 
stars in the constellation Ursa 3Iajor, or Great Bear, are called imntcrs to the Polar star. 
The discovery of the Pole star is ascribed by the Chinese to their emperor. Hong Ti, the 
grandson (they say) of Noah, who reigned and floimshed 1970 B.C. Univ. Hist. 

POLICE. The London police grew out of the London watch, instituted about 1253. Its 
jurisdiction was extended 27 Eliz. 1585, and 16 Chas. I. 1640 ; and the system improved by 
various acts in subsequent reigns. The magistracy at Bow street has been long established. 
See Magistrates. 

Police offices. The jurisdiction of twenty-one j intendents, 140 inspectors, 630 sergeants, and 

magistrates, three to preside in each of the \ 5296 constables. 

seven divisional offices, commenced Aug. i, 1792 The total efficient police force in England and j 

The Thames police was established in . . . 1798 ' Wales, exclusive of the Metropolis, in Sejat. 

The London pohce was remodelled by Mr. I 1859 vpas 11,309, and in Sept. 1863, 14,661. See 

(aftervpards sir Robert) Peel, by statute 10 | Constahvlary. 

Geo. IV. June 19, 1829, and commenced duty Division X. was established to attend the Inter- 
Sept. 29, 1829 national Exhibition in 1^62 

The London police Improvement acts passed 3 The whole police and constabulary in England 

Vict. 1839, 4 Vict. 1840, which were amended I and Wales amounted to 23,032 men ; Mctro- 

by 19 <fc 20 Vict. c. 2 ..... 1856 [ politan police, 6590 ; city of London police. 

In 1857 the total expenditure was 445,212^. for 743; dockj'ard pohce, &c., 743, on Sept. 29, 1863 

the Metropolitan police, consisting of 17 sujier- I 

POLITICAL ECONOMY, the science which has for its object the improvement of the 
condition of mankind, and the promotion of civilisation, wealth, and happiness. Its history 
in this country may be dated from the publication of Dr. Adam Smith's "Wealth of Nations," 
1776. The works of Mill and M'Culloch arc justly celebrated. A professorship of Political 
Economy was established at Oxford by Mr. Henry Drummond, M.P., 1825 ; and at 
Cambridge, first by Mr. G. Prymc, in 1828 ; but regularly established by the university in 
1863, Henry Fawcett (blind) being the first professor. 

POLITICAL UNIONS Mere formed in England in 183 1 to carry the Reform Bill ; the 
mo.st important was that of Birmingham. 

POLITICIANS., A politician is described as a man well versed in policy, or the well 
regulating and governing of a state or kingdom ; a wise and cunning man. A man of artifice ; 
one of deep contrivance. South. The term was first used in France about 1569. Henault. 
A new faction appeared, knoAvn by the name of Politicians, headed by the due d'Alengon 
and the Montmorencies, and strengthened by the accession of the Huguenots iu 1574. The 
duke was arrested and the Montmorencies sent to the Bastile. Idem. 

POLLENTIA (Piedmont, N. Italy), the site of a great victory of Stilicho, the Imperial 
general, over Alaric the Goth, March 29, 403. 

POLL- ACT. An iniquitous act passed in Ireland by the Junto of the Pale, putting a 
price upon the heads of certain of the ancient Irish ; the earl of Desmond being then deputy, 
5 Edward IV. 1465.- This act endured for a number of years. For particulars, see kote to 
article Ireland, p. 397. Numbers of the Irish suffered under this act. Scully. 

POLL-TAX, or Capitation Tax, existed among the ancient Romans. It was first levied 
in England in 1379 ; and occasioned the rebellion of Wat Tyler (see Tyler), 1381. It was 
again levied in 1513. By the i8th Charles II. every subject was assessed by the head, viz., 
a dirke looZ., a marquis 80Z., a baronet 30?., a knight 20Z., an esquire lol., and every single 
private person i2d., 1667. This grievous impost was abolished by William III. at the period 
of the Revolution. 

POLOTSK (Russia). The French under marshal Oudinot were here defeated by the 

Russians under general Wittgen.stein, July 30 and 31, 1812. The same armies contending 

. the next day, the Russians were defeated. After several actions of less note, in which the 

advantage was sometimes on one, sometimes on the other side, Polotsk was stormed by the 

Russians, and retaken Oct. 1812. 



POL 



POM 



POLTOWA. ^eGPiiUou-a. 

POLYGAMY, &c. Most of the early nations of the worhl permitted polygamy. In Media, 
it was a reproach to a man to have less than seAen wives. Among the Romans, Marc Antony 
is mentioned as the first who took two wives ; and the practice became frequent, i;ntil 
forbidden by Arcadiiis, 393. The emperor Charles V. punished this offence with death. 
In England, by statute i James I. 1603, it Avas made felony, but Avitli benefit of clergy. This 
olfence Avas punished Avith trans]iortation, but noAV by imprisonment or penal servitude. It 
is permitted by the Mahometans and Mormonites. See Marriages. Polyandky (where one 
Avoman has several husbands) is permitted in some eastern countries, the children having 
equal rights. 

POLYGLOT, a term deriA'cd from tAvo Greek words denoting " man}' languages, " is chiefly 
applied to editions of the Bible in several languages. 



1. The Coniplutensian Polyglot, in six vols, folio, 
was printed at Alcala (Complutensis) in Spain, 
1502-14 ; the first edition published in 1522, at the 
expense of the celebrated cardinal Ximenes, cost- 
ing 250,000 ducats. Six hundred copies of it were 
jirinted ; three on vellum. Count Mac Carthy, of 
Toulouse, paid 483/. for one of these copies at the 
Pinelli sale. 

2. The Polyglot, printed at Antwerp, by Montanus, 



8 vols, folio, in 1359-69, at the expense of Philip II. 
of Spain. 

3. Printed at Paris, by Le Jay, in 10 vols, folio, 
1628-45. 

4. Edited by Bryan Walton, was published in 6 vols, 
folio, 1654-7. 

Copies of all four are in the library of the British 
and Foreign Bible Society. 

5. Edited by Dr. Samuel Lee, published by S. 
Bagster, i vol. folio, 1831. 



POLYNESIA, a name recently given to the isles in the great Pacific Ocean. 

' POLYPES {many-footed) animals, also named Hydrae, on account of their property of 
reproducing themselves Avhen cut in pieces, every part soon becoming a perfect animal ; first 
discovered by LeeuAvenhoek, and described by him in the Philosophical Trans. 1703. The 
polypes are of the order Zoophytes ; they partake of the animal and vegetable nature, and 
therefore are justly j)laced as the link which joins the animal to the vegetable world. 

POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTION, Eoyal, Eegent-street, London, was erected by 
Thompson in 1838, and enlarged in 1848. It contains a hall of manufactures Avith machines 
Avorked by steam-poAver, lecture theatres, &c., diving-bell, electric machine, &c. Timbs. 
The institution did not prosper commercially, and its decline was hastened by the fall of a 
staircase on Jan. 3, 1859, AA'hen one person Avas killed and many injured. The institution 
Avas closed in May, 1859, but Avas re-opened by a ncAV company on Nov. 12, i860. 

POMEGRANATE TPvEE {Punica Granahim) Avas brought to England from Spain before 
1584. It originally came from Spanish America. 

POMEEANIA, a Prussian province, N. Germanj-, was held by the Poles, 980, and by 
Denmark, 1210 ; made an independent duchy, 1479 ; and divided betAveen Sweden and 
Brandenburg, 1648. The SAvedish part Avas ceded to Prussia in 1815. 

POMFPiET or Pontefract (S. York). At the castle (built 1069), Richard II. Avas 
confined and murdered, Feb. 10. Llenry IV., by Avhom he Avas deposed, wishing for his 
death, an assassin, attended by eight foUoAvers, rushed into the king's ai)artment. He 
AA-rested a pole-axe from one of the murderers, and soon laid four of their number dead at 
his feet, but Avas at length overpowered and slain. Some Avriters assert that Richard escaped 
and died in Scotland. In this castle also, the eaid Rivers, lord Gray, sir Thomas Vaughan, 
and sir Richard Haut or Hause, Avere executed, or rather murdered, by order of the duke of 
Gloucester, then protector of England (afterA\'ards Richard III.), June 13 — 26, 1483. 

POMPEII (S. Italy), an ancient city of Campania, was partly demolished by an earth- 
quake in A.D. 63. It Avas afterAvards rebuilt, but Avas swallowed up by an aAvful eruption 
of Vesuvius, accompanied by an earthquake, on the night of the 24th of August, 79. 
Many of the principal citizens hajipened at the time to be assembled at a theatre where public 
spectacles Avere exhibited. The ashes buried the Avhole city and covered the .surrounding 
country. After a lapse of fifteen centuries, a countryman, as he was turning up the ground, 
accidentally found a bronze figure ; and this discovery attracting the attention of the learned, 
further search brought numerous other objects to light, and at length the city was once more 
shone on by the sun. The part first cleared Avas supposed to be the main street, 1750. The 
kings of Naples have gi'eatly aided in uncovering Pompeii, and the present Italian govern- 
ment resumed the Avork in 1863. 



POM 57G POO 

POMPEY'S PILLAR stands about three-riuartors of a mile from Alexandria, between 
the city and the lake Mareotis. The shaft is fluted, and the cajjital ornamented with palm- 
leaves ; the whole, which is highly polished, composed of three pieces, and of the Corinthian 
order. The column measures, according to some, 94 feet ; and others 141, and even 160 feet ; 
but of its origin, name, use, and age, nothing is certain.* 

PONDICHEERY (S.E. India), the capital of French India, and first settled by the 
French in 1674. It was taken from them by the Dutch in 1693, and was besieged by the 
English in 1748. It was taken by the English in Jan. 1761, and was restored in 1763 ; 
again taken Oct. 1778, and restored in 1783. Pondicherry M-as captured by the British, 
Aug. 23, 1793, and in 1S03 ; but was restored to the French in 1815. 

PONTIFFS (Latin Pontificcs), the highest Roman sacerdotal order, established byNuma. 
The college first consisted of 4 patricians ; to these 4 plebeians were afterwards added. Sylla 
increased the number to 15 (8 viajores, 7 minores). The chief was called the Pontifex 
Maximus. T. Coruncanius, a plebeian, obtained this office, 254 B.C. 

PONTUS, a kingdom in Asia Minor, seems to have been a portion of Cappadocia, and 
received its name from its vicinity to the Pontus Huxinus. Artabazus was made king of 
Pontus by Darius Hystaspes. His successors were little more than satraps of the kings of 
Persia. 

Artabazus made king of Pontus by Darius 1 Mithridates enters Bithynia, and makes liim- 

Hystaspes B.C. 4S7 1 self master of many Roman provinces, and 

Reifpi of Mithridates 1 383 | puts 80,000 Romans to death . . . B.C. 86 

Ariobarzanes invades Pontus .... 363 | Archelaus defeated by Sylla, at Chaironea ; 
Mithridates II. recovei's it . . . . . 336 | 100,000 Cappadocians slain . . . . . ,, 

Mithridates III. reigns 301 \ Victories and conquests of Mithridates up to 

Ariobarzanes II. reigns 266 ; this time 74 



Mithridates IV. is besieged in his capital by the 
Gauls, &c 252 

Mithridates makes an unsuccessful attack upon 
the free city of Sinope, and is obliged to raise 



The fleet of Mithridates defeats that under 

Lucullus, irt two battles 73 

Mithridates defeated by Lucullus . . . 6g 

Mithridates defeats Fabius 68 



the siege b3' the Rhodiaus 219 , But is defeated by Pompey 66 

Reign of Pharnaces, igo; he takes Sinope, and 1 Mithridates stabs himself, and dies . . . 63 

makes it the capital of his kingdom . . 183 j Reign of Pharnaces ,, 

Reign of Mithridates V 157 1 Battle of Zela (see .^eto) ; Pharnaces defeated by 

He is murdered in the mid.st of his court . . 123 Ca;sar 47 

Mithridates VI. surnamed the Great, or Eupator, ; Darius reigns 39 

receives the diadem at 12 years of age . . ,, j Polemon, son of Zeno, reigns 36 

Marries Laodice, his own sister . . . . 115 ' Polemon II. succeeds his father . . . a.d. 33 

She attem])ts to poison him ; he puts her and ; Mithridates VII. reigns 40 

accomplices to death 112 j Pontus afterwards became a Roman province. 



Mithridates conquers Scythia, Bosphorus, 
Colchis, and other countries . . . .111 

He enters Cappadocia 97 

His war with Rome 89 

Tigranes ravages Cappadocia 86 



under the emperors. 
Ale.Kis Comnenus founded a new empire of the 
Greeks at Trebisond, in this country, 1204, 
which continued till the Turks destroyed it in 
1459- 



POOR KNIGHTS of Wixdsok, instituted by Henry VIII. in his testament, 1546-7. 
Their original number, thirteen, was subsequently increased to twenty-eight. King 
William IV. changed the name to the "Military Knights of Windsor," in consequence of 
their all having held commissions in the army, Sept. 1833. The "Naval Knights of 
Windsor" are maintained on a distinct foundation, under the bequest of Samuel Travers. 

POOR LAWS. The poor of England, till the time of Henry VIII., subsisted as the poor 
of Ireland until 1838, entirely upon private benevolence. By statute 23 Edw. III. 1349, it 
was enacted that none should give alms to a beggar able to work. By the common law, the 
poor were to be sustained by " parsons, rectors of the church, and parishioners, so that none 
should die for default of sustenance ; " and by 15 Rich. II. impropriators were obliged to 
distribute a yearly sum to the poor; but no compulsory law was enacted till the 27th 
Hen. VIII. 1535. The origin of the present system of poor laws is referred to the 43rd of 
Elizabeth, 1601, by which overseers were appointed for parishes. 

* It is generally believed that the column has no reference to Pompey, to whom a mark of honour was, 
nevertheless, set up somewhere about this part. One supposes the edifice was dedicated to Vespasian, 
another to Severus ; and Mr. Clarke, from a half-effaced inscription on the base, considered that Adrian 
is the person honoured ; while many assert, from the same inscription, that it is dedicated " to Diocletian 
Augustus, most adorable emperor, tutelar deity of Alexandria." 



TOO 



POP 



POOPi, LAWS, continued. 

Po.ir L.-xw Amen'iraent bill passed 1834 ; amended 
. in 1836, 1S38, 1846, and 1847. 

Poor Law (Iivland) aL't passed 1838 ; amended 1839. 

Poor Law (Ireland) Kate in Aid act passed in 1849. 

In Scotland, in the year ending May 1851, tlie num- 
ber relieved was 141,870, at an average cost of 
2I. 2.1. 51?. and the expenditure was 535,943'. 

Ill Ireland, the poor's rate for the year ending Sept. 
1851, was 1,101,878^ 

A Poor Law system established in Scotland, 1845. 

An agitation for the equalisation of poor's rates 
throughout the kingdom began in 1857. 

The Times draws attention to the condition of the 
houseless poor in London, which led to measures 
for their relief, Dee. 1858. 

Laws respecting removal of the poor amended in 1S61. 



ENGLAND AND WALES. 

Exjtended. Poor Rates. 

In 15S0 .... £i8S,8ii 

1680 . . . . 665,562 

1698 .... 819,000 

1760 . . . . 1,556,804 

T785 .... 2,184,950 

1802 . . , . 4,952,421 



Expended. 
In 1815 . 
1S20 



1845 

1850, year to Mar. 25 



Union Relief act passed to enable certain unions to 
obtain temporary aid (on account of the distress 
in Lancashire through suspension of cotton manu- 
factures) 1862. 

Metropolitan houseless poor act (authorising guar- 
dians to receive destitute persons into work- 
houses, and the metropolitan board to reimburse 
them) passed, July 29, 1864. 

Annual report of Poor Law board for 1S64, shows 
great decrease of pauperism— issued Sept. 1865. 

40 refuges for houseless poor established in London 
1864-5. 

"Casual wards " in London workhouses receive 1000 
per night, .Jan. 1865. 

Union chargoability act passed, 1865. 



Poor Rates. Expended. Poor Rales. 

£5,418,845 In 1853 . ... £6,522,412 
7,329,594 March 1857, to March 
8,111,422 1858, about. . . 3,082,600 
6.356,345 I 1859-60, about . . . 3,795,500 
5,468,699 I 6 months to Mar. 25, 1861 2,073,394 
5,543,650 I ,, ,, ,, 1862 2,181,124 

3,816,909 I ,, ,, ,, 1S64 2,250,971 



England and Walc: 
Scotland . 
Ireland 



rAUl'EUS KECEIVIXG RELIEF (XOT VAGRANTS). 
1849. 1853. 1858. 

r . 934,419 . . 798,822 . . 968,186 . 

14. 82,357 • • 75-437 • • 69,217 [1857], 

[ . 620,747 • • 141,822 . . 50,582 . 



, Jan. : 
. May 
Jan. 



1862. 
932,400 
78,433 [18 
59,541 



1,637,523 



i,oi6,oSi 



1,007,. 



POPE (from the Greek Pappas and Papa, .a father or grandfather), considered by 
Ilomanists to be the visible chief of the church, the vicar of Jesus Christ, and the successor 
of St. Peter. This title was formerly given to all bishops. It was first adopted by Hyginus, 
139 ; and pope Boniface III. induced Phocas, emperor of the East, to confine it to the 
prelates of Rome, 606. By the connivance of Phocas also, the pope's supremacy over the 
Christian Church was established. See Italy, Reformation, and Rome, Modern. 

his prerogative of making and unmaking 

kings t 1191 

The pope collected the tenths of the whole 

kingdom of England 1226 

The papal seat w,is removed for seventy years 

to Avignon in France 1308 

The pope's demands on England refused by 

parliament 1363 

Appeals to Komc from England abolished 

{Viner) 1533 

The words "Lord Pope" struck out of all 

EnglLsh books 1541 

Kissing the pope's toe and other ceremonies 

abolished by Clement XIV 1773 

The pope's political iniluence destroyed by the 

French revolution .... 1789-1814 
His diplomatic relations with Great Britain 

authorised by parliament .... 1848 
He offends the Briti.sh nation by creating 

bishops. See Papal Aggression. . Sept. 30, 1850 



Custom of kissing the pope's toe introduced . 708 
Adrian I. caused money to be coined with his 
name ......... 7S0 

Sergius II. the first pope who changed his 
name on his election ; some contend that it 
was Sergius I. and others John XII. or XIII. 844 
John XVIII. a layman, made pope . . . 1024 
The first pope who kept an army. Lot IX. . . 1054 
Gregory VII. (Hildebnind) obliges Henry IV. 
emperor of Germany, to stand three days, in 
the depth of winter, barefooted at the g.ite of 
the castle of Canossa, to imploi-e his pardon . 1077 
The pope's authority fixed in England . . . 1079 
Appeals from English tribunals to the pope 

introduced ( Fi/ifr), ig Stephen . . . 1154 
Henry 1 1, of England holds the stirrup for pope 

Alexander III. to mount his horse * . . . 1:61 
Cele.stine III. kicked the emi)eror Henry VI. 's 
crov/n off his head while kneeling, to show 



* " Wlien Louis, king of France, and Henry II. of England, met pope Alexander III. at the castle of 
Torci, on the Loire, thcj- both dismounted to receive him, and holding each of them one of the reigns of his 
bridle, walked on foot by his side, and conducted him in that submissive manner into the castle." Hume. 

t In the nth century the power of the jiontiff of Rome seems to have reached its utmo.st height. 
Gregory VII. a.ssumed the exclusive title of Pope, which till then had been common to other bishops ; and 
his successors carried their pretensions .so far as to hold themselv-es out as lords of the xmiverse, arbiters 
of the fate of empires, and supremo rulers of the kings and princes of the earth. In this character they 
proceeded to dispose of kingdoms, and to loose subjects from their allegiance, as is remarkably instanced 
in the history of John, king of England. At length they affirmed the whole earth to be their property, as 
well where Christianity had been propagated, as where it had not ; and therefore, on the discovery of the 
East and West Indies and America, Alexander VI., in 1493, granted to the Portuguese a right to all the 
countries lying to the eastward, and to the Spaniards all those westward of Cape Non, in Africa, which 
they might respectively be able to conquer. They finally pretended to be lords of the future world also ; 
and by licences, pardons, dispensations, and indidgences, which they sold to the best bidders, to have a 
pciwcr of restraining, and in some instances of subverting, even the Divine justice itself. As!pin : Lives of 
the Popes. 

V P 



POP 



578 



POP 



POPE, continued. 



BISHOPS AND POPES OF EOME. 



42. St. Peter : (said by very doubtful ti-adition to 398 
have been the first bishop of Kome, and to 

have been crucified, head downwards, in 66.) 402. 

* ^ St. Clement (Clemens Romanus) ; according to 417. 

Tertullian. 41S. 

66. St. Linus : * martyred. 

78. St. Anacletus : martyred. 

91. St. Clement : abdicated. 422. 

100. St. Evaristus : martj'red. 432. 

309. St. Alexander : martyred. 

119. St. Sixtus: martyred. 440. 
127. St. Telesphorus : martyred. 

139. St. Hyginus : the first who called himself jjojjc 461. 

142. St. Pius : martyred. 468. 

157. St. Anicetus. 483. 
168. St. Soterus : martyred under Marciis Antoninus, 
177. St. Eleuthenis : opposed the Valentinians. 

193. St. Victor ; martyred vmder Scverus. 492 

202. St. Zephirinus. 496. 
219. St. Calixtus : martyred. 

222. [The chair vacant.] 

223. St. Urban : beheaded in the persecution of 498. 

Alexander Severns. ,, 

230. St. Pontiauus : banished by the emperor 514. 

Maximin. 523- 

235. St. Anterus : martyred. 

236. St. Fabian : martyred under Decius. 526. 

250. [The chair vacant.] 

251. St. Cornelius : died the next ye.ir. 530. 

252. St. Lucius : martyred the year following. 533. 

Noratianiis : \ antipope. 

253. St. Stephen: martyred in the persecution of 535. 

Valerian. 536. 

257. Sixtus II. (his coadjutor) : martyred three days 

before his faithfid disciple St. Laurence, in 
the persecution of Valerian, 258. 

258. [The chair vacant.] 

259. LUonysius : opposed the heresy of Sabelliu.s. 
269. Felix : martyred ; canonised. 537. 
275. Eutychianus : martyred. 55S. 
283. Caius : a relative of the emperor Diocletian. 
296. Marcellinu.s : distinguished by his courage 560. 

under a severe persecution ; canonised. 573. 

304. [The chair vacant.] 574- 

308. Marcellus : banished from Rome by the emperor 578. 

Maxentius ; canonised. 

310. St. Eusebius : died the same year. 590. 

311. St. Melchiades : coadjutor to Eusebius. 
314. Silvester. 604. 

336. Marcus or Mark : died the next year. 606 

337. Julius : of great piety and learning main- 607 

tained the cause of St. Athanasius. 614 

352. Liberius : banished; and in 617 

535. Felix II., antipope : placed in the chair by 625. 

Constans, during the exile of Liberius, on 639. 

whose return he was driven from it with 640. 

ignominy. ,, 

[The emperor would have the two popes reign 642. 

together ; but the people cried out, " One 649. 

God, one C/n-ist, and one bishop ! "] ♦, 

358. Liberius again : abdicated. 634. 
„ Felix became legal pope ; but he was made 657. 

away with by Liberius. 

359. Liberius again. 672. 

366. Damasus : opposed the Ai-ians : St. Jerome 676. 

was his secretixry. 678. 

367. Ursinus. 6S2. 
384. Siricius : succeeded to the exclusion of 6S3. 

Ursicinus. 684. 



Anastasius : caused the •works of Origcn to be 

proscribed. 
Innocent I. 
Zosimus : canonised. 

Boniface I. : maintained in the pontifical chair 
by the emperor Honorius, against his rival 
Eulalius : canonised. 
Celestino I. : canonised. 
Sixtus III. : suppressed the heresies of Nes- 

torius and Pcl.igius in the West. 
Leo I. the Great : most zealous in his endeavours 

to extend the papal see : canonissd. 
St. Hilary. 
St. Simi^licius. 

Felix III. : had a violent dii-pute with the 
emperor Zeno respecting the Western 
Church : canonised. 
. Gelasius : canonised. 
Anastasius II. : endeavoured to bring about a 
iniity between the Eastern and Western 
Churches : canonised. 
Symmachus : canonised. 
I.aurentius : antipope. 
Ilormisdas : canonised. 
John I. : throvra into prison, where ho died in 

526. 
Felix IV. : introduced extreme unction as a 

sacrament : canonised. 
Boniface II. — Dioscorus. 
John II. : opposed the Eutychians and Nes- 

torians. 
Agapetus : died the same year. 
, Silverius : son of jjope Hormisdas, wlio had 
married before entering into the ecclesias- 
tical state. The empress Thcodosia violently 
pcr.secuted him, and procured his banish- 
ment into Lycia, makmg VigUius his suc- 
cessor. 
, Vigilius : banished, but restored. 
. Pelagius I. : endeavoured to reform tl:c man- 
ners of the clergy. 
, John III. : the great ornamcntcr of churches. 
, [The see vacant.] 

Benedict I., surnamed Bonosus. 
. Pelagius II.: died of the plague then desolating 
Kome. 
Gregory the Great, an illustrious patrician : 
converted the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity. 
, Sabinianus. 

or 607. Boniface III. : died in a few months, 
or 608. Boniface IV. 
or 615. Dcusdedit. 
or 618. Boniface V. 
Honorius I. 
[The see vacant.] 
Severinus : died shortly after. 
John IV. 
Theodorus I. 
Martin I. : some say, starved to death ; others, 

died of his sufieiungs. 
Eugenius I. : canonised. 
Vitalianus : this pope sent missionaries into 

England. 
Adeodatus, the " Gift of God." 
Domnus I. 
Agathon. 

Leo II. : instituted holy -water. 
[The see vacant.] 
Benedict II. 



* St. Linus is set down in nearly all accounts of poises as the immediate successor of St. Peter ; but 
Tertulhan, who was undoubtedly well informed, maintains that St. Chment siicceeded the Apostle. In 
the first century of the Christian Church, neither the dates of succession, nor the succession of bishops, are 
reconciled by even the best authorities. Some assert that there were two or three bishops of Rome at 
the same time. 

t The names in italics were antipoiJes, 



POP 



579 



POP 



685. 
636. 
687. 
701. 
70s. 
70S. 

715- 
731- 

741. 
732. 

757- 
767. 
768. 
772. 



79S- 
816. 
817. 
824. 
827. 

844- 
847. 

855. 



867. 
872. 
882. 



891. 

8g6. 
897. 



900. 
903- 



904. 
911. 

913- 
914. 

92S. 

929. 
931. 

936. 

939- 
942. 
946. 
956. 

9'53. 
964. 



972. 
974- 
983. 
984. 
985. 
936. 



POPE, continued. 

John V. : ruled with wisdom. 

Conon. — l'/i(odore and Peter.* 

Scrgius : " governed ^s-isely." 

John Y I. 

John VII. 

Sisinnins : died 20 days after election. 

Constantiue. 

Gregory II. : canonised. 

Gregory III. : the first pope who sent nimcios 

to foreign powers. 
Zacharias, 
Stephen II. : with this pope commenced the 

temporal power of the Chiirch of Rome. 
Paul I. : moderate and pious. 
Co'iutanline Tlieopliyladas. 
Stephen III. 
Adrian I. : sanctioned images, in which ho 

was opposed by the kings of England and 

France. 
Leo III. 

Stephen IV. : died the next year. 
Pascal I. 

Kugenius II. — Zoziiiius. 
Valentinus. 

Gregoi-y IV. : pious and learned. 
Scrgius II. 

Leo IV. : defeated the Saracens. 
Poijo .Toan (which see) said to have been elected. 
Benedict III. — Ana-'^tasius. 
Nicholas I., styled the Great. 
Adrian II. 
John VIII. 

Mariiius or Martin II. 
Adrian III. : died the next year. 
Stephen V. 
Formosus : died detested ; his corpse was 

tin-own into the river Tiber. —Strgius. 
Boniface VI. : deposed. 
Romanus. — Sergius. 
Stephen VI. : strangled in prison. 
Thcodorus II. : governed 22 days. 
John IX. 
Benedict IV. 
Leo V. : driven from his sc-it a few months 

after his election, and died in prison. 
Christopher. 

Sergius III. : disgraced his dignity by his vices. 
.jVuastasius III. 
Landonius, or Lando. 
John X. : resigned, and was stifled by Guy, 

duke of Tuscany. 
Leo VI. : considered an intruder by many 

Roman Catholic historians. 
Stephen VII. 
John XI. : imprisoned in the castle of St. An- 

gelo, where he died. 
Leo VII. : great in zeal and piety. 
Stephen VIII. : " of ferocious character." 
Marinus II., or Martin III. 
Agapctus II. : of holy hfe. 
John XII., the Infamous : deposed for adultery 

and cruelt3-, and murdered. 
Leo VIII. : an honour to the chair, though an 

intruder. — ]3avoniui>. 
Benedict V. : chosen on the death of John XII., 

but opposed by Leo VIII., who w.as sup- 
ported by the emperor Otho : the Roman 

peoijlc were obhged to abandon his cause. 
John XIII., elected by the authority of the 

emperor against the poiDvilar will. 
Benedict VI. : murdered in prison. 
Domnus II. — Benedict VII. 
John XIV. 

John XV. : died before consecration. 
John XVI. 
Gregory- V. — John XVII. was expelled by the 

emperor, and barbarously \ised by his rivaL 



999. 
1003. 

1009. 
1012. 
1024. 
1033. 

1044. 

1046. 

1047. 
104S. 

1054. 
1055. 
1057. 
1058. 

1061. 

1073. 
loSo. 
10S5. 



iiig. 
1124. 



1143. 
1144. 

II45. 
II53' 
1154, 



1187. 

1191. 
119S. 

1216. 
1227. 

1241. 

I243. 
1254 
1261 
1265, 



1268 
1271, 

1276, 



1277 
12S1, 



Silvester II. 

John XVII. : legitimate pope, died same year. 

John XVIII. : abdicated. 

Sergius IV. 

Benedict VIII. — Gregory. 

John XIX. 

Benedict IX. : became pope, by jjurchasc, at 
12 years of ago ; expelled. 

Si/lvestcr III. : 3 months. 

Gregory VI. : deposed. — Sylvester. 

Clement II. (the Romanists call Clemens Ro- 
manus the first Clement) : died next year. 

Benedict again : again deposed. 

Damasus II. : died soon after. 

Leo IX. : canonised. 

[The throne vacant one year.] 

Victor II. 

Stephen IX. 

Benedict X. : expelled. 

Niclioleis II. 

Alexander II. : he raised the papal power. — 
Ilonorius II. 

Gregory VII. the celebrated Hiklebrand.f 

Clemeitt III. 

[The throne vacant one year.] 

Victor IIL 

Urban II. : crusades commenced. 

Pascal II. 

Gelasius II. : retired to a monastery. — Gregory 
VIII. 

Calixtus II. 

Honorius II. — Celestine II. 

Innocent II. — Anacletiu II. 
Victor III. 

Celestine If. : ruled 5 months. 

Lucius II. : kUled by accident in a popular 
commotion. 

Eugenius III. : canonised. 

Anastasius IV. : ruled a short time only. 

Adrian IV., or Nicholas Brakespeare, the only 
Englishman elected pope : born at Abbot's 
Langley, near St. Alban's. He obliged 
Frederick I. to prostrate himself before him, 
kiss his foot, hold his stirrup, and lead the 
white palfrey on which he rode. 

Alexander III., avenger of the murder of 
Thomas k Becket. — 1159, Victor IV. : 1164, 
Petsced III. : 116S, Calistus III. : 1178, Inno- 
cent III. 

Liicius III. 

Urban III. 

Gregory VIII. : ruled only two months. 

Clement II f. 

Celestine III. 

Innocent III. (Lothario Conti) : excommuni- 
cated king John of England. 

Honorius III. ; learned and pious. 

Gregory IX. : caused a new cinisade to be 
undertaken. 

Celestine IV. : died 18 days after his election. 
[The throne vacant i year and 7 months.] 

Innocent IV. : gave the red hat to cardinals. 

Alexander IV. 

Urban IV. 

Clement IV., .an enlightened Frenchman, pre- 
viously cardinal and legate to England : dis- 
couraged the crusades. 
, [The throne vacant 2 years and 9 months.] 
Gregory X. : elected while he was with Ed- 
ward 1. of England in the Holy Land. 
Innocent V. : died shortly after. 

Adi-ian V.: legate to England in 1254: died 
36 days after election. 

Vicedoininus : died the next day. 

John XX. or XXI. : died in 8 months. 

Nicholas III. : died iu 1280. 

Martin IV. 



* The names in italics were antipopes. 



t See p. 577- 



POP 



580 



POP 



POPE, continued. 

1285. Honorius IV. : promoted the ci-usades. 

12S3. Nicholas IV. : endeavoured to sth- up the 
princes of Christendom to a new crusade, 
but without success. 

1292. [The throne vacant 2 years and 3 months.] 

1294. Celestine V. : resigned from fear. 
„ Boniface VIII. : proclaimed that " God had 
set him over kings and kingdoms : " im- 
prisoned his predecessor, and laid France 
and Denmark under interdict. 

1303. Benedict XI. : a pious and liberal pontiff : 

poisoned by some ambitious cardinals a 
short time after his election. 

1304. [The throne vacant 11 months.] 

1305. Clement V. Bertrand the Goth : removed the 

papal seat from Eome to Avignon. 
1314. [The throne vacant 2 years and 4 months.] 
131G. John XXII. 

1334. Benedict XII. [Nicholas V* at Rome.] 
1342. Clement VI. : a learned prolate, a generous 

prince, and an amiable man. 
1352. Innocent VI. 

1362. Urban V. : illustrious as a patron of learning. 
1370. Gregory XI. : also an eminent protector of 

learning ; he restored the pajsal chair to 

Eome. 

Schism — 1378-1447. 

1373. Urban VI. : so severe and cruel that the car- 
dinals chose Robert of Geneva, under the 
name of Clement VII., which led to great 
violence. 

1389. Boniface IX. 

1394. Benedict (called XIII.), at Avignon. 

1404. Innocent VIE. : died in 1406. 

1406. Gregory XII. Angolo Corario. 

1409. Alexander V. : died, supposed by poison. 

1410. John XXIII. : depo.sed. 
1417. Martin V. Otho Colonna. 
1424. Clemerd Vllf. 

143 1. Eugenius IV. Gabriel Condolmera : deposed 
by the council of Basil ; and Amadous of 
Savoy chosen as Felix V., in 1439, who re- 
signed 1449. 

1447. Nicholas V. 

1455. Calixtus III. 

1453. Pius ir. Jineas Silvius Piccolomini.' 

1464. Paul II. : a noble Venetian. 

1471. Sixtus IV. 

1484. Innocent VIII. : a noble Genoese. 

1492. Alexander VI., the infamous Roderic Borgia; 
poisoned at a feast by drinking of a bowl he 
had prepared for another. 

1S03. Pius III. Francis Todeschini : 21 days pope. 
,. Julius II. .Julian de la Ruvere. 

1513. Leo X. (John de' Medici) : this pope's gi-ant of 
indulgences for crime led to the Reformation. 

1522. Adrian VI. 

1523. Clement VII. Giulio de' Medici refused to 

divorce Catherine of Aragon, and denounced 
the marriage of Henry VIII. with Anne 
Boleyn. 



IS34- 
1550. 
1555. 



1559. 
1566. 

1572- 



1583- 
1590. 

1592. 
1605. 

1621. 
1623. 

1644. 
1655. 
1667. 
1670. 
1676. 
16S9. 
1691. 
1700. 
1721. 

1724. 
1730. 
1740. 
1758. 
1769. 



1823. 



Paul III. Alexander Farnese. 

Julivis III. 

JIarcellus II. : died soon after his election. 

Paul IV. John Peter Caraffa. When queen 
Elizabeth sent him an ambassador to an- 
nounce her accession, he haughtily answered 
" that to the holy see, and not to her, 
belonged the throne, to which she had no 
right as being a bastard. " 

Pius IV., cardinal de' Medici. 

Pius V. 

Gregory XIII., the greatest civilian and canon- 
ist of his time : under him the calendar was 
reformed. 

Sixtus V. : an able governor. 

Urban VII. : died 12 days after election. 

Gregory XIV. Nicholas Sfondrate. 

Innocent IX. : died in two months. 

Clement VIII. : learned and just. 

Leo XI. : died same month. 

Paul V. Camille Borghese. 

Gregory XV. Alexander Ludovisio. 

Urban VIII. : gave the title of Eminence to 
cardinals. 

Innocent X. John Baptist Pamphilus. 

Alexander VII. Fabio Chigi. 

Clement IX. 

Clement X. John Baptiste Emile Altieri. 

Innocent XI. 

Alexander VIII. 

Innocent XII. Antonio Pignatelll. 

Clement XII. John Francis Albani. 

Innocent XIII. Michael Angelo Conti ; the 
eighth pontifl'of his family. 

Benedict XIII., proi^orly so called. 

Clement XII. 

Benedict XIV., the amiable Lambcrtini. 

Clement XIII. Charles Bezzonico. 

Clement XIV. (the illustrious Ganganelli) ; 
suppressed the Jesuits. 
, Pius VI. Angelo Braschi, Feb. 15 ; dethroned 
by Bonaparte : he was expelled from Rome, 
and deposed in Feb. 1798 ; and died at 
Valence, Aug. 29, 1799. 
. Pius VII. Chiaramonte : elected March 13 ; 
agrees to a concordat with France, July 15, 
1801 ; crowns Napoleon, Dec. 2, 1804 ; ex- 
communicates him, June 10, 1809 ; im- 
prisoned, July 6, 1S09; restored in 1814 : 
died, Aug. 20, 1823. (He restored the 
Jesuits.) 

Leo XII. Annibal della Ganga, Sept. 28. 

Pius VIII. Francis Xavier Castiglioni, March 

31. 
Gregory XVI. Mauro Capellari, Feb. 2, 1831 : 
died June i, 1846. 

Pius IX. Giovanni Maria Mastai Fen-etti : 
the 252nd i5ope (according to " I'Art de 
Verifier les Bates ") elected June 16 (born 
May 13, 1793). The present (1865) pope. 

See Rome. 



POPE JOAN. It i.s asserted that in the 9th century, a female named Joan conceived 
a violent passion for Felda, a young monk, and in order to l)e admitted into his monastery, 
assumed the male habit. On the death of her lover she entered upon the duties of professor, 
and, being very learned, was elected pope, when Leo IV. died, in 855. Other scandalous 
particulars follow ; "yet, until the Reformation, the tale was repeated and believed without 
offence." Gibbon. 

POPISH PLOTS. See Gunpov:dcr Plot and Oaies's Plot. 

POPLAPi TREES. The Tacamahac poplar {Pojmlus Balsamifcra) was brought hither 
from North America before 1692. The Lombardy poplar from Italy about 1758. 



The names in italics were antipopes. 



POP 



581 



POP 



POPULATION. The poimlatiou of the world was estimated in 1863 at 1,288,000,000. 
For the Population of Couutrie.s, see the table (after the Preface) facing page 1. 



Asia . 



275,806,741 I Africa . 
755,000,000 I Auioricii 



200,000,000 I Australia 
67,896,041 I Polynesia 



1,445,000 
1,500,000 



Estimated in 1377 



roruLATiox of England and wales, 

2,092,978 I In 14S3 .... 4,689,000 1 In 1696 





Po2^idatioii. 




Population. 




Population. 


1700 


• 5,475,000 


1740 


. 6,064,000 


1770 . 


. . 7,428,000 


I7I0 . 


. . 5,240,000 


1750 . 


6,467,000 


1780 


• 7,953,000 


1720 


• 5,565,000 


1760 


. 6,736,000 


1790 . 


. . 8,675,000 


1730 • 


• • 5,796.000 











. 5,250,000 

Population' 
. 8,872,980 
■ 17,987,609 
. 20,061,172 



rOrULATION OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND BY CENSUS.' 



Division. 


1801. 


ISIl. 


18:1. 


1831. 


l&ll. 


1831. 


1861. 


England . 
Wales . . . 
Scotland t . 
Army, Navj', ire. 

Total . 
Ireland]; . . 
Islands, in Bri- ^ 

tish seas ) 


8.331,434 
541,546 

1,599,068 
470,598 


9,551,888 
611,788 

1,805,688 
640,500 


11,261,437 

717,438 

2,093,456 

319.300 


13.089,338 

805,236 

2,365,807 

277,017 


14,995,138 

916,619 

2,620,184 

312,493 


16,854,142 

1,060,626 

2,870,784 

142,916 


18,949,130 

1,111,795 

3,061,251 

162,021 


10,942,646 


12,609,864 
5,937,856 


14,391,631 
8,175,124 


16,537,398 
7,784,934 


18,844,434 
8,175,124 


20,936,468 

6,515,794 

143,126 

27,595.388 


23,284,197 
5,764-543 

143,779 


29,192,419 



* Estimated by Registrar-General in June 1865, 29,772,294. 
t Estimated population of Scotland in 1751, 1,255,663. 
X Estimated population of Ireland : — 

In 1652 . . 850.000 I 1712 . . 2,099,094 I 1754 



2.372,634 I 1805 



5,395,456 



1801. 


Males. 


Females. 


Inhabitcil Houses. 


England and Wales .... 

Scotland 

Ireland 


9,758,852 10,302,873 
1,446,982 1,614,269 
2,804,961 2,959,582 


3,745,463 
393,289 
103,357 



rOPUL.\TION OF THE FRINCirAL TOWNS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 



Towns. 


1801. 


ISll. 


1821. 


1831. 


1811. 


1851. 


ISCl.t 


London and suburbs * . 


864,845 


1,009,546 


1,225,694 


1,474,069 


1,873,676 


2,362,236 


2,803,034 


Manchester, &c. . . 


94,876 


115,874 


161,635 


237,832 


242,583 


404,465 


357,604 


Glasgow, <fec. . 


77,385 


100,749 


147.043 


202,426 


274,533 


340,653 


394,857 


Liverpool . . . . 


79,722 


100,240 


131,801 


189,244 


286,487 


375,955 


443.874 


Edinburgh, ifcc. 


82,560 


102,987 


138,23s 


162,403 


168,182 


193,929 


168,098 


liirmingham . . . 


73,670 


85.753 


106,721 


142,251 


182,922 


232,841 


295,955 


Lecd.s, <fcc. 






83,796 


123.393 


152.054 


172,270 


207,153 


Bristol, &c 


63,645 


76,433 


87,779 


103,886 


122,296 


137,328 


154,093 


Sheffield .... 




* * * * 


69,479 


91,692 


111,091 


135,310 


185,157 


Plymouth . . .» . 


43,194 


56,060 


61,212 


75,534 


80,059 


102,380 


62,823 



In 1851, 1,106,558 males, and 1,255,678 females. t 1S61 : parliamentary limits of the boroughs onlj-. 



POP 



582 



POR 



POPULATION, continued. 



Ton-ns. 


1801. 


1811. 


1821. 


1831. 


1841. 


1851. 


1361.' 


Portsmouth 


43,461 


52.769 


56,620 


63,026 


63.032 


72,096 


94.546 


Norwich . . . . 


36,832 


37,256 


50,288 


61,116 


72,344 


68,195 


74.414 


Aberdeen. 


27,608 


35.370 


44.796 


58,019 


63,288 


71.945 


73.794 


Newcastle . . . . 


36,963 


36,369 


46,948 


57.937 


70,860 


87,784 


109,291 


Paisley .... 


31.179 


36,722 


47,003 


57.466 


60,487 


69.951 


47,419 


Nottingham . . . 


28,861 


34.253 


40,415 


50,680 


71.844 


57.407 


74.531 


Hull 


34.964 


32.467 


41,874 


49,461 


71,629 


84,690 


98,994 


Dundee . . . . 


26,084 


29,616 


30,575 


45.355 


62,794 


77,829 


90.425 


Brighton .... 


7.339 


12,012 


24,429 


40,634 


46,661 


65.573 


87,3" 


Bath 


30.113 


32,214 


36,811 


38,063 


38,304 


54,240 


52,528 


York .... 


23,692 


26,422 


29.527 


34.461 ■ 


38,321 


40,359 


45.326 


Preston .... 


11,887 


17,065 


24.575 


33.II2 


50,131 


69, 542 


82,961 


Cambridge 


13,360 


13,802 


14,142 


20,917 


24,453 


27,815 


26,351 


Oxford 


15,124 


15.337 


16, 364 


20,432 


23.834 


27,843 


27.561 



POPULATION OF THE CHIEF CITIES OF THE WORLD. 



Front latest returns {Almanach de Gotha, i 



Cities. Inhaiitanfs. 

Alexandria, Egypt, abt. 170,000 

Amsterdam, 1865 . . 261,455 

Antwei-j), 1S64 . . . 120,444 

Athens and Pinuus . 47,723 

Barcelona, iS5i . . . 252,015 

Basle, i860 . . . 37,918 

Berlin, 1863 . . . 547,571 

Berne, i860 . . . 29,016 

Bombay, 1S64, above . . 600,000 

Bordeaux, 1862 . . 162,750 

Breslau, 1865 . . . 163,179 

Brussels, 1S64. . . 184,932 

Cairo, estimated . . 265,000 

Calcutta, 1864, about , 

Christiania, 1855 . . 38,958 

Cologne, 1865 . . . 122,162 

Constantinople, estimtd. 1,075,000 

Copenhagen, 1S60 . . 155,143 

Dresden, 1S64. . . 145,728 

Florence, 1862 . . . 114,363 

Frankfort, 1864 . . 78,177 

Geneva, 1S60 . . . 41,415 

Genoa, 1862 . . . 127,986 

Ghent, 1864 . . . 122,960 



Cities. Inhabitants. 

Glasgow, 1865 . , 423,723 

Hamburg, i860 . . . 175,683 

Jeddo, reputed . . 1,800,000 

Leipsic, 1864 . . . 85,394 

Li<5ge, 1S64 . . . 101,710 

Lisbon, 1863 . . . 224,063 

Lisle, 1862 . . . 131,827 

Liverpool, 1865 . . . 476,368 
London, 1865, estimated 3,015,494 



Lyons, iS 
Madras, 1864, about 
Madrid, 1861 
Marseilles, 1862 
Mes.sina, 1S62 
Mexico, estimated . 
Milan, 1862 
Montreal, 1864 
Moscow, 1858 
Munich, 1864 . 
Nankin, estimated 
Nantes, 1862 . 
Naples, 1862 
New Orleans, 1S60 . 
New York, i860 . 



318,803 

475.785 
260,910 
62,024 
200,000 
196,109 
120,000 
377,838 
167,054 
1,000,000 
113,625 
418,968 
168,675 
805,651 



S65). 

Cities. 
Oporto, 1863 . 
Palermo, 1862 
Paris, &c., 1862 
Pekin, reputed . 
Pesth, 1857 
Philadelphia, 1S60 
Prague, 1857 . 
Quebec, 1861 
Rio Janeiro, 1855 
Rome, 1864. 
Rotterdam, 1865 
Rouen, 1862 
Seville, 1861 . 
Smyrna, 1863 
Stockholm, 1863 
St. Petersburg, 185! 
Stutgardt, 1864 
Teheran, estimated 
Toulouse, 1862 
Tunis, estimated 
Turin, 1862 
Venice, 1857 
Vienna, 1864, about 
Warsaw, 1865, aboii 



inhabitants. 

86,257 

167,625 

1,696,141 

4,000,000 

131,705 

562,529 

142.588 

5T.109 

296,136 

203,896 

114,052 

102,649 

152,000 

124,691 
586,283 
69,084 
80,000 
113,229 
200,000 
180,520 
118,172 
560,000 
223,000 



PORCELAIN. See Pottenj. 

PORT EGMONT, a fine harbour on the N.W. coast of Falkland Islands. Commodore 
Byron was despatched to found a colony here in 1765. See Falkland Islands. 

PORTEOUS MOB. Capt. Porteous, at Edinburgh, on April 15, 1736, commanded the 
guard at the execution of Wilson, a smuggler, ^Yllo had saved the life of a fellow criminal, by 
springing upon the soldiers around them, and by main force keeping them back, while his 
companion tied. The execution of Wilson excited great commiseration, and the spectators 
pelted the guard with stones. Fearing a rescue, Porteous ordered his men to tire upon the 
mob, and seventeen persons were killed or wounded. He was found guilty of murder, 
Juno 22, 1736 ; but the queen gi-anted him a reprieve (the king being then in Hanover). 
The people, at night, broke open the prison, took out Porteous, and hanged him on a tlyer's 
sign-post, ill the Grass Market, Sept. 7, 1736. None of the rioters was ever detected. 

PORTER. Dr. Ashe says that this beverage obtained its appellation on accoimt of its 
having been drimkby porters in the city of London, about I730.f The number of licensed 

* 1861 : parliamentary limits of the boroughs only. 

t The malt liquors previously in use were ale, beer, and twopenny, and it was customary to call for .1 
pint or tankard of half and half, — i.e., half of ale .and half of beer. In the course of time it also became 
the practice to ask for a pint of three-thirds, meaning a third of .ale, beer, and twopenny. To avoid 
trouljle, Harwood, a brewer, made a liquor which partook of the united flavours of ale, beer, and 
twopeDn3-, calling it entire, or entire butt beer, meaning that it w.is drawn entirelj' from one cask or 
butt. Being relished by porters and other workin.j people, it obtained its name of porter, and was first 
retailed at the " Blue Last," Curtam Road, leii/h. 



FOR 



583 



roil 



brewers in 1850, iu Eiifjland, was 2257 ; in Scotland, 154; and in Ireland, 96 — total, 2507. 
On Oct. 17, 1814, at Menx's brewhouse two large vats burst, destroying many neighbouring 
houses. Several lives were lost ; and the total loss of porter M'as estimated at between 8000 
and Qcxxj barrels. 



POUTER SHEWED KY THE PRIXGIl'AL LONDON BREWERIES. 



Iu 1700. 

Calvert & Co. . 

Whitbroad . 

Truman 

Sir William Calvert 

Gifford & Co. . 

Lady Pai-sou3 

Thrale 

Huck & Co. . 

Ilarman 

Meux it, Co. . 



Barrels. 

■ 74.734 
63,408 

. 60,140 

■ 5^.7^5 
41,410 
34,098 

■ 30.740 
29,615 
28,017 

IO,OI2 



In 1815. 

Barrels. 

Barclay & Perkins , . 337,621 

Meux, Roid, <fc Go. . . 282,104 

Truman, llanbury, & Co. 272,162 

Whitbread & Co. . . . 261,018 

Iloury Meux & Co. . . 229,100 

F. Calvert & Co. . . . 219,333 



la 1840. 

Barclay, Perkins, <& Co. . 
Truman, Hanbury, <fc Co. 
Whitbread & Co. . 

Reid &, Co 

Combe, Delafield, &, Co. . 
Felix Calvert & Co. 



Combe, Delafleld, &, Co. . 105,081 Sir Hcury Moux &, Co. 



Sorrels. 

361,321 
263,235 
218,828 
196,442 
177.S42 
136,387 
116,547 



POETERAGE ACT, regulating the charge for porterage of small parcels, passed 1799. 

PORT JACKSOX (N"ew South Wales), thirteen miles north of Botany Ba}--, was so 
named l>y capt. Cook in 1770. See Sydney. 

PORTLAND ADMINISTRATIONS. The first was the " Coalition ministry," of which 
William Henry Cavendish, duke of Portland,* as first lord of the treasury, was the head. 
It obtained the name of the "Coalition" ministry, from its iincluding lord North with 
ill'. Fox, formerly inveterate opponents. Formed April 5, 1783 ; dissolved by Mr. Pitt's 
coming into power, Dec. same year. 



FIRST ADMINISFKATION. 

Duke of Poi-tland, Jirs« lord of the treasury. 

Viscount Stormont, president of the council. 

Earl of Caidisle, privy seal. 

Frederick, lord North, and Charles James Fox, home 

and foreign secretaries. 
Lord John Cavendish, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Viscount Keppel, adiniralty. 
Viscount Towushend, ordnance. 
Lord Loughborough, chief coinmissioiur of great seed. 
Charles Townshend. 
Edmund Burke. 
Richard Fitzpatrick, &c. 
(Sec also Aberdeen and Broad Botlorn Adninislration.) 



SECOND ADMINISTRATION, March 25, 1807. 

Earl Camden, lord president. 

Earl of Westmoreland, lord privy seal. 

Hon. Spencer Perceval, lord Hawkesbury (after- 
wards earl of Liverpool), Sir. Canning-, an4 
viscount Castlereagh (afterwards marquess of 
Londonderry), home, foreiyn, and colonial secre- 
taries. 

Earl Bathurst and Jlr. Dundas, hoards of trade ami 
control. 

Lord Mulgrave, admiralty. 

Earl of Chatham, ardnance. 

Lord Eldon, lord chancellor. 



PORTLAND ISLE (off Dorset). Fortified before 1142. Portland castle was built by 
Henry VIII. about 1536. Olf this peninsula a naval engagement commenced between the 
Engli-sh and Dutch, Feb. 18, 1653, which continued for three days. The English destroyed 
eleven Dutch men-of-war and tliirty merchantmen. Van Tromp was admiral of the Dutch, 
and Blake of the English. — Hero is found the noted freestone used for building our finest 
edifices. The Portland lights were erected 1716 and in 1789. The pier, with nearly half a 
mile square of land, was washed into the sea in Feb. 1792. Prince Albert laid the first 
stone of the Portland breakwater, July 25, 1849. A mutiny among the convicts here in 
Sept. 1858 was promptly suppressed. 

PORTLAND OR BARBERINI VASE. This beautiful specimen of Greek art (composed 
of a glass-like sub.stanee, with figures and devices raised on it on white enamel ; height 
10 inches ; diameter in the broadest part, 7 ; with a handle in each side) was discovered 
about the midtUe of the i6th century, in a marble sarcophagus in a sepulchre at a jilace 
called Monte del Grano, about 2| miles from Rome. The sepulchre was supposed to have 
been that of the Roman emperor, Alexander Severus (222 — 235), and his mother Mammfea, 
and the vase is supposed to have been the cinerary urn of one or other of these royal 
personages. It w;as placed in the palace of the Barberini family, at Rome, where it remained 
till 1770, when it was purchased by sir William Hamilton, from whose possession it passed 
to that of the duchess of Portland, and in 1810 it was deposited in the British Museum by 
the duke, who was one of the trustees. There it remained till Feb. 7, 1845, when it was 

* Born 1738; became lord chamberlain, 1765; lord lieutenant of Ireland, 17S2 ; premier, 1783; home 
.secretary, 1794 ; lord president, 18 ji ; premier agam, 1807; died, 1S09 ; when ilr. Speuoer Perceval bicame 
premier. 



FOR 



584 



FOR 



see). 



smashed to pieces with a stone by a man named William Lloyd. The vase was skilfully 
repaired, and still exists in the Musenm, but is not shown to the public. Josiah AVedgwood 
made a mould of this vase, and took from it a number of casts. 

PORTO BELLO (S. America), discovered by Columbus, Nov. 2, 1502, was taken by 
Morgan the bnccaneer in 1668 ; by the British nnder admiral Vernon, from the Spaniards, 
Xov. 20, 1739. It was again taken by admiral Vernon, who destroyed the fortifications, in 
1742. I3efore the abolition of the trade by the galleons, in 174S, it was the gi-eat mart for 
the rich commerce of Peru and Chili. 

PORTO FERRAJO, capital of .Elba {icluch sec) : bnilt and fortified by Cosmo I. duke of 
Florence, in 1548. The fortifications were not finished till 162S, when Cosmo II. completed 
them with great magnificence. See France. 

PORT PHILLIP (New S. Wales), the original name of the colony of Victoria [which 
). 

PORTRAIT GALLERY. See National Portrait Gallery. 

PORTREEVE (derived from Saxon words signifying the governor of a port or harbour). 
The chief magistrate of London was so styled ; but Richard I. appointed two bailiffs, and 
afterwards London had mayors. Camden. See Mayors. 

FORT ROYAL (Jamaica), once a considerable town, was destroyed by an earthquake in 
June, 1692 ; laid in ashes by a fire in 1702 ; reduced to ruins by an innndation of the sea in 
1722 ; and destroyed by a hurricane in 1774. After these extraordinary calamities, the 
custom-house and public offices were removed to Kingston. Fort Royal was again greatly 
damaged by fire in 1750 ; by another awful storm in 1784 ; and by a devastating fire in 
July, 1815. In 1850, this place suffered by cholera. 

FORT ROYALISTS, the learned members of the celebrated convent of the Fort Royal 
des Champs (founded about 1230 ; and refounded in 1626), who occupied their time there in 
religious exercises, and in instructing youth, from about 1636 to 1656, when they were 
expelled by Louis XIV., as Janseuists and heretics. Among the distinguished persons 
connected with Fort Royal were Lancelot, Pascal, Arnauld, Nicole de Sac3% and Tillemout. 
Their school-books were greatly esteemed. The establishment was suppressed in 1 709. 

PORTSMOUTH (Hampshire), the most considerable haven for men-of-war, and the 
most strongly fortified place in England. The dock, arsenal, and storehouses were 
established in the reign of Henry VIII. Population in 185 1, 72,096 ; in 1861, 94,546. 

[French perfidy was suspected both times, but 
there was no actual proof.] 

Grand naval mock engagement and parade of 
the fleet, tbo king being present, June 22 to 
25^ 1773. ai^d June 30, 1794 

Another great fii-e occurred . . . Dec. 7, 1776 

A great naval review was held near Portsmouth 
on April 25, 1856 

Visited by a French fleet amid great rejoicings, 

Aug. 29— 8ept. I, 1S65 



The French under D'Annebaut attempted to 
destroy Portsmouth, but were defeated by 
viscount Lisle, in the then finest war-ship hi 
the world, the Great Harry .... 1544 

Here George Villiers, duke of Buckingham, 
was assassinated by Feltou . Aug. 23, 1628 

Admiral Bj'iig (see Byng), on a very dubious 
sentence, was shot at Portsmouth March 14, 1757 

The dockyard was fired, the loss estimated at 
4oo,oooJ. ...... July 3, 1760 

Another fire occasioned loss to the amount of 
ioo,oooZ. July 27, 1770 



PORTUGAL, the ancient Lusitania. The present name is derived from Porto Callo, the 
original appellation of Oiiorto. After a nine years' struggle, under Viriathes, a bi'ave able 
leader, the Lusitanians sid:imitted to the Roman arms about 137 B.C. Portugal underwent 
the same changes as Spain on the fall of the Roman empire. There are in Portugal two 
universities, that of Coimbra, founded in 1308, and the smaller one of Evora, founded in 
1533. Lisbon has also its royal academy, and the small town of Tliomar has an academy of 
sciences ; but in genera], literature is at a low ebb in Portugal. The poet Camoens, called 
the Virgil of his country, and author of the Lusiacl (1569), translated into English by 
Micklc, was a native of Lisbon. Population of the kingdom and ^colonies, in 1863, 
8,037,194. 



Settlement of the Alains and Visigoths here . 
Conquered by the Moors . . ... 
The kings of Asturias subdue some Saracen 
chiefs, and Alfonso HI. establishes bishops . 
The Moors, conquered by Alfonso VI. the 



472 1 Valiant, of Castile, assisted by many other 

713 princes and volunteers. Among those who 

shone most in this celebrated expedition was 

900 Henry of Besaii(;on (a relative of the duke of 

I Burgundy and king of Franco). Alfonso 



FOR 



roi! 



rORTUGAL, continual. 

licstowcd upon him Theres.a, his natural 
daughter, and Portugal as her marriage por- 
tion, which ho was to hold of him . . . 1095 
Alfonso Henriquez defeats five Moorish liings, 

and is proclaimed king ; sea Oarique . . . 1139 
Assisted by a fleet of Crusaders on their way to 
the Holy Land, lie takes Lis))on from the 

Moors 1147 

Part of Algarve taken from the Moors by 

Sancho I nSg 

Eeign of Diony^ius I. or Denis, father of his 
country, who builds 44 cities or towns in 

Portugal 1279 

University of Coimbra founded . ... 1308 
Military orders of Christ and St. James insti- 

ti'tsd 1279 and 1325 

lues de Castro mxirdered 1354 

John I., surnamed the Great, can-ies his arms 

into Africa i iij 

Maritime discoveries .... 1419-30 

Sladeira and the Canaries seized . . . 1420 

Code of laws digested 1^25 

Lisbon made the capital, about . . . ' ! 1433 

Discovei-y of the Brazils i^on 

Passage to the East Indies by the Cape of Good 
Hope discovered 1487 ; first voyage of Vasco 

deG.ama 1500 

Camoens, author of the Liuiad, born about . 1520 

The Inquisition established 1526 

University of Evora founded . . 1451 or 1533 
Disastrous African expedition ; king Sebastian 
defeated and slain in the battle of Alcazar, 

Aug. 4, 1578 
The kingdom seized by Philip II. of Spain . . 15S0 
The Dutch seize the Portuguese Indian settle- 
ments 1602-20 

The Portuguese throw off the yoke, and place 

John, duke of Braganza, on the throne . . 1640 
The great earthquake which destroys Lisbon. 

See Earthquake .... Nov. 1755 

Joseph I. is attacked by assassins, and narrowly 

escapes death j-,-g 

[This affair caused some of the first families of 
the kingdom to be tortured to death ; their 
very names being forbidden to be mentioned ; 
yet .many were unjustly condemned, and 
their innocence was soon afterwards made 
manifest. The Jesuits were also expelled on 
tliis occasion] 
Joseph, baring no son, obtains a dispensation 
from the pope to enable his daughter and 
brother to interman-y. Sec Incest . . .1760 
The Spaniards and French invade Portugal, 

which is saved by the English . 1762 and 1763 
Regency of John (afterwards king), owing to 

the queen's lunacy i^ga 

War with Spain 1801 

The coui-t, on the French invasion, emigrates 

to the Brazils -^qy. 2, 1807 

Marshal Junot enters Lisbon . Nov. 29, ., 

Convention of Ciutra. See Cinira . Aug. 30' 1808 
Battle of Busaco .... Sept. 27, 1810 
The British parliament grants the sufferers in 

Portugal 100,000' i8n 

Portugal cedes Guiana to Fr.ancc . . . .1814 
Union of Portugal and Brazil .... 1815 
Rcvohition in Portugal . . . Aug. 29, 1820 
Constitution.al Junta . . . . Oct. i. 
Return of the Court .... July 4,' 1821 
Independence of Brazil ; the prince regent 

made emperor. See Brazil . . Oct. 12, 1822 
The king modifies the constitution June 5, 1823 

Disturbances at Lisbon ; Dom Miguel departs, 

&c May i-g, 1824 

Treaty with Brazil .... Aug. 29, 1825 
Death of John VI. . . . March 10, 1826 

Dom Pedro grants a constitutional charter, and 

confirms the regency . . . April 26, ,, 
He relinquishes the 'throne in favour of his 
daughter. Donna Maria da Gloria 3[ay 2, „ 



1S29 



Dom Jliguel takes the oath of fealty at Vienna, 

Oct. 4, 1826 
JIarquess of Chaves' insmrcction at Lisbon in 

favour of Dom Miguel . . . Oct. 6, ,, 
Dom Sliguel and Donna Maria betrothed. See 

Incest Oct. 29, ,, 

Portugal solicits the assistance of Great Britain, 
Dec. 3: departure of the first British auxi- 
liary troops for Portugal . . .Dec. 17, ,, 
Bank of Lisbon stops payment . . Deo. 7, 1827 
Dom Miguel made regent ; he arrives in London,' 
Dee. 30, 1827 ; and takes the oaths at Lisbon, 

Feb. 22, 1S28 
The British armament quits Portugal, April 28 ; 

foreign ministers withdraw . . May 3, „ 
Sir John Doyle arrested . . . June 13, ,, 
Dom Miguel assumes the title of king July 4, ,, 
He dissolves the tliree estates . . July 12, ,, 
His troops take Madeira . . . Aug. 24, ,, 
Release of sir John Doyle . . . Sept. 7, „ 
The queen Donna Maria arrives in London, 

Oct. 6 ; and at Windsor . . Dec. 22, .. 
Dom Miguel's expedition against Terccira de- 
feated Aug. II, 

Duke of Palmella appointed regent March, 

Dom Pedro arrives in England . June 16, 1831 
Insurrection in Portugal, in favour of the 

queen ; more than 300 lives lost Aug. 21, ,, 
Dom Pedro's expedition sails from Belle-isle, 
Feb. 9 ; at Terceira he proclaims himself re- 
gent of Portugal, April 2 ; and takes Oporto, 

July 8, 1832 
The Miguelites attack Oporto ; and are defeated 

with considerable loss on both sides, Sept. ig, ,, 
Jlount Cavello taken . . . April 9, 1833 
Admiral Napier takes Dom Migiiel's squadron 

off Cape St. Vincent . . . July 2, „ 

Lisbon is evacuated by the duke of Cadaval's 

army ; the queen proclaimed . July 24, „ 
After various conflicts Dom Jliguel capitulates 
to the Pedroite force.s, and Santarem surren- 
ders May 26, 1834 

Dom Miguel is permitted to leave the country 
unmolested, and he embarks at Evora for 

Genoa May 31, „ 

Massacres take place at Lisbon . June 9, ,, 
The Cortes declare the queen to be of age, 

Sept. 15, ., 

Dom Pedro dies Sept. 21, ,, 

Oporto wine company abolished . . . . „ 

Prince Augustus of Portugal (duke of Leuch- 

tenbei-g), just married to the queen, dies, 

March 28, 

The queen marries prince Ferdinand of Snxe 

Coburg April 9, 

Revolution at Lisbon . . . Aug. g. 
Another outbreak there . . . Nov. 8, 
The duke of Terceira attempts to restore Dom 
Pedro's charter .... Aug. 18, 
He and Saldanha fail in the attempt, and em- 
bark for England .... Sept. iS, 
Oporto wine company re-established April 7, 
The northern province in a state of insurrection 
about this time .... April 20, 
The duke of Palmella resigns his ministry, 

Oct. 31, ,, 
Action at Evoi-a, the queen's troops defeat the 

insurgent forces .... Oct. 31, ,, 
British sc|uadron under admiral Parker arrives 

in the Tagus, at the queen's request Oct. 31, ,, 
Palmella banished .... Nov. 26, ,, 
Marquess of Saldanha defeats count Bomfin at 

Torres Vedras Dec. 22, ,, 

The insurgents enter Oporto . . Jan. 7, 1847 
London conference, by which England, France, 
and Spain determine to assist the queen 
of Portugal to terminate the civil waj-. 

May 21, ,, 
Submission of Sa de Bandeira to the queen, 

June II, ,, 



1S35 
1S35 



1S46 



roR 



>SG 



FOR 



PORTUGAL, continued. 

A Spanish force enters Oporto, and the Junto 
capitulates June 26, 1847 

An American squadron arrives in the Tagus to 
enforce claims against the Portuguese govern- 
ment ...... June 22, 1S50 

Military insurrection, headed by the duke of 
Saldanha, who being outsti-ipped in his 
march on Santarem by the king of Portugal, 
flees northward .... April 10, 1851 

Oporto declares for the duke, who bad left the 
city for Vigo to embark for England ; but is 
called back by the insurgents . April 24, ,, 

Saldauha's triumphal entry into Oporto, 

April 29, „ 

The conde de Thomar, prime minister, i-esigns, 
and embarks on board a British ship for Eng- 
land, where he aiTivcs . . May 16, ,, 

Dom Miguel marries the princess of Lowenstein- 
Rosenberg Sept. 21, ,, 

Revision of the charter by the Cortes sanctioned 
by the queen : the prince-royal takes tlie oath 
to the constitution 

Conversion of the public debt . 

Death of the queen Maria II. 

King-consort recognised as regent 

The young king visits England 

The slaves on royal domains freed 

The king visits France . 

Inauguration of the king 

Resignation of Saldanha ministry 

First Portuguese railway (from Lisbon to San- 
tarem) opened .... Oct. 26, ,, 

Fever rages in Lisbon : the king very active in 
reUeving the sufferers . Oct. and Nov. 1S57 

Tlie French emigrant shvg for negroes, Charles- 
et-Georges, seized .... Nov. 29, ,, 

Anger of the French government : its ultima- 



July 18, 


18=52 


Dec. 18, 




Nov. 15, 


iSss 


Dec. 19, 




June, 


I8S4 


Dec. 30, 




- May, 


i8ss 


Sept. 16, 




June 5, 


1856 



tum sent, Oct. 13 ; and ships of war to the 
Tagus : the vessel restored (see Charles-et- 
Geoi-tjes) Oct. 25, 

Death of the duke of Tcrceira, prime minister, 
April 26 ; succeeded by the senhor Aguiar, 
May 2, who resigns . . . July 2, 

Death of the king, Pedro V. ; succeeded by his 
bx'other the duke of Oporto . . Nov. 11, 

Death of Dom John, the king's brother Dec. 29, 

The law of succession altered in favour of the 
king's sisters ..... Jan. 3, 

The due de Loul^ becomes minister Feb. 21, 

The king married to princess Maria Pia of 
Savoy by proxy, at Turin, Sept. 27 ; at Lisbon, 

Oct. 6, 

Elections : majority for the government Nov. 

Birth of Dom Carlos, heir to the throne, 

Sept. 28, 

Jlinisterial changes Jan. 

Death of the celebrated statesman, the duke of 
Palmella April 2, 

Free-trade measures introduced . June i, 

Frontier treaty with Spain concluded Sept. 29, 

U.S. vessels Niagara and Sacramento in the 
Tagus fired on, through suspicion of their 
sailing after>the confederate vessel Stonewall, 
March 27 ; the difficulty with the U.S. govern- 
ment .arranged .... April 7, 

The premier, De Louie, resigns ; marquess de 
Bandeira forms a ministry . April 17, 

Constitutional privileges granted to the colonies. 

May, 

Another prince boni . . . July 31, 

New ministry formed ; Aguiar premier Sept. 4, 

The international exhibition at Oporto opened 
by the king Sept. 18, 

The king visits England and France . Dec. 



1864 



iS6s 



COUNTS AND KINGS OF rOllTUGAL. 



1093. 
1112. 
1128. 
1 1 39. 



iibs. 
I2I2. 

1223. 

1248. 

1279. 
1323- 

1357- 
1367- 



1433- 
1438. 
1481. 



1521. 



IS57' 

1578. 
1580. 

1640. 

1656. 



Henry, coimt or earl of Portugal. 

Alfonso, his son, and Theresa. 

Alfonso, count of Portugal, alone. 

Alfonso I. declared King, having obtained a 

signal victory over a prodigious army of 

Moors on the plains of Om-ique. 
Sancho I., son of Alfonso. 
Alfonso II., sumamed Crassus, or the Fat. 
Sancho II. or the Idle : deposed. 
Alfonso III. 
Denis or Dionysius, styled the father of his 

country. 
Alfonso IV., the Brave. 
Peter, the Severe : succeeded by his son, 
Ferdinand I. ; succeeded by his natural 

brother, 
John I., the Bastard, and the Great; married 

Philippa, daughter of John of Gaunt, duke 

of Lancaster. 
Edward or Duarte. 
Alfonso v., the African. 
John II., whose actions procured him the 

titles of the Great and the Perfect ; suc- 
ceeded by his cousin, 
Emmanuel, the Fortunate. 
John 111., son of Emmanuel ; he admitted into 

his kingdom the rehgious institution of the 

Inquisition. 
Sebastian : drowned after the great battle of 

Alcazarquivir, in Africa, Aug. 4, 157S ; when 

the crown reverted to his great uncle, 
Henry, the Cardinal, son of Emmanuel. 
Anthony, prior of Crato, son of Emmanuel ; 

deposed by Philip II. of Spain, who united 

Port\igal to his other dominiiins till 1640. 
John IV., duke of Braganza : dispossessed the 

Spaniards in a bloodless revolution, and was 

proclaimed king, Dec. i. 
Alfonso VI. : deposed in 1667, and his brother 



and successor Peter made regent : the latter 
ascended the throne in 

1683. Peter II. ; succeeded by his son, 

1706. John V. : succeeded by his son, 

1750. Joseph Emmanuel. The daughter and succes- 
sor of this prince maiTied his brother, by 
dispensation from the pope, and they as- 
cended the throne, as 

1777. Maria-Frances-Isabella .and Peter III. jointly. 

1786. Maria, alone : this princess afterwards faUs 
into a state of melancholy and derangement ; 
dies, 1816. 

1792. Regency — John, son of the queen, and after- 
wards king, declared regent of the kingdom, 
1791. 

i8i6. John VI., previously regent. He had with- 
drawn in 1807, owing to the French invasion 
of Portugal, to his Brazilian dominions ; but 
the discontent of his subjects obhged him to 
return in 1821 ; died in 1826. 

1826. Peter IV. (Dom Pedro), son of John VI. : mak- 
ing his election of the empire of Brazil, ab- 
dicated the throne of Portugal in favour of 
his daughter, 
,, Maria II. (da Gloria), who became queen at 
seven years of age. 

1828. Dom Miguel, brother to Peter IV., usurped the 
crown, which he retained, amid civil con- 
tentions, until 1S33. 

1833. 3Iaria II. restored : declared in Sept. 1834 
(being then 15) to be of age, and assumed the 
royal power accordingly : died Nov. 15, 1853 
succeeded by her son, 

1853. Peter V. (Dom Pedro), bom Sept. 16, 1837 
died Nov. 11, 1S61 ; succeeded by his brother, 

1S61. Luis I., the present (1S65) king ; born Oct. i 
1838, married to Maria Pia, daughter of Vic- 
tor Emmanuel, king of Italy, Oct. 6, 1862. 
Heir : Dom. Carlos (son), born Sept. 28, 1863. 



POS 



5S7 



POS 



POSEN", a Polish ]->rovince, annexed to Prussia 1772 and 1793 ; made part of the duchy 
of AVarsaw, 1807 ; restored to Prussia, 1815. An insurrection here was quelled in JMay, 
1S48. 

POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY* set forth by Auguste Comte, an eminent mathematician, 
born about 1795 ; died at Paris, 1852. 

POSTS, said to have originated in the regular couriers established by Cyrus, who 
erected ]jost-houscs throuf^hout tlie kingdom of Persia, about 536 B.C. Augustus was the 
first Avho introduced this institution among the Romans, and who employed post-chaises. 
This was imitated by Charlemagne about a.d. 800. Ashe. Louis XI. first established post- 
houses in France owing to his eagerness for news, and they were the first institution of this 
nature in Europe, 1470. lltaauU. An International Commission respecting postal 
arrangements met at Paris May 11, and broke up June 9, 1863. 

POST-OFFICE OF England. In England, in the reign of Edward IV. 14S1, riders on 
post-horses went stages of the distance of twenty miles from each other, in order to procure 
the king the earliest intelligence of the events that passed in the course of the war that had 
arisen with the Scots. Gale. Pilchard III. improved the system of couriers in 1483. In 
1543 similar arrangements existed in England. Sadler's Letters. Post communications 
between London and most towns of England, Scotland, and Ireland, existed in 1635. 
StryiK: The first chief postmaster of England was Thomas Randolph, appointed by queen 
Elizabeth in 1581. Jaines I. appointed Matthew de I'Equester as foreign postmaster ; and 
Charles I. appointed William Frizell and Thomas Witherings in 163 1. A proclamation of 
Charles I. states in the jireamble that "whereas to this time there hath been no certain 
intercourse between the kingdoms of England and Scotland, the king now commands his 
postmaster of England for foreign parts to settle a running post or two to run night and day 
between Edmburgh and London, to go thither and come back again in six days,"t 1631. 
An enlarged ofiice was erected by the parliament in 1643 ; and one more considerable in 
1657, with a view "to benefit commerce, convey the public dispatches, and as the best 
means to discover and prevent many dangerous wicked designs against the commonwealth 
by the inspection of the correspondence. " A slic. 



The Post-ofBce as at present constituted was 
founded 12 Charles II. . . Dec. 27, 1660 

Cross posts established by Ralph Allen . . 1720 

The mails were first conveyed by coaches, Aug. 
2, 17S4, when the first mail left London for 
Bristol. See Mail Coaches. 

Penny Post first set up in London and its 
suburbs by a Mr. Robert Murray, uphol- 
sterer ; in 16S1. He assigned his interest in 
the undertaking to Mr. Dookwa-a, a merchant, 
1683 ; but on a trial at the King's Bench bar 
it was adjudged to belong to the duke of 
York, as a branch of the general post, and was 
thereupon annexed to the revenue of the 
crown, 1690. This institution was consider- 
ably improved in and around London, and 
was made a two-penny post, July, 1794, ct scq. 

A penny post was first set up in Dublin . . 1774 

The mails first conveyed by railway, 1830; liy 
the overland route to India .... 1835 

Early in 1837, Mr. Rowland HillJ broached his 
plan of penny po-stage, which was adopted 
after a full investigation bj' a Committee of 
the House of Commons in 1839 

The new postage law, by which the unifoi-m 
rate of 4'?. per letter was tried as an experi- 
ment, came into operation . . Dec. 5, „ 



1S40 



The uniform rate of id. per letter of half an 
ounce weight, &e., commenced . Jan. 

The stamped postage covers came into use. 

May 6, „ 

Reduction in postage — to be id. instead of 2c?. 
for every ounce above the first . April, 1865 

Number of letters dehverod in the last year of 
the heavy postage (1839) was 82,470,596, in- 
cluding 6,563,024 franks. 

In 1840, the number was 168,768,344; in 1S51, 
360,651,187, whereof 36,512,649 were in Scot- 
land, .and 35,982,782 were in Ireland. 

The number in 1856 was, England 3S8 millions ; 
Scotland, 42 millions ; Ireland, 48 millions ; 
total, 478 millions ; being an increase of 4J 
per cent, on 1855, ^ud an average of 17 to each 
person. 

On Feb. 14, 1S56, 618,000 letters passed through 
the general post-office. 

In 1859, 544,7915,000 letters were posted in the 
United Kingdom ; being an increase of 4^ per 
cent, on 1858. The average annual number 
to each iserson — in England, 22 ; Scotland, 16 ; 
Ireland, 7. 

In i860, 564 millions of letters were delivered 
in the United Kingdom ; in i36i, 593 millions ; 
1S62, 605 millions. 



* It sets aside theology and metaphysics as two merely preliminary stages in life ; and abandons all 
search after causes and essences of things, and restricts itself to the observation and classification of jihe- 
iiomena and the discovery of their laws. Comte asserted that Europe had now arrived at the third stage 
of its progress. He aimed at being the founder of a new religion as well as a new philosophy, the "reli- 
gion of hum,anity." 

t The king also commanded his " postmaster of England for foreign parts" to open a regular com- 
munication by running posts between the metropolis and Edinburgh, West Chester, Holyhead, Ireland, 
Plymouth, Exeter, Arc. (Rates of postage — i letter carried imdor 80 miles, 3d. ; under 140 miles, ^d. ; above 
that distance in England, 6d. ; to any part of Scotland, 8'?.) Even so late as between 1730 and 1740, the 
post was only transmitted three days a week between Edinburgh and London ; and the metropoUs, on one 
occasion, onh/ sent n s'mrilc letter, which was for an Edinburgh banker, named Ramsay. 

t A national testimonial was presented to him, June 17, 1S46; on Nov. 30, he was appointed secretary 
to the post office ; and created K.C.B. in i86o. 



POS 



5S8 



roT 



POST-OFFICE OF England, conthmed. 

Bool-Post. — On June 5, 1855, a, treasury warrant 
was issued, providing for the carriage by post 
of books, pam/ihlcts, {zc, under certain restric- 

' tions— 4 oz. for k?. ; 8 oz. for 2d., i-c. 

Public receptacles for Utters before 1S40, about 
4500. 

In i85o, there were m the United Kingdom, 
11,412 post-offices ; 1862, 11,316. 

Tlie street Lelttr-boxes were erected in March, 
iSss- Tlie first one was placed at the corner 
of Fleet-street and Farringdon-street. There 
were 1958 in 1S60 ; 3460 in 1862. 



Officers employed, Dec. i, 1861, 25,473. 

A Moiieij-Onlar Office, set up in 1792, was little 
u>ed on account of the expense, till 1840. In 
1S39, 188,291 money orders were issued for 
313, 124^. ; in 1861, 7,580,455 orders for 
14,616,348?. 

The Postal Guide first appeared in 1856; in 
which year London and the vicinity were 
divided into districts for XDOstal purposes : 
viz. East, West, (fee. The postmaster-general 
has issued Annual Reports (1854-64). 

The Post-office Directory first appeared m 1800. 



REVENUE OF THE POST-OFFICE. 



1643. It yielded 

1653. Farmed to John 

Mauley for . 
1663. Farmed to Daniel 

O'Neale for . . 
1674 Farmed for 
16S5. It yielded . . . 
1707. Ditto 

1714. Ditto . . . . 
1723. Ditto 



£5,000 1744. It yielded . 

1764. Ditto . . , 

10,000 1790. Ditto 

iSco. Ditto 

21,500 1805. Great Britain 

43.000 1 8 10. Ditto 

65,000 181 5. Ditto . 

111,461 1820. United Kingdom . 

145,227 ! 1825. Ditto . . . 

201,805 [ 1S30. Ditto 



£235,492 I 1835. United Kingdom £2, 
432,048 j 1839. Ditto . . .2, 
1840. New rate. . . 
1845. Net revenue 
1850. Ditto . . . 
1855. Ditto ... I, 
1859. Ditto . . . I, 
i860. Ditto . . . I, 

1861. Ditto . . . 1, 

1862. Ditto ... I, 



480,074 

745,313 
1,424,994 
1,709,065 

1,755.898 
2,402,697 
2,255,239 
2,301,432 



353,340 
i 522, 495 
471,000 
761,982 
803,898 
137,220 
1X50,960 
102,479 
161,985 
236,941 



rOST-OFFICES. 

The General Post-Office of London was originally 
established in Cloak-lane, near Dowgate - hUl, 
whence it was removed to the Black Swan, in 
Bishopsgate-strect. After tlie great fire of 1666, it 
was removed to the Two Black-Pillars in Brydges- 
street, Co vent- Garden, and afterwards (about 1690) 
to sir Robert Yiner's mansion in Lombard-street. 
It was transferred to the building in St. Martin's- 
le-Grand, erected on the site of an ancient college 
and sanctuary, from designs by R. Smirke, esq. , 
Sept. 23, 1829. 

The new Post-office of Dublin opened, Jan, 6, 1818. 

The foimdation of a new Post-office at Edinburgh 
was laid by the prince consort in Oct. 1861. 

P0.ST-OFFICE Saving-Banks established, 1861 (began 
Sept. 16) ; interest 2^ per cent. ; government re- 
sponsible to depositors. The number of these 
banks and the amount of deposits received on 
March 31, 1862, were 



Banl-i. 


Deposits. 




England . . . 1795 


. £668,879 10 


2 


AVales . . . 129 . 


. 28,392 2 


10 


Scotland . . 299 


. . 10,237 9 


8 


Ireland . . 300 . 


. 26,064 18 


8 


The Islands . 9 


• • 1,679 15 





2532 


£735,253 16 


4 


London district 


• 267,329 13 


8 



POSTMASTERS. 



The number of postmastei-s (2) reduced to i, 1822. 
The offices of postmaster-general of England and of 

Ireland united in one person, 1S31. 
1823. Thomas earl of Chichester. 

1826. Lord Frederick Montague. 

1827. William duke of Manchester. 
1830. Charles duke of Richmond. 

1834. Francis marquess of Conyugham. 

1835. William lord Maryborough. 

,, Francis marquess of Conjmgham. 

,, Thomas earl of Lichfield. 
1S41. William vLscount Lowther. 
1846. Edward earl of St. Germans. 

,, Ulick marquess of Clanricarde. 
1855. George duke of Argyle. 

1858. Charles lord Colchester. 

1859. James earl of Elgin. 

i860. Edward lord Stanley of Alderley (the present 
postmaster). 



SECP.ETARIES. 

1797. Francis Freeling. 
1836 Wm. L. Maberley. 
1846. Rowland Hill, resigned Feb. 29, 1S64 : 2000J. 

pension granted. 
1864. John Tilley (March). 



POSTING. Post-chaises were invented by the French, and, according to Grainger, 
were introduced into this country by Mr. William TuU, son of the well-known writer on 
Husbandry. Posting was fixed by statute of Edward VI. at one penny per mile, 1548. 
By a statute, re-establishing the post-office, none but the postmaster or his deputies could 
furnish post-horses for travellers, 1660, and hence the name. The post-horse duty was 
imposed in 1779. Post-horse duty yiehled, in 1852, in England, 128,501?., and in Scotland, 
1 6,933 ^• 

POTASSIUM, a most remarkable metal, discovered in 1S07 by Humphry Davy, who 
first succeeded in separating it from potash by means of a powerful voltaic battery, in the 
laboratory of the Royal Institution, London ; and also the metals Sodium from soda, Calcium 
from lime, &c. The alkalis and earths had been jireviously regarded as simple substances. 
Potassium ignites on contact with water. 

POTATOES, natives of Chili and Peru, originally brought to England from Santa Fe, 
in America, by sir John Hawkins, 1563. Others ascribe their introduction to sir Francis 
Drake, in 1586 ; while their general introduction is mentioned by many wiiters as occurring 
in 1592. Their first culture in Ireland is referred to sir Walter Pialeigh, who had large 
estates in that countr}', about Youghal, in the county of Cork. It is said that potatoes 



roT 5S9 row 

were not kiioivu in Flanders until 1620. A fine kind of potato was first brought from 
America by Mr. Howard, who cultivated it at Cardington, near Bedford, 1765 ; and its 
culture became general soon after. The failure of the jtotato crop iu Ireland, four successive 
years from 1S45, caused famine among the poor, to which succeeded jiestileut disease of which 
multitudes died ; among them many priests and physicians. Parliament voted ten millions 
sterling in this awful exigency, and several countries of Europe, and the United States of 
America, forwarded xirovisions and other succours. See Ireland* 

rOTID.EA, a town in Macedonia, a tributary of Atliens, against which it revolted 432 
B.C., but submitted in 429. It was taken from the Athenians after three years' siege, by 
Philip II. of Macedon in 358 B.C. 

POTOSI (Peru). Silver mines here were discovered by the Sjiauiards in 1545 ; they are 
in a mountaiu iu the form of a sugar-loaf. 

POTSDAM (near Berlin), the Versailles of Prussia. It was made an arsenal in 1721. 
Here is situated the palace of Suns Souci, embellished by Frederic II., which was occupied 
by Napoleon I. in Oct. 1S06. Here also is the new palace, the residence of prince Frederick 
William and his wife the princess royal of England, married, Jan. 25, 1858. 

POTTEEY AND POKOELAIN. The manufacture of earthenware (the ceramic art) 
existed among the Jews as au honourable occupation (see i Chron. iv. 23), and the power of 
the potter over the clay as a symbol of the i^ower of God is described by Jeremiah, B.C. 605 
(ch. xviii.) Earthenware was made by the ancient Egyptians, Assyrians, Greeks, Etruscans, 
and Romans. The art, which was lost at the subversion of the Roman AYestern empire, re- 
appeared iu Spaiu with the Arabs. 



The Majolica, Raffaelle, or Umbrian'ware of the 
15th century, was probably introduced into 
Italy from the Moors, as coloured tiles of the 
6th and 7th centiu-y adorn some ancient 
churches. 

Pottery was manufactured at Beauvais in 
P^i-ance in the 12th century. 

St. Cloud enamelled pottery made . about 

Luca della Robbia (bom about 1410) applied 
tin enamel to ten-a-cotta. Fayeuce ware was 
made in France by Bernard Palissy (died 1589) 
and his family. 

Porcelain, formed of earth l-aoUn, was made 
in China in the 2nd century after Christ. 
Chinese porcelain is mentioned in histories 
of the i6th century, when it was introduced 



The first European porcelain was made at 
Dresden by Bottcher, about . . . . 1700 

[The manufacture was fostered by the king 
Augustus II.] 

The Capo di Monte factory at Xaplcs estab- 
lished 1736 

Thos. Frye patented porcelain, 1749; and Dr. 
Wall established the manufacture at Worces- 
ter 1750 

The St. Cloud china manufactory removed to 
S&vres 1756 

Josiah Wedgwood's patent ware was iirst made 1762 

Birch's "History of Ancient Pottery" (1858); 
Jlarryafs " History of Pottery and Porcelain, 
Medi;«val and Modern " (1S57) ; and Brong- 
niart's "Arts Ceramiques," are valuable 
works. 



into England, and eagerly sought after. The British manufacture greatly improved by 

Porcelain was made at Bow, near London, early | Herbert Minton, who died in . . . . 1858 

in the 18th century, and at Chelsea, before . 1698 I The duty on earthenware taken off in . . i860 

POULTRY. An exhibition of poultry was held in London in January 1853, when 
nearly icx)0 cocks were exhibited. Similar exhibitions have been held at the Crystal Palace 
since. 

POULTRY COMPTER (London^ was one of the most noted of the old city prisons. 
The compter of Wood-street belonged to the sheriff of London, and was made a prison-house 
in 1555. This latter and Bread-street compter were rebuilt in 1667. The Gilts])ur-.street 
prison, built to supply the place of the old city compters, was pulled down in 1S55. The 
Poultry chapel was erected on the site of the Poultry compter,. in 181 9. Leigh. 

POUND, from the Latin Pondics. The value of the Roman pondo is not precisely known, 
though some suppose it was e<puvalent to an Attic mina or 3/. 4.9. -jd. The jiound sterling 
was iu Saxon times, about 671, a pound troy of silver, and a shilling was its twentieth 
part ; conseciuently the latter was three times as large as it is at present. Fcacham. Our 
avoirdupois weight pound canie from the French, and contains sixteen ounces ; it is in 
proportion to our troy weight as seventeen to fourteen. See under Standard. 

POWDERING THE HAIR is said tp have taken its rise from some of the Ijallad-singcrs 
at the fair at St. Germains whitening their heads, to make themselves ridiculous. It became 
very general about 1614. In Englaml the hair-powder tax, one guinea for each person, 

" From statistical return.'), it appears that tho potato crop is so very uncertain that it ought n jt to be 
relied ou as a staple article of food. 



POW 590 ri5A 

beo'an in May 1795, at whicli time t-lie practice was at its heio;lit. The tax still exists, 
yielding in England, a few years ago, 4000?. per year, but only 1200L in 1863. It was 
abolished in Ireland. 

POWER-LOOMS. See Loovis and Coitan. 

POYNINGS' LAW, so called after sir Edward Poynings, one of the lord deputies of 
Ireland at the time of its passing, 1494. By this law all legislation in the Irish paidiament 
was confiued to matters first approved of by the king and the English c^ouncil. ihis^act 
was repealed together with the English Declaratory act of the 6th of Geo. I. and some other 
erxually obnoxious Irish statutes, April, 1782. 

PPv/EMONSTRATENSIAN OEDER, founded in 11 20 by Korbcrt, a monk. Its first 
house in England was founded by Peter de Gousla or Gousel, at Newsham, in Lincolnshire, 
I lA-i^Tanner ■ according to others in 1 146. The order spread widely through England soon 
after. The house at Newsham was dedicated to St. Mary and St. Martial. Lcms. 

PEiEMUNIRE, Laav of. This law (which obtained its name from the first two words 
"Pricmoncri " or '" Pmmicniri facias," "Cause to be forewarned," and which is applied to 
any offence ill the way of contempt of the sovereign or his government) derived its origin 
from the ao-^TCssive power of the pope in England. The offence introduced a foreign power 
into the land and created an imperium in impcrio. The first statute of Prfemunire was 
enacted l^? Edward I. 1306. CoU. The pope bestowed most of the bishoprics, abbeys, &c., 
before they were void, upon favourites, on pretence of providing the church with better 
ciualified successors before the vacancies occurred. To put a stop to these encroach- 
ments Edward III. enacted a statute in 1352. The statute commonly referred to as tlie 
statute of Prffimnnire is the i6th of Richard II. 1392. But several other enactments, with 
similar object, followed in subsequent reigns. 

PR/ETORIAN GUARDS were instituted by the emperor Augustus (13 e.g.) : their 
numbers were enlarged by Tiberius, Yitellius, and their successors. At first supportersof 
the imperial tyrants they eventually became their masters, actually putting up the imperial 
diadem for sale (as in a.d. 193 when it was bought by Didius Juhanus). They committed 
many atrocities, and were finally disbanded by Coustantme, m 312. 

PRiETORS, Ronjan magistrates. In 365 B.C., one prfetor was appointed ; a second was 
appointed in 252 B.C. One {prmtor urbanns) administered justice to the citizens, and the 
other (prcdor percgrinus) in causes which related to foreigners. In 227 B.C. two more 
prretors were created to assist the consul in the government of the provinces of Sicily and 
Sardinia which had been lately conrpiered ; and two more when Spam was reduced into the 
form of a Roman province, 197 B.C. Sylla, the dictator, added two more, and Julius^ Caesar 
increased the number to 10, which afterwards became 16. After this, their number fiuctuated, 
being sometimes 18, 16, or 12 ; till, in the decline of the empire, their dignity decreased, 
and their numbers were reduced to three. 

PRAG\ a suburb of Warsaw, where a most bloody battle was fought, Nov. 5, 1794; 
rto 000 Pole's were butchered by the Russian general Suwarrow. Near here, on Feb 25, 
18- 1 the Poles, commanded by Skrznecki, defeated the Russian army, commanded by 
rreneral Giesmar, who lost 4000 killed and wounded, 6000 prisoners, and 12 pieces ot 
cannon. 

PRAGMATIC SANCTION. An ordinance relating to the church and sometimes state 
affairs The ordinances of the kings of France are thus called : in one the rights of the 
Ga'llicau church were asserted against the usurpation of the pope in the choice of bishops, by 
Cbirles VII in 1438. The Fragmatic Sanction for settling the empire of Germany m the 
house of A.ustria, 1439. Again the emperor Charles VI. published the Pragmatic Sanction, 
whereby in default of male issue, his daughters should succeed in preference to the daughters 
of his brother Joseph I., in April 17, 1713 ; -^i^^ lie settled his dominions on his daughter 
Maria Theresa, in conformity thereto, 1723. She succeeded in Oct. 1740 ; but it gave rise to 
a war, in which most of the powers of Europe were engaged, which lasted till 174b. 

PRAGUE the capital of Bohemia (uMcJi see). The old city was founded about 759 ; the 
new city was rebuilt in 1348 by the emperor Cliarles IV., who made it his capital and erected 
a university Prac'ue has sufiered much by war. It was taken by the Swedes in 164b, and 
by the French in 1741 ; l^^t they wore obliged to leave it in 1742. In I744 jt ^vas taken by 
the kinn- of Prussia ; but he was obliged to abandon it m the same year. The great battle 
of Prague was fought lilay 6, 1757. In this engagement the Austrians were defeated hj 
prince Henry of Prussia, and their whole camp taken ; their illustrious commander, general 



rilA 591 PliE 

Rrann, was mortally wounded, and the brave Prussian, marshal Sehwerin, Avas killed. After 
this victory, Prague was besieged by the king of Prussia, but he was soon obliged to raise 
the siege.- — An insurrection in Prague, June, 1848, was suppressed in a few daj's. 

PRAISE-GOD-BAREBONES' PARLIAMENT. See Barchoncs. 

PR ASLIN MURDER. The duchesse de Choiseul-Praslin was murdered by her husband, 
the due de Praslin, at his own house, in Paris, Aug. 17, 1847. She was the only daughter 
of the celebrated marshal Sebastian!, the mother of nine children, and in her forty-first year. 
Circumstances were so managed by him as to give it the appearance of "being the act of 
another. During the arrangements for the trial, the duke took poison. 

PRAYER-BOOK. See Common Prayer. 

PRAYERS. " Then liegan men to call upon the name of the Lord " {Gen. iv. 26), 3875 
B.C. The mode of praying with the face to the east was instituted by pope Boniface II. a.d. 
532. This last custom, which prevailed among the Jews, has been recently adopted in some 
Protestant places of worship in England. Prayers for the dead were first introduced into the 
Christian church about 190. Enschius, Prayers addressed to the Yirgin Mary and to the 
saints were introduced by pope Gregory, 593. 

PRECEDEiSTCE was established in very early ages, and was amongst the laws of Justinian. 
In England the order of xuecedency was regulated chiefly by two statutes, 31 Hen. VIII. 
1539, and I Geo. I. 17 14. 

PREDESTINATION'. The doctrine concerning this is defined in the seventeenth article 
of the Church of England. See Articles. It was maintained by St. Augustiu, and opposed 
by Pelagius, in the early part of the 5th century. In later times it has been maintained by 
the Augustinians, Jansenists, the Church of Scotland, and many dissenters (termed Calvin- 
istic), and opposed by the Dominicans, Jesuits, and many dissenters (termed Arminian), 
especially by the Wesleyan methodists. 

■ PREROGATIVE COURT, in which formerly all wills were proved, and all administrations 
taken, which belonged to the archbishop of Canterbury by his prerogative, a judge beino- 
appointed by him to decide disputes. Appeals from this court to the judicial committee of 
the privy council were instituted in 1830. This court was abolished, and the Probate Court 
established in 1857. 

PREROGATIVE ROYAL. In England the sovereign is the supreme magistrate, and it 
is a maxinr that he can do no wronff. He is the head of the established church, of the army 
and navy, and the fountain of office, honour, and privilege, but is suliject to the laws, 
iinless exempted by name. The royal prerogatives were gi-eatly exceeded by several despotic 
sovereigns, such as Elizabeth, James I. and Charles I. Elizabeth used the phrase "We, of 
our Royal prerogative which we will not have argued or brought in question" (1691). 
James I. told his jiarliament "that as it was blasphemy to question what the Almighty could 
do of His power, so it was sedition to enquire what a king could do by virtue of his lu'ero- 
gative." These extreme doctrines were nullified by the revolution of 1688 ; and the exercise 
of the prerogative is now virtually subject to i:>arliament. See Lords. 

PRESBURG, an ancient city in Hungary, where the diets have been held and the kino-s 
crowned. On Dec. 26, 1805, a treatj"- was signed between France and Austria, by which the 
ancient states of Venice were ceded to Italy ; the principality of Eichstadt, part of the 
bishopric of Passau, the city of Augsburg, the Tp-oi, all the possessions of Austria in Suabia, 
in Brisgau, and Ortenau, were transferred to the elector of Bavaria, and the duke of Wirrtem- 
berg, who, as well as the duke of Baden, were then created kings by Napoleon. The inde- 
pendence of the Helvetic rexjublic was also stipulated. 

PRESBYTERIANS* are so called from their maintaining that the government of the 
church appointed in the New Testament was by presbyteries, or association of ministers and 
ruling ciders, equal in power, office, and in order. Presbj'terianism was established in j^lace 
of episcopacy in England in 1648, but abolished at the restoration in 1660. It became the 
established form of church government in Scotland. Its tenets were embodied in the 
formulary of laith said to have been composed by John Knox, in 1560, which was approved 
by the parliament, and ratified, 1567, and finally settled by an act of the Scottish senate, 
1696, afterwards secured by the treaty of union with England in 1707. The first Presbyterian 
meeting-house in England was established at Wandsworth, Surrey, Nov. 20, 1572. 

'; * "The ciders (Greek in-cshiiUrov.i') I exhort, who am also an elder (st/mprtsbi/tcros)." x Peter v. i. 



PRE 592 PRE 

PRE3C0TT (Upper Canada). On Nov. 17, 1838, the Canadian rebels were attacked by 
the British under major Young, and (on the 18th) by lieut. -colonel Dundas, who dispersed 
the insurgents, several of whom were killed, and many taken prisoners, and the remainder 
surrendered. The troops also suffered considerably. 

PRESIDENT OF the Council, Lokd, the fourth great ofhcer of state, is appointed 
under the great seal, durante bcneplacito, and, bj' his office, is to attend the king's royal 
jjerson, and to manage the debates in council ; to propose matters from the king at the 
council-table ; and to report to his majesty the resolutions taken thereupon. See Privy 
Council; United States, 1789; France, 1848; and Wrecks, 1841. 

PRESS, Liberty of the. The imprimatur "let it be printed,'' was much used on the 
title-pages of books printed in the sixteenth and seventeentli centuries. The liberty of the 
l^ress was severely restrained, and the number of master-printers in London and "Westminster 
limited by the Star Chamber, 13 Charles L, July i, 1637. "Disorders in printing" were 
redressed by the parliament in 1643 and 1649 ; and by Charles IL in 1662. The censorship 
of the press (by a licence established in 1655 and 1693) was abandoned in 1695 (6 AVill. III.). 
Tlie celebrated toast, "The liberty of tlie press : it is like the air we Ijreathe — if we have it 
not we die," was first given at the Crown and Anchor tavern, at a Whig dinner in 1795. 
Presses were licensed, and the printer's name required to be placed on both the first and 
last pages of a book, July, 1799. The severity of the restrictions on the French press was 
relaxed by M. Persigny, minister of the Interior, in Dec. i860, but soon restored. The 
liberty of the press in tlie United States was greatly checked during the Civil War, 
1861-1865. 

PRESS (Newspaper), a journal, i^ublished in Dublin, of considerable talent, but of a 
most revolutionary tendency. It was commenced in Oct. 1797, and the celebrated Arthur 
O'Connor, Mr. Emmett, the barrister (whose brother was executed in 1803), and several 
other conspicuous men were contiil)utors to it ; their writings served to inflame the public 
mind in Ireland, on the eve of the memorable rebellion, which broke out in 1798. The 
paper was suppressed by a military force, March 6, 1798, and Mr. O'Connor was arrested at 
Margate, while attempting his escape to France. — The existing weekly Conservative paper 
the Press was first published in May, 1853. 

PRESSING TO DEATH. See Mute. For the Sea Service. See Impressment. 

PRESTON (Lancashire). Near here Cromwell totally defeated the royalists under sir 
Marmaduke Langdale, Aug. 17, 1648. Preston was taken in 1715 by the Scotch insurgents, 
under Forster, who proclaimed king James VII. They were defeated in a battle on Nov. 12, 
by generals Wills and Carpenter, who with the royal army invested Preston on all sides. 
The Scots at length laid down their arms, and their nobles and leaders were secured ; some of 
them were shot as deserters, and others were sent to London pinioned and bound together, 
to intimidate their party. — The stoppage of the cotton manufircture in 1861 and 1862 
occasioned great suffering in Preston. The festival termed "the Preston guild," said to 
have been instituted in Saxon times, and to have been kept once in 20 years regularly since 
1562, was duly celebrated in Sept., 1862.* A fine art and industrial exhibition here was 
opened, Sc}»t. 21, 1865. 

PRESTON-PANS, near Edinburgh, the scene of a battle between the Young Pretender, 
prince Charles Stuart, and his Scotch adherents, and the royal army under sir John Cope, 
Sept. 21, 1745. The latter was defeated with the loss of 500 men, and fled. 

PRETENDERS. A name given to the sou and grandsons of James II. of England. — 
The Old Pretender, or Chevalier de St. George, born June 10, 1688, was acknowledged by 
Louis XIV. as James III. of England, in 1701. He was proclaimed, and his standard set 
up, at Bracmar and Castletown, in Scotland, Sept. 3, 1715 ; and he landed at Peterhead, in 
Aberdeenshire, from France, to encourage the rebellion that the earl of Mar and his other 
adherents had prompted, Dec. 25, same year. This rebellion having been soon suppressed, 
tlie Pretender escaped to Montrose (from whence he proceeded to Gravelines), Feb. 4, 1716 ; 
and died at Rome, Dec. 30, 1765. — The Young Pretender, Charles-Edward, was born in 
1720. He landed in Scotland, and proclaimed his father king, June, 1745. He gained the 

* Preston Strike. Iu 1853, a gi-eat number of strikes took place among the workmen in the north 
of England. Those at Preston struck for an increase of 10 per cent, on their wages. On Oct. 15, the 
masters, in consequence, closed forty-nine mills, and 20,000 persons were thrown out of employment, who 
were mostly maintained for a long time by subscriptions from their fellows. In the week ending Deo. 17, 
1853, 14,972 were relieved at the cost of 2S20?. Sa The committee of workmen addressed lord Palmerston, 
Nov. 15, 1853, who gave them his advice Dec. 24, following. After many attempts at reconciliation, the 
strike closed for want of funds. May i, 1S54. 



PRI 593 PHI 

battle of Preston-pans, Sept. 21, 1745, and of Falkirk, Jan. 17, 1746 ; but was defeated at 
Culloden, April 16, same year, and sought safety by flight. He continued wandering among 
the wilds of Scotland for nearly six months ; and as 30,000/. were offered for taking him, he 
was constantly pursued by the British troops, often hemmed round by his enemies, but still 
rescued by some lucky accident, and at length escaped from the isle of Uist to Morlaix. He 
died Jan. 31, 17S8. His natural daughter assumed the title of duchess of Albany ; she died 
in 1789. His brother, the cardinal York, calling himself Henry IX. of England, born 
March, 1725, died at Rome in Aug., 1807. See Scotland. 

PRICES. See Corn, Bread, and Provisions. Mr. T. Tooke, in 1838, published a 
"History of Prices from 1793 to 1856." He was latterly aided by Mr. W. Newmarch. 

PRIDE'S PURGE. On Dec. 6, 1648, colonel Pride at the head of two regiments, 
surrounded the house of parliament, and seizing in the passage forty-one members of the 
Presbyterian party, sent them to a low room, then called heU. Above 160 otlier members 
were excluded, and none admitted but the most furious of the Independents. The i^rivileged 
members were named the Euvq^-iJarliament, which was dismissed by Cromwell, April 20, 
1653- 

PRIEST (deiived from preshytcros, elder), in the English church the minister who presides 
over the public worship. In Gen. xiv. 18, Melchizedek king of Salem is termed "priest of 
the most high God." (1913 b.c. ^ea Hehretcs y'n.) The Greek liiereus, like the Jewish 
priest, had a sacrificial character, which idea of the priesthood is still maintained by the 
Romanists and those who favour their views. Among the Jews, the j^riests assumed their 
office at the age of thirty years. The dignity of high or chief priest was fixed in Aaron's 
family, 149 1 B.C. After the caj^tivity of Babylon, the civil government and the crown were 
superadded to the high jiriesthood ; it was the peculiar privilege of the high priest, that he 
could be prosecuted in no court but that of the great Sanhedrim. The heathens had their 
arch-flamen or high j)riest, resembling the Christian archbishop. 

PRIMER. A book so named from the Romish book of devotions, and formerly set forth 
or published by authority, as the first book children should publicly learn or read in schools, 
containing prayers and portions of the scripture. Copies of primers are preserved of so early 
a date as 1539. Ashe. Henry VIII. issued a prayer-book termed a primer in 1546. 

PRIMOGENITURE, Right of. A usage brought down from the earliest times. The 
firstborn in the patriarchal ages had a suj^eriority over his brethren, and in the absence of his 
father was priest to the family. In England, by the ancient custom of gavel-kind, primo- 
geniture was of no account. It came in with the feudal law, 3 Will. I. 1068. The rights of 
lirimogeniture were abolished in France in 1790. 

PRINCE EDWARD'S ISLAND (N. America), was discovered by Cabot, in 1497; was 
finally taken from the French by the British, iu 1758 ; united with Cape Breton as a colony 
in 1763 ; but separated in 1768. 

PRINCE OF WALES'S ISLAND. See Pcnang. 

PRINTED GOODS. See Calico. 

PRINTING. Block-printing was practised by the Chinese several centuries before the 
Christian era. The honour of printing with single types has been appropriated to Meutz, 
Strasbourg, Haarlem, Venice, Rome, Florence, Basle, and Augsburg ; but the names of the 
three first only are entitled to attention. See Press. 



Adrian Junius awards the honour of the inven- 
tion to Laurenzes John Rosier of Haarlem, 
"who printed with blocks, a book of images 
and letters, Speculum Hurtiance Salvationist 
and compounded an ink more viscous and 
tenacious than common ink, which blotted, 
about : 1438 

[The leaves of this book being printed on one 
side only, were afterwards pasted together.] 

John Fust establislied a printing-offic at I The Durandi Rationale, first work printed with 

Mentz, and printed the Tractatas Petri cast metal types 1459 

Ilispani 1442 I [Printing was introduced into Oxford, about 



John Guttenburg invented eiii metal types, and 
used them in printing the earliest edition of 
the Bible, which was commenced in 1444, 
and finished in . . . . . . . 1460 

Peter Schosffer cast the first metal types in 
matrices, and was therefore the inventor of 

COMPLETE PRINTING 1452 

Book of Psalms, ijrinted by Fust and Schoeffer 

Aug. 14, 1457 



* In 1859 Mr. Samuel Leigh Sotheby issued an elaborate work compiled by his father and himself 
entitled " Principia T>/po;jrn pliica," contaming fac-similes, (fee. of the block-books of the 15th century; 
and Mr. J. Riissell Smith published a fac-simile of the Biblia Paupenin, a very early block-book. 

Q Q 



rill 



;94 



PIU 



PRmTlNG, continued. 

this time. CoUier. But this statement is 
discredited by Dibdin.] 

A Lir>/ printed. I)u Fresnoy 1460 

The firtt Bible completed. Idem. . . . ,, 
Meutz taken and plundered, and the art of 
printing, in the general ruin, is spread to 

other towns * * 

The types were uniformly Gothic, or old German 

(whence our old Eiiglishor Blade Letter), until 1465 
Greek characters (quotations only) first used, 

same year , , 

Cicero de O^cns printed by Fust at Mentz . . ,, 
Roman characters, first at Rome . . . 1467 
A Clironicle, said to have been fovmd in the arch- 
bishop of Canterbury's palace (the fact dis- 
puted), bearing the date " Oxford, anno 1468" 
■William Caxton, a mercer of London, set up the 

first press at Westminster* . . . -1471 
He printed Willyam Caxton's Recuyel of the Hys- 

torycs of Troy, hy Raoul le Feure. PhUUiys. , ,, 
His first pieces were, A Treo.tUe on the Game of 

Cliesse and Tally's Offices (see below). Dibdin. 1474 
JEsop's Fables, printed by Caxton, is supposed 

to be the first book with its leaves numbered. * * 
Aldus cast the Greek Alj)habet, and a Greek 

book printed ap. Aldi 1476 

He introduces the Italics * * 

The Pentateuch, in Hebrew 1482 

Homer in folio, beautifully done at Florence, 

eclipsing all former printing, by Demetrius . 1488 
Caxton prints the Boke of Eneydos . . . 1490 
Aldus Manutivis begins printing at Venice . . 1494 

Printing used in Scotland 1509 

The first edition of the whole Bible was, strictly 
speaking, the Complutensian Polyglot of 
cardinal Ximenes (see Polyqlot) . . . . 1517 
The Liturgy, the first book printed in Ireland, 

by Humphrey Powell 1550 

Printing in Irish characters introduced by 

Nicholas WaLsh, chancellor of St. Patrick's . 1571 
The first newspaper pi-inted in England (see 

Newspapers) 1588 

First patent gi-anted for printing . . . . 1591 

First printing-press improved by William Blaeu, 
at Amsterdam ....... 1601 

First printing in America, in New England, 



when the Freeman's Oath and an almanack 
were printed 1639 

First Bible printed in Ireland was at Belfast. 
Hardy's Tour 1704 

First types cast in England by Caslon. Phillips. 1720 

Stereotj'pe printing practised by William Ged, 
of Edinbvirgh, about 1730 

The present mode of stereotype invented by 
Mr. Tilloch, about 1779 

[Stereotjije printing was in use in Holland in 
the last century. Phillips.] 

Logoc/rofhic Printing in wliich words cast in 
one piece were emviloyed : p;itented by H. 
Johnson and Mr. Walter of the Times; (soon 
disused) 1783 

Machine-printing (v.hich see) first suggested by 
Nicholson , . . 1790 

The Stanhope press invented about 1800; in 
general use 1806 

Columbian press of Cl3'mer introduced . .1814 

Albion press introduced 1816 

The roller, which was a suggestion of Nicholson, 
introduced ,, 

Cowper's and Applegath's rollers . . . . 1S17 

Printing for the blind (by raised characters) 
begins 1S27 j 

Printer's Pension Society established . ■ • >> I 

Type-cow posing machines. — By James Young's I 

several numbers of the "Family Herald" | 

were set up, beginning Dec. 17, 1842 ; Hat- 
tersley's appeai'ed at the Exhibition of 1862 ; 
Harfs was shown at the meeting of the 
British Association at Cambridge . Oct. 6, 1863 

Printing-types electro-faced with copper, about 1850 

Engraved copper-plate electro-faced with iron 
and nickel ........ 1858 

W. H. IViitchel's machine was tried at Messrs. 
Spottiswoode's, 1S61 ; these machines were 
said to be in use in America in . Jan. 1863 

Miss Emily Faithfvill established the Victoria 
printing-office in Great Coram-street, London, 
in which female compositors are employed : 
the " Englishwoman's Journal " printed there 
Aug. 1 861 ; ai^pointed printer and isublisher 
in (.)rdinary to her Majesty . . . June 1862 
\jiQQ Printing Machitu, Stereotype, 0X1.6. Naiure-Printing.l 



TITLES OF THE EARLIEST BOOKS OF CAXTON AND WYNKYN DE ^VORDE. 



The Game and Plate of the Chesse. t Translated 
out of the Frenehe and emprynted by me William 
Caxton. Fynysshid the last day of Marche the yer 
of our Lord God a thousand foure hondred and 
Ixxiiij. 

The Boke of Tulle of Olde age Emprynted by me 
simple persone William Caxton into Englysshe as the 
iplaysir solace and reverence 'of men groning in to old 
age the aij day of August the yere of our Lord M. 
cccc. Ixxxj. Herbert. 

The Polycronycon conteyning the Berynges and 
Dedes of many Tymes in eyght Boles. Imprinted by 
William Caxton after having somewhat chaungcd 
the rude and olde Englysshe, that is to icete [to wit] 
certayn Words which in these Daycs be neither vsyd 
Tie understanden. Ended the second day of Juyll at 
Westmestre the ccxij yere of the Regne of Kynge 
Edward the fourth, and of the Incarnacimi of ov.re 
Lord a, Thousand four Hondred four Score and 
ttceyne [1482]. Dibdin's Typ. Ant, 



The Cronicles of 'Esci.ost) Empnled by me Wyllyani 
Caxton thohbey of tVe-'tmyjistre by london the v day 
of Juyn the yere of thincarnacion of our lord god 

M.CCCC.LXXX. 

PoLYCRONYXON. Ended the tJiyrtenth daye of Apryll 
the tenth yere of the reyne of kinge Harry the seuenth 
And of the Jncarnacyon of our lord MccccLXXXXV. 
Emprynted by Wynkyn The worde at Wesmestre. 

The Hylle of Perfection emprynted at the instance 
of the reverend relygyous fader Tho. Prior of the 
hoiis of St. Ann, the order of the charterouse Accom- 
'filysshe[d] and fynyssheld] att n'estniynster the uiii 
day of Ja.neuer the yere of our lord Thou^ande 
cccc.Lxxxxvir. And in the xii yere of kynge Henry 
the vii by me wynkyn de worde. Ames, Herbert, 
Dibdin. 

The Descripcyon of Englonde Wedys Scotland and 
Jrlond speakir.g of the Noblesse and U'orthynetse of 
the same Fynysfhed and emprynted in Flefe strete in 
the syne of the Sonne by me Wynkyn de Worde the 



* To the west of the Sanctuary in Westminster Abbey, stood the Eleemosynary or Almoni-y, where 
the first printing-press in England was erected in 1471, by William Caxton, encouraged by the learned 
Thomas Miling, then abbot. He produced " TJie Game and Play of Chesse," the first book ever printed in 
these kingdoms. There is a .slight difference about the place in which it was printed, but all agi-ee that it 
■was within the precincts of this religious house. Leigh. 

t A fac-simile of this book was printed by Mr. Vincent Figgins in 1859. 



PEI 



595 



PEI 



PRINTING, continued. 

yere of our lord a m. ccccc and ij. nunsis Mayiis 
[luense Mail], Dibdin's Typ. Ant. 

The I'tfti/vall or Sermons on sondays and holidais 
taken out of the goldeii legend enprymed at london 
in Flele-sirele at y sygne of y Sonne by wynkyn de 
wordo. In the yere of om- lord M. ccccc. VIII. And 
ended the xi daye of Maye. Ames. 

The lord's prayer [As printed by Caxton in 1413..I 
Father our that art in heacins, htiUov:ed be thy name : 
thy kiixjdome come to us : thy v:ill be done in earth as 
is in heaven : our every days bread give us to day : 



and forgive us oure irespasucs, as we forgive them 
that trespass against us; and lead us not into tempta- 
tion, but deliver us from all evil sin, amen. Lewis's 
Life of Caxton. 
A Placard. [As printed by William Caxton.] If it 
plese any man spirituel or temptrel to bye ony pies of 
tico or three comeraoraeiOs of Salisburi use* enprynted 
after the forme of this 'pren-t leltre whiche ben wel and 
truly correct, late him come to westraonester in to the 
almonestye at the reed pale [red pale] and he shall 
have them good there. Dibdin's Typ. Ant. 



Prtnttng-machixes.— William Nicholson, editor of 
the I'hilosophical Journal, fir.st pi'ojccted (1790-1), 
but M. Konig first contrived and constructed a 
working printing-machine, which began with pro- 
ducing the limes of Nov. 28, 1814, a memorable 
day in the annals of tyf)Ography. 

In 1815, iMr. E. Cowper applied his inventive mind 
to tlie subject. t 

Konig's machine printed iSoo an hour on one side ; 
Cowper's improvements increased this number to 
4200. This was raised to 15,000, by Mr. Applegath's 
machine, which prints the Times. 

Hoe's American machine introduced into London in 
1858, prints 20,000 an hour. 



Printing ik Colours was first commenced by the 
employment of several blocks, to imitate the 
initial letters in MSS. (for instance, the Mentz 
Psalter of Fust, 1457, which has a letter in three 
colours). Imitations of chiaroscuro soon followed 
("Repose in Egypt," engraving on wood after 
Louis Cranach, in 1519, in Germany: others by 
Ugo da Carpi, in Italy, 1518). 

J. B. Jackson (1720-1754) attempted, without suc- 



cess, to imitate water-colour drawings, and to 
print paper-hangings. 

About 1783, John Skipx)e, an amateur, printed some 
chiaroscuros. 

Ill 1819-22, Mr. William Savage produced his re- 
markable work, "Hints on Colour Printing," 
illustrated by imitations of chiaroscuro, and of 
coloured drawings, giving details of the processes 
employed. 

In 1836, Mr. George Baxter produced beautiful 
specimens of Picture-Printing, and took out a 
patent, which expired in 1855. In some of the 
ilhistrations to the " Pictorial Album " (1836), he 
employed twenty different blocks. 

It has been applied to Lithography (hence Chromo- 
lithography). 

In 1849, Mr. G. C. Leighton produced imitations of 
w.ater-colour-drawings, by means of modifications 
and improvements of Savage's processes. In 1851 
he commenced colour-printing by machinery, and 
has since availed himself of aqua-tinted plates, 
and also of electrotyped silver and copper surfaces 
to obtain purity of colour as well as durability. 

The large coloured prints of The Illustrated London 
Kews were first issued in Dec. 1856. 



PRIORIES, at first dependent on the great abbeys, are mentioned in 722 in England. 
See Alihcys and Monasteries. The priories of aliens were seized by the king (Edward I.), in 
1285, and in succeeding reigns with the breaking out of war with France ; but were usually 
restored on the conclusion of peace. These priories were dissolved, and their estates vested 
in the crown, 3 Hen. V. 1414. liymcr's Fcedera. 

PRISONERS OF WxR, among the ancient nations, when spared, were usually enslaved. 
About the 13th century, civilised nations began to exchange their prisoners. 



The Spanish, French, and American prisoners 
of war in Englapd were 12,000 in number, 

Sept. 30, 1779 

The number exchanged by cartel with France, 
from the commencement of the then war, 
was 44,000 June, 1781 

The English prisoners in France estimated at 



6000, and the French in England 27,000 

Sept. 179S 
The English in France amounted to 10,300, and 

the French, &c., in England to 47,600, in . .1811 
[This was the greatest number, owing to the 

occasional exchanges made, up to the period 

of the last war.] 



PRISONS OF London. See Fleet, King's Bench, Newgate, Poultry, Clcrlenioell. 



Horsemonger-lane gaol was built in . . . 1791 
The state of prisons greatly improved after the 

exertions of Howard. J Cold Bath-fields 

prison was built on his suggestion . . . 1 794 
The atrocities of governor Aris in this prison 

were exposed in parliament . . July 12, 1800 
"White Cross-street prison for debtors was 

erected in 1813-15 



Borough compter; mean and confined till 
visited by a parliamentary committee in .1817 

Savoy prison, for the confinement of deserters 
from the Guards, formerly situated in the 
Strand, was pulled down to make room for 
Waterloo-bridge 1819 

New Bridewell prison was erected as a sub- 
stitute for the City Bridewell, Blackfriars, in 1829 



* Romish Service books, used at Salisbuiy by the devout called Pies (Pica, Latin), as is supposed from 
the different colour of the text and rubric. Our printing-type Pica is called Cicero by foreign printers. 
WheatUy. 

t In 181 7 was published Blumenbach's Physiology by Elliotson, ihe first book iwintcd by machmerj'. 
The machine employed being Beusley's patent, one which printed both sides in one operation at the rate 
of 900 .sheets an hour (1S16). 

X John Howard was born Sept. 2, 1726; made sheriff of Bedford, 1773; investigated into the state of 
Engli.sh prisons, 1773-i; ; and gave evidence thereon before the house of commons, which led to amend- 
ments by law, 1774 ; he visited prisons all over the continent, and died at Kherson, Jan. 20, 1750. 

Q Q 2 



PRI 596 

PRISONS OF London, continued. 



PRO 



.o«.m KieMs BHaewen, Wt in .., was re- . M^cn^^^n- of Dete^ion. CI— 

The"oW Marshalsea pri'son was pulled down . 184. H^Jl^-^yj'fi^TbS^rQ^^^ Bench pHso'n xsl. 
Pentonville Model prison was completed m .„ 1 ^°|;P~JS act passed 1863 

PRISON DISCIPLINE SOCIETY owes its existence to tlie vliilantliropic labours of 
sir ?F Buxton MR It was instituted in 1815, and held its first public "leeting m 1820 
lis objects are the amelioration of gaols by the diffusion of ;>; «™^^- Ve'SS Son " f 
manac4ment, the classification and employment ot the_ prisoners, and the |^^em on 01 
crime: by inspiring a dread of punishment, and by inducing the crimmal, on his dischai^e, 
to abandon his vicious pursuits. 

PRIVATEER a ship belonging to private individuals, sailing with a licence (tevmeH^^ 
Lelel'lJ^™^: g-XS by agoveru\nent in time of w-, to -i.e an^^^^^^ 
of the enemy. The practice, said to have been adopted by Ed\^fid I. again.t ^f ^'^i^"'?; ^"f 
?n 1295 was general during the war between Spain and the Ne heriands in the ^ 7th -n ^^^ 

''that^tlie system of commercial blockLle was essential to its naval supremacy. _ Oii M"*"! 
17 186 JeCon Davis, president of the southern confederacy, announced !>;« ^f ^"Jioii o 
islungettrs of marque, and on the 19th president Lincoln proclaimed t^a^ all south rn 
privateers should be treated as pirates. This decree was not carried out. See I mtccl States. 
AH the great powers forbade privateering during the American civil war. 
PRIVILEGED PLACES. See Asylums. 

PRIVY COUNCIL. A council was instituted by Alfred 895. The number of the 
• council was about twelve when it discharged the functions of ^'^IXJ^Z \t^'Vl^. 
inemhers of the cabinet ; but it had become of unwieldy amount befoie 679, in wnicn 
vear i^was remod^^^^^^ sir William Temple's plan, and reduced to thirty membe,;s: 

Sro irishl y° earl of Shaftesbury, being president. The nu^nber is "^^^/"^l^^'fed. To 
TtteZtthe lifeof a privy-councillor in the execution of his office was made capital, occa- 
Inefby GiMs sSb/ing Mr. Hariey while the latter was examining him on a charge 
of high treason, 9 Anne, 171 1.* . 

PRIVY SEAL, THE LOKD, the fifth great officer of state, has t^^*^, ^^^ody of the pmy 
seal, which he must not put to any grant, without ^ood warrant rmdr the king s sig^^^^^^^ 
This seal is used bv the king to all charters, grants, and pardons, signed by the Ung, oeiore 

appointed. The privy seal has been on some occasions m commission. Boatsoa. 

PRIZE MONEY, arising from captures made from the enemy was decreed^^^ 
ment to be divided into eight equal parts, and distributed by order of ranks, Apiil 17, 1793- 
PROBATE COURT, established in 1857 by 20 & 21 Vict c. 77, which abolished a^^^ 
T^owers exercised by the Ecclesiastical Courts in the granting of probates of wills, &c. bee 
K^™toTS^^ appointed Jan. 5, 1858 was sir CresswellCresswell who 

fook his seat on Jan. 12. On his death, sir James P. Wilde was appoined judge, Aug. 28, 
1863. Prohaic is the exhibiting and proving a will before the proper authority. 

PPOf'T AMATIONS Royal, "have only a binding force when grounded upon and to 
enfoTthei^vt of Sie'rea?m^'' Coke. HeLy Vlll-.^in 1539, declared that they were as 
valid as acts of parliament. 

PROFILES The first profile taken, as recorded, was that of Antigonus, who, having 
but one eye, M; likeness was so taken, 3^0 B.C. Ashe. " Until the end of the 3rd century, 

c. 41. 1833- •^''\'^*|r^„^^[.^^e held t^^^^ of lord keeper or first commissioner of the gre.it seal, lord 

council as may hold and 1^^^^^^^ vice-chancellor, lord chief justice o the Common 

S' lo1"c\fef'barKudge oTt^^^^ Tdmh-alty, chief judge of the court of Bankruptcy, and others appomted 
by the queen, being privy councillors. 



PRO 597 PRO 

I have not seen a Roman em])eror with a full face ; they were alvvaj's painted or appeared in 
profile, which gives us the view of a head in a very majestic manner." Addison. 

PROGRESSIONIST THEORY in Natural History supposes that the existing 
species of animals and plants were not originally created, but were gradually developed 
from simijle forms. See SjKcics. 

PROJIISSORY NOTES were regulated and allowed to be made assignable in 1705. 
First taxed by a stamp in 17S2 : the tax was increased in 1804, and again in 1808, and 
subseipiently. See Bills of Exchange. 

PROPAGANDA FIDE, Congregatio de (congregation for the propagation of the faith 
of the Romish church), was constituted at Rome by Gregory XV. in 1622. 

PROPAGATION of the Gosi-el Society received its charter, June 16, 1701. Its 
sphere is generally limited to the British Colonies. 

PROPERTY TAX. The assessments on real property, under the property tax of 1815, 
were 51,898,423/.; of which Middlesex was 5,595,537^.; Lancashire, 3,087,774^.; and York- 
shire, 4,700,000^. ; AVales, 2,153,801^. See Income Tax. 

PROPHETS. See under Jcivs. 

PROPHESYING : about 1570 the puritanical part of the clergy, particularly at North- 
ampton, held meetings (termed prophesyings) for praj^er and exposition of the ScrijJture. 
These were forbidden by queen Elizabeth, May 7, 1577, and immediately ceased. 

PROTECTIONIST, a name given to that section of the Conservative party which 
opposed the repeal of the corn-laws, and which separated from sir Robert Peel in 1846. The 
name was derived from a "Society for the Protccliun of Agriculture," of which the duke of 
Richmond was chairman, and which had been established to counteract the efibrts of the 
Anti-Corn Law League, Feb. 17, 1844. Lord George Bentinck was the head of the party 
from 1846 till his death, Sept. 21, 1848. The Derby administration not proposing the 
restoration of the corn-laws, the above society was dissolved, Feb. 7, 1853. 

PROTECTORATES in England. That of the earl of Pembroke began Oct. 19, 1216, 
and ended by his death the same year. Of Humphry, duke of Gloucester, in England, began 
Aug. 31, 1422; he was murdered Feb. 28, 1447. Of Richard, duke of Gloucester, began 
April 9, 1483, and ended by his assuming the royal dignity, June 22, the same year. Of 
Somerset began Jan. 28, 1547, and ended by his resignation in 1549. Of Oliver Cromwell 
began Dec. 16, 1653, and ended by his death, Sept. 13, 1658. Of Richard Cromwell began 
Sept. 14, 1658, and ended by his resignation. May 5, 1659. See England. 

PROTESTANTS. The emperor Charles V. called a diet at Spires in 1529, to request aid 
from the German princes against the Turks, and to devise means for allaying the religious 
disputes which then raged owing to Luther's opposition to the Roman Catholic religion. 
Against a decree of this diet, to support the doctrines of the Church of Rome, six Lutheran 
princes, with the deputies of thirteen imperial towns, formally and solemnly ^jrotofcrf, April 

I 19, 1529. Hence the term Protestants was given to the followers of Liither, and it after- 
wards included Calvinists, and all other sects separated from the see of Rome. The six pro- 
testing princes were : John and George, the electors of Saxony and Brandenburg; Ernest and 

: Francis, the two dukes of Lunenburg; the landgrave of Hesse ; and the prince of Anhalt : 
these were joined by the inhabitants of Strasbourg, Nuremberg, Ulm, Constance, Heilbron, 
and seven other cities. See Lulliercmism, Calvinism, Huguenots, Germany, &c. 

I ProtcBtaiitspcrsccutedin Scotland andGermany 1546 | Ridley, bishop of London, and Latimer, bishop 
i Edward VI. established Protestantism in Eng- of Worcester, were burnt at Oxford, Oct. 16, 

l.^Q(j 1548 1555 ; and Cranmer, archbishop of Canter- 
Mary re-establishes Romanism, and persecutes bury* March 21, 1556 

the Protestants: above 300 put to death . 1553-8 I Elizabeth restores Protestantism . . . . 1558 



* His love of life had induced Cranmer, some time previously, to sign a paper wherein he condemned 
the Reformation ; and when ho was led to the stake, and the fire was kindled round him, he stretched forth 
his right hand, with which be had signed his recantation, that it might be consumed before the rest of his 
body, exclaiming from time to time, " This imwortby hand ! " Raising his eyes to heaven, he expired 
with 'the dving prayer of the first martyr of the Christian Church, " Lord Jesus, receive my spirit." 

The followiuL,' docum.uts ;u-e taken from a " Book of the Joint Diet, Dinner, and Sup/ier, and the charge 



PRO 



598 



PKU 



the northern counties of Ireland, established 

in Dublin in Dec. 1829 

(London) Protestant Society, established 1827 ; 
Protestant Association, 1835 ; Protestant Al- 
liance 1849 

Protestant Conservative Society established 

Dec. g, 1831 

Protestant alliance formed at Armagh . Nov. 7, 1845 



PROTESTANTS, continued. 

Protestant settlements formed in Ulster, N. Ire- 
land i6o8-ii 

Thirty years' war between Komauists and Pro- 
testants in Germany .... 1618-48 

Protestants persecuted at Thorn in Poland . 1724 

Protestant Association (see " Gordon's No- 
Popery" Mob) 17S0 

A society for planting communities of the poorer 
Protestants on tracts of land, particularly in 

PROVENCE (tlie Roman Provincia), S. E. France, was made a kingdom by the emperor 
Lothaire for his son Charles. It afterwards became part of the kingdom of Aries as a fendal 
country, and was re-united to the German empire in 1032 by Conrad II. On the fall of the 
Hohenstaufens it was acqtiired by Charles of Anjou, king of Naples, in 1265 ; and was held 
by his successors till its annexation to France by Loiiis XI. in 1481. 

PROVERBS. The Book of Proverbs by Solomon is dated about 1000 B.C. The latter 
part were collected by order of Hezekiah, about 700 B.C. Ray's collection of English pro- 
verbs appeared in 1672, and Bohn's general collection in 1857. 

PROVISIONS — Remarkable Statements concerning them. See Oxford. 



Wheat for food for 100 men for one day worth only 
one shilling, and a sheep for fourpence, Henry I. 
about 1 1 30. The price of wine raised to sixpence 
per quart for red, and eightpence for white, that j 
the sellers might be enabled to live by it, 2 John, [ 
T200. Burton's Annals. 

When wheat was at 6s. per quarter, the farthing loaf j 
was to be equal in weight to twenty -four ounces j 
(made of the whole grain), and to sixteen the white. 
When wheat was is. 6d. per quarter, the farthing 
white loaf was to weigh sixty-four ounces, and the 
whole grain (the same as standard now) ninety-six, 
by the first assize, 1202. Mat. Paris. 

A remarkable plenty in all Europe, 1280. Diifresnoy. 

WTieat IS. par quarter, 14 Edw. I. 1286. Utow. 

The price of provisions fixed by the common council 
of London as follows : two pullets, three half-pence ; 
a partridge, or two woodcocks, three half-pence ; 
a fat lamb, sixpence from Christmas to Shrovetide, 



the rest of the year fourpence, 29 Edw. I. 1299. 
Stow. 
Price of provisions fixed by parliament : at the rate 
of 2f . 8s. of our money for a fat ox, if fed with corn, 
3'. I2S. ; a shorn sheep, 5s.; two dozen of eggs, yl.\ 
other articles nearly the same as fixed by the 
common council above recited, 7 Edw. II. 1313. 
Rot. Pari. 

Wine the best sold for 20s. per tun, 10 Rich. II. 1387. 
Wheat being at is. id. the bushel in 1390, this was 
deemed so high a price that it is called a dearth of 
corn by the historians of that era. 

Beef and pork settled at a half-penny the jjound, and 
veal three farthings, by act of parliament, 24 Hen. 
VIII. 1533. Anderson. 

Milk was sold three pints, ale-measure, for one half- 
penny, 2 Eliz. 1560. Stow's Chronicle. 

In the autumn of 1865, meat, and milk, and butter 
increased in price, owing to the cattle-plague. 

For the price of Bread since 1735, see Bread. 



PROVVEDIMENTO SOCIETIES in Italj^ formed to aid in acquiring Rome and 
Venice, elect Garibaldi as their chief, March 10, 1862. They were tolerated by Ricasoli, 
but warned to be moderate by Rattazzi. 

PRUD'HOilMES, CoNSEiLS de (from prudens Jiomo, a prudent man), trade tribunals 
in France, composed of masters and workmen, were constituted to arbitrate on trade disputes 
in 1806. Similar bodies with this name existed as far back as 1452 at Marseilles, and at 
Lyons in 1464. 

PRUSSIA. This country was anciently possessed by the Venedi, about 320 B.C. They 
were conquered by the Bornssi, who inhabited the Riplnvan mountains ; and from these the 
country was called Borussia. Some historians, however, derive the name from Po, sigui- 

tlureof, for Cranmer, Latimer, and. Ridley,'" kept by the bailiffs of Oxford, while they were in the custody 
of those officers, previously to their being burnt alive :— 



1ST OCTOBER, 1 554. 

Bread and Ale 

Oysters 

Butter . . . • 

Eggs 

Lyng 

^ piece of fresh salmon . 

Wine 

Cheese and pears 



.£0 



The three dinners . 

TO BURN LATIMER AND RIDLEY. 

For 3 load of wood faggots . 
Item, I load of furze faggots . 



£0 



£0 12 
o 3 



Item, for the carriage of these 4 loads 

Item, a post 

Item, 2 chains 

Item, 2 staples 

Item, 4 labourers 



.£0 



TO BURN CRANMER. 

For 100 wood faggots for the fire 

For 100 and i of furze 

For the carriage of them 

For 2 labourers .... 



£1 



. £0 60 
•034 



TRU 



599 



PRU 



fying near, and Russia. The Porussi afterwards intermixed with the followers of the 
Teutonic kniglits, and latterly with the Poles. Tlie constitution, established Jan. 31, 1850, 
•was modified April 30, 185 1 ; May 21, June 5, 1852 ; May 7 and 24, 1853 ; June 10, 1854; 
ilay 30, 1855; and May 15, 1857" Population, with Lauenburg (annexed Aug. 14, 1865), 
19,304,843. 



St. A(i;Jbcrt arrives in Prussia to preach 



by 



997 



. 1018 



1 163 



1225 



Chi-istiauity, and is slain about 
Boloslaus of Poland revenges his death 

dreadful ravages 

Berlin built by a colony from the Netherlands, 

in the reign of Albert the Bear . . . . 

The Teutonic knights returning from the holy 

wars, undertake the conquest of Prussia, and 

the conversion of the peoxilo .... 

Thorn founded bj' thcni 123 

Konigsberg, lately built, made the capital . 1286 
Tlie Teutonic knights almost depopulate Prussia. 
It is repeopled by German colonists in the 13th 
century 
Frederick IV. of Nuremberg (the founder of the 
reigning family) obtains by purchase from 
Sigismond, emperor of Germany, the mar- 

graviate of Brandenburg 1415 

Casimir IV. of Poland assists the natives agamst 

the oppression of the Teutonic knights . . 1446 
Albert of Brandenberg, grand master of the 
^ Teutonic order, renounces the Roman Catholic 
religion, emlsraces Lutheranism, and is ac- 
knowledged duke of East Prussia, to be held 

as a fief of Poland 1525 

University of Konigsberg fouxided by duke 

Albert 1544 

John Sigismond created elector of Brandenburg 

and duke of Prussia 160S 

The principality of Halberstadt and the 
bishopric of Jlindeu transfen-ed to t'he house 

of Brandenburg 1648 

Poland obliged to acknowledge Prussia as an 
independent state, under Frederick William, 
surnamed the Great Elector .... 
Order of Concord instituted by Christian Ernest, 
elector of Brandenburg and duke of Prussia, 
to distinguish the part he had taken in re 

storing peace to Europe 

Frederick III. in an assembly of the states, puts 

a crown upon his own head and upon the head 

of his consort, and is proclaimed king of 

Prussia by the title of Frederick I. . Jan. 18, 1701 

Order of the Black Eagle instituted by 

Frederick I. on the d.ay of his coronation . ,, 

Guelders taken from the Dutch . . . . 

Frederick I. seizes Neufchatel or Neunbiu-g, 

and purchases Tecklenburg . . . . 

The principahty of Meurs added to Prussia . . 

Keign of Frederick the Great, during which 

the Prussian monarchy is made to rank 

among the first powers in Europe . 

Breslau ceded to Prussia 

Silesia, Glatz, &c. ceded 

Frederick II., the Gre.at, visits England . . 
" Seven years' war " (wAic/t see) begins 
Frederick II. victor at Prague, May 6; defeated 

at Kolin, May 18; victor at Rosbach, Nov. 5, 1757 
General Lacy, with an Austrian-Russian army, 
marches to Berlin ; the city is laid under con- 
tribution, &.C. ; magazines destroyed . . 1760 
Peace of Hubertsbvu-g (ends "seven years' 

war") Feb. 15, 1763 

Frederick the Great dies . . Aug. 17, 1786 

AVar with France 1792 

The Prussians seize Ilanover . . 1801 and 1806 
Prussia joins the allies of England asrainst 

France ..;... 
Fatal battles of Jena and Auerstadt . 
[Nearly all the monarchy subdued.] 
Berlin decree promiilgated 
Peice of Tilsit (w/uc/t see) 
Convention of Berlin . 



1657 



i65o 



1702 



1707 
1712 



1740 
1741 
1742 
1744 
1756 



. Oct. 6, 

Oct. 14, 



Nov. 20, ,, 
. July 7, 1807 
Nov. 5, 1S08 



The people rise to expel the French from 



Germany at the king's appeal, and form the 
" landwehr " or militia . . March 17, 

Treaty of Paris April u. 

The king visits England ... J une 6, 

Dines at Guildhall .... June 18, 
Ministry of education established 
Congress of Carlsbad . . . .Aug. i, 
Blucher dies in Silesia, aged 77 . . Sept. 12, 
[From this time Prussia pursued a peaceful and 

undisturbed policy until 1848.] 
Serious attempt made on the life of the king, 
by an assassin named Tesch, who fired two 

shots at him July 26, 

Insurrection in Berlin . . . March 18, 
Berlin declared in a state of siege Nov. 12, 
The Constituent Assembly meets in Branden- 
burg castle Nov. 29, 

This assembly is dissolved, and the king issues 

a new constitution to his subjects . Dec. 5, 

The German National Assembly elect the king 

of Prussia "hereditary emperor of the 

Germans" March 28, 

The king declines the imperial crown, April 29, 

The kingdom put under martial law . May 10, 

The Prussians enter Carlsruhe . June 23, 

Armistice between Prussia &, Denmark, July 10, 

Bavaria declared an imperial constitution with 

the king of Prussia at its head . Sept. 8, 

Treaty between Prussia and Austria Sept. 30, 

Austria protests against the alliance of Prussia 

with the minor states of Germany Nov. 12, 

New constitution, Jan. 31 ; the king takes the 

oath required by it • . . . . Feb. 6, 

Hanover withdraws from the Prussian alliance, 

Feb, 25, 
Treaty signed at Munich between Austria, 
Bavaria, Saxony, and Wurtemberg to main- 
tain the German union . . Feb. 27, 
Wurtembei-g denounces the insidious ambition 
of the king of Prussia, and announces a league 
between Wurtemberg, Bavaria, and Saxony, 
under the sanction of Austria . March 15, 

Attempt to assassinate the king . May 22, 

Hesse-Darmstadt withdraws from the Prussian 
league ...... June 30, 

Treaty of peace between Prussia and Denmark, 

July 2, 

A congress of deputies from the states included 

in the Prussian ZoUverein ojiened at Cassel, 

July 12, 
Prussia refuses to join the restricted diet of 

Frankfort Avig. 25, 

Tlie Prussian government addresses a despatch 

to the cabinet of Vienna, declaring its i-esolve 

to ujjhold the constitution in Hesse-Cassel, 

Sept. 21, 

Count Brandenburg, prime minister of Prussia, 

dies Nov. 6, 

Decree, calling out the whole Prussian army, 
223.000 infantry, 38,000 cavalry, and 29,000 
artillery, with 1080 field-pieces . Nov. 7, 
The Prussian troops in Hesse occupy the mili- 
tary road in that electorate . . . Nov. g. 
The Prussian forces withdraw from the grand 
duchy of Baden .... Nov. 14, 
General Radowitz, late foreign minister, visits 
queen Victoria at Windsor . . Nov. 26, 
Convention of Olmutz for the pacification of 

Germany Nov. 29, 

The Prussian troops commence their retreat 

from He.sse-Cassel Dec. 5, 

Prince Schwartzenberg visits the king, Dec. 28, 

Tlio king celebrates the 150th anniversary of 

the Prusiian monarchy . . Jan. tS, 



1S13 
1814 



i«i7 
1819 



1844 



1849 



1856 



PRU 



600 



PRU 



PRUSSIA, contimced. 

The king visits the Czar of Russia . May i8, 1851 
The king and Czar leave Warsaw for Olmutz to 

meet the empei'orof Austria . May 27, ,, 
Statue of Frederick the Great, by Rauch, in- 
augurated at Berlin .... May 31, ,, 
The king revives the council of state as it ck- 

isted before the revolution of 1848 . Jan. 12, 1852 
A Prussian industrial exhibition opened at 

Berlin May 28, „ 

Prussia repudiates a customs' union with 

Austria June 7, ,, 

But agrees to a commercial treaty Feb. 19, 1853 

Plot at Berhn detected .... April, ,. 
Death of Radowitz .... Dec. 25, ,, 
Vacillation of the government upon the Eastern 

question. . . . March and April, 1854 
Agrees to a protocol for preservation of the 
integi-ity of Turkey, which is signed at 

Vienna Api-il 7, ,, 

Continues neutral in the war, Sept. 21, Oct. 13, ,, 
Excluded from the conferences at Vienna, Feb. 1855 
Dispute with Switzerland (see Neufchdtd) 

Nov. i856toMaj% 1S57 
Alarming illness of the king, the prince of 

Prussia appointed regent . . Oct. 23, ,, 
Chevalier Bunsen ennobled . . . Jan. 1858 
Prince Frederick William of Prussia married to 

the princess royal of England . Jan. 25, ,, 
Queen Victoria visits them at Potsdam . Aug. „ 
Prince of Prussia made permanent regent, 

Oct. 7, „ 

Resignation of Manteuffel ministry : succeeded 

by that of prince HohenzoUeni-Sigmaringen 

(liberal) : the elections end in favour of the 

new government ..... Nov. , , 

Prince Frederick William, son of the princess 

royal of England, born . . . Jan. 27, 1859 
Italian war— Prussia declares its neuti-ality, but 

arms to protect Germany * May and June, ,, 
The regent announces that " the Prussian army 
will be in future the Prussian nation in arms," 

Jan 12, i860 
The regent and several Gennan sovereigns meet 
the emperor of the French at Baden (see 

Baden) June 15-17, „ 

Baron Bunsen dies (aged 70) . . Nov. 27, ,, 

Disclosures respecting the oppressive system of 
Prussian police. Stieber, the director, prose- 
cuted and censured, but not punished Nov. ,, 
Death of Frederick William IV. Accession of 

William I. Jan. 2, 1861 

Meeting of the chambers : on the motion for 
the address, M. Von Vincke carries an 
amendment in favour of Italian Unity and 
" a firm alliance with England " . Feb. 6, „ 

The Macdonald affair* settled by a firm yet 
conciliatory despatch from the Baron von 

Schleinitz May, ,, 

Attempted assassination of the king by Becker, 
a Leipsic student, July 14; who is sentenced 
to 20 years imprisonment . . Sept. 23, ,, 
The king meets the emperor Nai^oleon at Com- 

peigue Oct. 6-8, ,, 

The king and queen crowned at Konigsberg ; 
he declares that he will reign by the "Grace 

of God" Oct. 18, ., 

Bill for making the ministry responsible, passed, 

March 6, 1862 
The chamber of representatives oppose the go- 
vernment in regard to the length of military 
.service, March 6 ; and resolve on discussing 
the items of the budget ; the ministry resigns ; 
the king will not accept the resignation, but 
dissolves the chambers, . . . March 11, „ 



The ministry (liberal), resign, and a reactionaiy 
cabinet formed under Van der Heydt, March 

18 — April 12, 1862 
Elections go against the government : only one 

minister elected Maj', ,, 

Pai'liament oiiens ; ministers appeal to the 

patriotism of the members . . May ig, ,, 
Severe discussion on military expenditure ; the 
chamber reduces the vote for the maintenance 
of the army from 200,000 to 135,000 men, 

Sept. 11-16, ,, 
Van der Heydt resigns ; succeeded as prenaier 
by the Count Bismarck Sehonhausen, Sept. ; 
who informs the chamber that the budget i.s 
deferred till 1863 ; the chamber protests 
against this as unconstitutional Sept 30, ,, 
The chamber of peers passes the budget with- 
out the amendments of the chamber of 
representatives ; which (by 237 against 2) 
resolves that the act is contrary to the letter 
and spirit of the constitution . . Oct. 11, ,, 
The king closes the session (65th) saying, "The 
budget for the year 1862, as decreed by the 
chamber of representatives, having been 
rejected by the chamber of peers on the 
ground of insufficiency, the government of 
his majesty is under the necessity of con- 
trolling the public affairs outside the consti- 
tution." Oct. 13, ,, 

Agitation in favour of the constitution proceed- 
ing : passive resistance adopted ; several 
liberal papers suppressed . . .Nov. ,, 
The chambers reassemble ; unconciliatory 
address fi-om the king, Jan. 14; and bold 
reply of the deputies ; adopted . Jan. 23, 1863. 
They recommend neutrality in the Polish war 

Feb. 28, ,, 
Violent dissension between the deputies and 

the ministry May, „ 

The chamber of deputies address the king on 
their relation with the ministry, and the state 
of the coimtry, May 22 ; the king replies, that 
his ministers possess his confidence, and 
adjourns the ses-sion . . . May 27, „ 
Resolves to govern without a parUament . . ,, 
The press severely restricted, June i ; the 
crown" prince in a speech disavows participa- 
tion in the recent acts of the ministry, June 
5 ; and censures them in a letter to the king, 
July 6; reconciled to the king . Sept. 8, „ 
The liberal members feted in the provinces, 

July 18, ig, ,, 
The chamber of deputies dissolved, Sept. 2 ; a 

liberal majority re-elected . . . Oct. ,, 
A motion in favour of maintaining the rights 
of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, 
carried Dee. 2 ; but the chamber obstinately 
refuses its assent to it or to defray the ex- 
penses of war ...... Dec. „ 

Chambers dissolved Jan. 1864 

[For the events of the war, see Denmark.] 
Preliminaries for peace with Denmark Aug. i, ,, 
Peace with Denmark signed . . Oct. 30, ,, 

The opening of the chambers, Jan. i ; ; revival 
of the constitutional agitation for control 
over the army budget . . . Jan. 16, 1865 
International exhibition at Cologne opened by 

the crown prince .... June 2, ,, 
The deputies having rejected the budget, the 
bills for reorganising the army and increasing 
the fleet, and meeting the expense of the war 
with Denmark, the chamber is prorogued; 
the government will rule without it June 17, ,, 
The king at Carlsbad issues a despotic decree 



* On Sept. 12, i860, captain Macdonald was committed to prison at Bonn, for resisting the railway 
authorities there. The English residents' appealed and were also censured. A correspondence ensued 
between the Prussian government and the British foreign secretary ; and strong language was uttered in 
the house of commons, April 26, and in the Prussian chambers, May 6, i86i. 



TRU 



601 



PUB 



PRUSSIxV, continued. 

appropriating and disposing of tlie reven\io, 

July 5. 
A political dinner of the liberal deputies pro- 
hibited at Cologne, and forcibly prevented at 
Ovcrlabnstcin in Nassau . . July 24, 



Convention of Gasteiu (see Gaxtein) signed, 

Aug. 14, 1865 

The king takes possession of Lauenburg 
purchased from Austria with his own money, 

Sept. 15, ,, 



MARGRAVES, ELECTORS, DUKES, AND KINGS. 



1206. 
1221. 
1266. 
1282. 
1309. 
1319. 
1320. 

1323- 
1352. 
1365- 
1373- 



1411. 
1415. 

1440. 
1470. 
1476. 

i486. 
1499. 
1535- 
1571. 



ARfiaAVES OR ELECTORS OF BRANDENBtJUa. 

Albert I. surnamed the Boar, first elector of 

Bi-andenburg. 
Otho I. 

Otho ir. 1618. 

Albert IT. 1619. 

John I. and Otho III. 1640. 

John II. 
Otho IV. 
Waldemar. 
Henry I. the Young. 
[Interregnum.] 
Louis I. of Bavaria. 17°^ 

Louis II. surnamed the Roman. 1713. 

Otho V. the Sluggard. i74°- 

Wenceslas, of Luxemburg. 

Sigismund, of Luxemburg. 1786. 

Jossus, the Bearded. 
Sigism\ind again, emperor. | 1797- 

Frederick I. of Nuremberg (of the house ofj 

Hohenzollern). I 

Frederick II. surnamed Ironside. 1 

Albert III. surnamed the German Achilles. 1S40. 

John in. his son; as Margi-ave ; styled the I 

Cicero of Germany. 1 i860. 

John III. as elector. 
Joachim I. son of John. 
Joachim II. poisoned by a Jew. 
John-George. ' 



Joachim-Frederick. 
John-Sigismund. 

DCKKS OF PRUSSIA.. 

John-Sigismund. 
George-William. 
Frederick- William, his son ; generally styled 

the " Great Elector." 
Frederick III. son of the preceding; crowned 

king, Jau. 18, 1701. 

KINGS OF PRUSSIA. 

Frederick I. : king. 

Frederick- William I. son of Frederick I. 

Frederick II. (Frederick III.; stj'led the 
Great), son ; made Prussia a military power. 

Frederick-William II., nephew of the pre- 
ceding king. 

Frederick-William III. He had to contend 
against the might of Napoleon, and after 
extraordinary vicissitudes, he aided England 
in his overthrow. 

Frederick- William IV. son ; succeeded June 7 
(born Avig. 3, 1770; died Jan. 2, 1861). 

William I. brother; born March 22, 1797. 

Heir. His son prince Frederick-William, born 
Oct. 18, 1831 ; married Victoria, princess- 
royal of England, Jan. 25, 1858. They have 
four children. 



PRUSSIC ACID (or hydrocyanic acid) is coloiuie.ss, smells like peach flowers, freezes at 
5° Fahrenheit, is very volatile, and turns vegetable blues into red. It was accidentally 
discovered by'Diesbach, a German chemist, in 1709. Scheele first obtained this acid in a 
separate state, about 1782. Simple water distilled from the leaves of the lauro-ccrasus was 
lirst ascertained to be a most deadly poison by Dr. Madden of Dublin. 

PRYTANIS, a magistrate of Corinth, annually elected from 745 B.C. till the office was- 
abolished by Cypselus, a despot, 655 B.C. 

PSALMS OF DAVID were collected by Solomon, 1000 B.C. ; others were added 580 and 
515 B.C. The old Church of England version in metre by Steriiliold and Hopkins was 
published in 1562 ; the New Version by Tate and Brady in 1598. 

PSEUDOSCOPE, a name given by professor Wheatstone (in 1S52) to the stereoscope, 
when employed to produce "conversions of relief," i.e., the reverse of the stereoscope : a 
terrestrial glolje appears like a hollow hemisphere. 

PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM. Claudius Ptolemy of Pelusium, in Egypt (about A.D. 140), 
.supposed that the earth was fi.Kcd in tlie centre of the universe, and that the sun, moon, and 
stars moved round once in twenty-four hours. This system (long the official doctrine of the 
church of Rome) was universally taught till that of Pythagoras (500 b.c.) was revived by 
Copernicus, a.d. 1530, and demonstrated by Kepler (1619) and Newton (1687). 

PUBLIC EDUCATION, HEALTH, &c. See Education, Health. 

PUBLIC HOUSES. See Victuallers. 

PUBLIC SAFETY, Committee of, was established at Paris during the French Revo- 
lution on April 6, 1793', with absolute power ; in consequence of the coalition against France. 
The severe government of this committee is termed the Reign of Terror, which ended with 
the execution of Robespierre and his associates, July 28, 1794. 

PUBLIC SCHOOLS. See Education. 

PUBLIC "WORKS ACT, pa.ssed July 21, 1863, to provide work for unemployed persons 
in the manufacturing districts at the time of tlie cotton famine. It enabled corporate 
bodies to raise loans, and proved very successful. 



PUB 602 PUR 

PUBLIC WORKS AND BUILDINGS. The sum voted for tins purpose in 1862 was 
692,215^.; in 1863, 893, 523?.; in 1864, 867,5 18^.; i'^ 1865, 799,37°^- 

PUDDLING, making tlie walls of canals watei'-tight by means of clay was largely 
adopted by Brindley in constructing the Bridgewater canals, 1761 d scq. See also under Iron 
Manufacture. 

PUEBLA. See iIfe.r.7Vo, 1863. PUGILISM. ' See ^omVi^. 

PULLEY. The pulley, together with the vice and other mechanical instruments, are 
said to have been invented by Archytas of Tarentum, a disciple of Pythagoras, about 516 B.C. 
It has been ascertained that in a single moveable pulley the power gained is doubled. In a 
continued combination the power is equal to the number of pulleys, less one, doubled. 

PULTOWA (Russia), where Charles XII. of Sweden was entirely defeated by Peter the 
Great of Russia, July 8, 1709. He fled to Bender, in Turkey. 

PULTUSK (Russia), a battle was fought between the Saxons under king Augustus, and 
the Swedes under Charles XII., in which the former were signally defeated. May i, 1703. 
Here also the French under Napoleon fought the Russian and Prussian armies ; both sides 
claimed the victory, but it inclined in favour of the French, Dec. 26, 1806. 

PUMPS. Ctesibius of Alexandria, is said to have invented pumps (with other hydraulic 
instruments), about 224 B.C., although the invention is ascribed to Danaus, at Lindus, 
1485 B.C. Pumps were in general use in England, a.d. 1425. An inscription on the pump 
in front of the late Royal Exchange, London, stated that the well Avas hrst sunk in 1282. 
The air-pump was invented by Otto Guericke in 1654, and inij>roved by Boyle in 1657. 

PUNCTUATION. The ancients do not appear to have had any system, and doubtless 
employed arbitrary signs to distinguish the parts of a discourse. Of our points the period (.) 
is the most ancient. The colon (:) was introduced about 1485 ; the comma (,) was lirst seen 
about 1521, and the semicolon (;) about 1570. In sir Philip Sidney's "Arcadia" (1587), 
they all appear, as well as the note of interrogation (?), asterisk (*), and parentheses (). 

PUNIC WARS. See Carthage, 264 B.C. 

PUNISHMENTS. See Bcheadiarj, Blinding, Boiling, Death, Drowning, Flogging, and 
Poisoning. 

PUNJAB (N. W. Hindostan), was traversed by Alexander the Great, 327 B.C.; and by 
Tamerlane, A.D. 1398. The war with the Sikhs began here, Dec. 14, 1845, and was closed, 
j\Iarch 29, 1849, when the Punjab was annexed. See- India. The Punjab has since 
flourished, and on Jan. i, 1859, was made a distinct presidency (to include the Sutlej states, 
and the Delhi territory). See Durhar. 

PURGATIVES of the mild species (aperients), j)articularly cassia, manna, and senna, 
are ascribed to Actuarius, a Greek physician, 1245. 

PURGATORY, the middle place between heaven and hell, where, it is believed by the 
Roman Catholics, the soul passes through the fire of purification before it enters the kingdom 
of God. The doctrine was known about 250, and was introduced into the Roman church 
in the 6th century. It Avas first set forth by a council at Florence, 1438. 

PURIFICATION, after childbirth, was ordained by the Jewish law, 1490 B.C. {Lev. xii). 
See Churching. The feast of the imrification was instituted, 542, in honour of the Virgin 
Mary's going to the temple. {Luke ii.) Pope Sergius I. ordered the procession with wax 
tapers, whence Candlemas-day. 

PURITANS, the name, first given about 1564, to persons who aimed at greater purity of 
doctrine, holiness of living, and stricter discipline than others. They withdrew from the 
Established church, professing to follow the word of God alone, and maintaining that the 
chiircli retained many human inventions and popish superstitions. See Nonconformists and 
Preshyterianism. 

PURPLE, a mixed tinge of scarlet and blue, discovered at Tyre. It is said to have been 
found by a dog's having by chance eaten a shell-fish, called murex or purpura; ujion 
returning to his master, Hercules T3Tes, he observed his lips tinged, and made use of the 
discovery. Purple was anciently used by the princes aud great men for their garments by 
way of distinction, and to this day the purple colour is the livery of our bishops, &c. The 
dignity of an archbishop or great magistrate is frequently meant by the purple. The purple 
was first given to the cardinals by pope Paul II. 1465. 



PUR (303 PYX 

PUPiVEYANCE, an ancient prerogative of the sovereigns of England of purchasing 
provisions, &c., witliout the consent of the owners, led to much oppression. It was regu- 
lated by Mngna Charta, 1215, and other statutes, and was only surrendered by Charles II. 
in 1660, for a compensation. 

PUSEYISM, a name attached to the views of certain clergymen and lay members of the 
church of England, who endeavoured to restore the practice of the church of Eno-land to 
what they believed to be required by the language of her Liturgy and Rubrics, but which 
were considered by their opponents to be contrary to her doctrine and discipline, and of a 
Romish tendency. The term was derived from the name of the professor of Hebrew at 
Oxford, Dr. Pusey, who was popularly supposed to be the originator and chief supporter of 
those views. The heads of houses of the university of Oxford passed resolutions censuring 
Dr. Pusey' s attempts to renew practices which are now obsolete, March 15, 1841 ; and his 
celebrated sermon was condemned by the same body, Ma3'30, 1843. See Tractarians. 

PYDNA (llacedou), where Perseus, the last king of Macedon, was defeated and made 
prisoner by the Romans, commanded by ^milius Paulus, 168 B.C. 

PYRAMIDS OF Egypt, according to Dr. Pococke and Sonnini, "so celebrated from 
remote antirpiity, are the most illustrious monuments of art." The three principal jiyramids 
are situated on a rock, at the foot of some high mountains which bound the Nile. The first 
building of them commenced, it is supposed, about 150015.0. The greatest is said to have 
been erected by Cheops, 1082 b. 0. Tlie largest, near Gizeh, is 461 feet in perpendicular 
height, with a platform on the top 32 feet square, and the length of the base is 746 feet. It 
occupies above twelve acres of ground, and is constructed of stupendous blocks of stone. 
There are many otiier smaller pyramids to the south of these. — The battle of the Pyramids 
when Bonaparte defeated the Mamelukes, and thus subdued Lower Egypt, took place 
July 21, 1798. 

PYRENEES. After the battle of Vittoria (fought June 21, 18 13), Napoleon sent Soult 
to supersede Jourdan, with instructions to drive the allies across the Ebro, a duty to which 
his abilities were inferior, for Soult retreated into France with a loss of more than 20,000 
men, having been defeated by Wellington in a series of engagements from July 25 to 
August 2. One at the Pyrenees on July 28. A railway through the Pyrenees (from Bilbao 
to Miranda) was opened Aug. 21, 1862. — The Peace of the Pyrenees was concluded 
between France and Spain, by cardinal Mazarin, for the French king, and Don Lewis de 
Haro, on the part of Spain, in the island of Pheasants, on the Bidassoa. By this treaty 
Spain yielded Roussillon, Artois, and her right to Alsace ; and France ceded her conquests in 
Catalonia, Italy, &c., and engaged not to assist Portugal, Nov. 7, 1659. 

PYROilETER (fire-measurer), an apparatus employed to ascertain the temperature of 
furnaces, &c., where thermometers cannot be employed ; Muschenbroek's pyrometer (a 
metallic bar) was described by him in 1731. Improvements were made by Ellicott and 
others. "Wedgwood emi)loyed clay cylinders about 1782. Professor Daniell received the 
Rumford medal for an excellent pyrometer in 1830. Mr. Ericsson's useful jiyi'ometer appeared 
in the Great Exhibition of 185 1. E7ig. Cijc. 

'PYROXYLIN, the chemical name of Gun Cotton {which see). 

PYTHAGOREAN PHILOSOPHY. Pj^hagoras, of Saraos, head of the Italic sect, 
flourished about 555 B.C. He is said to have taught the doctrine of metempsychosis or 
transmigration of the soul from one body to another ; forbidden his disciples to eat flesh, 
and also beans; to have invented the multiplication table; to have improved geometry; and 
to have taught the present system of astronomy. 

PYTHIAN GAMES, in honour of Apollo, near the temple of Delphi ; first instituted 
according to the more received opinion, by Apollo himself, in commemoration of the victory 
which he had attained over the serpent. Python, from which they received their name • 
though others maintain that they were first established by Agamemnon, or Diomedes or by 
Amphictyon, or lastly, by the council of the Amphictyons, 1263 B.C. 

PYX, the casket in which Catholic priests keep the consecrated wafer. In the ancient 
chapel of the pyx, at Westminster abbey, are deposited the standard pieces of o-old and 
silver, under the joint custody of the lords of the treasury and the comptrollei°general. 
The "trial of the pyx" signifies the verification of a jury of goldsmiths of the coins deposited 
in the pyx-bo.x by the master of the mint. This took place on July 17, 1861 at the 
exchequer office. Old Palace-yard, in the presence of twelve privy councillors, twelve gold- 
smiths, and others. 



QUA 604 QUA 



Q. 

QUACKERY is coceval M'ith the art of medicine ; quack medicines were taxed in 1783, 
ct seq. An inquest was held on the body of a young lady, Miss Cashin, whose physician, 
St. John Long, was afterwards tried for manslaughter, Aug. 21, 1830; he was found guilty, 
and sentenced to pay a fine of 250Z., Oct. 30, following. He was tried for manslaughter in 
the case of Mrs. Catherine Lloyd, and acquitted Feb. 19, 1831. Dr. Vries, "the black 
doctor," a professed cancer-curer, at Paris, was condemned to fifteen months' imprisonment 
as an impostor in Jan. i860. See Uomccopathy and HydroiMthy. 

QUADRAGESIMA SUNDAY, first Sunday in Lent. See Lent and Quinquagcsima. 

QUADRANGLE, or Quadrilateral, terms applied to the four strong Austrian 
fortresses in N. Italy : — Peschiera, on an island in the Mincio ; Jlantua, on the Miucio ; 
Yerona and Leguago, both on the Adige. See Peschiera, &c. 

QUADRANT, the mathematical instrument in the form of a quarter of a circle. The 
solar quadrant was introduced about 290 B.C. The Arabian astronomers under the caliphs, 
in A.D. 995, had a quadrant of 21 feet 8 inches radius, and a sextant 57 feet 9 inches radius. 
Davis's quadrant for measuring angles was produced about 1600. Hadley's quadrant, in 
1 73 1. See Navigation. 

QUADRILLE. This popular dance was introduced into this country in 18 13, by the 
then duke of Devonshire, and others. Raikcs. 

QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE, between Great Britain, France, and the emperor (signed at 
London, July 22, 1718), on the accession of the states of Holland, Feb. 8, 1719, obtained 
its name. It was for the purpose of guaranteeing the succession of the reigning families 
of Great Britain and France, and settling the partition of the Spanish monarchy. It 
led to war. 

QU/ESTOR, in ancient Rome, was an ofiicer who had the management of the public 
treasure ; appointed 484 B.C. It was the first office any person could bear in the common- 
wealth, and gave a right to sit in the senate. At first there Avere two quajstors, 
afterwards eight. Two were added in 409 B.C. Two were called Percgriiii, two (for the 
city) Vrbani. 

QUAKERS, or Society of Friends, originally called Seekers, from their seeking the 
truth, and afterwards Friends (3 John 14). Justice Bennet, of Derby, gave the society the 
name of Quakers in 1650, because George Fox (the founder) adn.onislied him, and those 
present, to tremble at the word of the Lord. This sect was commenced in England 
about 1646, by George Fox (then aged 22), who Avas joined by George Keith, William 
Penn, and Robert Barclay, of Ury, and others.* Fox rejected all religious ordinances, 
explained away the commands relative to baptism, &c. ; discarded the ordinary names of 
days and months, and iised thee and thou for you, as more consonant with truth. He 
published a book of instructions for teachers and professors, and died Jan. 13, 1691. The 
first meeting-house in London was in White Hart-court, Gracechurch-street. The first 
meetim' of Quakers in Ireland was in Dublin in 1658 ; and their first meeting-house in that 
city was opened in Eustace-street, 1692. The solemn affirmation of Quakers was enacted to 
be taken in all cases in the courts below, wherein oaths are required from other subjects, 
1696. See Affirmation. In 16S2, William Penn, with a company of Friends, colonised 
Philadelphia, where on Jan. i, 1788, tliey emanciiiated their negro slaves. On Feb. 15, 1833, 
Edward Pease, a Quaker, was admitted to ]iarliamcnt on his afiirniation. The Quakers had 
in Encrland 413 meeting-houses in 1800, and 371 in 185 1. At a Conference held on Nov. 2, 

* The Quakers early .suffered grievous persecutions in England and America. At Boston, U.S., where 
the first Friends who arrived were females, they (even females) were cruelly scourged, and had their ears 
cut off. In i6i;g they stated in parliament that 2000 Friends had endured sufferings and imprisonment in 
Newgate : and" 164 Friends offered themselves at this time, by namie to government, to he imprisoned in 
lieu of an equal number in danger (from confinement) of death. Fift3'-five (out of 120 sentenced) were 
transported to Araerioa, by an order of council, 1664. The masters of vessels refusing to carry them for some 
months an embargo was laid on West India ships, when a mei-cenary wretch was at length found for the 
service. But the Friends would not walk on bo^rd, nor would the sailors hfiist tliem into the vessel, and 
soldiers from the Tower were employed. In 1665, the vessel sailed ; but it was immediately captured by 
the Dutch, who liber.o,ted twenty-eight of the prisoners in Holland, the rest having died of the plague in 
that year. ' Of the 120 few reached America. 



QUA 605 QUE 

1858, it was agreed to recommend that mixed marriages should be permitted, and that many 
of the peculiarities of the sect in speech and costume should be abandoned. In i860 an act 
was passed rendering valid Quaker marriages when only one of the persons is a Quaker. 

QUARANTINP', the custom first observed at Venice, 1127, whei-eby all merchants and 
others coming from the Levant were obliged to remain in the house of St. Lazarus, or the 
Lazaretto, forty days before they were admitted into the city. Various southern cities have 
now lazarettos ; that of Venice is built in the water. In the times of plague, England and 
all other nations oblige those that come from the infected places to perform quarantine with 
their ships, &c., a longer or shorter time, as may be judged most safe. Quarantine acts were 
passed in 1753 and in 1826. 

QUARTER SESSIONS were established, 25 Edw. III. 1350- 1. The days of sitting were 
appointed, 2 Hen. V. 1413. In 1830 it was enacted, that quarter sessions of the peace 
should be held in the first week after Oct. 11, Dec. 28, March 31, and June 24. 

QUARTERLY REVIEW, the organ of the Tory party, first appeared in Feb. 1809, 
imder the editorship of William Giffoi'd, the celebrated translator of "Juvenal." 

QUATRE-BRAS (Belgium), where on June 16, 1815, two days before the battle of 
Waterloo, a battle was fought between the British and allied army under the duke of Bruns- 
wick, the prince of Orange, and sir Thomas Picton, and the French under marshal Ney. 
The British fought with remarkable intrepidity, notwithstanding their inferiority in number, 
and their fatigue through marching all the preceding night.- The 42nd regiment (Scotch 
Highlanders) suffered severely in pursuit of a French division by cuirassiers being posted in 
ambush behind growing corn. The duke of Brunswick was killed. 

QUEBEC (Canada), was founded by the French in 1608. 

Quebec reduced by tlic English, with all Canada, Public and private stores and several wharfs, 

in 1626, but restored in 1632 destroyed by fire ; the loss estimated at 

Besieged by the English, but without success, upwards of 260,000? Sept. 1815 

in 1711 Awful fire, 1650 houses, the dwellings of 12,000 

Conquered by them after a battle memorable for persons, biimt to the ground . May 28, 1845 

the death of general Wolfe in the moment of Another great fire, 1365 houses burnt, June 28 ,, . 

victory Sept 13, 1759 Disastrous fire at the theatre, 50 lives lost 

Besieged in vain by the American provincials, | Jan. 12, 1846 

under their general, Montgomery, who was Visited by the prince of Wales . Aug. iS-23, i860 

slain Dec. 31, 1775 ' (See Canada aud Montreal.) 

QUEEN. The first woman invested with sovereign authority was Semiramis, queen of 
Assyria, 2017 B.C. In 1554 an act was passed "declaring that the regall power of this 
realme is in the queues niajestie []Mary] as fully and absolutely as ever it was in any of her 
moste noble progenitours kinges of this realme." The Hungarians called a queen-regnant 
king. See JHunganj. 

QUEEN ANNE'S BOUNTY, established in Feb. 1704, by queen Anne, being the First 
Fruits with the Tenths, to increase the incomes of the poorer clergy. There were 5597 
clerical livings under 50?. per annum found by the commissioners under the act of Anne 
capable of augmentation. Chalmers. Act to consolidate the offices of First Fruits, Tenths, 
and Queen Anne's Bounty, i Vict. 1838. 

QUEEN ANNE'S FARTHINGS. The popular stories of the gi-eat value of this coin are 
fabulous, although some few of particular dates have been purchased by persons at high 
prices. The current farthing, with the broad brim, when in fine preservation, is worth il. 
The common patterns of 1713 and 1714 are worth il. The two patterns with Britannia under 
a canopy, and Peace on a car, R R R, are worth 2I. 2s. each. The pattern with Peace on a 
car is more valuable and rare, and worth 5?. Pinkcrton (died 1826). 

QUEEN'S BENCH COURT and PRISON. See King'.'i Bench. 

QUEEN'S BOUNTY, an annual grant of 1000^. which commenced about the beginning 
of the reign of George III. and was continued until the lotli Geo. IV. 1829, when it ceased 
altogether. The collection ujwn the king's letter, which used to accompany this grant, has 
also been discontinued since that year. 

QUEEN'S COLLEGES in Ireland, from their unsectarian character termed the 
"Godless Colleges," were instituted in 1845, to afford education of the highest order to all 
religious denominations. They were placed at Belfast, Cork, and Galway; the last was 
opened on Oct. 30, 1849. — The " Queen's University in Ireland " comprehending these 



QUE 



60C 



QUI 



colleges, was founded by patent, Aug. 15, 1850 ; the earl of Clarendon, lord lieutenant, the 
first chancellor. They were "condemned" by the propaganda and the pope, and by 0. 
majority (a small one) of the Irish bishops in a synod held at Thurles, in Sept. 1850. 



QUEEN CAEOLINE'S TRIAL, &c. 

Caroline Amelia Augusta, second daughter of 
Charles Wm. Ferdinand, dvike of Brunswick, 
born May 17, 1768 ; nian-ied to George, prince 

of Wales April 8, 

Their daughter, princess Charlotte born, Jan. 7, 
The Delicate Investigation (which see) May 22, 
Charges against her again disproved . 
Embarks for the continent . . . Aug. 
Becomes queen ..... Jan. 20, 

Arrives in England June 6, 

A secret committee in the house of lords, 
appointed to examine papers on charges of 

incontinence June 8, 

Bill of Pains and Penalties introduced by lord 
Liverpool ...... July 5, 

The queen removes to Brandenbui'g-house, 

Aug. 3, 

Receives the address of the married ladies of 

the metropolis .... Aug. 16, 



1795 
1796 



1813 
1814 



Her trial commences .... Aug. 19, 1820 

Last debate on the bill of Pains and Penalties, 
vyhen the report v?as approved by 108 against 
99; the numerical majority of nine being pro- 
duced by the votes of the ministers them- 
selves. Lord Liverpool moves that the bill be 
reconsidered that day six ■monthn . Nov. 10, ,, 

Great exultation throughout England, and 
illuminations for three nights in London, 

Nov. 10, II, 12, ,, 

The queen goes to St. Paul's in state, Nov. 29, ,, 

She jjrotests against her exclusion from the 
coronation July 18, 1821 

Taken ill at Drury-lane theatre, July 30 ; diss 
at Hammersmith .... Aug. 7, ,, 

Her remains removed on their route to Bnras- 
wick ; an alarming riot occurs, owing to the 
military opposing the body being carried 
through the city .... Aug. 14, ,, 



QUEEN CHARLOTTE Ship of "War, a first-rate ship of the line, of no guns, the 
flag-ship of lord Keith, then commanding in chief in the Mediterranean, was burnt by an 
accidental lire, ofi' the harbour of Leghorn, and more than 700 British seamen out of a crew 
of 850 perished by fire or drowning, March 1 7, 1 800. 

QUEEN VICTORIA Steam Ship. Wrecked Feb. 15, 1853. See Wreclcs. 

QUEENS OF ENGLAND. See under England. 

QUEEN'S LAND, Moreton-bay, Austi-alia, now including the "plains of lu'omise," 
Carpenteria, was established as a colony in 1859. Admiral .sir George F. Bowen was 
appointed governor, and Brisbane, the capital, was made a bishopric. Popiilation in Dec. 
1859, 23,450; in Sept. 1865, about 90,000. Its chief productions are sugar, cotton, and 
tobacco. 

QUEEN'S THEATRE. See Opera Bouse, the Italian. 

QUEENSTOWN (Upper Canada). This town, on the river Niagara, was taken in the 
last war with America by the troops of the United States, Oct. 13, 1812 ; but was retaken 
by the British forces, who defeated the Americans with considerable loss in killed, wounded, 
and prisoners, on the same day. Queenstown suffered severely in this war. — The Cove of 
Cork was named Queenstown, Aug. 3, 1849, by the queen. 

QUENTIN, ST. (N. France). Philip II. of Spain, assisted by the English, defeated 
the French at St. Quentin, Aug. 10, 1557; and in memory of his victoiy, the Spanish 
monarch in fulfihnent of a vow he had made before the engagement, built the famous 
monastery, &c., the Escurial, which is called by the Spaniards the eighth wonder of the 
world. See Eacurial. 

QUERN. The qncrn, or handmill, is of Roman, or as some say, of Irish invention ; 
but the latter is not likely, as Roman querns have been found in Yorkshire ; and it is said 
by others that the Romans found querns there. 

QUESNOY (N. France), was taken by the Austrians, Sept. 11, 1793, but was recovered 
by the French, Aug. 16, 1794. It surrendered to prince Frederic of the Netherlands, June 
29, 1815, after the battle of Waterloo. — ^It was here that cannon were first used, and called 
bombards. Henault. 

QUIBERON BAY (W. France). A British force landed here in 1746, but was repulsed. 
In the Bay admiral Hawke gained a complete victory over the French admiral Conflans, and 
thus defeated the projected invasion of Great Britain, Nov. 20, 1759. Quiberon was taken 
by some French regiments in the pay of England, July 3, 1795 ; but on July 21, owing to 
the treachery of some of these soldiers, the French republicans, under Hoche, retook it by 
surprise, and many of the emigrants were executed. About 900 of the troops, and nearly 
1500 roj'alist inhabitants who had joined the regiments in the pay of Great Britain, effected 
their embarkation on board the shijis. 



QUI 607 QUO 

QUICKSILVER, in its liquid state, mercury. Its use in refining silver was discovered, 
1540. There are mines of it in various parts, the chief of which are at Almeida, in Spain, 
and at Idria, in Illyria; the latter, discovered by accident in 1497, for several years yielded 
1200 tons. A mine was discovered at Ceylon in 1797. Quicksilver was congealed in winter 
at St. Petersburg, in 1759. It was congealed in England by a chemical process, without 
snow or ice, by I\lr. "Walker in 1787. Conosive sublimate, a deadly poison, is a combination 
of mercury and chlorine. See Calomel. 

QUIETISM, the doctrine of Molinos, a Spaniard (1627-96), whose work, the Spiritual 
Guide, published in 1675, was the foundation of a sect in France. He held that the purity 
of religion consisted in an internal silent meditation and recollection of tlie merits of Christ 
and tlie mercies of God. Madame de la Mothe-Guyon was imprisoned in the Bastile for her 
visions and prophecies, but released through, the interest of Fenelon, archbishop of Cambray, 
between whom and Bossuet, bishop of Meaux, arose a controversj^, 1697. These doctrines 
were condemned by pope Innocent XI. in 1685. 

QUILLS are said to have been first used for pens iu 553 ; some say not before 635. 

QUINCE, the Pyrus Cydonia, brought to these countries from Austria, before 1573. 
The Japan Quince or Pyriis Japonica, brought hither from Japan, 1 796. 

QUIlSriNE, or Quinia, an alkaloid (much used in medicine), discovered in 1820 b}- 
Pelletier and Caventou. It is a probable constituent of all genuine cinchona barks, especially 
of the yellow bark. See Jesuits Bark. 

QUINQUAGESIMA SUNDAY. The observation was appointed by pope Gregory the 
Great, about 1572. The first Sunday in Lent having been termed Quadragesima, and the 
three weeks preceding having been apiiropriated to the gi'adual introduction of the Lent fast, 
the three Sunda3's of these weeks were called by names significant of their position iu the 
calendar : and reckoning by decades (tenths), the Sunday preceding Quadragesima received 
its present name, Quinqxiagesima, the second Sexagesima, and the third Septuagesivia. 

QUINTILIANS, heretics in the 2nd century, the disciples of Montanus, who took their 
name from Quintilia, a lady whom he had deceived by his pretended sanctity, and whom 
they regarded as a prophetess. They made the eucharist of bread and cheese, and allowed 
women to be priests and bishops. Pardon. 

QUIEINUS, a Sabine god; afterwards identified with Eomulus. L. Papirius Cursor, 
general in the Koman arnij', first erected a sun-dial in the temple of Quirinus, from which 
time the days began to be divided into hours, 293 B.C. Asjjin. The sun-dial was sometimes 
called the Quirinus, from the original place in which it was set up. Ashe. The Roman 
citizens were termed Quiritts. 

QUITO, a presidency of Columbia (which see), celebrated as having been the scene of the 
measurement of a degree of the meridian, by the French and Spanish mathematicians in the 
reign of Louis XV. Forty thousand souls were hurled into eternity by a dreadful earth- 
quake which almost overwhelmed the city of Quito, Feb. 4, 1797. Since then violent shocks, 
but not so disastrous, occurred ; till one, on March 21, 1859, when about 5000 persons were 
killed. See Earthquakes. 

QUIXOTE. See Don Quixote. 

QUOITS, a game said to have originated with the Greeks. It was first played at the 
Olympic games, by the Ida;i Dactyli, fifty years after the Deluge of Deucalion, 1453 b.c. 
He who threw the discus farthest, and with the greatest dexterity, obtained the prize. 
Perseus, the grandson of Acrisius, by Danae, having inadvertently slain his grandfather, 
■when throwing a quoit, exchanged the kingdom of Argos, to which he was heir, for that 
of Tirynthus, and founded the kingdom of Mj^cenaj, about 13 13 B.C. 

QUO WAERANTO ACT, passed '1280, By it a writ maybe directed to any person 
to inquire by what authority he holds any office or franchise. Charles II. directed a writ 
against the corporation of London in 1683, and the court of king's bench declared their 
charter forfeited. The decision was reversed in 1690. 



RAG 



608 



RAD 



E. 



RACES, one of the exercises among the ancient games of Greece. (See Chariots.) 
Horse-races were known in England in very early times. Fitz-Stephen who wrote in the 
days of Henry II. mentions the delight taken by the citizens of London in the diversion. 
In James's reign, Croydon in the south, and Garterly in the north, were celebrated courses. 
Near York there were races, and the prize was a little golden bell, 1607. Camden. In the 
end of Charles I.'s reign, races were performed at Hyde Park. Charles II. patronised thein, 
and instead of bells, gave a silver bowl, or cup, value 100 guineas. William III. added to 
the plates (as did queen Anne), and founded an academy for riding. 



The first racing calendar is said to have been 

published by John Cheny in . . . . 1727 
Act for suppressing races by ponies and weak 

• horses, 13 Geo. 11 1739 

The most eminent races in England are those at 
Newmarket (ivkich see), established by Charles 
II. in 1667 ; at Epsom, begun about 171 1, by 
Mr. Parkhurst (annual since 1730, Allen's 
Surrey): at Ascot, begun by the duke of 
Cumberland, tincle to. George III. ; at Don- 
caster, established by col. St. Leger in 1778, 
and at Goodwood, begun by the duke of 

Eichmond, who died in 1806 

The Jockey Club began in the time of 



George II. Its latest rules, by which races 
are regulated, were enacted in . . . 1S2S 

On the accession of queen Victoria, the royal 
stud was sold for 16,476/. on . . Oct. 25, 1S37 

Lord Stamford, said to have engaged Jemmy 
Grimshaw, a light-weight jockey at a salary 
of 1000?. a year .... March, 1S65 

" Tattersall's," the "high-change of horse- 
flesh," was established by Richard Tattersall, 
near Hyde Park Corner (hence termed "the 
Corner") in 1766, for the sale of horses. The 
lease of the ground having expired, the new 
premises at Brompton were erected and 
opened for business on . . April 10, 1S65 



eax:e-hokses. 

Flying Chitders. bred in 1715 by the duke of Devon- 1 Eclipse was the fleetest horse that ran in England 
shire, was allowed by sportsmen to have been the ' since the time of Childers : he was never beaten, 
fleetest horse that ever ran at Newmarket, or that ' and died in February, 1789, aged 25 years. His 
was ever bred in the world ; he ran four miles in six I heart weighed 141b., which accounted for his 
minutes and forty-eight seconds, or at the rate of wonderful spirit and courage. Chriitie White's Hist. 
35J miles an hour, carrying nine stone two pounds. | of the Turf. 
He died in 1741, aged 26 years. . I 





EECENT 


WINNERS OF "the DERBY ' AT EPSOM. 




1846. 


Pyrrhus. 


1855. Wild Dayrell. 


1863. 


Maccaroni. 


1847. 


Cossack. 


1856. Ellington. 


1864. 


Blair Athol. 


1848. 


ffiiirplice. 


1857. Blink Bonny. 


1865. 


Gladiateur, May 31 (a 


1849. 


Flying Dutchman. 


1858. Beadsman. 




horse reai-ed in France, 


1850. 


Voltigeiir. 


1859. Musjid. 




the property of the 


1851. 


Teddington. 


1S60. Thormanby. 




Comte de Grange. He 


1852. 


Daniel O'Rourke. 


1 861. Kettledrum. 




also won the St. Leger 


1853. 


West Australian. 


1862. Caractacus. 




at Doncaster, Sept. 13). 


1854. 


Andover. 









RACK, an engine of torture, for extracting a confession from criminals, was early known 
in the southern countries of Europe. The early Christians suffered by the rack, which was 
in later times an instrument of the Inquisition. The duke of Exeter, in the reign of 
Henry VI., erected a rack of torture (then called the duke of Exeter's daughter), now seen in 
the Tower, 1423. In the case of Felton, who murdered the duke of Buckingham, the judges 
of England nobly protested against the proposal of the privy council to put the assassin to 
the rack, as being contrary to the laws, 1628. See RavaiUac and Torture. 

RADCLIEFE Library, Oxford, founded under tlie will of Dr. John Radcliffe, an 
eminent physician. He died Nov. i, 1714, leaving 40,000^. to the university of Oxford for 
the founding a library, the first stone of which was laid May 17, 1737 ; the edifice was com- 
pletely finished in 1749, and was opened April 13, in the same year. The library consists chiefly 
of works of medical and philosophical science. — The Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford, 
was founded by the exertions of Dr. Hornsb}', Savilian professor of astronomy, about 1771, 
and completed in 1794. The publication of the observations was commenced in 1842, by 
Mr. Manuel J. Johnson, the director, appointed in 1839. 

RADSTADT, or Rastadt (in Baden), where a peace was signed, March 6, 17 14, by 
marshal Villars on the part of the French king, and by prince Eugene on the part of the 
emperor ; it restored the German frontier to the terms of the peace of Ryswick. — The Con- 
gress of Radstadt, to treat of a general peace with the Germanic powers, was commenced 



RAG 



609 



RAI 



Dec. 9, 1797; and negotiations were carried on throughout the j'ear 1798. The atrocious 
massacre of the French plenipotentiaries at Radstadt by the Austrian regiment of Szeltzler, 
took place April 28, 1799. 

RAGGED SCHOOLS, free schools for oiitcast destitute ragged children, set up in large 
towns. The instruction is based on the scriptures, and most of the teachers are unpaid. 
They existed in London previous to 1844, but did not receive their name till that year, 
when the "Ragged school union" was formed, principally by Mr. S. Stacey, and Mr. Wm. 
Locke (since hon. secretary). The earl of Shaftesbury was chaii'man. In 1856 there were 150 
Ragged school institutions : — 



128 Sunday schools with 16,937 scholars. 

q8 Day schools with 13,057 scholars. 
117 Evening schools with 8085 scholars. 

84 Industrial classes with 3224 scholars. 



163 Paid teachers in day schools. 
126 Paid teachers in week night schools. 
43 Paid refuge and industrial masters. 
2139 Voluntary teachers. 



There were in 1856, i6 refuges, where 500 inmates are fed, lodged, clothed, and educated, 
ragged schools existed. &ce Shoe-black- £rigade. 



In i860, 560 



RAGMAN ROLL (said to derive its name from Ragimunde, a papal legate in Scotland) 
contains the instruments of homage and fealty to Edward L, sworn to by the nobility and 
clergy of Scotland at Berwick in 1296. The original was given up to Robert Brace, king 
of Scotland, in 1328, when his sou David was contracted in marriage to the princess Joanna 
of England. 

RAGUSA, a citj' on the Adriatic, on the south confines of Dalmatia, was taken by the 
Venetians, 1171, but soon after became an independent republic, 1358. It suffered 
much by an earthquake, 1667; was taken by the French in 1807, and given up to Austria 
in 1814. 

RAILWAYS. There were short roads in and about Newcastle, laid down by Mr. Beau- 
mont so early as 1602 ; which are thus mentioned in 1676 : — ■" the manner of the carriage is 
by laying rails of timber from the colliery to the river," exactly straight and parallel ; 
and bulky carts are made with four rollers fitting those rails, whereby the carriage is so easy 
that one horse will draw down four or five chaldron of coals, and is an immense benefit to 
the coal merchants." Roger North. They were made of iron at Whitehaven, in 1738. 
See Tram-roads. 



An iron railway was laid down near Sheffield by John 
Curr in 1776, which was destroyed by the colliers. 

The first considerable iron railway was laid down at 
Colobrook Dale in 17S6. 

The first iron railway sanctioned bj- parliament in 
1801 (with the exception of a few undertaken by 
canal companies as small branches to mines) was 
the Surrey iron railway (by horses), from the 
Thames at Wandsworth to Croydon. 

Trevethick and Vivian obtained a patent for a high 
pressure loconwtive ^ngms in 1802. 

William Hedley of Wylam colliery constructed a 
locomotive in 1813. 

Stockton and Darlington railway, constructed by 
Edw. Pease and George Stephenson, was opened 
Sept. 27, 1825. 

The Liverpool and Manchester railway commenced 
in Oct. 1826, and opened Sept. 15, 1830. See Liver- 
pool. This railway led to similar enterprises 
throughout England and the continent. 

The examination of railw.ay schemes, before their 
introduction into parUaraent, by the Board of 
Trade, was ordered 1844. 

7 & 8 Vict. c. 85, required companies to run cheap 
trains every day, and to permit erection of electric 
telegraphs, and authorised government, after Jan. 
1, 1866, to buy existing railways with the per- 
mission of parhament, 1844. 

An act passed 10 Vict. .\ug. 28, 1846, for constituting 
commissionei-s of railways, who have since been 
incorporated with the Board of Trade. 



In 1824, the first locomotive constructed by George 
Stephenson, travelled at the rate of 6 miles per 
hour; in 1829, the Rocket travelled at the rate of 
15 miles per hour ; * in 1834, the Fire-Fly attained 
a speed of 20 miles per hour ; in 1839, the North 
Star moved with a velocity of 37 miles per hour ; 
and at the present moment locomotives have at- 
tained a speed of 70 miles per hour. During the 
same period, tiie quantitj' of fuel reqiiired for gene- 
rating steam has been diminished five-sixths : that 
is, six tons of coal were formerly consumed for 
one at the present time, and other expenses are 
diininished in a con'osponding ratio. 

The CAPITAL invested in railway vmdertakings has 
become enormous. Up to 1840, it was 69 millions ; 
on March i, 1853, it was estimated at 303 millions ; 
in 1859, at 330 millions ; in i860, 348, 130, 127^. 

The Kailway Mania and panic year, when 270 rail- 
way acts jjassed, was 1S46. 

An act for the better regulation of railways passed 
1854. 

An act for compensating families of persons kiUed 
by accidents (see Covipbell't Act) pa.ssed, 1846, 

An act passed to enable railway companies to settle 
their differences with other companies by arbitra- 
tion in 1859. 

Railway Clauses Consolidation act passed 1S63. 

A joint committee of both houses of parliament 
appointed to report on railway schemes, Feb. 5, 
1864. 

See Atmosj;theric and Street Railways. 



* It obtained the prize of 500J. oflfered by the directors of the Liverpool and Manchester railway 
company for the best locomotive. 



EAI 



610 



EAI 



EAILWAYS, continued. 



LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL EAILWAYS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 



Railways 
Arbroath and Forfar . 
Atmospheric Railway (which see) 
Aylesbury branch . . . . June lo, 1839 
Bangor and Carnarvon .... July, 1852 
Belfast and county of Down . . April, 1850 
Birmingham and Derby . . . Aug. 12, 1839 
Birmingham and Gloucester . . Dec. 17, 1840 
Birmingham, Wolverhampton, and Stour 

Valley July, 1852 

Brighton and Chichester . . . June 8, 1846 

Brighton and Hastings . . . June 27, ,, 

Bristol and Exeter May i, 1844 

Bristol and Gloucester .... July, 1845 

Caledonian 1848 

Canterbury and Whitstable . . May, 1830 
Charing Cross Railway, London, opened Jan. 1 



The railways are generally named after their termini. 

Date of Opening. 
Jan. 3, 1839 



May 12, 1845 

June, 1850 

Sept. 22, 1840 

Oct. I, ,, 

April 28, 1847 

June 15, 1846 

Dec. 1851 

May I, 1859 

. Dec. 2, 1844 

May 17, 1847 

Aug. 10, 1846 

May 26, 1844 

Dec. 17, 1834 

June, 1852 

April 8, 1840 

. Dec. 1831 

May 22, 1847 



Cheltenham and Swindon 

Chepstow and Swansea, South Wales 

Chester and Birkenhead 

Chester and Crewe .... 

Cockermouth and Workington 

Colchester and Ipswich 

Cork and Bandon .... 

Cornwall 

Coventry and Leamington 

Croydon and Epsom .... 

Dublin and Carlow .... 

Dublin and Drogheda .... 

Dublin and Kingstown . 

Dublin and Belfast Junction 

Dundee and Arbroath 

Dundee and Newtyle .... 

Dundee and Perth .... 

Dunl'ermline and Alloa ; Sterling and Dunferm 

line Aug. 1850 

Durham and Sunderland . . ' . June 28, 1839 
Eastern Counties .... June 18, ,, 
Eastern Union (London and Colchester) Mar. 29, 1843 
East and West India Docks and Birmingham 
Junction; from Blackwall railway to Camden 

Town. Aug. 1850 

Edinburgh and Berwick , June 18, 1846 

Edinburgh and Dalkeith 1831 

Edinburgh and Glasgow . . . Feb. 8, 1842 

Edinburgh, Leith, and Granton . 

Edinburgh and Musselburgh . 

Ely and Huntingdon . 

Ely and Peterborough 

Exeter and Crediton . 

Exeter and Plymouth (part) 

Glasgow and Ayr .... 

Glasgow and Greenock 

Glasgow, Garnkirk, and Coatbridge 

Gloucester and Chepstow 

Grand Junction from Birmingham to ^Newton, 

July, 1837 
Gravesend and Rochester . . . Feb. 10, 1845 
Great Western .... June 30, 1841 

Great Northern ....... 1842 

Hertford branch of Eastern Counties Oct. 31, 1843 
Ipswich and Bury St. Edmund's . Dec 24, 1846 
Kelso; branch of North British . . June, i8so 

Kendal and Windermere 

Lancaster and Carlisle . . . Dec. 16, 
Lancaster and Preston . . June 30, 1840 

Leeds and Bradford .... July i, 1S46 

Leeds and Derby July, 1840 

Leeds and Selby Sept. 1834 

Liverpool and Bii-mingham . . . July 4, 1837 
Liverpool and Manchester . . . Sept. 15, 1830 
Liverpool and Preston . . . Oct. 31, 1838 

London and Birmingham . . . Sept 17, „ 
London and Blackwall . . . .Aug. 2, 1841 
Londdn and Brighton . . . . Sept. 21, „ 
Xiondon and Bristol . June 30, ,, 



July 14, 1847 



Jan. ,, 

M.ay, 1851 

May 29, 1846 

. Sept. ig, 1840 

March 24, 1841 

July, 1845 

Sept. 1851 



1847 



Railways. 
London and Cambridge 
London and Colchester 
London and Croydon . 
London and Dover . 
London and Greenwich 
London and Richmond 
London and Southampton 



Date of Opening. 

July, 1845 

March 29, 1843 

. June I, 1839 

Feb. 6, 1844 

. Dec. 26, 1838 

July 27, 1846 

. May II, 1840. 



London and Warrington ; branch of the Great 

Northern Aug. 1850 

Lowestoft branch of the Norwich and Yar- 
mouth 1847 

Lynn and Ely ,, 

Manchester and Birmhigham . Aug. 10, 1842 

Manchester, Bolton, and Bury . . May 29, 1838 
Manchester and Leeds . . . March i, 1841 
Manchester and Sheffield . . . Dec. 22, 1845 
Margate branch of the London and Dover . . 1846- 
Merthyr-Tydfil and Cardiff . . Aj)ril 12, 1841 

Metropolitan, London; act obtained, 1853; 

construction began, i860; opened . Jan. 10, 1863 
Middlesborough and Redcar . . June 4, 1846 
Newcastle and Berwick . . . July, 1847 
Newcastle and Carhsle . . . June 18, 1839 

Newcastle and Darlington 1844 

Newcastle and North Shields . . June 18, 1839. 
Newmarket and Cambridge . . . Oct. 1851 
Newtown-Stewart and Omagh . . Sept, 1852 
Northampton and Peterborough . June 2, 1845. 
North and South-Westem Junction . . Dec. 1852 
Northern and Eastern .... July, 1845 

Norwich and Brandon ,, 

Norwich and Yarmouth .... May 1, 1845 
Nottingham to Grantham . . July, 1850 

Nottingham and Lincoln . . .Aug. 3, 1846 

Nottingham branch of Rugby ^ and Derby, 

May 30, 1839, 
Oxford branch of London and Bristol June 12, 1844 
Oxford and Banbury .... Aug. 1850 
Oxford, Worcester, and Wolverhampton . May, 1852 
Pai.sley and Renfrew . . . . May, 1837 
Penzance to Caniboume . . . .Jan. 1852 

Rugby and Derby July, 1840 

Rugby and Leamington .... Feb. 1851 

St. Andrew's July, 1852 

St. Helen's ; fir.st act passed .... 1830 
Salisljury branch of the London and South- 
ampton 1847- 

Sheffield and Rotherham . . . Oct. 1838 

Shrewsbury and Chester . . . Nov. 4, 1846- 
Shrewsbury and Ludlow . . . April, 1852 

Southampton and Dorchester . . June i, 1847 
South Eastern .... Feb. 6, 1844 

Sou th- Eastern ; North Kent line . . . 1849. 
Stockton and Darlington. . . . Sept. 1825 
Stockton and Hartlepool . , . Feb. lo, 1841 
Stourbridge and Dudley . . . fDec. 1852 

Swinton and Barnsley. . . . June, 1851 

Taff Vale Oct. 8, 1840 

Teignmouth to Newton . . . Dec. 31, 1846 
Tipperary and Clonmel .... April, 1852 

Trent Valley June 26, 1847 

Tunbridge-Wells'brauch .... Oct. 1846 

Ulster . . " Aug. 1839 

Warrington and Retford ; branch of the Great 

Northern July, 1852 

West and East India Docks and Birmingham 
Junction from the Blackwall railway to 



Camden Town 
West Dvu'ham 
West London (part) 
Worcester and Droitwich 
York and Darlington 
York and Newcastle . 
York and Normanton . 
York and Scarborough 



Aug. 1850 

. June, 1840 

. May 27, 1844 

. Jan. 1852 

. Jan. 4, 1841 

. June 17, 1847 

.June 30, 1840 

July 7, 1845 



EAI 



611 



EAI 



EAILAVAYS, continued. 



EXTENT OF RAILWAYS IN It 



America 
Germany 
Holland. 
Belgium 



Miles. 
. 3S00 

1570 
200 

1095 



France . 
Italy . 
Denmark 
Cuba . 



Miles. 
2200 



Rtjssia . . . , , 
British Colonies . . . 
East India . . . , 
[864 miles in i86i.] 



EXTENT OF KAILWAYS, JUNE, 1858 (from Captain Galton's Eeport). 



Austria 

Belgium 

Denmark . . . . 

France 

Germany (without Austria 

and Prussia) . . . . 
Great Britain : 

England . . . . 

Scotland . . . . 



Miles. 
2086 

813 
220 
4509 

2930 

6706 
1243 



Ireland . 

Holland . 

Naples . 

Portugal . 

Prussia . 

Russia 

Sardinia 

Spain 

States of the Church 



Miles. 

1070 

182 

64 

29 

2S44 

715 

390 

456 



Sweden and Norway . 

Switzerland 

Tuscany 

Total . 

United States of America 

Grand Total 



Miles. 

88 

. 31° 

. 150 

24.592 
17,481 



UNITED KINGDOM —LENCxTII OF RAILWAY OPENED, NUMBER OF PASSENGERS, AND 

TOTAL RECEIPTS. 



Year. 


MilPs ! 

then TraTcIlers. 
opened. 


Receipts. 1 Year. 

1 


Miles 

then 

opened. 


Travellers. 


Receipts. 


1845 

1849 . . . 

1854 

1858 (iyr.) . 


2343 
4355 
5962 
9540 


33.79i'253 

63,841,539 

111,206,707 

76,529,202 


£6,277,892 
9.174.945 
12,825,826 


1859 (Jyr.) . 
1861 (year) . 
1863 (year) . 


9795 
io,86gi 
12,322 


67,229,700 
I73>72i,i39 
204,699,466 


£11,862,639 
28,561,355 
31-156,397 



PERSONS KILLED BY RAILWAY ACCIDENTS. 





1854-5. 


1855-6. 


1856. 


1857-8. 


1853-9. 


1809-60- 


1S51. 


Total in one year 

By causes beyond their own control . 


236 
38 


259 
29 


281 
38 


[271 
38 


261 

35 


236 
23 


284 
69 



It has been calculated that out of 16,168,459 travellers by railway one person is killed, and out of 
458,370 one is injured by causes beyond their own control. 
In 1864, 68 per.sons were killed, and 831 injured. 



MEMORABLE RAILWAY ACCIDENTS. 
Very many, where only 2 personsHlled, are not noted; in nearly all cases a large number were injured. 



W. Huskisson, M.P., killed at the opening of 
the Liverpool and Manchester i-ailway. 

Sept 15, 1S30 

Great Corby (Newcastle and Carlisle): train runs 
off line ; 3 killed Dec 3, 1836 

Brentwood (Eastern Counties) : carriages over- 
turned ; 3 killed .... Aug. 21, 1840 

Cuckfield (London and Brighton) ; engine runs 
off line : 4 killed .... Oct. 2, 1841 

Sunnyhill cutting, near Reading : engine forced 
off the line ; 8 killed .... Dec. 24, „ 

Versailles : carriages take tire, passengers locked 
in ; 52 or 53 lives lost, including admiral 
D'UrviUe M.ay 8, 1842 

Masborough (Midland Counties) : collision ; 
Mr. Botelor and others killed, many injured, 

Oct. 20, 1845 

Sti-atford (Eastern Counties) ; collision through 
great carelessness ; Mr. Hind killed, many 
mutil.atcd July 18, 1846 

Pcvensey (Brighton and Hastings) : collision ; 
40 persons injured . . . Aug. 24, ,, 



Clifton (Manchester and Bolton) : express I'uns 

off hue; 2 killed, many injured Dec. 15, 1846 

Chester (Chester and Shrewsbury) : train runs 

off bridge; 4 killed, great number iniured, 

May 18, 1847 
Wolverton (North Western) : collision ; 7 killed, 

many injured .... June 5, „ 

Shrivenham (Groat Western) : collision ; 7 killed, 

many injvired .... May 10, 1S4S 

Carhsle (Caledonian) : axletree of carriage 

breaks ; 5 killed .... Feb. 10, 1849 
Prodsham Timnel (Chester and Warrington 

Junction) : collision ; 6 killed . April 30, 1851 
Newmarket Hill (Lewes and Brighton): train 

runs off hue; 4 killed. . . . June 6, ,, 
Bicester (Buckinghamshire) : collision ; 6 

killed Sept. 6, ,, 

Burnley (Lancashire and Yorkshire) : collision ; 

4 killed July 12, 1852 

Dixonfold (Lancashire and Yorkshire) : engine 

wheelfi broke ; 7 killed . . March 4, 1 853 

R R 2 



EAI 



612 



EAP 



RAILWAYS, continued. 

Near Straffan (Great Southern and Western, 
Ireland); collision; 13 killed . . Oct. 5, 

Near HarHng, Norfolk (Eastern Counties) : 
collision ; 6 killed .... Jan. 12, 

Croj-don (Brighton and Dover) : collision ; 3 
killed Aug. 24, 

Burlington, between New York and Phila- 
delphia ; 21 kUled .... Aug. 29, 

Reading (South Eastern) : collision ; 5 killed, 

Sei^t. 12, 

Near Paris : collision ; 9 killed . Oct. 9, 

Between Thoretand Moret: collision; 16 killed 

Oct. 23, 

Campbell (N. Pennsylvanian) : collision ; above 
100 killed July 17, 

Dunkett (Waterford and Kilkenny) : collision ; 
7 killed Nov. 19, 

Kirby (Liverpool and Blackpool) : collision ; 
200 injured, none killed . . .June 27, 

Lowisham (North Kent): collision; ii killed, 

June 28, 

Between Pyle and Port Talbot ; collision ; 
4 killed ...... Oct. 14, 

Attleborough (North Western) : train thrown 
off the line through a cow crossing the rails ; 
3 killed May 10, 

Near Mons, Belgium : coke waggon on the rails; 
21 killed June 

Chilhain (South Eastern); either too gi-eat 
speed or broken axletree : skilled. June 30, 

Near Round Oak Station (Oxford and Wolver- 
hampton) — Excursion train: collision; 14 
killed Aug. 23, 

Tottenham (Eastern Counties) : engine wheel 
breaks ; 6 killed .... Feb. 20, 

Helmshore (Lanca.shire and Yorkshire) excur- 
sion train : coUision ; 1 1 killed . Sept. 4, 



Atherstone (North Western) : coUision of mail 
1853 I and cattle trains : 11 killed Nov. 16, i860 

Near Wimbledon ; Dr. Baly killed . Jan. 28, 1861 
1834 Railway tunnel Mis in near Haddon Hall, 

' Derbyshire : 5 men killed . . July 2, ,, 

,, Clayton Tunnel (London and Brighton) : culli- 
I sion; 23 killed, 176 injured . Aug. 25, ,, 

Kentish Town (Hampstead Junction) : 16 killed, 
320 injured Sept 2, ,, 

1855 Market Harborough : collision; i killed and 50 
injured Aug. 28, 1862 

Near Winchburgh (Edinburgh and Glasgow): 

coUision; 15 killed, 100 wounded . Oct. 13, ,, 
Near Streatham (London and Brighton) : ex- 

1856 plosion of boiler through attempting too great 
speed; 4 killed : above 30 injured May 30, 1863 

Near Lynn (Lynn and Hunsfcmton) : carriages 
upset through bullock on the line ; 5 killed 

1857 Aug. 3, „ 
Egham (South-Western) : coUision; 5 killed, 

above 20 injured .... June 7, 1864 
Canada : train ran off a bridge at St. Hilaire in 

crossing ; about 83 killed, 200 wounded 

June 29, ,, 
Blackheath Tunnel :* fast train ran into a ballast 

train ; 6 killed Dec. 16, „ 

Near Rednal (on a branch of Great Western) 

train ran off insecure rails ; 13 killed, about 

40 injured ..... June 7, 1865 
Near Staplehurst (South Eastern) : train ran 

off insecure rails, &c. ; 10 killed and many 

injured ..*... June 9, ,, 
Near Colney Hatch (Great Northern) : collision 

with coal trucks ; above 50 persons injured 

Aug. 30, „ 



RAINBOW. Its theory was developed by Kepler in 161 1, and by Ren^ Descartes in 
1629. See Spectrum. 

RAMADAN, the Mahometan month of fasting ; in 1865, Jan. 28 to Feb. 27 : in 1866, 
Jan. 18 to Feb. 16, inclusive. It is followed by the festival of Bairam (ivhich see). 

RAMILIES (in Belgium), the site of a battle between tlie English under the duke of 
Marlborough and the allies on one side, and the French on the other, commanded by the 
elector of Bavaria and the marshal de Villeroy, on Whitsunday, May 23 (o. s. 12), 1706. 
The French were soon .seized with a panic, and a general rout ensued : about 4000 of the 
allied army were slain in the engagement. The duke pursued and achieved one of his most 
glorious victories, which accelerated the fall of Louvain, Brussels, &c. Parliament settled 
his honours upon the male and female issue of his daughters. 

RANGOON, maritime capital of the Burmese empire, was taken by sir A. Campbell on 
May II, 1824. In Dec. 1826, it was ceded to the Burmese on condition of the payment of 
a sum of money, tlie reception of a British resident at Ava, and freedom of commerce. 
Oppression of the British merchants led to the second Burmese war ; Rangoon was taken by 
storm by general Godwin, April 14, 1852; and annexed to the British dominions in 
December following. 

RANSOME'S ARTIFICIAL STONE, the invention of Mr. Fred. Ransome, 1848, is 
made by dissolving common flint (silica) in heated caustic alkali, adding fine sand. The 
mixture is pressed into moulds and heated to redness. * 

RANTERS, a name given to a sect which arose in 1645, similar to the Seekers, now 
termed Quakers. It is now applied to the Primitive Methodists, who separated from the 
main body in 18 10. See Wesleyans. 

RAPE was punished by the Jews with death ; by mutilation and the loss of eyes in 
William I.'s reign. This was mitigated by the statute of Westminster i, 3 Edw. I. 1274. 
Made felony by stat. Westminster 2, 12 Edw. III. 1338 ; and without benefit of clergy. 



♦ On 
them "to 



Dec. 27, 1864, the queen wrote to the directors of the raUway companies of London, requesting 
be as careful of other passengers as of herself." 



RAP 613 EEA 

i8 Eliz. 1575. Kape made imnisliable by transportation iu 1841 ; by penal servitude for 
life or a less i)eriod, 1861. 

RAPHIA, a port of Palestine. Here Antiochus III. of Syria, was defeated by Ptolemy 
Pliiloiiater of Egypt, 217 B.C. 

RAPHOE (a bishopric in N. Ireland). St. Columb-kille, a man of great virtue and 
learning, and born of ro3\al blood, founded a monastery in this place, and it was aftervcards 
enlarged by other holy men ; but it is the received opinion that St. Eunan erected the church 
into a cathedral, and was tlie iirst bishop of this see in the 8tli century. Raplioe was united 
to the bisho])ric of Derry by act 3 & 4 Will. IV. 1833. See Bishops. 

RAPPAHANXOCK CASE. See Trials, 1865. 

RASP15ERRY is not named among the fruits that were early introduced into this 
country from the continent. The Virginian raspberry {Ruhus occidcntalis) before 1696, and 
the Howering raspberry {Rubus odoratus), about 1 700, came from North America. 

RASTADT. See Radstadt. 

RATHMIXES {near Dublin). Colonel Jones, governor of Dublin castle, made a sally 
out, routed the marquis of Ormond at Rathmines, killed 4000 men, took 2517 iirisoners, 
with their cannon, baggage, and ammunition, Aug. 2, 1649. 

RATIOKALISM, the doctrine of those who reject a divine revelation and admit no other 
means of acquiring knowledge but reason. The leading writers are Reimarus of Hamburg 
(died 1768), Paulus of Heidelberg, Eichhorn, Reiuhard, and Strauss. 

RATISBON (in Bavaria), was made a free imperial city about 1200. Several diets have 
been held here. A j)eace was concluded here between France and the empei'or of Germany 
by which was terminated the war for the Mantuan succession, signed Oct. 13, 1630. In 
later times, it was at Ratisbon, in a diet held there, that the German princes seceded from 
the Germanic empire, and placed themselves under the protection of the em25eror Napoleon 
of France, Aug. i, 1806. Ratisbon was made an archbishopric in 1806, but secularised iu 
1810. In 1815 it was ceded to Bavaria, and became again an archbishopTic in 1817. 

RAUCOUX (Belgium). Here marshal Saxe and the French army totally defeated the 
allies on Oct. 11, 1746. 

RAVAILLAC'S MURDER of Henry IV. of France, May 14, 1610.* 

RAVENNA (on the Adriatic), a city of the Papal states. It was founded by Greek 
colonists. It fell under the Roman power about 234 B.C. It was favoured and embellished 
by the emperors, and Honorius made it the capital of the Empire of the "West, about 
A.D. 404. In 568 it became the capital of an exarchate. It was subdued by the Lombards 
in 752, and their king, Astolphus, iu 754 surrendered it to Pepin, king of France, who gave 
it in 754 to the pope Stephen, and thus laid the foundation of the temporal power of the 
Holy see. On April 11, 15 12, a great battle was fought between the French under the great 
Gaston de Foix (duke of Nemours and nephew of Louis XII.), and the Spanish and Papal 
armies. De Foix perished in the moment of his victory, and his death closed the fortunes 
of the French in Italy. The confederate army was cut to pieces. The duke of Nemours had 
performed prodigies of valour, but being too eager in his pursuit of the Spaniards, who were 
retiring in good order, he was slain. HenauU. Ravenna became part of the kingdom of 
Italy in i860. 

READING (Berkshire). Here Alfred defeated the Danes, 871. The abbey was founded 
in 121 1 by Henry I. The last abbot was hanged in 1539 for denying the king's supremacy. 

REAPING-MACHINES. One was invented in this country early in the present 
century, but failed from its intricacies. McCormick's American machine was invented 
about 183 1, and perfected in 1846, and received a gold medal from the jurors of the Exhi- 
bition of 1851. Hussey's machine, also American, exhibited at the same time, was highly 
commended. 

* His punishment was most dreadful. He was carried to the Greve, and tied to the rack, a wooden 
engine in the .shape of St. Andrew's cross. His right hand, witliin which was fastened the knife with 
which he did tlie murder, was first burned at a slow fire. Then the flesh}' and most delicate parts of his 
body were turn witli red-hot pincers, and into the gaping wounds melted lead, oil, pitch, and rosin were 
poured. His body was so robust, that he endured this exquisite pain, and his strength resisted that of the 
four horses by which his limbs were tt> be pulled to pieces. The executioner, in consequence, cut him into 
quarters, and the spectators, who refused to pray for him, dragged him through the streets. 



KEA 



6U 



EEC 



REASON was decreed to be worshipped as a goddess by tlie French republicans, 
Nov. lo, 1793. Thomas Paine's " Age of Keason " was published in 1794-5. 

EEBECCA RIOTS. See Wales, 1843. 

REBELLIONS (or Insurrections) in British History. 
from the period of the Normau coiicpiest were the following :- 



Among the most memorable 



Against William the Conqueror, in favour of Edgar 
Atbeling, aided Ijy the Scots and Danes. 1069. 

By Odo of Bayeux and others, against Wilham II. in 
favour of his brother Robert, 1088. Extinguished, 

lOQO. 

Of the Welsh, who defeated the Normans and Eng- 
lish, commenced in 1095. 

In England, in favour of the empress Maude, 11 39. 
Ended, 11 53. 

The rebellion of prince Richard against his f;xther 

Henry II. ii8g. 
Of the Barons, April 1215. Compromised by the 
grant of Miirfna Charta, June 15 following. See 
Magna Charta. 

Of the Barons 1261. This rebellion termmated in 
1267. 

Of the lords spiritual and temporal against Edward 
II. on account of his favoiirftes, the Gavestons, 
1 31 2. Again, on account of the Spencers, 1321. 

Of Walter the Tyler, of Deptford, vulgarly called 
Wat Tyler, occasioned by the brutal rudeness of a 
poll-tax collector to his daughter. He killed the 
collector in his rage, and raised a party to oppose 
the tax itself, 1381. See Tyler. 

Of the duke of Gloucester, and other lords, in 
England, 1387. 

In Ireland, when Roger, earl of March, the viceroy 
and heir presumptive to the crown, was slain, 1398. 

Of Henry, duke of Lancaster, who caused Richard II. 
to be deposed, 1399. 

Rebellion of the English and Welsh, 1400-2. 

Against king Henry IV. by a number of confederated 
lords, 1403. 

Of Jack Cade, in favour of the duke of York, against 
Henry VI. 1450. See Cade'a lasv.rrectinn. 

In favour of the house of York, 1452, which ended 
in the imprisonment of Henry VI. and seating 
Edwai-d IV. of York on the throne, 1461. 

Under Warwick and Clarence, 1470, which' ended 
with the expulsion of Edward IV. and the restora- 
tion of Henry VI. the same year. 

Under Edward IV. 1471, which ended with the death 
of Henry VI. 

Of the earl of Richmond, against Richard III. 1485, 
which ended with the death of Richard. 

Under Lambert Simnel, who pretended to be 
Richard III.'s nephew, i486, which ended the 
same year in discovering that Simnel was a 
baker's son ; he was pardoned. 

Under Per'sin Warbeck, 1492, which ended in the 
execution of Warbeck. 

Under Thomas Flammook and Michael Joseph, in 
Cornwall, against taxes levied to pay the Scottish 
war expenses. They marched towards London, 
and lord Audley took the command at Wells. 



They were defeated at Blackhoath, June 22, and 
the three leaders were executed, June 28, 1497. 

Of the English in the West, to restore the ancient 
liturgy, &c., 1549 ; suppressed same year. 

In Norfolk, headed by Ket, the tanner, but soon 
suppressed, Aug. 1549. 

In favour of lady Jane Grey, against queen Mary. 
Lady Jane was proclaimed queen of England on 
the death of Edward VI. July 10, 1553; but she 
resigned the crown to Mary a few days after- 
wards : she was beheaded for high treason, in the 
Tower, Feb. 12, 1554, aged 17. 

Of sir Thomas Wyatt, the poet, and others, against 
queen Mary's marriage with Philip of Spain, &c., 
fails ; he is beheaded April 11, 1554. 

Of the Roman Catholic earls of Northumberland and 
Westmoreland against queen Elizabeth, Nov. and 
Dec. 1567. The former fled to Scotland, but was 
given up by the regent Murray and executed. 

Of the Irish, under the earl of Tyrone, 1599, sup- 
pressed in 1 60 1. 

Under the earl of Essex, against queen EUzabeth, 
1600 ; it ended in his death, 1601. 

Of the Irish under Roger More, sir Phelim O'Neil, 
&c., against the English in Ireland ; it ended in 
1651. 

Rebellion of the Scots, 1666 ; soon afterwards put 
down. 

Under the duke of Monmouth, 1685 ; it ended in 
his death. 

Of the Scots in favour of the Old Pretender, 1715 ; 

quelled in 1716. 
Of the Soots, under the Young Pretender, 1745 ; 
siippressed in 1746, when lords Lovat, Balmerino, 
an 1 Kilmarnock were beheaded. 
Of the Americans, on account of taxation, 1774. 
This rebellion led to a disastrous war, to the loss 
of our chief North American colonies, and to the 
independence of the United States, 1782. 

I In Ii-eland, called the Great Rebellion, when great 

I numbers took up arms, commenced May 24, 1798 ; 

I suppressed next year. 
Again in Ireland, under Robert Emmstt, a gifted 

1 enthusia.st, July 23, 1803, when lord Kilwarden was 

! killed with several others, by the insurgents. 

I Canadian Insurrection {which see), Dec. 1837 to Nov. 

183S. 
Of Chartists at Newport (rohich .9Cf), Nov. 4, 1839. 
Smith O'Brien's silly Irish rebellion ; terminated in 

I the defeat and dispersion of a multitude of his 

I deluded followers by sub-inspector Ti-ant and 

I about sixty police constables, on Boulagh com- 

I mon, Ballingary, co. Tijjperary, July 29, 1848. 
See Ireland. 

I Rebellion in India (see India), 1857-8. 



RECEIPTS FOR Money. Receipts were first taxed by a stamp-duty in 1783. The act 
was amended in 1 784, 1 79 1 ct scq. , and receipts were taxed by a duty varying according to 
the amount of the money received, in all transactions. Stamps reiiuired on bills of 
exchange, notes, and receipts in Ireland, by stat. 35 Geo. III. 1795. See Bills of Excliange. 
The uniform stamp of one penny on receipts, for all sums above 2I., was enacted by 
16 & 17 Viet. c. 59 (Aug. 4, 1853). See Stamps. 

RECIPROCITY TREATY between Great Britain and the United States, regulating the 
relation between the latter and Canada, in regard to trade, fisherie.s, &c., was negotiated 
by lord Elgin, and ratified Aug. 2, 1854. Its abrogation was proposed by the United States' 
government in 1864. 

RECITATIVE, a species of singing differing but little from ordinary speaking, and 



REC 



Gi; 



REF 



used foi" narratives in operas, is said to have been first employed at Rome by Emilio del 
Cavaliere, who disputed the claim of Rinuccini to the introduction of the Italian opera, 
1600. See Opera. It was soon afterwards adopted in other parts of Ital}^ and throughout 
Europe. 

RECORDER, the principal judicial officer of great corporations. The first recorder of 
London was Jeffrey de Norton, alderman, 1298; Russell Gurney, esq., Q.C., the PRESENT 
recorder, was elected in 1856. The salary, originally 10/. per annum, is now 2500^. 

RECORDS, Public, in England, began to be regularly preserved in iioo, by order of 
Henry I. The repositories which possessed materials the most ancient and interesting to the 
historian were, the Chapter-house of Westminster Abbey, the Tower of London, and tlie 
Queen's Remembi'ancer's offices of the exchequer. The early records of Scotland, going 
from London, were lost by shipwreck in 1298. In Ireland, the council-chamber and most 
of the records were burned, 171 1. Public Records act, 2 Vict. c. 94 (Aug. 10, 1838). — A 
new Record Office has been erected on the Rolls estate, between Chancery and Fetter- 
Lines, to which the records will be gradually removed. 

RECREATIOISr. See Playground. REDEMPTORISTS. See Liguorians. 

REDHILL. See Reformatory Schools. 

RED SEA. In 1826 Ehrenberg discovered that the colour was due to the presence of 
marine plants, which he named '^ Trichodesmium Erythrceum." 

REFLECTORS. See Burning-glass. 

REFORM IN Parliament, a chief source of agitation for many3'ears. Mr. Pitt's motion 
for a reform in parliament was lost by a majority of 20 in 1782, of 144 in 1783, and of 
74 in 1785. The first ministerial measure of Reform "was in earl Grey's administration, 
when it was proposed in the house of commons by lord John Russell, March i, 183 1. 



BILL OF 1831. 

First division ; second reading : for it. 302 ; agaiust 
it, 301 — majority, one, March 22. On motion for 
a committee, General G.isooj'ne moved an amend- 
ment, "that the number of representatives for 
England and Wales ought not to be diminished." 

Ameodment carried on a division, 299 to 291 — 
majority, eight, April 19. The bill was abandoned 
and parliament dissolved, April 22. 

A new parliament assembled, June 14. Bill again 
introduced, June 24. Division on s'-coiid reading : 
for it, 367 ; against it, 251 — majoi'ity, ii5, July 4. 
Division on ihinl reading of the bill : for it, 349 ; 
against it, 236 — majority, 113, Sept. 21. 

In the L0RD.S —first division on xecond reading ; lord 
WharnclifTe moved "that the bill be read that day 
si.'c months." For the amendment, 199; a,'ainst 
it, 158— majority, fortv-one, Oct. 8. [Parliament 
prorogued, Oct. 20, 1831.] 

BILL OF 1832.* 

Read in the Commons a. first time, without a division, 
December 12, 1831. Second reading; division, viz. : 
for the bill, 324 ; against it, 162 — majority, 162, 
Dec. 17, 1831. Third reading; division, viz. : for 
the bill, 355 ; against it, 239 — majority for it, 116, 
March 23, 1832. 

In the Lord.-) —read a first time on motion of earl 
Grey, March 26. Seroiid reading : for the bill, 184 ; 
against it, 175 — majority, nine, April 14. In the 
committee lord LyndUurst moved " that the ques- 



tion of enfranchisement should precede that of 
disfranchisement." The division was 151 and 116 
— majority against ministers, thirty-five, May 7. 

Resignation of ministers. May 9 ; great public excite- 
ment ensued, and they were induced to resume 
office on the king granting them full power to 
secure majorities, by the creation of new peers. 

In the Lords, the bill was carried through the com- 
mittee. May 30; read a t/iin? time : 106 .against 22 
— majority eighty- four, June 4 ; received the 
royal assent, June 7, 1832. 

Tlie royal assent given to the Scotch Reform Bill, 
July 17 ; and to the Irish one, Aug 7, 1832. 

Lord John Russell introduced a new re/onn. bill, 
Feb. 13, 1854, which w,is withdrawn, April n, 
1854, in consequence of the war with Russia. 

On Feb. 28, 1859, Mr. Disraeli brought in a reform 
biU, which was rejected by the commons on March 
31, by a majority of 39. This led to a dissolution of 
parliament, and eventually a change of ministry. 

The new government (lords Palmerston and J. Rus- 
sell) brought forward a new bill, Jil.u'ch i, i860 ; 
but withdrew it June 11. No reform bill was 
brought forward by the government 1861-65. See 
Commons, note. 

The discussion respecting Parliamentary Reform was 
revived in the autumn of iS64and 1865, in con- 
nection with the approaching elections, and 
various plans were proposed. Mr. Baines' re- 
form bill was rejected by the commons, May 8, 
1865. 



REFORMATION, The. Efforts for the reform ition of the church may be traced to the 
rei^n of Charlemagne, when Paulinus, bishop of Ai^uileia, employed his voice and pen to 
accomplish this object. The principal reformers were Wickliffe, Huss, Jerome of Prague, 
Savonarola, Luther, Zuinglius, Tyudal, Calvin, Melanchthon, Erasmus, Cranmer, Latimer, 



* By this " -Vet to amend the Represen^atim of the People in England and Wales " (2 & 3 Will. 4. c. 45), 
56 boroughs in England were disfranehisad (schedule .V ), 30 were reluccd to one member only(li.); 22 
new boroughs were created to send two members (C), and 20 to send one member (D ), and other important 
changes were made. 



KEF 



616 



REG 



Knox, and Browne. See WicMiffites, Protestants, Calvinists, Lutherans, Preshytcrianism, &c. 
The eras of the reformation are as follow : — 



In England (TricW(^e) 1360 

In Bohemia (Huss) 1405 

In Germany (Z,M(Aej-) 1517 

In Switzerland (Zuinpijus) 1519 

In Denmark 1521 

In Prussia 1527 

In France (Calvin), see Huguenots . . . 1529 
Protestants first so called ,, 



In Sweden (Petri) esso- 
in England (Henry VIII.) 1534 

In Ireland (Archbishop George Browne) . _ . 1535 
In England, completed (Cranmer, Bacer, Fagius, 
&c.), 1547 ; annulled by Mary, 1553 ; restored 

by Elizabeth 155S 

In Scotland (Knox), established .... 1560 
In the Netherlands, established . . . . 156^ 



EEFORMATORY SCHOOLS. The increasing number of juvenile delinquents* has 
long occupied the minds of philanthropists, and various schemes have been devised to check 
the evil. Two great institutions have been recently set uj) for this purpose ; the Reformatory- 
Schools at Mettray, near Tours in France, and Redhill, near Eeigate in Surrey. The former 
was established in 1839, by M. de Metz, formerly a councillor at Paris; warmly seconded iii 
his beneficent work by the vicomte de Courcelles, who gave the estate on which the 
establishment is jilaced. The latter is situated on land purchased in 1849 by the Philan- 
thropic Society, and was placed under the direction of the rev. Sydney Turner. The first 
stone of the building was laid April 30, 1849, by the prince consort. The inmates of these 
establishments are instructed in firm labour, and are divided into so-called families. In 
1854 the Juvenile Offenders act was passed. In 1851 and 1853 great meetings were held on 
the subject : and in Aug. 1856, the first grand conference of the National Reformatory Union 
was held. In 1852 the North- West London Preventive and Reformatory Institution, in the 
New Road, was established : in this, all kinds of trades are taught. Acts for establishing 
reformatory schools were passed in 1857 and 1858. In 1863 there were fifty-one reformatory 
schools in England, and nine in Ireland. In 1S65 an international exhibition of the works 
of these schools, at the Agricultural-hall, Islington, near London, was opened by the prince 
of Wales. 

REFRESHMENT HOUSES for the sale of wine, &c., are licensed in pursuance of an 
act passed in i860, amended in 1861. 

REGENCY BILLS. One was proposed to parliament in conseqiience of the mental 
illness of George III., and debated Dec. 10, 1788. It was relinquished on his majesty's 
recovery, Feb. 26, 1789. The return of the malady led to the prince of Wales (afterward.? 
George IV.) being sworn in before the privy coimcil as regent of the kingdom, Feb. 5, 1811. 
The Regency Bill providing for the administration of the government, should the crown 
descend to the princess Victoria while under eighteen }'ears of age, passed i Will. IV., Dec. 
23, 1830. A Regency Bill appointing prince Albert regent in the event of the demise of the 
queen, should her next lineal successor be under age, Aug. 4, 1840. 

REGENTS. See Protectorates. 

REGENT'S CANAL begun at Paddington, where it joins a cut to the Grand Junction, 
passes under JMaida-hill, continues its course by the Regent's-park to Islington, where 
another subterranean excavation, about three-quarters of a mile in length, has beeu formed 
for its passage. It then proceeds by Hoxton, Hackney, Mile-end, to Limehouse, where it 
joins the Thames. The whole length of it is nine miles ; it comprises twelve locks and 
thirty-seven bridges. Opened Aug. i, 1820. 

REGENT'S PARK, originally part of the grounds belonging to a palace of queen Eliza- 
beth, near to the north end of Tottenham court-road, pulled down in 1791. Since 1600, the 
property was let to various persons, but the leases having expired it reverted to the crown ; 
and in iS 14 great improvements were commenced under the direction of Mr. Nash. The 
park consists of about 450 acres : within it are the gardens of the Zoological Society and the 
Royal Botanical Society. 

REGGIO. See Rhegium. 

REGIMENTS of Infantry were formed in France about 1588. See Infantry. The 
following are the dates of the establishment of several of the British regiments : 



* It was calculated (about 1856) that there were in London 30,000, and in England 100,000 youths 
under 17 leading a vagabond life, and that out of 15,000 of those who were committed for trial nearly half 
were in custody for the first time. 



REG 



617 



REM 



REGIMENTS, continued 

CAVALRY. 

The Dragoon Guards, the Royal Irish, and the 
Scots Greys were formed by James II., 
about 1685-6 

Oxford Blues are erroneously said to have been 
formed in the reign of Henry VIII. ; they 
derive their name from their colonel, the 
earl of Oxford in i66i 

Three Indian regiments (19th, 20th, and 21st), 
added Aug. ,, 



INFANTRY. 

Coldstream Guards, established by Monk, in i66o' 

ist Royal 1633 

3rd Buffs 1660 

2nd Queen's Royal 1661 

4tli King's Own 1685 

Sth Northumberland Fusiliers .... 1685 

26th Cameroniaii 1689. 

looth Canadian 1858 

loist to 109th (Indian), added . . Aug. i86r 



The Highland regiments .are the 42nd, 71st, 72nd, 78th, 79th, 92nd, and 93rd. 

REGISTERS. The registering of deeds and conveyances disposing of real estates was 
appointed to be effected in York.shire and in Middlesex, 2 Anne, 1703, ct scq. By this 
regulation, greater security was made for purchasers and mortgagees ; and the value of estates 
increased in the register cotmties. Wilis have been for a series of years kept and registered, 
in London, at Doctors' Commons. See Wills. The registering of shipping in the Thames 
was commenced, 1786; and throughout England, 1787; and several acts and amendments, 
of acts have since followed for keeping and improving registers. See Revising Barristers. 

REGISTERS, Parochial, were established by Cromwell, lord Essex, by which the dates- 
of births, marriages, and burials, became ascertainable, 27 Hen. VIII. 1530-8. This measure 
was opposed by the people, who feared some new taxation. A stamp-tax was laid on them 
in 1784. Laws for their better regulation were enacted in 1813, et scq. The great Regis- 
tration act (introduced by lord John Russell), 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 86, passed Aug. 17, 1836. 
See Bills 0/ Mortality, &c. 

REGISTRATION of Voters was enacted by the Reform act, passed June, 1832. 

REGIUM DONUM (Royal gift), an allowance granted by the sovereign to dissenting- 
ministers in Ireland, began in 1672, and has since been greatly increased. Its acceptance 
has been censured by some nonconformists. 

REICHSRATH, the representative council of the empire of Austria, reconstituted by a 
decree, March 5; met on May 31, i860. In May, 1S61, the upper house consisted of 
17 spiritual, 55 hereditary, and 39 peers. Tlie lower house consisted of 136 elected deputies. 
No representatives came from Hungary, Transylvania, Venetia, the Ranat, Slavonia, Croatia, 
and Istria. The Reichsrath was abolished by a rescript, Sept. 2X, 1S65, with the view of 
restoring autonomy to Hungary and other provinces. 

REIGN OF TERROR. Maximilien Robespierre headed the populace in the Champ de 
Mars, in Paris, demanding the dethronement of the king, July 17, 1791. He was trium- 
phant in 1793. and great numbers of eminent men and citizens were sacrificed during his 
sanguinary administration. Billaud Varennes denounced the tyranny of Robespierre in the 
tribune, July 28, 1794. Cries of " Down with the tyrant ! " resounded through the hall ; 
and he was immediately ordered to the place of execution and suffered death. A large 
number of his companions were also executed. See France. This has been termed the Reel 
Terror. The re-action, disgraced by many atrocious acts of wanton cruelty, has been termed 
the White Terror. The Jesuits were conspicuous in the destruction of their adversaries. 

RELIGION (from religo, I bind again, in the sense of a vow or oath) comprehends a 
belief in the being and perfections of God, and obedience to his commandments. The 
Christian religion is set forth in the New Testament, which is the spirit and interpreter of 
the Old. Departure from these scriptures has been tlie origin of all corrujjt forms of religion, 
as foretold in them. See 3faho melanism, and other religions and sects under their names. 
The population of the glol^e with reference to religious worsliip, is given by Balbi (who 
assumed the total population to be 1,050,000,000), and Dieteriei (who assumed it to be 
1,288,000,000), as follows : 

BaUA (1S36). Dieteriei (1861). 
Idolaters, (fee. , not professing 
the Jewish, Christian, or 
Mahometan worship . 665,500,000 800,000,000 



Jews 
Christians 

Roman Catholics 
Mahometans . 



Balhl (1836). Dieteriei (1861). 

4,500,000 5,000,000 

. 225,000,000 335,000,000 

. 160,000,000 170,000,000 

. 155,000,000 160,000,000 



REMONSTRANCE, Thk Grand, was drawn up by the house of commons, and pre- 
sented to king Charles I., Dec. i, 1641. It consisted of 206 articles, and dwelt bitterly on 
all the king's illegal and oppressive acts. 

REMONSTRANTS. See Arminians. 



KEN 618 REV 

EENAISSANCE, a term applied to the revival of the classic style of art at the heginuing 
of the 1 6th century, niider the patronage of the Medici and others. See Painters and 
Sculptors. 

EENTS were first made payable in money, instead of in kind, 1135. Numerous statutes 
have been enacted in various reigns to define the relations and regulate the dealings between 
landlord and tenant. 8 & 9 Vict. c. 106 (1845) regulates leases. I3y the act 8 Anne, 1709, 
no goods are removable from tenements under an execution until tlie rent shall have been 
paid to the landlord by the sheriff, 1709. In England, the duke of Sutherland received liis 
rents in the value of corn, and in Scotland, in the value of wool and sheep. The rental of 
England, including land, houses, and mines, was 6,000,000?. about the year 1600, and twelve 
years' purchase the value of land. About 1690, the rental amounted to 14,000,000?., and the 
land was worth eighteen years' purchase. Davenant on the Revenues. The present rental 
of the United Kingdom has been estimated in the present century at 127,000,000?. See 
Land, &c. 

REPEAL OF THE Union, Ireland. An Irish association was formed with this object 
under the auspices of Mr. O'Connell, in 1829. 



A proclamntion of the lord-lieutenant pro- 
hibited the meetings of a society " leagued 
for the pvirpose of ijrocuring a repeal of the 
vinion, under the name of the Irish Society 
for Legal and Legislative Relief, or the Anti- 
Union Society " .... Oct. 18, 

The house of commons, by a majority of 484, 
reject Mr. O'Coiniell's motion for repeal, 



low, and Dundalk, on June 5, 8, 11, and 29 ; 
at Donnybrook and Baltinglass, July 3 and 
20 ; at Tara, Aug. 15 ; at Loughrea, Clifton, 
and Lismore, Sept. 10, 17, and 24; and at 

MuUaghmast Oct. i, 1843 

A meeting to be held at Clontarf, on Oct. 8, 
was prevented by government ; and Mr. 
O'Connell and his chief associates were 



A new association in 1841, 1842, and 1843 be- 
came more violent. Assemblies of the lower 
classes of the people were held in the last- 
named year, in various parts of Ireland, some 
of them amounting to 150,000 persons, and 
called " monster meetings." 

The great meeting at Trim took place on March 
19 ; other meetings were held at Mullingar, 
Cork, and Longford, on May 14, 21, and 28, 
respectively : at Drogheda, Kilkenny, Mal- 



April 27, 1S34 brought to trial for political consjjiracy, Jan. 



15, 1844, and convicted, Feb. 12 ; but the 
sentence was reversed by the house of lords, 
Sept. 4. See Trials. 

The association for the repeal of the union con- 
tinued for some time under the direction of 
Mr. John O'Connell, but was little regarded. 
The total " repeal rent "amounted to 134,379?. 

A fruitless attempt was made in Dublin to 
revive repeal agitation . . . Dec. 4, 



REPUBLICANS. See Democrats. REPUBLICS, ^e^ Athens, Rome, Genoa, Venice, &c. 

REQUESTS, Courts of. ^gq Court of Conscience. 

RESERVE FORCES. In the summer of 1859, acts were passed to i^rovide for the 
establishment of a military reserve force of men who have been in her majesty's service (not 
to exceed 20,000), and a volunteer reserve force of seamen not to exceed 30,000. 

RESTORATION, The, that of king Charles II. to the crown of England, after an inter- 
regnum of eleven years and four months, between Jan. 30, 1649, when Charles I. was 
beheaded, and May 29, 1660, wlien Charles II. was restored, and entered London amidst 
the acclamations of the people. 

RETREAT of the Ten TiiorsAXD Greeks, who had joined the army of the younger 
Cyrus in his revolt again.st his brother, Artaxerxes Mnemon. Cyrus was defeated and slain 
at Cunaxa, 401 B.C. Artaxerxes having enticed the Greek leaders into his power and killed 
them, Xenojjhon was called by his countrymen to the command. Under continual alarms 
from .sudden attacks, he led them across rapid rivers, through vast deserts, over the tops of 
mountains, till he reached the sea. The Greeks returned home after a march of 1155 para- 
sangs or leagues (3465 miles), which was performed in 215 days, after the absence of fifteen 
months. This retreat has been immortalised by the account given by its conductor. 

REUSS-GREIZ and REUSS-SCIILEIZ, two principalities in Central Germany, with, 
a united population of 121,200. The reigning family sprang from Ekbert, count of Osterode, 
in the lotli century. The princely dignity was conferred by the emjieror Sigismond 
in 1426. 

1856. Reigning prince of Reuss-Schleiz, Henry LXIX. I 1859. Reigning prince of Rouss-Greiz, Henry XXII. 
Sept. 16; bom May 19, 1792. | Nov. 8 ; born March 28, 1846. 

REVELATION. See Apocalypse. 



REV 



619 



REV 



REVENUE, Public, of England. The revenue collected for the civil list, and for 
all the other cliarges of government, as well ordinary as extraordinarj', was 1,200,000/. per 
annnni, in 1660, the first after the restoration of Charles II. in 1690 was raised 6,ooo,oooZ., 
every branch of the revenue being anticipated ; this was the origin of the funds and the 
national debt, 2 William and Maiy. Salmon. The revenue laws were amended in 186 1. 

GENERA.I. VIEW OF THE PUBLIC REVENUE SINCE THE CONQUEST. 



William I. 


£400,000 


Henry VI. , 


. £ 64,976 


William III. . 


£3,895,205 


Williiim Rufus . 


330,000 


Edward IV. 


* * * 


Anne (at the Union) . . 


5,691,803 


Heiirv I. 


300,000 


Edward V. . 


100,000 


George I. . , . 


6,762,643 


Stophuii . 


250,000 


Richard III. 


130,000 


George II 


8,522,540 


Houry II. 


200,000 


Henry VII. . 


400,000 


George III., 1788 . 


15,572,971 


Richard I. . 


150,000 


Henry VIII. . 


800,000 


,, 1800, about 


38,000,000 


.lohn 


100,000 


Edward VI. . 


400,000 


United Kingdom, 1820 . 


65,599,570 


Homy III. 


80,000 


Mary . 


450,000 


George IV., 1825 . . 


62,871,300 


Kdwai-d I. , 


150,900 


Elizabeth 


500,000 


WilUam IV., 1830 . 


55,431,317 


Edw.ard 11. 


100,000 


James I. . 


600,000 


1835 . . 


50,494,732 


Edward HI. . 


154,000 


Charles I. 


895,819 


Victoria, 1845, net , 


53,060,354 


Richard II. 


130,000 


Commonwealth 


•• 1,517,247 


„ 1850 . . . 


52,810,680 


Henry IV. . 


100,000 


Charles II. . 


. 1,400,000 


„ 1853 


54.430.344 


Henry V. . 


76,643 


James II. . 


. 2,001,855 









Revenue. 


Expenditure. 




Kcvenue. 


Expenditure. 


1855, net 
1856 

1857 . 

1858 . . . 


£63,364,605 
68,008,623 
66,056,055 
61,812,525 


£65,692,962 
88,428,345 
75.588,667 
68,128,859 


1 1859, gross . 
i860 . . . 

1863 . 

1864 . . . 
186s . 


£65,477,284 
71,089,669 
70,603,561 
70,208,964 
70,313,436 


£64,663,882 
69,502,289 
69,302,008 
67,056,286 



Monthly Review 


. 1749 


Quarterly 


. i8og 


Westminster . 


1824 


Critical 


• 1756 


Eclectic 


. 18.3 


Southern America . 


1828 


Anti-Jacobin . 


• 1798 


North American 


. 1815 


Dublin . . . 


1836 


Edinburgh . 


. 1802 


Retrospective 


. 1820 


North British , 


1844 



Surpliis, on the year ending June 30, 1865, 2,496,849?. 

Previously to 1854 there had been an average surplus of 2,500,000?. since 1849. ^" consequence of the 
Russian war the deficiency in 1S54 was 3,209,059?. ; in 1855, 21,141,183'-. ; in 1856, 10, 104,412?. In 1857 there 
was a surplus of 36,097?. ; in 1858, of 1,127,657?. ; in 1859 ^ deficiency of 2,019,584?. 

REVIEWS. The Journal d's S^avans, publLslied on Jan. 5, 1665, by Denis de Salo, 
under the name of Hedouville, was the parent of critical .journals. It was soon imitated 
throughout Europe, and was itself translated into various languages. It is still published. 
George III. spoke of this publication to Dr. Johnson, in the private interview with which 
he wa-s honoured by his majesty, in the library of the queen's house, in Feb. 1767. Boswell. 
The Bibliothique Anglaise came out in 1716-27. For Military Reviews, see Volunteers. 

British Quarterly . 1844 

National . . . 1855 

Saturday . . . ,, 

Fortnightly . . 1865 

REVISING BARRISTERS' COURTS, to examine the lists of voters for members of 
parliament, were instituted by the Reform bill of 1832. 

REVIVALS on the subject of religion arose in the United States in 1857. In the 
nutunin of 1859, they began in Scotland, the north of Ireland (particularly Belfast), and 
England. Many meetings were lield for prayers and preaching throughout the week, as well 
as on Sundays. 

REVOLUTIONS :— 

The Assyrian empire destroyed, and that of the 
-Modes and Persians founded by Cyrus the 
Great B.C. 536 

The Macedonian empire founded on the destruc- 
tion of the Persian, by the defeat of Darius 
Codomanus, by Alexander the Groat . . 331 

The Roman empire established on the ruins of 
the republic by JuUus Ca;s.ar .... 47 

The empire of the Western Franks begvm under 
Charlemagne a.d. 800 

In Portugal 1640 

In England 1649 and 1688 

In Poland .... 1704, 1795, and 1830 

lu Russia 1730 and 1762 



In Sweden 1772 and i8og 

In North America 1775 

In Fraijce . . . 1789, 1830, 1848, and 1851 

In Holland, 1795 ; counter-revolution . . . 1813 

In Venice 1797 

In Rome 1798 and 1848 

In the Netherlands 1830 

In Brunswick ,, 

In Brazil 1831 

In Hungary 1848 

In Italy 1859 and i860 

In United States 1860-5 

[See the countries respectively.] 



REV 620 RIG 

REVOLVERS. See Pistols. 

RHEGIUM (now REGGIO), S. Italy, a Greek colony, flourished in tlie 5tli century, B.C. 
It was held by the Campanian legion, 281-271, afterwards severely punished for its rebellion. 
Reggio was taken by Garibaldi, Aug. i860. 

RHEIMS (ISr. France). The principal church here was built before 406 ; it was rebuilt 
in the 12th century, and is now very beautiful. The cor[ise of St. Remy, the archbishop, is 
preserved behind the high altar, in a magnificent shrine. The kings of France were crowned 
at Rheims ; probably because Clovis, the founder of the French monarchy, when converted 
from paganism, was baptized in the cathedral in 496. Several ecclesiastical councils have 
been held here. The city was taken and retaken several times in the last months of the 
French war, 18 14. 

RHETORIC. Rhetorical points and accents were invented by Aristophanes of 
Byzantium, 200 B.C. Rhetoric was first taught in Latin at Rome by Photius Gallus, about 
87 B.C. He taught Cicero, who said, "We are first to consider what is to be said; secondly, 
how ; tliirdly, in what words ; and lastly, how it is to be ornamented." A regius professor of 
rhetoric M'as api^ointed in Edinburgh, April 20, 1762, when Dr. Blair became first professor. 

RHINE. This river was fortified as the frontier of the Roman empire, 298 and 369, and 
became the boundary of the French republic in 1794. See Confederation. 

RHODE ISLAND (N. America), settled about 1635, was taken in the war of inde- 
pendence by the British, Dec. 8, 1776 ; but was evacuated by them, Oct. 25, 1779- 

RHODES, an island on the coast of Asia Minor, is said to have been peopled from Crete, 
as early as 916 B.C. The Rhodians were famous navigators, masters of the sea, and 
institutors of a maritime code which was afterwards adopted by the Romans. The city was 
built about 432 and flourished, 300-200 B.C. • See Colossus. Rhodes, long an ally of the 
Romans, was taken by the emperor Vespasian, A.D. 71. It was held by the Knights 
Hospitallers from 1309 to 1522, when it was conquered by the Turks, who still retain it. 
The knights retired to Malta {which see), Rhodes suflfered severely by an earthquake on 
April 22, 1863. 

RHODIUM, a rare metal, discovered in platinum ore, by Dr.Wolla.ston in 1804. It has 
been used for the points of metallic jiens. 

RIALTO, Bridge of the, at Venice (mentioned by Shakspeare in his ^' Merchant oj 
Venice "), built about 1590, consists of a marble arch across the Grand Canal, 90 feet wide 
and 24 feet high. 

RIBBONISM, a term given to the principles of a secret society in Ireland, organised 
about 1820, to retaliate on landlords any injuries done to their tenants, not scrupling even 
at assassination. To the ribbonmen are attributed many of the agrarian murdei-s. 

RICHMOND (Surrey), anciently called Sheen, which in the Saxon tongue signifies 
res2)lendcnt. Here stood a palace in which Edward 1. and II. resided, and Edward III. died, 
1377. Here also died Anne, queen of Richard II. The palace was repaired by Henry V., 
who founded three religious houses near it. In 1497 it was destroyed by fire ; but Henry VII. 
rebuilt it, and commanded that the village should be called Richmond, he having borne the 
title of earl of Richmond (Yorkshire) before he obtained the crown ; and here he died in 
1509. Queen Elizabeth was a prisoner in this palace for a short time during the reign of her 
sister. When she became queen, it M'as one of her favourite places of residence ; and here 
she died, March 24, 1603. It was afterwards the residence of Henry, prince of Wales. The 
beautiful park and gardens were enclosed by Charles I. The observatory was built by sir W. 
Chambers in 1769. In Richmond, Thomson "sang the Seasons and their change ;" and died 
Aug. 27, 1748. — Richmond (Virginia) became the capital of the southern confederate states. 
The congress adjourned from Montgomery, Alabama, to Richmond, where it met July 20, 
1861. After a siege of 1452 days and many desperate battles Richmond was evacuated by 
the confederates, April 2, 1865. See United Slates. 

RIFLE CORPS. See National Association and Fire-arms. 

RIGHTS, Bill of, one of the bulwarks of the constitution, obtained by parliament from 
king Charles I., although he had endeavoured by various artifices to avoid granting it, 
June 26, 1628. To the Petition of Rights, preferred March 17, 1627-8, his majesty 
answered, " I will that right be done, according to the laws and customs of the realm." 
Both houses addressed the king for a fuller answer to their petition of rights, whereupon he 
gave them an answer less evasive, ^' Soil fait comme il est desire,'' June 7, 1628. An 



RliM 



G21 



RIO 



important declaration was made by the lords and commons of England to the prince and 
jniiicess of Orange on Feb. 13, 1689, in an act "declaring the rights and liberties of the 
subject, and settling the succession of the crown." 

EIMNIK, near Martinesti, "Wallachia. Here the Anstrians and Enssinns, under prince 
Coburg and Suwarrow, gained a great victory over the Turks, Sejit. 22, 1789. 

EINDERPEST, German for cattle-plague [ivhich see) 

RINGS anciently had a seal or signet engraved on them, to seal writings, and they are 
so used to this day. In Genesis xli. 42, it is said that Pharaoh gave Joseph his ring. 
Rings are now put upon women's fourth iinger at marriage ; but the tirst use of rings by the 
Jews was at the espousal or contract before marriage. 

RIO JANEIRO (S. America) was made capital of the empire of Brazil in 1807. 

RIOTS, in British History. The riotous assembling of twelve or more persons, and 
their not dispersing upon proclamation, was first made high treason by a statute enacted 
2 & 3 Edw. VI. 1548-9. The present Riot Act was passed i Geo. I. 1 7 14. See bcloiv. 



Some riotous citizens of London demolished the 
convent belonging to Westminster abbey ; the 
ringleader was hanged, and the rest had their 
hands and feet cut off, 6 Hen. III. 1221. 

Goldsmiths' and Tailors' companies fonght in the 
streets of London ; several were killed ; the 
sheriffs quelled it, and thirteen were banged, 1262. 

A riot at Norwich ; the rioters burn the cathedral 
and monastery; the king went thither, and saw 
the ringleaders executed, 1271. 

Riot of Evil May-day {which see), isi?. 

Dr. Lamb killed by the mob, June, 1628. 

A riot on pretence of pulling down houses of ill- 
fame ; several of the ringleaders hanged, 1668. 

Another, at Guildhall, at the election of sheriffs ; 
several considerable persons who seized the lord 
mayor were concerned, 1682. 

At Edinburgh and Dumfries, on account of the 
Union, 1707. 

In Londijn, on account of Dr. Sacheverel's trial ; 
several dissenting meeting-houses were broken 
open, Feb. 1710. 

Riot of the Whig and Tory mobs, called Ormoud and 
Newcastle mobs, 171 5. 

The Mug-house riot, in Salisbury-court, between the 
Whigs and Tories. The riot quelled by the guards. 
Five rioters hanged, July, 1716. 

Of the Siiitalfields weavers, on accoimt of employing 
workmen come over from Ireland. Quelled by 
the military, but many lives lost, 1736. 

Porteous riot at Edinburgh (see Porteoins), 1736. 

The nailers in Worcestershire march to Birmingham, 
and make terms with the ii-on-merchants there, 

1737- 

Of sailors who were robbed and ill-used at a house 
of ill-fame in the Strand ; being assisted by a 
large body, they pulled down the house and 
destroyed the furniture of several other houses, 
turning the women naked into the streets, 1749. 

Of the Spitiilfields weavers ; the duke of Bedford 
narrowly escaped death ; many lives lost, 1765. 

A mob in St. George's Fields, to see Mr. Wilkes in 
the King's Bench prison ; the military aid indis- 
creetly called for by the justices of the peace, and 
several innocent persons, particularly young 
Allen, fired upon, and kiUed, 1768. 

Gord<m's " Jfo Popery" riots, 1780. 

At Birmingham, on account of commemorating the 
French revolution, July 14, 1791, when several 
houses were destroyed. 

In various parts of Scotland, on account of the 
Militia act, Aug. 1797, when several were killed. 

At Maidstone, at the trial of Arthur O'Connor and 
others, May 22. 1798; the earl of Th.anet, Mr. 
Ferguson, and others, were active in endeavouring 
to rescue O'Connor, for which they were ti-ied and 
convicted, Aj^ril 25, 1799. 

At Liverpool, occasioned by a quarrel between a 
party of dragoons and a press-gang, June 27, 1809. 

O.r. riot (ichich S'e) at Covent-gardon, Sept. 1809. 



In Piccadilly, in consequence of the hovise of com- 
mons committing sir Francis Burdett to the 
Tower, April 6, 18 10. 

At Sheffield, during which 800 muskets belonging to 
the local militia were destroyed, April 14, 1812. 

Machinery destroyed by rioters at Nottingham from 
Nov. iSii to Jan. 1812. 

In various parts of the north of England, by the 
Luddites, during 1811 and 1812. 

At the Theatre Royal, Dublin, on accoimt of the 
celebrated Dog of Moniargis, several nights, Dec. 
1814. 

Alarming riots at Westminstei-, on account of the 
Corn Bill; they lasted several days, March, 1815. 

At the depot at Dartmoor, in quelling which seven 
Americans were killed, and thirty-five wounded, 
April, 1815. 

Popular meetings at Spa-fields, when the shops of 
the gunsmiths were attacked for arras. Mr. Piatt 
shot in that of Mr. Beckwith on Snow-hill, Dec. 2, 
1816. Watson ti'ied for high treason, but acquitted, 
Jiuie, 1817. 

In the park, on the prince-regent going to the house, 
in which an air-gun was fired at him, Jan. 28, 1817. 

At Manchester, at a popular meeting, March 3, 1817. 

Affray at Manchester, called the " Field of Peterloo,' 
Aug. 16, 1819. See Manchester Reform Meeting. 

At the Theatre Royal, Dublin, of several nights' 
duration, 1819. 

Riot at Paisley and Glasgow ; many houses plun- 
dered, Sept. 16, 1819. 

At Edinburgh, on the acquittal of queen Caroline, 
Nov. ig, 1820. 

In London, at the funeral of the queen, through the 
military opposing the body being carried through 
the city, Aug. 14, 1821. 

At Kniglitsbridge, between the military and the 
populace, on the funeral of Honey and Francis, 
Aug. 26, 1821. 

At the Theatre in Dublin ; the riot called the 
"Bottle Coii<ipiraci/," against the marquess Wel- 
lesley, lord-lieutenant, Dec. 14, 1822. 

Riot at Ballybay ; Mr. Lawless was arrested, Oct. 9, 
1828. 

Riot at Limerick ; the provision-warehouses plun- 
dered and mischief done, June 15, 1830. 

Fatal affrays at Castlei>ollard, May 23, 1831 ; and 
Newtonbarry (which fee), June 18, 1S31. 

Alarming riots at Merthyr-Tydfil, among the iron- 
workers, several of whom, fired on by the military, 
were killed and wounded, June 3, 1831. 

Riot at the Forest of Dean, June 8, 1831. See Dean. 

Nottingham castle burnt by rioters, Oct. 10, 1831. 

Reform riots at Bristol (see Bristol), Oct. 29, 1831. 

Affray at Castleshock, comity Kilkenny, when 
a number of police, attacked by the populace, 
were, with their commander, Mr. Gibins, killed. 
Doc. 14, 1831. 

Riot at Boughton, near Canterbury, produced by a 
body of persons called Thoiniles, headed by a 



EIO 



622 



EOR 



RIOTS, continued. 

fanatic named Tliom, or Courtenay, who with 

others, was killed, May 31, 1838. See Thomites. 
Great riots throughout the country, occasioned by 

the Chartists. Suppressed by proclamation, 

Dec. 12, 1838. 
Eiots in Birmingham, when much mischief ensued, 

July 15, 1839. See Birmwgham.. 
Chartist riot at Newport (which see), Nov. 4, 1835. 
Meditated Chartist outbreak at Sbeffield. with most 

destructive objects, providentially discovered, and 

many persons arrested, Jan. 11, 1840. 
Rebecca riots against turnpikes in Wales, in 1843. 
Chartist demonstration (see Chartista), April 10, 1848. 
Fatal affray at Dolly's Brae, near Castlewellan, in 

Ireland, between the Orangemen and the Roman 

Catholics ; several of the latter lost their lives, and 

some of their houses were ransacked and burnt, 

July 12, 1849. 
Serious riots at Yarmouth, through a dispute 

between the shipowners and the seamen, Feb. 23, 

1851. 
Eiots occasioned by a procession of Orangemen at 

Liverpool, and several lives lo.st, July 14, 1851. 
Riot at Stockport, Cheshire ; two Catholic chapels 

destroyed and houses burnt, June 29, 1852. 
Fierce religious riots at Belfast, in Ireland, occur, 

July 14, 1852. 



Fatal election riot at Six-mile- Bridge, in the county 

of Clare, in Ireland ; five persons shot dead by the 

military, July 22, 1852. See Six-mile- Brut fie. 
Riots at Wigan, among the coal-miners, suppressed 

by the military without loss of life, Oct. 28, 1853. 
Bread riots at Liveipool, Feb. 19, 1855. 
Riots at Hyde Pai-k, about Sunday Bill, July, 1S55 ; 

about dearness of bread, Oct. 14, 21, 28, 1855. 
Riots at Belfast through the open-air preaching of 

the rev. Hugh Hanna, Sept 6, 13, 20, 1857. 
Religious riots at St. George's in the East, London, 

on Sundays in Sept. and Nov. 1859. 
Break out of the convicts at Chatham, suppressed 

by the military, Feb. 11, i86i. 
Violent riots at Belfast begin, through an Orange 

demonstration, Sept. 17, 1862. 
Fierce rioting (caused by the Irish against the 

favourers of Garibaldi) at Hyde Park, Loudon, 

Sept. 28 and Oct. 5 ; and at Birkenhead, Cheshire, 

Oct. 8 and 15, 1862. 
Rioting at Staleybridge (on account of the mode of 

relief to unemployed cotton-workers), princip.ally 

Irish, put down by the military, March 21, 1863. 
Fierce conflicts between Romanists and Protestants 

at Belfast ; 9 persons killed and about 150 injured, 

Aug 10-27, 1864. 

See Rebellions. 



RIPON (Yorkshire), an ancient town. Abont 661 an abbey cell was built here by Eata. 
Ripon was made a bi.shopric by archbishop Wilfred in 690, but did not endure so. It suffered 
much by the ravages of the Danes, the Normans (1069), and the Scots (1319 and 1323). The 
present see was erected Oct. 1836, out of the archdeaconry of York iu the West Riding. 
Income, 4500Z. 

BISHOPS. 



Charles Thomas Longley, translated to Dur- 
ham in 1856. 



1856. Robert Bickersteth (present bishop). 



ROAD MURDER. On the night of June 29-30, i860, Francis Savile Kent, four years 
old was murdered, and his body hid in a garden water-closet. His sister Constance Kent 
(ao'ed sixteen), and the nurse Elizabeth Gough, the first suspected, after several examinations, 
were discharged for want of evidence. The coroner was severely blamed for charging the 
jury improperly, but the court of Queen's Bench, in Jan. 1861, refused to issue a writ for a 
new inquiry. Constance Kent, on April 25, 1865, before sir Thomas Henry at Bow-street, 
and on July 21, following, at her trial at Salisbury, confessed herself to be guilty of the 
murder. Her punishment was commuted to penal servitude for life. 

ROADS OF England. The first general repair of the highwaj^s of this country was 
directed about 1285. Acts were passed for the purpose in 1524 and 1555, followed by others 
in Elizabeth's and succeeding reigns. Roads through the Highlands of Scotland were begun 
by General Wade in 1746. Loudon M'Adam's roads were introduced about 1818 ; he pre- 
scribes the breaking of stones to six ounces weight, and calculates the expense of breaking 
stones at a shilling a ton ; clean flints and granite clippings answer best. Wooden pave- 
ments were tried with partial success in the streets of London ; at Whitehall in 1839, and 
in other streets in 1840. Asphalt pavement soon after. See Roman Roads and Wooden 
Pavements. An act "for the better management of the highways " was passed in 1862, 
after much opposition. See M'Adam. 

ROASTING ALIVE. An early instance is that of Bocchoris, king of Egypt, by order 
of Sabacon of Ethiopia, 737 B.C. Le7iglet. Sir John Oldcastle, lord Cobham, was thus put 
to death in 1418, and M. Servetus for heresy at Geneva, in 1553. See Burning Alive and 
Martyrs. 

ROBBERS. First punished Avith death by Edmund I.'s laws, which directed that the 
eldest robber should be hanged. Remarkable robbers were Robin Hood, in England, 1189 
(see Robin i/ooc?), and Claud Du Val, "executed at Tyburn, " says an historian, quaintly, 
" to the great grief of the women, " Jan. 1670. In Ireland, the famous Mac Cabe was hanged 
at Naas, Aug. 19, 1691. Galloping Hogan, the rapparee, flourished at this period. Freney, 
the celebrated highwayman, surrendered himself, May 10, 1749. The accomplished 
Barriugton was transported, Sept. 22, 1790. See Trials. 



ROB 



023 



ROH 



ROBIN HOOD, captain of a band of robbers, in Sherwood forest, Nottinghamshire. 
Some assert tliat he was the earl of Huntingdon, disgraced and banished the court by 
Ricliard I. at his accession (1189). Rofcin Hood and Little John and their band are said to 
have continued their depredations till 1247, when Robin died. Slow. 

"ROBINSON CRUSOE," by Daniel De Foe, first appeared in 1719. 

ROCHELI.E (W. France), a sea-port on the Atlantic, belonged to the English for some 
time, but finally surrendered to the French leader, Du Guesclin, in 1372. It became a 
stronghold of the Calvinist party, and was vainly besieged by the duke of Anjou in 1573. 
It was taken after a siege of thirteen months by cardinal Richelieu in 1628. "The duke of 
Buckingham was sent with a fleet and army to relieve it ; but the citizens declined to 
admit him. A conspiracy hero in 1S22 caused loss of life to sergeant Bories and others. 

ROCHESTER, in Kent, an ancient city, built by the Romans and called Durohrivis. 
The bishopric, founded by Augustin, 604, is the next in age to Canterbury. The first 
cathedral was erected by Ethelbert, king of Kent. St. Justus was bishop in 604 ; alterations 
were made in the diocese in 1845. Rochester is valued in the king's books at 358?. 35. 2\d. 
per annum. Present income, 5000?. 



KECENT BISHOPS. 



1793. Samuel ITorslcy, trans, to St. Asaph's, 1S02. 
1802. Thomas Dampier, translated to Ely, 1808. 
i8og. .Walter King, died Feb. 22, 1827. 



1827. Hugh Percy, translated to Carlisle, Oct. 27. 
1827. George Murray, died Feb. 16, i860. 
i860. Joseph Cotton Wigram (present bishop). 



ROCKETS, destructive war implements, were invented by sir William Congreve about 
1803. The carcase-rockets were first used at Boulogne, Oct. 8, 1806, when they set the town 
on fire, their powers having been previously demonstrated in the presence of Mr. Pitt and 
several of the cabinet ministers, 1806. Improved rockets were made by Hales in 1846. 

ROCKINGHAM ADMINISTRATIONS. 

FIRST ADMINISTRATION, July, 1765 tO Aug. I766. 

Charles, marquess of Rockingham, first lord of the 

treasuri/. 
■William Dowdeswell, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Earl of Winohelsea and Nottingham, lord president. 
Duke of Newcastle, priry seal. 
Earl of Northington, lord chancellor. 
Duke of Portland, lord chamberlain. 
I Duke of Rutland, master of the horse. 
Lord Talbot, lord steward. 
Henry Seymour Conway and the duke of Grafton, 

secretaries of state. 
Lord Egmont, admiralty. 
Marquess of Granby, ordnance. 
Viscount Barrington, secretary- at-war. 
Viscount Howe, treasurer of the navy. 
Charles Townshend, paymaster of the forces. 



Earl of Dartmouth, first lord of trade. 
Lords Besborough and Grantham, lord Johrt 
Cavendish, Thomas Townshend, &c. 

SECOND ADMINISTRATION, March to July 2, 1782, 
when the marquess died. 
Marquess of Rockingham, /)•.«« lord of the treasury. 
Lord John Cavendish, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Lord Camden, presklent of the council. 
Duke of Grafton, privy seal. 
Ijord Thurlow, lord chancellor. 

WiUiam, earl of Shelburne and Charles James Fox 
secretaries of state. ' 

Augustus Ke'ppel, first lord of the admiralty. 
Duke of Richmond, master-general of the ordnance. 
Thomas Townshend, secretary-at-war. 
Isaac Barr^, Edmund Burke, (fee. 



ROCROY (N. France). Here, May 19, 1643, the Spaniards were totally defeated by the 
French, commanded by the great Conde. 

RODNEY'S VICTORIES. Admiral Rodney fought, near Cape St. Vincent, the Spanish 
admiral, Don Langara, whom he defeated and made prisoner, capturing si.x of his ships, one 
of which blew up, Jan. 16, 1780. On April 12, 1782, he encountered the French fleet in the 
"West Indies, commanded by the count de Grasse, took five ' ships of the line, and sent the 
French admiral prisoner to England : Rodney was raised to the peerage, June, 1782. 

ROGATION WEEK. Rogation Sunday received its title from the Monday, Tuesday, 
and Wednesday following it, called Rogation days, derived from the Latin rogare, to- 
beseech.* 

ROHILLAS, an Affghan tribe, who emigrated from Cabul at the end of the 17th century, 
and established themselves in the eastern parts of Delhi. They were defeated by the English 
in 1774, and nearly exterminated by the sovereigns of Oude ; and after a struggle finally 
subdued by the English in 1849. 

* Extraordinary prayers and supplications for these three days are said to have been appointed in the 
third century, as a preparation for the devout observance of our Saviour's ascension on the next day suc- 
ceedinir to them, denominated Holy Thursday or A.scensiou-day. The whole week in which tlie.se dav.s 
happen is styled Rogation week ; and in some parts it is still known by the other names of Crop week 
Grass week, and Procession week. The perambulations of parishes have usually been made in this week! 



EOL 



624 



ROM 



ROLLS. See Master of the Rolls, and Records. 

ROLLS' CHAPEL (London), founded by Henry IlL, in 1233, for ordaining Jewish 
rabbis converted to Christianity. On tlie banishment of the Jews, the buildings now called 
the Rolls, and the chapel, were annexed by patent to the office of the keeper or master of 
the rolls of Chancery, from which circumstance they took their name. A number of public 
records from the time of Richard IIL were kept in presses in this chapel. 

ROMAGXA, a province of the Papal States, comprised in the legations of Forli and 
Ravenna. It was conquered by the Lombards ; but taken from them by Pepin, and given 
to the pope, 753. C?esar Borgia held it as a duchy in 1501, but lost it in 1503. In 1859 
the Romagna threw off the temporal authority of the pope, and declared itself subject to the 
king of Sardinia, who accepted it in March, i860. It now forms part of the province of 
-iEmilia, in the new kingdom of Italy. Population (1S60) 1,014,582. See Rome. 

ROMAINVILLE and Belleville, heights near Paris, where Joseph Bonaparte, Mortier, 
and Marmont were defeated by the allies after a vigorous resistance, March 30, 1814. The 
next day Paris capitulated. 

ROMAN CATHOLICS, called also Romanists and Papists. Their religion was the 
established one till the Reformation. Since then many laws were made against them, which 
have been repealed.* See Religion. 



Bishop Fisher, sir Thomas More, and others, 

executed for denying the king's supremacy . 1535 
Cathohcs absolved from their allegiance to the 
king by Paul III. 1535 : by. Pius V. . . 1570 

They rebel in 1549 and 1567 

The Gunpowder Plot (t'7iic/( sec) .... 1605 
They suffer by Oates's fictitiovis popish plot . 1678 
They are excluded from the throne . . . 1689 
They suffer by the Gordon riots . June, 1780 
Various disabilities removed in . 1780 and 1791 
Mr. Pitt proposes measures for their relief, 

which he gives up 1801-4 

Eoman Catholic Association organised in Ire- 
land, with the object of removing the political 
and civil disabilities of Roman Catholics . 1824 
Bills in their favour frequently brought in with- 
out effect from 1813 to 1828 

An act of parliament passed for the suppression 
of tbe Catholic Association, March 5, 1829 ; 
but it voted its own dissolution, Feb. 12, 
preceding. 
The duke of Wellington and sir Robei-t Peel 
carry the great Catholic emancipation bill 
(10 Geo. IV. c. 7) in the commons, March 30 ; 
in the lords, April lo ; it receives the royal 

assent April 13, 1829 

The duke of Norfolk and lords Dormer and 
Clifford, the first Roman CathoUc peers, take 

their seats April 28, ,, 

The first English member returned, the earl of 
Surrey for Horsham . . . May 4, „ 



Mr. O'Connell elected for Clare, takes his se^it 
(first Roman Catholic M.P. since 1689), Aug. 1829 

Mr. Alexander Raphael the first Roman 
Catholic Sheriff of London . . Sept. 28, 1834 

Sir Michael O'Loghlon, the first Roman Catholic 
judge (as Master of the Rolls in Ireland), 
appointed Oct. 30, 1836 

Mr. O'Connell elected first Roman Catholic 
lord mayor of Dublin 1841 

The " Faisal Aggression " (wAicA fee); cardinal 
Nicholas Wiseman ajipoiuted archbishop of 
Westminster Sept. 30, 1850 

Agitation in favour of the pope . . 1860-2 

[In 1851 there were in England 570 Roman 
Catholic chapels with 186,111 sittings. — The 
Roman Catholic Church in Ireland consists 
of four archbi.shops, 24 bishops, and (in 1854) 
2291 priests ; there are numerous monasteries 
and convents.] 

Roman Catholic university founded at Dmm- 
condra, Ireland Jvily 20, 1862 

Roman Catholic chaplains permitted for gaols, 
by Prison Ministers Act . . . July, 1863 

Serjeant Wm. Shee made a justice of the 
Queen's Bench, the first Roman Catholic judge 
since the Reformation . . Dec. 15, ,, 

Death of Cardinal Wiseman, aged 63; 7th Eng- 
lish cardinal since the Reformation Feb. 15, 1865 

Henry Manning (formerly an archdeacon in the 
English Church) consecrated archbishop of 
Westmin.ster .... June 8, ,, 



ROMAN" ROADS in England. Our historians maintain, but are mistaken, that there 
■were but four of these roads. Camden. "The Romans," says Isidore, " made roads almost 
all over the world, to have their marches in a straight line, and to employ the people;" 
and criminals were frequently condemned to work at such roads, as we learn from Suetonius, 
in his life of Caligula. They were commenced and completed at various periods^ between 
the 2nd and 4th centuries, and the Roman soldiery were employed in making them, that 
inactivity might not give them an opportunity to raise disturbances. Bede. 



ist, Watling-street, so named from Vitellianus, 
who is supposed to have directed it, the Britons 
calling him in their language Guetaiin (from Kent 
to Cardigan Bay). 

■2nd, IKENELD, or Ikenild-steeet, from its beginning 
among the Iceni (from St. David's to Tynemouth). 

3rd, Fosse, or Fosse way, probably from its having 



been defended by a fosse on both sides (from 
Cornwall to Lincoln). 
4th, Ermin-street, from Innunsul, a German word, 
meaning Mercury, whom our German ancestors 
worshipped under that name (from St. David's to 
Southampton). 



* Among other disabilities, Roman Catholics were excluded from corporate offices, 1667 ; from 
parliament, 1691 ; forbidden to mArry Protestants, 1708 ; to possess arms, 1695, ifec. See ScuUi/'s History 
of Vie Fenal Laws, 1812. 



ROM 



625 



ROM 



ROMAN WALLS. One was erected by Agricola (79 to 85) to defend Britain from the 
incursions of the Picts and Soots ; the Jirst wall extended from the Tyne to the Solway frith 
(80 miles) ; the second from the frith of Forth, near Edinbuigh, to the frith of Clyde, near 
Dumbarton (36 miles). The former was renewed and strengthened by the emperor Adrian 
(12 1 \ and liy Septimus Severus (208). It commenced at Bowness, near Carlisle, and ended 
at Wallsend, near Newcastle. It had battlements and towers to contain soldiers. The more 
northern wall was renewed by Lollius Urbicus in the reign of Antoninus Pius, about 140. 
Many remains of these walls still exist, particularly of the southern one. See Bruce's 
"Jioman Wall," published in 1853. 

ROMANCES. As Heliodorus, a bishop of Tricea, in Thessaly, was the author of 
Ethiopics, in Greek, the first work in this species of writing, he is hence styled the " Father 
of Romances." He flourished, 398. Hud dc Originc Fabul. Roman. Dunlop's " History 
of Fiction," published in 1814, is an esteemed book on this subject. 

ROME. The foundation of the city, by Romulus, was laid on the 20th April,* according to 
^arro, in tlie year 3961 of the Julian period (3251 years after the creation of the world, 753 
before the birth of Clirist, 431 years after the Trojan war, and in the fourth year of the sixth 
Olympiad. Other dates given : Cato, 75 1 ; Polybius, 750 ; Fabius Pictor, 747 ; Cincius, 
728 B.C.) The Romans conquered nearly the whole of the then known world. In the time 
of Julius Ciesar, the empire was bounded by the Euphrates, Taurus, and Armenia on the 
east ; by ^Ethiopia on the south ; by the Danube on the north ; and by the Atlantic on the 
Avest. Numerous ecclesiastical councils have been held at Rome, beginning in 197. 



Foundation of t'he city by Romulus . .B.C. 

The Romans seize on the Sabine women at a 
public spectacle, and detain them for wives . 

The C;«ninians defeated, and first triumphal 
procession 

Rome taken by the Sabines ; the Sabines incor- 
porated with the Romans as one nation . 

Romulus sole king of the Romans and Sabines. 

The Circensian games established . . . . 

Romuhis, said to have been murdered by the 
senators 

Xuraa Pompilius elected king, 715 ; institutes 
the priesthood, the augurs and vestals . . 

Roman calendar of 10 months reformed and 
and made 12 . 

The Romans and the Albans contesting for 
superiority, agreed to choose three champions 
on each part to decide it. The three Horaiii, 
Roman knights, and the three Curiatii, Albans, 
having been elected by their respective 
countries, engaged in the celebrated combat, 
which, by the victory of the Horatii, united 
Alba to Rome about 

War with the Fidenates ; the city of Alba 
destroyed 

Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber, built . . . 

The first census of the Roman state is taken 
(Lengkt) 

Political institutions of Servius TuUius . . 

The rape of Lucretia by Sextus, son of Tarquin. 

Royalty abolished : the Patricians establish 
an aristocratical commonwealth 

Junius Brutus and Tarquinius CoUatinus first 
consuls ; first alliance of the Romans with 
Carthage ... .... 



508 



The Capitol finished, and dedicated to Jupiter 

Capitolinus B c. 507 

The Latins and the Tarquins declare war against 
the republic, 501 ; defeated at the lake Re- 

gillus 49^ 

First dictator Titus Lartius SO'' 

Secession of the Plebeians to the sacred 
mount ; establishment of tribunes of the 

Plebeians 494 

First agrarian law passed ; Spurius Cassius put 

to death by the Patricians 493 

C. Martins Coriolanus banished . . . • 49^ 
He (with the Volsci) besieges Rome, but with- 
draws at the suit of his wife and mother _ . 488 
Contests between the Patricians and Plebeians 

respecting the agrarian law . . . • 486 

The Fabii slain (see Fabii) . . . • • 477 

Consulship of Cincinnatus 460 

The Secular Games first celebrated . . . 45^ 

The Decemviri created 45^ 

Virginius kills his daughter, Virginia, to save 

her from the decemvir, Appius Claudius t • 449 
The Canuleian law passed, permitting marriages 

between Patricians and Plebeians . . . 445 
Military tribunes first created . . . . 444 
Office of Censor instituted ..... 443 
Rome afflicted with an awful famine, and many 
persons on accoimt of it drown themselves 

in the Tiber 44° 

The Veientes defeated, and their king Tolumnus 

slain 437 

War with the Tuscans 434 

A temple is dedicated to ApoUo on account of a 

pestilence 433 

iEqui and Volsci defeated 43' 



• In its original state, Rome was but a small castle on the summit of mount Palatine ; and the founder, 
to give his followers the appearance of a nation or a barbarian horde, was obliged to erect a standard as a 
common asylum for criminals, debtors, or murderers, who fled from their native country to avoid the 
punishment which attended them. From such an assemblage a numerous body was soon collected, and 
before the death of the founder, the Romans had covered with then- habitations the Palatine, Capitoline, 
Aventine, and Escniiline hills, with Mounts Coehus and Qnirinalis. 

t Appius Claudius became enamoured of her, and attempted to remove her from the place where she 
resided She was claimed by one of his favourites, as the daughter of a slave, and Appivis had adjudged 
her to his friend, when Virginius anived from the camp. The father demanded to see his da\ighter, and 
when she came he plunged a knife into her breast, exclaiming, " This is all, my daughter, I can give thee 
to preserve thee from the lust of a tyrant ! " Virginius ran to the camp with the bloody knife m his 
hand and the incensed soldiers marched to Rome. Appius was seized, but destroyed himself in prison. 
Spurius Oppius, another decemvir, killed himself .aLso. Marcus Claudius, the favourite of Appius, was 
put to death, aiid the decemviral power abolished. 

S S 



ROM 



C26 



EOM 



421 



411 



391 



390 
389 



371 
see 

362 
350 
343 
324 



EOME, continued. 

Two new quastors are added to the former 

mimber e.c. 

Another and more dreadful famine occurs at 

Rome 

Three quaestors are chosen from the Plebeians 

for the first time 409 

Institution of the Lectisternian festival on 

account of a pestilence 399 

Veii taken after a siege of more than ten years 396 

Banishment of Camilliis 

The Gauls under Brennus, besiege Clusium 

(see Gauls) 

They are expelled by Camillus . . . . 
Borne burnt to the ground by the Gauls, who 

besiege the Capitol 

M. Manlius Capitolinus thrown from the Tar- 
peian rock on a charge of aiming at sovereign 

power 

The first appointment of curule magistrates 
Lucius Sextus, the first Plebeian consul . . 
Marcus Curtius leaps into the gulf which had 
opened in the forum ..... 

The Gauls deleated in Italy 

War with the f:amnites, which lasts 51 years . 
Embassy to Alexander tie Great . . • „ , 

Defeat at Caudium 321 

Priests first elected from the Plebeians . . 300 

End of the Samnite war 290 

The Gauls invade the Roman territory ; siege 

of Arezzo • 284 

The Etruscans defeated at the Vadimonian 

lake 310 and 283 

Pyrrhus of Epirus invades Italy, 281 ; defeats 
theRomansatPandosia, 280; andatAsculum 
278 ; defeated by them at Benevento 
All Italy subdued by Rome .... 
First Punic war commenced (see Pvnic JFars) 
First Roman fleet built .... 
Attilius Regulus said to be put to a cixiel death 

by the Carthaginians .... 
End of first Punic war ; Sicily made a Roman 

province 

Temple of Janus closed .... 

Corsica and Sardinia annexed 

First Roman Embassy to Greece . 

Great invasion of the Gauls ; repulsed 

Second Punic war breaks out 

The Romans are defeated by Hannibal at 

Thrasymene, 217 ; Canna; 
Syracuse taken by Marcellus .... 
Scipio defeats Hannibal at Zama in Africa 
The Macedonian wars with Philip begin, 21 

and 200 ; his defeat at Cynofcephalai 
Death of Scipio Africanus the elder . 
Third Macedonian war begins 171 ; Macedon 

conquered and annexed 
First public library erected at Rome 
Philosoiihers and rhetoricians are banished 

from Rome 

Third Punic war begins 

Corinth and Carthage destroyed by the Romans 
(see Corinth and Carthage) . .... 
Numantine war in Spain .... 153-133 
Attains III. of Pergamos bequeaths his kingdom 
and riches to the Romans .... 133 

The Servile war in Sicily 132 

Two plebeian consuls chosen , . , . ,, 

The Jugurthine war 112-106 

Ihe 'Miihridaiic -war (vJiicJi see) -. . . 108-63 
The Ambrones defeated by Marius . , . 102 

The Social war 90-88 

Rome besieged by four armies (viz. : those of 
Marius, Cinna, Caibo, and Strtorius) and taken 87 

Sylla defeats Marius 82 

Bithynia bequeathed to the Romans by king 

Kicomtdes 74 

Revolt of Spartacus and the slaves . . 73-71 
Syria conquered by Pcmpey .... 65 
The Catiline confcpiracy suppressed by Cicero . 63 



278 
266 
264 
260 

2SS 

241 

235 
231 



197 



167 

161 

149 

146 



The first triumvirate: Cwsar, Pompcy, and 

Crassus e.g. Co 

Caesar's campaigns in Gaul, 58; in Britain. . 55 

Crassus killed by the Farthians . . • • 53 i 
Gaul conquered and made a province . .51 

War between Casar and Ponpey . . . . 50 

Battle of Pbarsalia (■w/tu7t iff) . . . _ . 48 
C»sar defeats Pharnaces at Zela; and wi-ites 

home " Veni, vidi, vici" 47 

Cato kills himself at Utica . .... 46 

Csesar killed in the Senate-house . . Mar. 15 44 
Second triumvirate : Octavius, Antony, and 

Lepidus 43 

Cicero killed, proscribed by Antony . . . „ 

Battle of Philippi {tihich see) 4a 

Lepidus ejected from the triumvirate; war be- 
tween Octavius and Antony, 32 ; Antony de- 
feated totally at Actium . . . Sept. 2, 31 
Octavius becomes emperor, and assumes the 

title of Avgvsiv.s 27 

The empire now at peace with all the world ; 
the Temple of Janus shut; Jesus Christ 

born. (See Jeics) .... April 4, 5 

Ovid banished to Tcmi .... a.d. 91 

Death of Ovid and Livy 18 

Tiberius retires to Caprea ; tyranny of Sejanus 26 
A census being taken by Claudius, the emperor 

and censor, the inhabitants of Rrme are stated 

to amount to 6,944,000. — [It is now considered 

that the populatitn of Rome within the walls 

was under a millicn.] 48 

Caractacus brought in chains to Rome . . . 51 

St. Paul arrives in bonds at Re me ... 6a 
Nero burns Rome to the ground, and charges 

the crime uiion the Christians . . • . 64 

Seneca, Lucan, &c., put to death . . • ^3 

Peter and Paul said to be put to death . . . 67 
Jerusalem levelled to the ground by Titus, 

Sept. 8, 70 

Coliseum founded 75 

The Dacian war (continues 15 years) . . . £6 
Pliny junior, proconsul in Bithynia, sends 

Trajan his celebrated account of the Christians 102 
Trajan's expedition into the East against the 

Paithians, &c. ; subdues Dacia . . . . 106 

Trajan's column erected at Rome . . . 114 

Adrian resides in Britain, and biiilds the wall . 121 

The Capitol destroyed by lightning , . . 188 

Byzantium taken ; its walls razed . , . 196 

The Goths are paid tribute 222 

[The Goths, Vandals, Alani, Suevi, and other 

Northern nations attack the empii'e.] 

Pompey's amphitheatre burnt . . . • 248 

Inva.sion of the Goths 25c- 

Pestilence throughout the empire . . . . 252 
Great victory over the Goths obtained by 

Claudius ; 300,000 slain .... 269 

Dacia relinquished to the Goths . . B . 270 

Palmyra conquered, and Longinus put to death 273 

The era of Martyrs, or of Diocletian . . . 284 

The Franks settle in Gaul. Freret , . . 287 

Constantius dies at York 306 

Four emperors reign at one time . . . 308 
Constantino the Great, it is said, in consequence 

of a vision, places the Cross on his banners, 

and begins to favour the Christians . . 312 
Constantino defeats Licinius, at Chrysopolis, 

and reigns alone .... Sept. 18, 323 

He tolerates the Christian faith . . . . ,, 

Puts his son Crispus to death .... 324 
Constantino convokes the first general council 

of Christians at Nice 325 

The seat of empire removed from Rome to 

Byzantium, 328 ; dedicated to Constantino . 330 
Constant ine orders the heathen temples to be 

destroyed ,, 

Revolt of 300,000 Sarmatian slaves suppressed . 33 

Death of Constantine, soon after being baptized 337 



ROJI 



627 



EOM 



361 

363 

364 
404 



ROME, continued. 

The army under Julian proclaims him emperor 3O0 
Julian, who had been educated for the priest- 
hood, and had frequently officiated, abjures 
Christianity, and reopens the heathen 
temples, becoming the pagan pontiff 
Julian killed in battle ; Christianity restored by 

Jovian 

The empire divided into Eastern and Western 
by Valcntinian and Valens, brothers : the 
former has the Western portion, or Rome 
(See Western a.n6. Eastern Empires ; and. Italy.) 
Rome placed under the exarchate of Ravenna 

Taken by Alaric 410 

Taken and pillaged by Genseric . . June, 455 
Odoacer takes Rome, and becomes king of Italy 476 
Rome recovered for Justinian by Belisarius . 536 
Retaken by the Goths, 546 ; recovered by Beli- 
sarius, 547 ; seized by Totila, 549 ; recovered 
by Narses, and annexed to the eastern empire S53 
Rome independent under the popes, about . 728 
Pepin of France compels Astolphus, king of the 
Lombards, to cede Ravenna and other places 

to the Holy Church 735 

Confirmed and added to by Charlemagne . . 774 
Charlemagne crowned emperor of the West by 

the pope at Rome .... Dec. 25, 800 
The emperor Henry IV. takes Rome . March, 1084 
Arnold of Brescia, endeavouring to reform 
church and state and to establish a senate, is 

put to death as a heretic iiSS 

Tlie pope removes to Avignon . . . . 1309 
Nicola di Rienzi, as tribune of the people, 
establishes a republic, but is compelled to 
abdicate, 1347 ; returning, is assassinated, 

Sept. 8, 1354 
Papal court returns to Rome .... 1371 
Ri.se of the families, Colonna, Orsini, <fec., about 1377 
Julius II. conquers the Romagna, Bologna, and 

Perugia 1503-13 

The city greatly embellished by Pope Leo X. 1513-21 
It is captured by the constable de Bourbon, 

who is slain June 6, 1527 

FeiTara annexed 1597 

Harassed by the French, Gei-man, and Spanish 

factions from the i6th to the iSth century. 
The French invasion ; the Legations incorpo- 
rated with the Cisalpine rcpubUc . . . 1796 
The French proclaim a Roman republic. Mar. 20, 1798 
Recovered for the pope by the Neapolitans . 1 799 

Retaken by the French 1800 

Restored to pope Pius VII 1801 

Annexed by Napoleon to the kingdom of Italy, 

and declared second city of the empire . . 1808 
Restored to the pope, who returns . Jan. 1814 
He re-estabUshes the Inquisition and the 

Jesuits Aug. ,, 

The papal government endeavour to annul all 
innovations, and thus provoke much opposi- 
tion ; the Carbonari increase in numbers . 1815-17 
Political assassinations in the Romagna . . 1817 
The " Young Italy " party cstabhshed by 
Joseph Mazzini ; temporary insvirrections at 
Bologna suppressed by Aiistrian aid . . 1S31 
Klection of Pius IX. June 16, 1846, who pro- 
claims an amnesty ; and authorises a na- 
tional guard and municipal institutions . 1847 
The Romans desire to join the king of Sardinia 
against the Austrians ; the pope hesitates ; 
the AntoneUi ministry retires : and the Ma- 
miani ministry is formed .... 1848 
Count Rossi, minister of justice of the pontifical 
government, assassinated on the staircase of 
the Chamber of Deputies at Rome . Nov. 15, „ 
Insurrection at Rome, the populace demand a 
democratic ministry and the proclamation of 
Italian nationality ; the pope (Pius IX.) hesi- 
tates, the Romans surroimd the palace, and a 
contlict ensues. The pope accepts a popular 
ministry Nov. 16, ,, 



[Cardinal Palma, the pope's secretary, was shot 
in this conflict.] 

A free constitution published . . Nov. 20, 

The pope escapes in disguise from Rome to 
Gaeta Nov. 24, 

M. de Corcelles leaves Paris for Rome, a French 
armed expedition to Civita Vecchia having 
preceded him, to afford protection to the 
pope Nov. 27, 

Protest of the pope against the acts of the pro- 
visional government .... Nov. 28, 

A constituent assembly meets at Rome, Feb. 5, 

The Roman National Assembly divests the pope 
of all temporal power, and adopts the repub- 
lican form of government . . . Feb. 8, 

The pope appeals to the great Roman Catholic 
powers Feb. 18, 

Civita Vecchia occupied by ;the French force 
under Marshal Oudinot . . . April 26, 

A French force repulsed from'Rome with loss, 

April 30, 

Engagement between the Romans and Neapoli- 
tans ; the former capture 60 prisoners and 
400 muskets ...... May 5, 

The French under marshal Oudinot commence 
an attack on Rome .... June 3, 

After a brave resistance tile Romans capitulate 
to the French army .... June 30, 

The Roman assembly dissolved . . July 4, 

An officer from Oudinot's camp arrives at 
Gaeta, to present the pope with the keys of 
the two gates of Rome by which the French 
army had entered the city . . . July 4 

The re-establishment of the pope's authority 
proclaimed at Rome .... July 15, 

Oudinot issues a general order stating that the 
pope Cor his representative) now re-posses.ses 
the administration of affairs, but that public 
security in the pontifical dominions still 
remains under the special g-uarantee of the 
French army Aug. 3, 

The pope arrives at Portici .on a visit to the 
king of Naples Sept. 4, 

He arrives at Rome ; cardinal Antonelli be- 
comes foreign minister .... April, 

He issues the bull establishing a Roman 
Catholic hierarchy in England (see Papal 
Aggression) Sept. 24, 

Important concordat with Austria . . Aug. 

The pope visits his dominions . . June, 

Insurrection in the Romagna, at Bologna, and 
Ferrara June, 

They declare for adhesion to Piedmont, Sept. 

Accept Buoncompagni as governor-general, 

Nov. 

The pope appeals to Europe for help against 
Sardinia July 12, 

The Legations form ]a defensive alliance with 
Tuscany, Panna, and Modena . . Aug. 20, 

The queen of Spain engages to send troops to 
Rome, if the French retire . . Aug. 26, 

The assembly at Bologna vote annexation to 
Piedmont, Sept. 7 ; the king eng.ages to sup- 
port their cause before the great powers, 
Sept. 15 ; the pope annuls the acts of the 
assembly at Bologna ; and denounces the 
punishment due to those who attack the 
holy see, Sept. 26; and dismisses the Sar- 
dinian charge d'affaires at Rome . Oct. i, 
The Romagna, Modena, and Parma formed into 
a province, to be called iEmilia . Dec. 24, 
The Sardinian government annul the Tuscan 
concordat, Jan. 27 ; and the Lombard one, 
March 20, 
Riots at Rome svippressed by the police with 
great cruelty .... March 19, 
The pope excommunicates all concerned in the 
rebellion in his states . . March 26, 

General Lamoricifere takes command of papal 
s s 2 



1855 
1857 



EOM 



628 



EOM 



ROME, continued. 

army, March ; whicli is reorganised, and in- 
creased by volunteers from Ireland, &c., May, : 

Irish voUuiteers are severely treated for insub- 
ordination ; many dismissed . . July, 

The papal army estimated at 20,000 . Aug. 

Tuscan volunteers enter the papal states and 
are repulsed May 19, 

Insurrection in the Marches, Sept. 8 ; Fossem- 
brone subdued by the papal troops ; the 
peoj^le appeal to the Sardinian government, 
whose troops, under Cialdini and Fanti, 
enter the Papal States . . . Sept. 11, 

Fanti takes Pesaro, Sept. 12 ; and Perugia, in- 
cluding general Schmidt and 1600 prisoners, 
Sept. 14, 

Ancona besieged by sea and land . Sept. 17, 

Severe allocution of the pope against France 

and Sardinia ; he appeals to Europe for help, 

Sept. 28, 

Cialdini defeats Lamoricifere at Castel-Fidardo, 
Sept. 18; and takes Ancona . . Sept. ■zq, 

Additional French troops sent to Rome . Oct. 

The Marches vote for annexation to Sardinia, 

Nov. 

Monastic establishments suppressed in the 
Legations ; the monks pensioned ; educa- 
tional institutions founded . . Dec. 

Subscriptions raised for the pope in various 
countries ; the formal collection forbidden in 
Prance and Belgium ; permitted in England, 

Nov. 

The French emperor advises the pope to give 
up his revolted provinces . . . Dec. 21, 

Publication of Rome et les Ereque.t, Jan.*6 ; and 
oi La France, Rome (t I'ltalie, Feb. 15 ; great 
excitement, and .strong advocacy of the pope's 
temporal government (attacked by prince 
Napoleon) in the French chambers . March, 



Petition to the emperor Napoleon to withdrav? 
French troops from Rome, signed by num- 
bers of the Romans . . . . May 10, ; 

The emperor of France declines a vmion with 
Austria and Spain for the maintenance of the 
pope's temporal power . . . June, 

Grand ceremony at the canonization of 27 
Japanese martyrs (see Canonizatioii) . June 8, 

The pope declares a severe allocution against 
the Italians June g, 

Garibaldi calls for volunteers, taking as his 
watchword, " Rome or death ! " . July 19, ; 

Railway between Rome and Naples completed ; 
its opening opposed by the papal government, 

Nov. 

Earl Russell's offer to the pope of a residence at 
Malta, Oct. 25; declined . . . Nov. 11, 

Antonelli's resignation of his office not ac- 
cepted March 5, 

Convention between France and Italy : French 

troops to quit Rome within two years, 

Sept. 15, 

Encyclical letter of the pope, censuring 80 er- 
rors in religion, philosophy, and politics 
(caused much dissatisfaction, and was for- 
bidden to be read in chui-ches in France and 
other countries) Dec. 8, 

Jews persecuted at Rome .... Dec. 

Fruitless negotiations between the pope and 
the king of Italy (by Vegezzi) ; mutual con- 
cessions proposed . April 21 to June 23, 

Pope's severe allocution against secret societies 
(Freemasons, Fenians, kc.) . . Sept. 25, 

Merode, the papal minister of war, dismissed, 

Oct. 20, 

A part of the French troops leave the papal 

dominions Nov. 

See Italij , and France, 1862-5. 



1865 



KINGS OF EOME. 



BEFORE CHRI.ST. 

735. Romulus ; murdered by the senators. 

[Tatius, king of the Sabines, had removed to 
Rome in 747, and ruled jointly with Romulus 
six years,] 

716. [Interregnum.] 

715. Numa Pompilius, son-in-law of Tatius the Sa- 
bine, elected ; died at the age of 82. 

672. TuUus Hostilius ; murdered by his successor, 
by whom his palace was set on fire ; his 
family perished in the flames. 

640. Ancus Martins, grandson of Numa. 



616. Tarquinius Priscus ; son of Demaratus, a 
Corinthian emigrant, chosen king. 

578. Scrvius Tullius ; a manumitted slave ; married 
the king's daughter ; and succeeded by the 
united suffrages of the army and the people. 

534. Tarquinius Superbus, grandson of Tarquinius 
Priscus ; assassinates his father-in-law, and 
usvirjis the throne. 

510. [The rape of Lucretia, by Sextus,'son of Tar- 
quin, and consequent insuirection, leads to 
the abolition of royalty and the establish- 
ment of the consulate.] 



BEFORE CHRIST. 

510-82. First period. From the expulsion of Tarquin 
to the dictatorship of Sylla. 



Second x>eriod. From Sylla to Augustus. 



EMPEROES OF EOME. 



BEFORE CHRIST. 

48. Caius Julius Caisar ; perpetual dictator ; assas- 
sinated, March 15, 44 B.C. 

31. Octavianus Cie.sar ; in the year 27 B.C. Augustus 
Imperator. Livy. 

AFTER CHRIST. 

14. Tiberius (Claudius Nero). 

37. Caius Crtligula ; murdered by a tribune. 

41. Claudius I. (Tiber. Drusus); poisoned by his 

wife Agrippina, to make way for 
54. Claudius Nero ; deposed ; kills himself, 68. 
68. Servius Sulpicius Galba ; slain by the prseto- 

rians. 



6g. M. Salvius Otho ; stabbed himself. 
,, Aulus Vitellius ; deposed by Vespasian, and put 

to death. 
,, Titus Flavins Vespasian. 
79. Titus (Vespasian), his son. 
81. Titus P'hivius Domitian, brother of Titus ; last 

of the twelve Csesars ; assassinated. 
96. Cocceius Nerva. 
9S. Trajan (M. Ulpius Crinitns). 
117. Adrian or Hadrian (Publius jElius). 
138. Antoninus Titus, sumamed Pius. 
161. Marcus Aurelius (a philosopher) and Lucius 
Verus, his son-in-law ; the latter dicdln 169. 
180. Commodus (L. Aurelius Antoninus), son of 



KOM 



620 



ROS 



ROME, continued. 

Marcus Atirolius ; poisoned liy bis favourite 

mistress, Martia. 
193. Publius-Helvius-Pertiiiax ; put to death by tbe 

pra'torian baud. 
[Four emperors now start up : Didiauus Juli- 

aiuis, at Rome ; Pescennius Niger, in Syria ; 

Lucius Septimius Severus, in Panuonia ; 

and Clodius Albinus, in Britain.] 
,, Lucius Septimius Severus ; died at York in 

Britain, in 211 ; succeeded by bis sons, 
211. M. AureliusCaracalla and Septimius Geta. Geta 

murdered tbe same year by bis brotber, 

who reigned alone till 217, wben be was 

slain by bis successor, 

217. M. Opilius Macrinus, prefect of tbe guards; 

beheaded in a mutiny. 

218. Heliogabalus(M. Aurelius Antoninus), a youth ; 

put to death for enormities. 
222. Alexander Severus ; assassinated by some 

soldiers cornipted by Maxirainus. 
235. Caius Julius Verus Maximinus ; assassinated 

in his tent before tbe walls of Aquileia. 

237. M. Antonius Gordianus, and bis son ; the latter 

having been killed in a battle with tbe ymr- 
tisans of Maximinus, tbe father strangled 
himself in a fit of despair, at Carthage, in 
his Both year. 

238. Balbinus and Pupienus ; put to death. 

,, Gordian, junior, grandson of tbe elder Gordian, 
in his i6tb year ; assassinated by the guards, 
at tbe instigation of his successor, 

244. Pbilip the Arabian ; assassinated by bis own 
soldiers ; bis son Pbilip was murdered, at 
the s\me time, in bis mother's arms. 

249. Metius Decius ; he perished with bis two sons, 
and their army, in an engagement with the 
Goths. 

251. Gallus Hostilius, and his son Volusianus ; botb 
slain by tbe soldiery. 

253. -Emilianus; put to death after a reign of only 
four months. 

253. Yalerianus, and bis son Gallienus ; tbe first was 
taken prisoner by Sapor, king of Persia, and 
flaj-ed alive. 

260. Gallienus reigned alone. 

[About this time thirty pretenders to imperial 
power start up in different parts of tbe em- 
pire ; of these, Cyriades is tbe first, but he 
is slain.] 

268. Claudius IL (Gallienus having been assassinated 
by the officers of the guard) succeeds ; dies 
of tbe plague. 

270. Quintillus, bis brotber, elected at Rome by the 
senate and troops ; Aurelian by the army in 
Illyricum. Quintillus, despairing of success 
against bis rival, who was marching against 
him, opened his veins and bled himself to 
death. 



270. 
275. 

276. 
276. 
282. 
283. 
284. 
286. 
305- 

306. 



361. 



363. 

364- 
375- 
379- 
392. 



Aurelian ; assassin.ated by liis soldiers on his 
march against I'ersia, in Jan. 275. 

[Interregnum of about ni:ie months.] 

Tacitus, elected Oct. 25; died at Tarsus in 
Cilicia, April 13, 276. 

Florian, bis brotber ; bis title not recognised 
bj' tbe senate. 

M. Aurelius Probus ; assassinated by bis troops 
at Sirmium. 

M. AureUus Carus ; killed at Ctesipbon by 
lightning ; succeeded by his sons, 

Carinus and Numerianus ; botb assassinated, 
after transient reigns. 

Diocletian ; who associated as bis colleague in 
the government, 

Maximianus Hercules ; the two emperors resign 
in favour of 

Constantius Chlorus and Galerius Maximianus ; 
tbe first died at York, in Britain, in 306, and 
the troops saluted as emi^eror, his son, 

Constantine, afterwards styled the Great : 
whilst at Rome the prietorian band pro- 
claimed 

Maxentius, son of Maximianus Hercules. 
Besides these were, 

Iilaximianus Hercules, wbo endeavoured to re- 
cover his abdicated jjower. 

Flavins Valerius Severus, murdered by the last 
named pretender ; and 

Flavins Valerianus Liciuius, tbe brother-in-law 
of Constantine. 

[Of these, Maximianus Hercules was strangled 
in Gaul, in 310 ; Galerius Maximianus died 
wretchedly in 311 ; Maxentius was drowned 
in the Tiber in' 31 2 ; and Licinius was put to 
death by order of Constantine in 324.] 

Constantine the Great now reigned alone ; died 
on Whitsunday, May 22, 337. 

/'Sons of Constantine ; di- 
I vided the empire between 
them ; the first was slain 
in 340, and the second 
murdered in 350, when 
tbe third became sole 
emperor. 

Julian, the Apostate, so called for abjuring 
Christianity, having been educated for tbe 
priesthood ; mortally wounded in a battle 
with the Persians, 636. 

Jovian ; reigned 8 months ; found dead in bis 
bed, supposed to have died from the fumes 
of charcoal. 

Valentinian and Valens. 

Valens with Gratian and Valentinian II. 

Theodosius I., <fcc. 

Theodosius alone. 

Tbe Roman empire divided. See Eastern 
Empire, Western Eminre, and Popes. 



( Constantine II. | 
' Constans, { 

(Constantius II. I 



RONCESVALLES (in the Pyrenees), where, it is said, Cliarlemagne's paladin, Roland, 
or Orlando, was surprised, defeated, and slain, 778. On July 25, 1813, marshal Soult was 
defeated by the British entering France. 

ROOF. The largest in the world is said to be that over a riding-school at Moscow, 
erected in 1791, being 235 feet in sjian. The proposed width of the roof of the London 
station of the Midland railway is 240 feet (1866). 

ROPE-MAKING MACHINE. One was patented by Richard March in 1784, and by 
Edmd. Cartwright, in 1792. Many improvements have been made since. 

ROSAMOND'S BOWER. Rosamond was daughter of lord Clifford, and mistress of 
Henry II. about 11 54. A conspiracy was formed by the queen, prince Henry, and his other 
sons, against the king, on account of his attachment to her. Heniy kept her in a labyrinth 
at Woodstock, where his queen, Eleanor, it is said, discovered her apartments by the clue 
of a silk thread, and poisoned her. She was buried at Godstow cliurch, from whence Hugh, 
bishop of Lincoln, had her ashes removed, 1191. 



KOS 630 EOT 

ROSARY. See Beads. 

ROSAS (N. E. Spain), Bay of, where a brilliant naval action was fought by the boats 
of the Cuynherland, Volontaire, Apollo, Topaze, Philomel, Scout, and Tuscan, commanded by 
lieut. Tailour, which ended in the capture or destnictiou of eleven armed vessels in the bay, 
Nov. I, 1809. 

ROSBACH (Rosebec), in Flanders. Here Charles VI. of France beat the Flemings, who 
had revolted against their count, 1382. At Rosbach, in Prussia, a great battle was fought 
between the Prussians, commanded by Frederick the Great, and the combined army of 
French and Austrians, in which the latter sustained a complete defeat and severe loss, 
Nov. 5, 1757. 

ROSE.* See under Flowers. 

ROSES, Wars of the, between the Lancastrians (who chose the red rose as their 
emblem), and the Yorkists (who chose the white rose), began 1455 ^"^ ended 1485. t It is 
stated, that in the Wars of the Roses there perished 12 princes of the blood, 200 nobles, and 
100,000 gentry and common people. The union of the roses was effected in the marriage of 
Henry VII. with the princess Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., i486. 

ROSETTA (in Egypt), taken by the French in 1798;+ and by the' British and Turks, 
April 19, 1801. The Turks repulsed the British here. May 21, 1807. Near Rosetta, at the 
mouth of the Nile, was fought the memorable battle of Aug. 1, 1798, between the iieets of 
France and England, the latter commanded by Nelson. See Nile. Ali Pacha rendered great 
service to his country by constructing a canal between Rosetta and Alexandria. 

ROSICRUCIANS, a sect of mystical philosophers, who first appeared in Germany in the 
14th century, and again early in the 17th century. They derived their name from the Con- 
fessce. Roscce Cnccis of Valentine Andreas, 161 5. They swore iidelity, promised secrecy, and 
wrote hieroglyphically, and affirmed that tlie ancient philosophers of Egypt, the Chaldeans, 
Magi of Persia, and Gymnosophists of the Indies, taught the same doctrine. 

ROSS, Cork (S. Ireland), a bishopric founded, it is supposed, by St. Fachnan, in the 
beginning of the 6th century. It was united to Cork in 1340 ; and Cloyne to both, by the 
Irish Church Temporalities act (1833). See Bisho2}s; New Boss. 

ROTA CLUB. A society who met at Miles's Coffee-house in New Palace-j'ard, West- 
minster, during the administration of Oliver Cromwell : their plan was that all the great 
officers of state should be chosen by ballot : and that a certain number of membei'S of ])arlia- 
ment should be changed annually by rotation, from whence they took their title. Sir William 
Petty was one of the members in 1659. Biorj. Brit. 

ROTHESAY CASTLE. See Wrecks, 183 1. 

ROTHSCHILD FAMILY. Meyer Amschcl, or Anselm, was born at No. 148, Juden- 
gasse (.Jew-lane), Frankfort, in 1743. I" '772 he began business as a money-lender and 
dealer in old coins, in the same house, over which he placed the sign of the Red Shield (in 
German, Roth Schild). Having had dealings with the landgrave of Hesse, that prince 
entrusted him with his treasure (said to have been 250,000?.) in 1806, when the French held 

* The rose, a symbol of silence, gave rise to the phrase sub rogd, " under the rose ;" said, by Italian 
writers, to have risen from the circumstance of the pope's presenting consecrated roses, which were 
placed over the confessionals at Rome, to denote secrecy, 1526. 

t Richard II., who succeeded his grandfather Edward III. in 1377, was deposed and succeeded in 1399 
by his cousin Henry IV. (son of John of Gaunt, duke of Lanca.ster, the fourth son of Edward III.), in 
l)rejudice to the right of Roger Mortimer (grand.son of Lionel, duke of Clarence, Edward's third son), who 
was declared presumptive heir to the throne in 1385. Roger's grandson, Richard duke of York, first 
openly claimed the crown in 1449. Attempts at compromise failed, and the war began in 1455. The 
Lancastrians were defeated at St. Albans, May 23, 1455- The protector Somerset was slain ; a truce was 
made, .and Richard became his successor. The war was renewed, and the Yorkists defeated the Lancas- 
trians at Bkreheath, Sept. 23, 1459 ; but eventually dispersed, and the duke was attainted. In 1460, he 
•defeated his or>ponents at Northampton, took Henrj' prisoner, and was declared heir to tlie crown ; but 
fell into an ambuscade near Wakefield, and was put to death, Dec. 31, 1460. His son (Edward) continued 
the struggle. He was installed as king, March 4, 1461 ; defeated the Lancastrians at Towton, March 29 ; 
was deposed by Warwick, who restored Henry VI., Sept. 1470; defe.ated the Lascastrians at IBarnet, April 
14, 1471 ; and finally at Tewkesbury, May 4. The struggle ended with the defeat and death of Richard III. 
at Bosworth, Aug. 22, 1485. 

X The Ro.setta Stone, discovered by the French in 1799, was brought from Rosetta in a French vessel, 
from whence it was taken by Mr. Wm. R. Hamilton, who deposited it in the British Museum. In 1841, Mr. 
Letronne published the test and a translation of the Greek inscription. It is a piece of black l^asalt, about 
3 feet long, .and 2J feet wide, with an inscription in three languages, viz. hieroglyphics, modified 
hieroglyphics (enchorial), and Greek, setting furth the praises of Ptolemy Epiphanes (about 194 B.C.). It 
has been investigated by Dr. T. Young and Champollion. 



ROT 031 HOY 

his countiy. With this sum as capital, Aiiselui traded and made a large fortune, and restored 
the 250,000?. to tlie hiudgrave in 1815. At his death his sons continued the business as 
partners. His son, Nathan, began at ilanchester in 1798, removed to London in 1803 ; and 
died immensely rich, July 28, 1836. 

ROTTERDAM, tlie second city in Holland. Its importance dates from the 13th ccntuiy. 
The commerce of Aiit\ver[) was transferred to it in 1509. It sulfercd much from the French 
revolutionary wars, au<l from inundations in 1775 and 1825. Desiderius Erasmus was born 
here in 1467. The museum and picture-gallery of Rotterdam were destroyed at the fire of 
the Schieland palace, Feb. 16, 1864. 

ROUEN (N. France), an archbishopric, 260, became the capital of Normandy in the lOtli 
century. It was held by the English king till 1204 ; and was retaken by Henry V., Jan. 19, 
1419. Joan of Arc, the maid of Orleans, was burnt here, May 30, 1431. It was subdued by 
the king of France in 1449 ; and was besieged 1562 and 1591. 

ROUMANIA, the name assumed by the Danubian principalities on Dec. 23, 1861, when, 
their union was i)roclaimed at Bucharest and J assy. 

ROUND-HEADS. In the civil war which began in 1641, the adherents of Charles I. 
ivore called Cavaliers, and the friends of the parliament were Round-heads. The term, it is 
^aid, arose from those persons who distinguished themselves by having a round bowl or 
rt-ooden dish put upon their heads, and their hair cut by the edges or brim of the bowl. See 
Cavaliers . 

ROUND WAY DOWN, near Devizes, Wiltshire. Here the royalists defeated the parlia- 
mentarians with great slaughter, July 13, 1643. 

ROXBURGHE CLUB was instituted in 1812 by earl Spencer, and a number of gentle- 
men, for the republication of rare books, or hitherto unpublished MSS. 

ROYAL ACADEMY. A society of artists met in St. Peter's-court, St. Martin's-lane, 
ibout 1739, which Hogarth established as the society of Incorporated Artists, who held their 
irst e.vhibitiou at the Society of Arts, Adelplii, April 21, 1760. From this sprang the Royal 
,\cailemy, in consequence of a dispute between the directors and the fellows. On Dec. 10, 
1768, the institution of the present Royal Academy was completed under the patronage of 
rjeorge III.; and sir Joshua Reynolds, knighted on the occasion, was appointed its first 
:)resident. Leigh. The first exhibitioai of the Academicians (at Pall-Mail) was in 1769. 
[a 1771 the king granted them apartments in old Somerset-house, and afterwards, in 1780, 
in new Somerset-house, where they remained till 1838, when they removed to the National 
uallery. Among its professors have been Johnson, Gibbon, Goldsmith, Macaulay, and 
Hallam. Turner, the painter, gave funds to the academy for the award of a medal triennially 
for landscape painting, which was awarded to Mr. N. O. Lupton in 1857. A commission pf 
inquiry into the affairs of the academy, appointed in 1862, recommended various changes in 
July, 1863. 



PRKSIDENTS. 

1768. Sir Joshua Kejniolds. 
1792. Benjamin West. 



1820. Sir Tliomas Lawrence. 

1830. Sir Martin A. Shee. 

1850. Sir Charles Eastlake, died Dec. 23, 1865. 



ROYAL ACADEMY of MUSIC was established in 1823, mainly by the exertions of lord 
Burghersh (afterwards earl of Westmoreland, who died Oct. 16, 1859), and was incorporated 
by charter in 1830. The first concert took place Dec. 8, 1828. Its re-construction is 
proposed (1866), 

ROYAL ADELAIDE and ROYAL CHARTER. See Wrecks, 1850, 1859. 

ROYAL ASSENT. If the king assent to a public bill, the clerk of the parliament 
declares the Norman French, "■ he toy le veut," the king wills it so to be. If the king 
refuses his assent, it is in the gentle language of "Zc roij saviscra," the king will advise 
npon it. This is the language usually adopted to the present day. JIale. By the statute 
2i Hen. VIII. 1 541, the king may give his assent by letters-patent. Blachstonc's Com. 

ROYAL EXCHANGE (Cambium Regis), London. The foundation of the original 
edifice was laid by sir Thomas Gresham, June 7, 1566, on the site of the ancient Tun prison. 
Queen Elizabeth opened it in Jan. 23, 1571, and her herald named it the Royal Exchange, 
Hume. It was totally destroyed by the great fire, Sept. 1666. Charles II. laid the foun- 
dation-stone of the next edifice, Oct. 23, 1667, which was completed by Mr. Hawkesmore, a 
pupil of sir Christo])hor Wren's, in about three years; it was repaired and beautified in 1769. 
This also was burnt, Jan. 10, 1838, with a number of public offices, &c. The new Royal 
Exchange, commenced in 1842 under the direction of Mr. Tite, was oi)encd by the queen, 



EOY 



632 



ROY 



Oct. 28, 1844. — The Royal Exchange, Dublin, was commeuced in 1769, and opened 
in 1779. 

ROYAL GEORGE, a first-rate man-of-war of 100 guns, overset off Spitliead, and 
suddenly went down while at anchor, by the guns rolling to one side. Rear-admiral Kem- 
jjenfeldt, the crew, many marines, women, and Jews, in all about 600 persons, were drowned, 
Aug. 29, 1782.* 

ROYAL HUMANE SOCIETY (London). See Humane Socidij. 

ROYAL INSTITUTION of Great Britain, the earliest of the kind in London, was 
founded March, 1799, by count Rumford and sir Joseph Banks, assisted by earls Spencer and 
Morton, and other noblemen and gentlemen. It received the immediate patronage of 
George III. and was incorporated, Jan. 13, 1800, by royal charter, as "The Royal Institution 
of Great Britain, for the diffusing knowledge, and facilitating the general introduction of 
useful mechanical inventions and improvements, and for teaching, by courses of philosophical 
lectures and experiments, the application of science to the common purposes of life." It was 
enlarged and extended by an act of parliament in 1810 ; the original plan, as drawn up by 
count Rumford, in 1799, having been considerably modified, f 



The House (in Albemarle-street, Piccadilly) was 
purchased in June, 1799; and the present front 
was added by subscription in 1838. The Lecture 
theatre was erected in 1803, under the superin- 
tendence of Mr. T. Webster. 

The Library was commenced in 1803, by the 
munificent subscriptions of the proprietors of the 
institution. It now (1866) comprises about 35,000 
volumes. Classified catalogu^s (hj W. Harris) 
were published in 1809 \nd 1821; a new one (by 
B. Vincent) in 1857. 

The Museum contains geological specimens collected 
by Davy, Hatchett, Wollaston, (fee, and much of 
the original philosophical appai-atus of Cavendish, 
Davy, and Faraday. 

The first Lrcture was delivered March, 4, 1801, by 
Dr. Garnett, he being the first professor of natural 
ishilosophy and chemistry. In 1802 he was suc- 
ceeded by Dr. Thomas Youvci, so celebrated for his 
researches in optics, resultuig in the discovery of 
the interference of light, and the establishment of 
the theory of undulation. His " Lectures on 
Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts," 
first published in 1807, are still considered a text- 
book of physical science. His works on antiqua- 
rian literature (hieroglyphic inscriptions, ifcc.) are 
also highly esteemed. In Feb. 1801, Mr. (after- 
wards sir Humphry) Davy was engaged as assistant 
lecturer and director of the laboratory, and on 
May 31, 1802, he was appointed professor of che- 
mistry. His lectures were eminently successful, 
and his discoveries in chemistry and electricity 
have immortalised his name, and conferred honour 
on the institution : by him the alkaloids, potas- 
sium and sodium, were discovered in 1807 ; the 
nature of chlorine was determined in 18 10, and the 
safety-lamp invented in 1815.— in»iom Thomas 
Brandp. succeeded sir Humphry as professor of 
chemistry in 1813, and held that office till his 
resignation in 1852, since which time he has 
been elected hon. professor. From 1816 to 1850 he 
delivered, in the laboratory of this institution, his 
celebrated chemical lectures to students. — In 1813 
Michael Faraday, on the recommendation of sir 
H. Davy, was engaged as assistant in the laboratory, 
and in 1825 as its director : in 1827 he became one 
of the permanent lecturers of the institution. 
In 1820 he commenced those researches in elec- 
tricity and magnetism which form an era in the 
history of science. In 1823-4 lie discovered the 
condensability of chlorine and othergases ; in 1831 
he obtained electricity from the magnet ; in 1845 



he exhibited the twofold magnetism of matter, 
comprehendmg all known substances, the magnet- 
ism of gases, flame, &c. ; and in 1850 he published 
his researches on atmospheric nwgnetism. — 
Juhn Tyndall, F.R.S., the present professor of 
natural philosophy, first elected in July, 1853, is 
eminent for his researches on magnetism, heat, 
glaciers, &c., here. — Edward Frank-land, F.R.S., 
elected professor of chemistiy in 1863, is eminent 
for his discoveries in organic chemistry. 

In 1804 sir J. St. Aubyn and other gentlemen pro- 
posed to form a School of Mines at this insti- 
tution ; but the plan, although warmly supported 
by the members, was withdrawn for want of 
encouragement by the government and by mining 
proprietors. 

The Weekly Evening Meetings, on the Fridays 
from January to June, as now arranged, com- 
menced in 1826. Discourses (of which abstracts 
are printed) are given at these meetings by the 
professors of the institution, and other eminent 
scientific men. 

Endovv.ments. In 1833 John Fuller, esq., of Rose- 
hill, endowed two professorships, of chemistry 
and physiology : the former was bestowed on Mr. 
Faraday for life ; the latter on Dr. Roget for three 
years, to be filled up afterwards by triennial elec- 
tion. — The FuUerian professors of physiology have 
been R. E. Grant, T. R. Jones, W. B. Carpenter, 
W. W. Gull, T. W. Jones, T. H. Huxley, R. Owen, 
and J. Marshall. — In 1838 Mrs. Acton gave 1000?. 
to be invested for paying every seven years 100 
guineas for the best essay on the beneficence of 
the Almighty as illustrated b}' discoveries in 
science; which have been awarded — in 1844 to 
Mr. G. Fownes ; in 1851 to Mr. T. Wharton Jones ; 
in 1858 no award was made ; in 1865 to Mr. George 
Warington. 

The " Fund for the Promotion of Experimental 
Researches" was founded on July 6, 1863, by sir 
Henry Holland, Professor Faraday, sir R. I. 
Miirchison, Dr. Bence Jones, and others. 

The Jirst officers were sir Joseph Banks, president, 
till the charter was gi'anted, afterwards the earl of 
Winchelsea ; Mr. (afterwards sir Thomas) Bernard, 
treastirer : rev. Dr. S,a.mxiel G\a.sse, secretary. The 
duke of Northumberland, K.G. , elected president 
1842, was succeeded by sir Henry Holland, in 1865 : 
W. Pole, ;esq., treasurer, elected 1849, was succeeded 
by Wm. Spottiswoode, esq., in 1865 ; the rev. John 
Barlow, secretary, elected 1842, was succeeded by 
Henry Bence Jones, M.D., 1S60. 



^y the use of the diving-bell, the ship, imbedded in the deep, was surveyed in May 1817, et seq. 
Portions of the vessel and its cargo were brought up in 1839-42. under the superintendence of sir Charles 
I asley, when gunpowder was ignited by the agency of electricity. 

t The members are elected by ballot, and pay five guineas on admission, and five guineas annually, or 
a compo.Mtion of sixty guineas. 



ROY 



633 



KUM 



ROYAL MARRIAGE ACT, &c. See Marriage Act; MiUtary and Naval Asylums; 
and Navy. 

ROYAL SOCIETY (London). In 1645 several learned men met in London to discuss 
pliilosophical questions and report experiments ; t\\Q Novum Organon of Bacon, publislied in 
1620, having given gi'eat impulse to such pursuits. Some of tliem (Drs. Wilkins, Wallis, 
&c.), about 1648-9, removed to Oxford, and with Dr. (afterwards bishop) Seth Ward, the 
lion. Robert Boyle, Di'. (afterwards sir) W. Petty, and several doctors of divinity and physic, 
frerpiently assembled in the apartments of Dr. Wilkins, in Wadhani college, Oxford. They 
formed what has been called tlie Philosophical Society of Oxford, which only lasted till 1690. 
The members were, about 165S, called to various parts of the kingdom, on account of their 
respective professions ; and the majority coming to London, constantly attended the lectures 
at Gresham college, and met occasionally till the death of Oliver Cromwell in 1659. See 
Societies. 



The society was organised in 1660, and constituted by 
Charles II. a body politic and corporate, by the 
appellation of " tlie President, Council, and Fel- 
lows of the Royal Society of London, for improving 
Natural Knowledge," Ajiril 22, 1662. 

Evelyn records the first anniversary meeting, St. 
Andrew's day, Nov. 30, 1663. 

The Philosophical Transactions hogin'Ma.rch 6, 1664-5. 

lu 166S, Newton invented his reflecting telescope 
(now in the possession of the society), and on 
April 28, i586, presented to the society the MS. 
of his Priiicipia, which the council ordered to be 
printed. This was done under the superintendence 
and also at the expense of Halley the astronomer, 
at that time clerk to the society. 

The .society met for some years at Gre.shani College, 
and afterwards at Arundel Hou.se (1666), where it 
came into possession of a valuable library, pre- 
sented by Mr: Howard, grandson of its collector, 
the carl of Arundel, Alter various changes the 



fellows returned to Gresham College, where they 
remained till their removal to Crane-court, in a 
house purchased by themselves, Nov. 8, 1610. 

They remove to apartments granted them in Somer- 
set-house, 1780 ; to apartments in Burlington-house, 
Piccadilly, 1S57. 

The first Copley Medal was awarded to Stephen Gray 
in 1731 ; the Roj-al Medal to John Dalton, 1826 ; 
the Rumford Medal, instituted in 1797, to count 
Bumford himself in 1800. 

Parliament votes annually looo^ to the Royal Society 
for scientific purposes. 

Regulations made by which fifteen fellows are to be 
elected annually, who pay ten pounds on admis- 
sion, and four pounds annually, or a composition 
of sixty pounds, Mai-ch, 1847. 

The " Royal Society Scientific Fund " was founded 
in imitation of the " Literary Fund " in 1859. See 
Scitniific Fund. 



PRESIDENTS. 

1660. Sir Robert Moray. 

1663. Lord Brouncker. 

1677. Sir Joseph Williamson. 

1680. Sir Christopher Wren. 

1682. Sir John Hoskyns. 

1683. Sir Cyril Wyche. 

1684. Samuel Pepys. 

1686. John, earl of Carbery. 

1689. Thomas, earl of Pembroke. 

1690. Sir Robert Southwell. 



1695, 



I703' 
1727. 
1741. 
1752. 
1764. 



Chas. Montague (aftds. earl [ 
of Halifax). j 

John, lord Somers. 
Sir Isaac Newton. ; 

Sir Huns Sloane. j 

Martin Folkes. 
Geo., earl of Macclesfield. ' 
James, earl of Morton. 
James Burrow. 
James West. 
James Burrow. | 



1772. 
1778. 
1820. 

i82'7. 
1830. 



1854. 



Sir John Pringle. 

Sir Joseph Banks. 

Dr. W. H. Wollaston. 

Sir Humphry Davy. 

Davics Gilbert. 

Duke of Sussex. 

Marquis of Northampton. 

Earl of Rosso. 

Lord Wrottesley. 

Sir Benjamin C. Brodie. 

Major-gen. Edward Sabine. 



RUBICON, a small nver flowing into the Adriatic sea, separated Cisalpine Gaul from 
Italy proper. Roman generals were forbidden to pass this river at the head of an army. 
Julius Caesar did so, 49 B.C., and thereby began a revolt and deadly civil war. 

RUBIDIUM, an alkaline metal, discovered by Bunsen by means of the spectrum analysis, 
and made known in 1861. 

RUGBY SCHOOL (Warwickshire), was founded in 1567 by Lawrence, sheriff, a London 
tradesman. Dr. Thomas Arnold, the historian, entered on the duties of head-master here 
in August, 1828, and under him the school greatly prospered. He died June 12, 1842. 

RUHMKORFF'S INDUCTION COIL. Sec Induction. 

RULING-MACHINES, used for ruling paper with faint lines, for merchants' account- 
books, &c. They were invented by an ingenious Dutchman, resident in London, in 1782, 
and were subsequently greatly improved by Woodmason, Payne, Brown, and others. They 
were improved in Scotland in 1803. An invention has lately rendered account-books perfect 
by the numbering of the pages with types, instead of the nmnbers being written by a pen, so 
that a page cannot be torn out from them without being discovered. 

RUM (French rhum), ardent spirit distilled from sugar lees and molasses, deriving its 
peculiar flavour from a volatile oil. Rum is principally made in the West Indies. The duty 
(since 1858) on colonial nun imported into the United Kingdom is 8s. 2d. per gallon, on 



EUM 



634 



EUS 



foreign rum (since 1846) is 15s. per gallon. The duty on rum to be emploj'ed as methylated 
^liirits was reduced in 1863. 



Imported. 
1848 

1851 . 



Gallons. 
6,858,981 
4.745,^44 



ImporteO.. 
1853 . 
185s ■ 



Gallons. 


Imported. 


Gallons. 


5,206,248 


1857 


. 6,515,683 


8,714.337 


1S63 . 


• • 7.i94i739 



RUMP TAELIAMENT. See Pride's Purge. 

EUNNY-MEDE (council-mead), near Egham, Surrey. Here king John signed Magna 
Charta, June 15, 1215. 

EUSSELL ADMINISTEATIONS.* See Palmerston Administration, Sec. 



FIRST ADMINISTRATION (formed On the resignation of 
sir Robert Peel), July, 1846. 

First lord of the treasury, lord John Russell. 

Zoi-d chancellor, lord Cottenham (succeeded by lord 
Truro). 

Lord president of the council, marquess of Lansdowne. 

Privi/ seal, Earl of Minto. 

Chancellor of the exchequer, Mr. (now Sir Charles) 
Wood. 

Foreign, home, and colonial secretaries, vioount Pal- 
merston, sir George Grey, and earl Grey. 

Eoards of control and trade, sir John Hobhouse (now 
lord Broughton), and earl of Clarendon (succeeded 
by Mr. Labouchere). 

Admiralty, the earl of Auckland (succeeded by sir 
Francis Thornhill Baring). 

Duchy of Lancaster, lord Campbell (succeeded by the 
earl of Carlisle, late viscount Morjieth). 

Secretary at war, Mr. Fox Maule. 

Postmaster, marquess of Clanricarde. 

T. B. Macaulay, &c. 

Lord John Russell and his colleagues resigned their 
offices, Feb. 21, 1851 ; but were induced (after the 
failure of lord Stanley's party to form an adminis- 
tration) to return to power, March 3 following : — 

SECOND ADMINISTRATION (or Continuation of his 
first), March, 1851. 
First lord of the treasury, lord John Russell. 
President of the Council, marquess of Lansdowne. 
Lo7-d privy seal. Earl of Minto. 
Chancellor of the exchequer, sir Charles Wood. 
Home, foreign, and colonial secretanes, sir George 



Grey, viscount Palmerston (succeeded by earl 

Granville, Dec. 22), and earl Grey. 
Lord chancellor, lord Truro. 

First lord of the admiralty, sir Francis T. Baring. 
Board of control, loi-d Broughton. 
Board of trade, Mr. Labouchere. 
Secretary at war, Mr. Fox Maule (afterwards lord 

Panmure, and now earl of Dalhousie). 
Postmaster-general, marquess of Clanricarde. 
Paymaster-general, earl Granville. 
Lord Seymour, earl of Carlisle, &c. 

This ministiy resigned Feb. 21, 1852. See Derby 
Administration. 

THIRD ADMINISTRATION. (Oil the dcccase of lord Pal- 
merston, Oct. 18, 1865, earl Russell received Her 
Majesty's commands to reconstruct the adminis- 
tration.) 

First lord of the treasury, John, earl Russell. 

Lord chancellor, Robert, lord Cranworth. 

Posimaster-general, John, lord Stanley of Alderley. 

President of the poor-law hoard, Chas. Pelham Villiers. 

Lord president of the council, George, earl Granville. 

Lord privy seal, George, duke of Argj-ll. 

Chancellor of the exchequer, Wm. E. Gladstone. 

Secretaries — foreign affairs, George, earl of Clarendon ; 
colonies, Edward Cardwell ; home, sir George Grey ; 
^rar, George, earl De Grey and Ripon ; India, sir 
Charles Wood. 

First lord of the admiralty, Edward, duke of Somerset. 

President of the board of trade, Thos. Milner Gibson. 

Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster , George J. Goschen. 

Secretary for Ireland, Chichester Fortescue. 



EUSSELL INSTITUTION" (Great Coram-street, London), was founded in 1808 by sir 
Samnel Romilly, Francis Horner, Dr. Mason Good, Henry Hallam, lord Abinger, and others. 
The building comprises a library, lecture room, news room, &c. 

EUSSELL TEIAL. William, lord Eussell's trial for complicity in the Eye-house plot 
was marked by a most touching scene. When he supplicated to have some one near him to 
take notes to help his memory, he was answered, that any of his attendants might assist 
him ; upon which he said, " My wife is here, and will do it for me." He was beheaded in 
Lincoln's-Inn-Fields, July 21, 1683, having slept soundly the night before his execution. 
Lady Eussell survived him forty years, d3dng Sept. 29, 1723, in her eighty-seventh year. 
The attainder of this nobleman was reversed, i Will. III. 1689, his execution having been 
deemed a murder. 

EUSSIA, the eastern part of ancient Sarmatia. The name is generally derived from the 
Eoxolani, a Slavonic tribe. Eurick, a Varangian chief, appears to have been the first to 
establish a government, 862. His descendants ruled amid many vicissitudes till 1598. The 
progress of the Eussian power under Peter the Great and Catherine II. is imequalled for 

* Lord John Russell, 3rd son of John, duke of Bedford, was born Aug. 19, 1792 ; M.P. for Tavistock, 
1813; for London, 1841-61 : was paymaster of the forces, 1830-34; secretary for home department, 1835-9; 
for the colonies, 1839-41 ; first minister, July 1846 to March 1852 ; secretary for foreign affairs, Dec. 1852 
to Feb. 1853 ; president of the council, June 1854 to Feb. 1855 ; secretary for the colonies, March to Nov. 
1855 ;_ secretary for foreign affairs, June. 1859, to Oct. 1865, when he succeeded Lord Palmerston as 
premier; created a peer as earl Russell, July 30, 1861. His motion for reform in parliament was negatived 
m 1822 ; adopted March i, 1831 ; he introduced the Registration bill, and a New Marriage bill, in 1836. 



liUS 



(335 



liUS 



rapidity iu the history of the world. Tlie established religion of Russia is the Greek church, 
with a free toleratiou however of other sects, even the Mahometans. By au imperial ukase, 
ill 1802, si.Y universities were established, viz., at St. Petersburg, Moscow, Wihia, Dorpat 
(iu Livonia), Ciiarcov, and Kasan ; but literature has made little pi'ogress, the native publi- 
cvations being very few, and the best books being all translations. The Russian language, 
tliough not devoid of elegance, is, to a foreigner, of very difficult pronunciation : the number 
of letters and dii)hthongs is forty-two. The estimated population of the empire in 1865 is 
53,255,430. By the first Russian budget (1S62), the estimated revenue was 34,500,000/. ; 
expenditure, 37,850,000?. 



Russia iuvaded by the Huns . . . a.d. 376 
Ruric the Nornian or Varangian, arrives at Nov- 
gorod (or New City), and ijecomes grand duke 

[anniversary kept Sept. 20, 1862] . . . 862 
Oleg successfully invades the Greek empire . . 904 
Vladimir the Great naarries Auue, sister of the 

emperor Basil II., and is baptized . . . 9S8 
The Golden Horde of Tartars conquer a large 

jiart of Russia about . ..... 1223 

The grand duke Jurie killed in battle . . 1237 
The Tart xrs establish the emijire of the Khan of 

Kaptschak, and exercise great influence in 

Russia 1242 

Alexander Newski defeats the invading Danes, 

&c 1244 

He is made grand duke of Russia by the Tartars 1252 
T.artar war, 1380 ; Moscow burnt . . . . 1383 
Tauaerlane, after ravaging Tartary, invades 

Russia ; but retires 1395 

Accession of Ivan III. the Great — able and des- 
potic 1462 

The foundation of the present monarchy laid . ,, 
Ivan introduces fire-arms and cannon into 

Riissia 1475 

Great invasion of the Tartars ; consternation of 

Ivan ......... 1479 

His general Svenigorod attacks them and anni- 
hilates their power ...... 1481 

Ivan takes the title of czar 1482 

Accession of Ivan IV. , a cruel tyrant . . 1533 

The English " Russian company " established . 1553 
Richard Chancellor sent to open the trade . .1554 

Discovery of Siberia ,, 

The royal bodyguard (the Strelitz) established . 1568 
Ivan solicits the hand of queeu Elizabeth of 

England 1579 

The race of Ruric, who had governed Russia 

for 700 years, becomes e.xtinct . . . . 1598 
The imposition of Demetrius (see Impostors) . i5o6 
Michael Fedorovitz, of the house of Romanoff, 

ascends the throne ...... 1613 

Finland ceded to Sweden 161 7 

Russian victories in Poland .... 1654 

First Russian vessel built 1667 

Subjugation of the Cossacks .... 1671 

Reign of Ivan and Peter I. or the Great . . 1682 
Peter sole sovereign ...... 1689 

He visits Holland and England, and works in 

the dockyard at Deptford ..... 1697 
Recalled by a conspiracy of the Strelitz, which 

he cruelly revenges ; 2000 tortured and slain ; 

he beheads many with his own hind . . 1697 
The Russians begin their new year from Jan. i ; 

(but retain the old style) 1700 

War with Sweden, Peter totally defeated by 

Charles XII. at N.arva . . . Nov. 30, ,, 
Peter founds St. Petersburg as a new capital . 1703 

The Strelitz abolished 1704 

Charles XII. totally defeated by Peter at Fn\- 

towa, and flees to T\irkey . . July 8, 1709 

14,000 Swedish prisoners sent to colonise 

Siberia ......... 

War with Turkey ; Peter and his army cross 

the Pruth, and are surrounded by the Turks ; 

tliey escape by the energy of the empress 
Catherine, who obtains a truce . . June, 1711 
Esthonia, Livonia, and a large part of Finland 

added to the empire 1715 



Peter visits German}', Holland, and France . . 1715 

The Jesuits exi5elled 1718 

Conspiracy and mysterious death of the jirince 
Alexis ....... July, ,, 

Peter 11. (last of the Romanoffs), deiiosed, and 

the crown given to Anne of Courland . . 1730 
Elizabetli, daughter of Peter I. , reigns, in pre- 
judice of Ivan VI., an infant, who is impri- 
soned for life 1741 

Peter III. dethi-oned and murdered, succeeded 

by Cathei-ine his wife 1762 

Ivan VI., the rightful heir, till now immured, 

put to death 1764 

Rebellion of the Cossacks, 1774 ; suppressed . 1775 
Dismemberment of Poland ; commenced by 

Catherine (see Poland), 1772 ; comisleted . 1795 
Successful invasions of the Crimea . . 1769-84 
Catherine gives her subjects a new code of 
laws ; abolishes torture in punishing crimi- 
nals ; and dies 1796 

Unsuccessful war with Persia • . . . ,, 
Russian treaty with Austria and England . . 1798 
Suwarrow with an army joins the Austi'ians, 

and checks the French iu Italy . . . . 1799 
Mental derangement of Paul .... i8oo 
He is murdered .... March 23, i8oi 
Accession of Alexander I. (who makes peace 

with England) ,, 

He joins the coalition against Franco , April, 1805 
AUies defeated at Austerlitz . . Dec. 2, ,, 
Treaty of Tilset with France . . July 8, 1S07 
Russians defeated by the Turks, near Silistria, 

Sept. 26, 1809 
War with France. .... June, 1812 

The Russians defeated at Smolensko, Aug. 17 ; 

and at the Borodino . . . Sept. 7, ,, 
Moscow burnt by the Russians, retreat of the 

French Sept. „ 

Alexander present at the battle of Leipsic, Oct. 

1813 ; entered Paris .... March, 181 4 
He visits England .... June, ,, 
Alexander forms the Holy Alliance . . . 1815 
The grand duke Constantiue renounces the 

right of succession .... Jan. 26, 1822 
Emperor Nicholas crowned at Moscow, Sept. 3, 1826 
Russian war against Persia . . Sept. 28, ,, 

Nicholas visits England ; invested with the 

order of the Garter . . . July 9, 1S27 
Peace between Russia and Persia . Feb. 22, 1828 
War between Russia and the Ottoman Porte 

declared (see Turkey, and Battles) . April 26, ,, 
The war for the independence of Poland against 

Russia (see Z'o^fKK/) .... Nov. 29, 1830 
Failure of the expedition against Khiva . Jan. 1840 
Treaty of London (see Si/>-ia) . . July 15, ,, 
The emperor Nicholas arrives in London June i, 1844 
The grand duke Coustantine arrives at Ports- 
mouth in the/yifyen)ia/ita)i£/,of 74guns, June 9, 1846 
[For the participation of Russia in the Hun- 
garian war of 1848-9, see Hamjarj/.] 
Russia demands the expulsion of the Hun- 
garian and Polish refugees from Turkey (see 

Turkei/) Nov. 5, 1849 

They are sent to Konieh, in Asia Minor . Jan. 1850 
Conspiracy against the life and poUcy of the 

emperor detected .... Jan. 6, ,, 
Harbour of Sebastopol completed . . Feb. ,, 
The emperor decrees seven men in each thou- 



RUS 



63G 



IIUS 



RUSSIA, continued. 

sand of llio population of Western Knssia to 

bo enrolled in the army, givinf,' a total in- 

ercafc of 180,000 Holdiors . . . Aiig. 
Tlie tsYixr viHitw Vienna . . . May 8, 

Concentrates his forecs on the frontiers of 

'J'urkey Feb. 

Origin of tlie Uusso-Turkish war {which nee, and 

Iloiij Piacen) Marcli, 

Conference between tlio emperors of HuKsia 

and Austria at Olmuts'. . . Sept. 24, 
And king of Prussia at Warsaw . (Jet. 2, 

Interview of Mr. J. Sturgo and other quakors 

with the czar, to obtain peace . . Kol). 
Ton northern provinces put in a state of siege, 

March 5, 
The czar issues a manifesto to his subjects ; 

he will combat only for the faith and Chris^ 

tianity April 23, 

Death of the czar Nicholas, and accession of 

Alexander II.; no change of jjolicy, March 2, 
Most extensive levy ordered by the czar (at 

Nicolaicif) Nov. 3, 

Ho visits liis army at Scbastopol . Nov. 10, 
Death of prince Ivan Paskiewitsch, aged 74, 

Fob. I, 
Amnesty gi-anted to the Poles, May 27; political 

oll'enders, itc. .... iSejit. 7, 

Alexander II. crowned at Moscow . Hcpt. 2, 
Manifesto on accoiuit of the Knglish .and French 

interference in tlie affairs of Naples, Sept. 2, 
St. J'otiMsl>urg and Warsaw Railway begun by 

govornment, 1851 ; ceded to Croat Russian 

railway company (about 335 miles, the half 

completed) 

Oranil duke Constantino visits Franco and 

Knghmrl April, 

The cuar meets the emperor Napoleon at Stut- 

ganlt, Sept. 25 ; and tho emperor of Austria 

at Weimar Oct. i, 

Tartifd emancipation of tho serfs on the im- 

l)C'rial domains July 2, 

A Russian naval station established at Villa 

l''ranca, on tlie Mediterranean, creates some 

jjolitical excitement . . . Aug. 

New commercial treaty with Creat Britain, 

Jan. 12, 
Russia reproves tho warlike movements of the 

German confederation during the Italian war. 

May 27, 
The czar protests .against tho recognition of tho 

sovereignty of peoples . . . Feb. 13, 
Friiitless mooting of the emperors of Russia 

un<l Austria and the regent of Prussia at 

Warsaw Oct. 20-25, 

Treaty with China, for enlargement of coni- 

merco Jun. i. 

Decree for the total emancipation of tho serfs 



1850 
1852 



1853 



1854 



1855 



1856 



1859 



i860 



r86i 



(23,000,000) throughout the empire in two 
years March 3, 18G1 

Demonstrations an<l repres.siun in Poland 
{which tee) Feb. — April, ,, 

Disturbances in South Rus.sia, caused by .an 
impostor asserting himself to be a descendant 
of Peter III. ; many jieasants shot and flogged 

May and June, ,, 

Inundations at Kiev, Moscow ; 615 houses 
under water May, ,, 

Death of prince Michael Oortschakoff, governor 
of Poland May 30, „ 

Student riots at the university of St. Peters- 
burg, which is closed, Oct. 6-g; reopened, 

Oct. 24, „ 

Tho nobles sign a petition for a political con- 
stitution Nov. ,, 

Increased privileges granted to the Jews, 

Jan. 26, 1862 

Death of Nesselrode, the cli.ancellor of tho 
empire Marcli 23 or 24, ,, 

Alarming increase of fires at St. Petersburg, 
Moscow ; tho govciannent supjiresscs various 
educational institutions . . . June, ,, 

Russia recognises the kingdom of Italy, July 10, ,, 

Annivcrs.ary of the foundation of the cstabliah- 
nient of the Ru.ssian monarchy at Novgorod, 
celebrated ..... Scjit. 20, 

He-organisation of tho departments of justice 
decreed ; juries to be employed in trials, &c. 

Oct. 14, ,, 

Trade t.ax bill introduced ; admitting foreigners 
to merchants' guilds, &c. . . Nov. 26, ,, 

Insurrection in Poland . , Jan. 22-24, 1863 

I for events, see Polnvd.] 

Termination of serfdom . . March 3, ,, 

Provincial institutions established throughout 
Russia Jan. 13, 1864 

(Ireat victory over tho Oubykhs in tho Cau- 
casus, March 31 ; crnigi-ation of tho Caucasian 
tribes into Turkey, April ; submission of the 
Aibgas ; tho war declared to bo at an ond, 

Juno 2, ,, 

Tho cz.arowitch betrothed to the princess Dag- 
mar of Denmark .... Sept. 28, ,, 

Serfdom aVjolished in tho Trans-Caucasian 
l)rovinces ; new judicial system promul- 
gated Dec. ,, 

The Russian noliles request tho emperor to 
establish two houses of representatives 
fdcclined] Jan. 24, 18C5 

Now iirovineo, " Turkestan," in central Asia, 
created Feb. 14, ,, 

Tho czarowitch Nicholas dies at Nico, April 24, ,, 

Industrial exhibition at Moscow closes, July 16, ,, 

Censorship of tlie pi-ess relaxed: law begins, 

Sept. 13, „ 



DUKICS, CZAIl.';, AND KMI'KKOIIS. 



862. 



972. 
980. 

1015. 
1054. 
1078. 
1093. 
1114. 
1 1 25. 
1132. 
1138. 
H.39- 
iMf>. 



DUKKS OF KIOV. 

Rurick. 
Igor. 

( Olcga, regent. 

( Swiatoslaw or Spendoblos. 
Jaropalk I. 
Vl.adimir, Wladimir, or Waldimir I., styled tho 

Great. 
Jaraslaw, or Jaroslaf I. 
T.sjialaw I. 
Wsewolod I. 
Swi.atoii.alk. 
Vla.liinir II. 
Mtislaw or Michael I. 
Jaropfdk II. 

J Wiatschelaw, 

\ Wsewolod II. 

( Lijialaw II. 

( Rostislaw. 



1155. Jurio or Georgo I.; tho city of Moscow wa.s 
built by this duke. 



riKAND-ni'KKS OF WLADIMIE. 

f .\ndrcw I. until 1175; first grand-duko. 

"( Michael If. 
Wsewolod 1 1 1. 

j Jurio or (ieorge T[. 

( Constantino, until 1218. 
1238. J.araslaw II. ; succeeded by his son, 
1245. AlexandorNevski or Ncwski, tho Saint. 
1263. J.araslaw III. 
1270. Vas.ali or Basil I. 

"Dmitri or Demetrius I. 

Andrew II. 

Daniel- Alcxandrovitz. 

Jurio or George III. : deposed. 

Michael III. 

Vasah or Basil II. 



1157- 
"77- 
1213. 



1277. 



1 



1294. 
1302. 
1305- 
1320. 



RUS 



037 



IIUS 



RUSSIA, conlimicd. 

1325. ".luric or Gooixo III. : restored. 

[Those ni.irkcil tlnn ' iiro iloubtful, owiiijj to 
tlio (lillit'ulty tli;it occurs ;it every stop iu 
curly Jliissiau lUinals. J 

riRAND-DUKES OF MOSCOW. 

1328. Ivan or John I. 

1340. Hinion, sunianied the proud. 

1353. Ivan or Jolin II. 

1359. Demetrius II. prince of Su.sdal. 

1362. Demetrius III. Donskoi. 

1389. "Vasiili or IJasil IU. Tcuuioi. 

1425. Vasali or Basil IV. 

CZARS OF MUSCOVV. 

1462. Ivan (Rasilovitz) or John III. : took the title 

of czar 1482. 
1505. Vasali or liasil V. ohtaincd the title of emperor 

from Maximilian I. 
1533. Ivan IV. 
1584. Feodor or Thcodor I. : supposed t ohavo been 

poisoned, and his son, Demetrius, niiu-dered 

by Ills successor, 
1598. UorisGodouof, who usiu'ped the throne. 
1606. Demetrius, the Impostor, a yovniff Poli.sh 

monk ; pretended to be the murdered prince 

Demetrius ; put to death. 
,, Vasali-t'houiski, or Zouinski. 
1610. [Interregnum. I 
1613. Michael- Feodorovitz, of the honse of RomanoC, 

descended from the czar Ivan-15asilovitz. 
1645. Alexia, son of the preceding, styled the father 

of his country. 
1676. Feodor or Theodor II. 
,„ ( Ivan IV. anil 
1D02. I y,^^^^, |_ i„.,,,1j^,.„ of t],g pioceding-. 



KMI'llRonS. 

1689. Tetcr I. the (Jruat, alone ; took Ihe title of 

emperor in 1728, founded St. Petersburg, 

aim elevated the empire. 
1725. Catherine I. his consort ; at first the wife of a 

iSwedish draj^oon, who is said to have been 

killed on the day of marriage. 
1727. Peter 1 1. son of Alexis-Petrovitz, and grandson 

of Peter the Great : deposed. 
1730. Anno, duchess of C'ourland, daughter of the 

czar Ivan. 
1740. Ivan VI. an infant, grand-nephew to Peter tha 

(Jroat ; immured in a dungeon for 18 years ; 

murdered in 1764. 
17.)!. lOlizabcth, daughtcrof Peter the Great, reigned 

during Ivan's captivity. 
i7()2. Peter III. son of Anne and of (Jliarles-Fre- 

derick, duke of llolstein-Gottorp: deposed, 

anil died soon after, supposed to have been 

murdered. 
,, Catherine II. his consort: .1 groat sovoi'oign ; 

extended the Russian territorios on all 

sifles ; died in 1796. 
179G. Paul, her son; found dead in his chamber; 

supposed to have ))een murdered. 
1801. Alexander, his son ; who, after many adverse 

battles, and a forced alliance with Fr.ancc, 

at length aided in the overthrow of Napo- 
leon Bonaparte. 
1825. Nicholas, brother to Alexander; svieceeded 

Dec. I, 1825. 
1855. Alexander II. son of Nicholas, born April 29, 

1818'; succeeded at his fatlier's death, 

March 2, 1855; married April 28, 1841, Mary 

]>rinee.ss of Ilesso ; the i'hk.sjcnt emperor of 

Russia. 
//(■('/■ .• his s(ni Alexander, born March 10, 1848. 



RUSSO-TURKISII AVAI!.* Tlie Itus.siaii mid Krcnc^li ouvcninionts liiivinj,' oiicli taken 
a side in tlio dispute between tlio (Jrcek and fjntin churches as to the e,\chisive [>osse.ssion of 
the Holy Places (which sec) in Palestine, tlie I'orte advised tlic Ibruiation of a mixod com- 
mission, which decided in favour of tlie Greeks, and a firman was ])romn]j^ated accordingly, 
March 9, 1853 : to this decision the French acceded, although dissatisfied. 



The Russians m.ake further claims, .and prince 
Menschikoff (who arrived at Constantinople 
Feb. 28, 18531, by various notes (between 
March 22 and May 18), demands that a con- 
vention shoidd 1)0 signed by tho sultan 
granting to the czar such a protectorate over 
tho Greek Christians in Turkey, as the sultan 
considered inimical to his own authority, 

Alaroh 22 — May 18, 1853 

Mensehikoff's nltimatum rejected; ho quits 
Constantinople May 21, ,, 

Tho sultan issues a hatti scherif conflrming all 
tho rights and ])rivileges of tho Greek 
Christians, .and apjicals to his .allies June 6, ,, 

The Fnglish and French fleets anchor in Besika 
Bay Juno 13, ,, 

Tlio Russians, imder gen. Luders, cro.ss the 
Pruth and enter Moldavia . . July 2, ,, 



Circidar of count Nessclrodo in justification, 
July 2 ; lord Clarendon's reply . July 16 1853 

The conference of representatives of England, 
France, Austria, and Prussia meet at Vienna, 
.agree to a note, July 31 ; whicli is acccpleil 
by the czar, Aug. 10 ; but; the sultan reijuircs 
modifications, Aug. 19; which tho czar rejects, 

Hept. 7, ,, 

Two ICngli.sh and two French ships enter the 
Dardanelles Sept. 14, ,, 

Tho sultan (with tho consent of a great 
national council) declares war against Russia, 

Oct. 5, „ 

Tho Turkish fortress at I.ss.aktocha fires on a 
Russian tlotilla (tho first .act of war) Oct. 23, ,, 

Tho Turks cro.ss tho Danube at Widdon and 
occupy Kalafat . . Oct. 28 — Nov. 3, ,, 

Russia declares war against Turkey Nov. i, ,, 



" In 1844, when tho czar was in England, he conversed with the duke of Wellington and lord Aberdeen 
(whom he hail known many years) respecting the dissolution of the Turkish empire ; and on his return 
he embodieil his views in a memonuulum drawn up by count Ncsselrode, which was transmitted to 
l.,ondon, but ke])t secret till .March 1854. In January and Fel)ruary of that year the czar had several con- 
versations on the subject with tho British envoy at St. Petersb\u-g, sir G. II. Seymour, in one of which 
(Jan. 14) ho com])arod Turkey to a inan in n state of decrepitude and sickness, on the point of death, and 
made proposals to the British government as to tho disjjo.sal of his pro))ert,y. He stated frankly that ho 
would not permit the British to establish themselves at (!onstantinople ; but said in another conversation, 
lie would not olijcct to their jxissessing Egypt. Tho purport of these conversations w.as conveyed in des- 
))atches to lord .John Riis.iell, who replied tliat the British government declined to make any provision for 
the contingincy of tho fall of Turkey. Tho czar m.vde similar proposals to the French government with 
the same result, 



liUS 



638 



RUS 



RUSSO-TURKISn WAR, continued. 

English and French fleets enter Bcisphorns, 

Nov. 2, 1853 
Russians dofcntcd at Oltcnitza . Nov. 4, ,, 
Turks (in Asia) defeated at Bayaiidur, At.skur, 

and Aolialtzik . . . Nov. 14, 18, 26, ,, 
Turkisli fleet destroyed at Sinopo . Nov. 30, ,, 
Collective note from the four powers roquirinj,' 
to know on what terms the Porto will 
negotiate for poaco . . . Doc. 5, „ 

Contests at Kalafat (Russians defoatt.d at 

Citate, Jan. r>) . . Doc. 31, 1853 — .Jan. 9, 1854 
At the request of the Porte (Dec. 5), the alhed 

fleets enter tlie Black Sea . . Jan. 4, „ 

Reply of the Porto to the note of Deo. 5, con- 
taining four points as l)ascs of negotiation: 
viz. I. The jiroinptest possible evacuation 
of the princiitalities. 2. Revision of the 
treaties. 3. Maintenance of religious privi- 
leges to the coniminiitios of all confessions. 
4. A definitive settlement of the convention 
respecting the Holy Places (dated Dec. 31), — 
approved by the four powers . Jan. 13, ,, 
Vienna conferences close . . . Jan. 16, ,, 
Kalafat invested hy the Rus.sians Jan. 28-31, ,, 
Proposal in a letter from the emperor of France 

to the Ci^ar (.Ian. 29) declined . Feb. 9, ,, 

Turkish flotilla at Rustchuk destroyed hy the 

Russians imdcr Bchildcrs . . Feb. 15, ,, 

Ultimatum of lOngland and France sent to St. 

Petersburg l''cb. 27, „ 

The czar " did not judge it suitable to give an 

answer " March 19, , 

Baltic fleet sails, imder sir C. N.apior, March 11, , 
Treaty between Fngland, France, and Tin-key, 

Mai'ch 12, , 
Russians, under Oortsch.akoff, pass the Danube 
and occupy the Dobrud.scha : severe conflicts ; 
the Turks retire . . . M.arch 23, 24, , 
Franco and Kngland declare war against Russia, 

March 27, 28, , 
Rupture between Turkey .and Greece, March 28, , 
Oen. Canrobcrt and French troojis arrive at 
Gallipoli, soon after followed by the Fnglish, 

March 31, , 
Russians defeated by the Tiu'ks at K.arakai, 

May 30, , 
English vessel I'urioug, with a fl.ag of truce, 

fired on .at Odessa . . . April 8, , 

Four powers sign a protocol at Vienna, 
guaranteeing the integrity of Turkey .and eivil 
and religious rights of her Christian subjects, 

Ajiril 10, , 
Russians defeated at Kostclli hy Mustapha 

Pacha. April 10, , 

OfTonsivc and defensive alliance between 

J'ingl.and .and Franco . . . Ai)ril 10, , 
Treaty between Austria and Prussia April 20, , 
Bomb.ardmcnt of Odessa by .allied fleet April 22, , 
Kussian.s, imdcrgcn. Hchildcr.s, .assaiilt Kalafat ; 

repulsed ; the blockade rai.sed April 19-21, , 
The Ti{i<r steamer rini aground near Odessa, 

captured by llic R,\issians . . May 12, , 

Russians d(f.:itci| .at Turtukai . May 13, , 
Siege of Silislria begun . . . May 17, , 

Allied armies disembark at Varna . May 29, , 
Mouths of the Danube blockaded by .allied fleets, 

June I, , 
R\issians repulsed .at Silistria; Pa.skiewitseh 

and m.any ofTiccrs woinidcd . June 5, , 

Turks defeated .at Ozurgheti (in Asia) J>me 16, , 
Severe conflict before Silistria; the siege rai.sed, 

June 18-26, , 
Batteries at the Sulina mouths destroyed by 

capt. Parker June 26, 27, , 

Captain Parker killed .... Jidy 8, , 
Russians defeated at Ciurgevo . Jiily 7, , 
10,000 French troops embark at Boulogne for 
the Baltic July 15, ,, 



Turks defeated at B.ayazid in Armenia, July 

29, 30 ; and ne.ar Kars . . . Aug. 5, 

Surrender of Bomarsund '. Aug. 16, 

[In July .and August the allied .armies and 

fleets in the oast suffered severely from 

cholera.] 

Tho Russians defeated by Schamyl in Gcorgi.a, 

.about Aug. 28, 

They evacuate the prineip.alitios, Aug. Sept. 20, 

By virtue of a treaty with Turkey (Juno 14) 

tho Au.stri.ans inider count Coronini, enter 

Bucharest Hejjt. 6, 

Allies .sail from Varn.a, Sept. 3, and land at Old 
Fort, near JCup.atoria' . . . Sept. 14, 
Skirmish at the Bulganac . . . Sept. 19, 
Battle of the Alma (soo Alma) . Sept. 20, 
Russians sink part of their fleet at Sebastopol, 

Sept. 23, 

Allies occupy Balaklava . . . Sept. 26, 

Death of m.irsbal St. Arn.aud . Sept. 29, 

General C,anrol)ert, his successor Nov. 24, 

Siege of Sebastopol commenced — grand .attack 

(without success) .... Oct. 17, 

Battle of Balakl.ava — charge of the light cavalry, 

with severe loss .... Oct. 25, 

Sortie from Sebastopol repulsed by generals 

Kvans and Boscjuct .... Oct. 26, 

Russian attack at Inkei-m.an ; defeated, Nov. 5, 

Miss Nighting.alo and nurses arrive at Soutari, 

Nov. 6, 

Great tempest in tho Black Sea, loss of the 

Vrince and store vessels . . Nov. 14-16, 

Treaty of alliance between Engl.and, France, 

Austria, .and Prussia— a commissioa to meet 

at Vienna : signed .... Doe. 2, 

Russi.an sortie .... Dec. 20, 

Omar P.acha arrives in the Crimea (followed by 

the Turkish army from Varna) . J.an. 5, j 

Sardinia joins Fngl.and .and Franco Jan. 26, 

(jlroat sufferings in tho camp from cold .and 

sickness .... Jan. .and Feb. 

Russians defeated by the Turks at Kupatoria, 

Feb. 17, 

Death of Fimperor Nichol.as ; .accession of Alex- 

.ander II. (no cliaiigcMjf iKilicy) . March z, 

Sortie from the Mal.akliofl tower March 22, 

Captin-o of Ru.ssian rillc-pits . . April 19, 

Arrival of Sardinian contingent . . M.ay 8, 

Resignation of Gen. Cam-obcrt, succeeded by 

gen. I'elissicr .... May 16, 

Des)icj-.ite night comb.ats . . M.aj' 22-24, 

Expedition into tho sea of AzofT (under sir E. 

Lyons and sir G. Brown); destruction of 

Kertch and large amount of stores, May 24- 

Juno 3, 
T.aganrog bombarded . . . Juno 3, 
Massacre of .an English bo.at's crow with flag of 
truce at Il.ango .... June 5, 

Russians cvacu.atc An.apa . . Jimo 5, 

Tlie White Works and M.amelon Vert taken, 

Juno 6, 7, 
Unsuccessful attack on tho Malakhoff tower 

and Redan June 18, 

Death of Lord Ragl.an ; succeeded by general 

Simp.son June 28, 

Russi.ans invest Kars in Armenia, defended by 

gen. Williams July 15, 

Bomb.ardmcnt of Sweaborg . . Aug. 9. 
Defeat of the Russians at thoTchernaya, Aug. 16 
Ambuscade on the glacis of the Malakhoff 
t.aken ; Russian sortie repulsed . Aug. 18, 
The French take the Malakhoff {vhicli sec) liy 
a^;.sault ; tho lOnglish ass.aidt the Redan with- 
out success ; the Russians retire from Sebas- 
tt)pol to the North Forts,'and the allies enter 
the city ; the Russi.ans destroy or sink the 
remainder of their fleet . . Sept. 8 &c. 
Tanan and Fan.agoria captured . . Sept. 24, 



40,000 men, a large number of horses, and a powerful artillery wore landed in one day. 



RUS 



639 



SAU 



KUSSO-TUEKISH WAR, continued. 

Tlio Russians assaulting Kars aro defeated with 
groat loss Sept. 29, 1855 

Russian cavalry defeated (50 killed, 105 pri- 
soners) at Kongbil, near Eupatoria, by tlio 
rrcncli Sept. 29, ,, 

Kinburn taken Oct. 17, ,, 

Russians blow up Oc/.akoff . . Oct. 18, ,, 

Large stores of corn destroyed near Gbeisk in 
the sea of A /.off Nov. 4, ,, 

Defeat of the Russians, and passage of the 
Ingour by the Turks under Omar Pacha, 

Nov. 6, ,, 

The czar visits his army near Sobiistopol 

Nov. 10, „ 

Sh' Wm. Codrington takes the command in 
room of gen. iSimpson . . . Nov. 14, ,, 

Explosion of 100,000 lbs. of powder in the 
French siege-train at Inkcrman, with great 
loss of life Nov. 15, ,, 

Sweden joins the allies by a treaty Nov. 21, ,, 

Capitulation of Kars to gen. MouravicfT, after a 
gallant defence by gen. Williams . Nov. 26, ,, 



Death of admiral Bruat . , . Nov. 27, 
Russian attack on the French posts at liaidar 

repulsed Dec. 8, 

Proposals of peace from Austria, with the 

consent of the allies, sent to St. Petersburg, 

Doc. 12, 
Centre dock at Sebastopol blown up by the 

Knglish Jan. 2, 

Council of war at Paris . . . Jan. 11, 

Protocol signed accepting the Austrian proposi- 
tions as a basis of negotiation for peace, Feb. i, 
Destruction of Sebastopol docks . Fob. i, 
Report of sir John M'Neill and col. Tulloch on 

state of the army before Hebastoiiol, published 

Feb. 5, 
Peace conferences open at Paris, an armistieo 

till jNIarch 31 agreed on . . T'eb, 25, 
Suspen.sion of hostilities . . . Fob. 29, 
Proclamation of peace in the Crimea, April 2, 

in London April 29, 

The Crimea evacuated . . . July 9,* 



185s 



1856 



RUTHENIUM, u rare metal, di-scovercd in the ore of platinum liy M. Clans, in 1845. 

RUTHERFORD'S ACT, Lora) (13 & 14 Vict. c. 36), for .simplifying law proceedings in 
Scotland, ]iassed 1850. 

RUTIIVEN, liAiD OF, a term applied to the .seizure of tlio person of James VI. of 
Scotland by William Ruthven, earl of Cowrie, and other nobles, in 1582. Tlicy compelled 
the king to dismiss his favourites, Arran and Lennox. O.stensibly for this, Gourie was 
judicially put to death by his two opponents in 1584. 

RYE-HOUSE PLOT, a }ilot (some think pretended) to secure the succession of the duke 
of Monmouth to the throne in preference to the duke of York (afterwards James II.), a 
Roman Catholic. Some of tlie conspirators are said to have projected the assassination of 
the king, Charles II., and his brother. This design was said to have been frustrated by the 
king's hous(! .at Newmarket accidentally taking lire, which hastened tlio royal party away 
eight days before tlic plot was to take place, March 22, 1683. See Neiomarket. The plot 
was discovered June 12 following. Lord William Russell on July 21, and Algernon 
Sidney on Dec. 7 following, suffered death for being concerned in tliis conspiracy. The 
name was derived from the conspirators' place of meeting, the Rye-house at Broxbourne, 
llertford.shire. 

RYSWICK (Holland), where Iho celebrated peace was concluded between England, 
France, Spain, and Holland, signed, by tlieir representatives, Sept. 20, and by the emperor 
of Gei-many, Oct. 30, 1697. 



S. 

SABBATARIANS. Traces exist of Sabbatarii, or Sabbathaircs, among the sects of the 
l6th century on the continent. Upon the publication of tho " Jiook of Sports" in i6i8, a 
long and violent controversy arose among English divines on these two points : first, 
whether the Sabbatli of tlie fourlli commandment was in force among Christians ; and 
secondly, whether, and on what ground, tho first day of tlie week was entitled to be distin- 
guished and observed as " the Sabbath." In 1628, Tlicopliihis Brabourne, a clergyman, 
published the fir.st work in favour of the Seventh-day or Saturday, as the true Ciiristian 
Sabbath. He and several others suffered great persecution for this opinion ; but after tlio 
restoration there were three or four congregations observing the last day of the week for 
public worship in London, and seven or eight in tho country parts of England. In 1851 
there were three Sabbatarian or Soventli-day Bajitist congregations in England ; but in 
America (especially in tho New England states) they aro nu)ro numerous. 



* The English lost : killed in action and died of wounds about 3500 : died of cholera, 4244 ; of otlier 
diseases nearly 16,000 ; total loss nearly 24,000 (including 270 ofliccrs) ; 2873 wore disabled. Tho war added 
to the national debt 41,041,000?. Tho French lost about 63. 500 men : tho Russians about half a million. 
The army suffered greatly by sickness. Sec Scutari, Timci', and I\'Ujhtingalf. 



SAB 640 SAD 

SABBATH: ordained by God. Ge^i. ii. ; Exod. xx. 8; IsaiahWni. 13. Jews observe 
the seventh day in commemoration of the creation of the world and of their redemption 
from the bondage of the Egyptians; Christians observe the first day of the week in I 
commemoration of the resurrection of Christ from the dead, and the redemption of man. ' 
See Sunday. 

SABBATH SCHOOLS. Tlie first "Sabbath school" was founded by Ludwig Hacker 
between the years 1740 and 1747, at Ephrata, Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, among the 
German Seventh-day Baptists there. The school-room was used as an hospital after the 
battle of Brandywine, fought in 1777. This event occasioned the breaking up of the schools, 
about five years before the first Sunday-school was instituted in England, at Gloucester, by 
Robert Eaikes, about 1782. See Simday Schools. 

SABBATICAL YEAR: a Jewish institution, 149 1 B.C. Every seventh year, during 
which time the very ground had rest, and was not tilled ; and every forty-ninth year all 
debts were forgiven, slaves set at liberty, and estates, &c., that were before sold or mortgaged, 
returned to their original families, &c. Joscphus. 

SABELLIANISM, from Sabellius (of Ptolemais in Egypt), who flourished in the 3rd 
century, and who taught that there was but one person in the Godhead, the other persons of 
the Trinity being but different names of the same person. This doctrine was condemned at 
a council held at Rome, 263. 

SABINES, from whom the Romans, under Romulus, took away their daughters by force, 
having invited them to some public sj^orts or shows on purpose. When the Sabines deter- 
mined to revenge this alfront, the women became mediators to their fathers in behalf of their 
husbands, the Romans, and a lasting peace was made between them ; the Sabines became a 
part of the Roman people, 750 B.C. One of the ecclesiastical provinces is still called Terra 
Sabina ; chief town, Magliano. 

SACHEVEREL RIOTS. See ^;ote, 1710. 

SACRAMENT (from sacramentum, an oath, obligation, also mj'stery). The council of 
Trent, in 1547, afiirined that there were seven sacraments: viz., baptism, the Lord's supper, 
confirmation, penance, holy orders, matrimony, and extreme unction. The name was given 
to the Lord's supper by the Latin fathers. The wine was laid aside, and communion by the 
laity under one form alone, that of bread, took its rise in the West, under pope Urban II. 
1096. M. dc Marca. Communion in one kind only was authoritatively sanctioned by the 
council of Constance, in 1414. Dr. Hook. Hemy VIII. of Germany was poisoned by a 
priest in the consecrated wafer, 13 14. Tlie sacramental wine was poisoned by the grave- 
digger of the church at Zurich, by which sacrilegious deed a number of persons lost their 
lives, Sept. 4, 1776. In 1614, by the Test act, all members of both houses of parliament 
were ordered to take the sacrament, as a guard against the introduction of Roman Catholics. 
The act was repealed in 1828. 

SACRED WAR {Sacrum Bcllum). The first, concerning the temple of Delphi, took 
place 448 B.C. The Athenians and Lacedajmonians were auxiliaries on opposite sides. The 
second Sacred War occurred on Delphi being seized by the Phocians, 357 B.C. This latter 
war was terminated by Philip of Macedon taking all the cities of the Phocians, and dispersing 
the inhabitants, 346 B.C. Plutarch. 

SACRIFICE. The first religious sacrifice was ofi'ered to God by Abel, 3875 B.C. Sacrifices 
to the gods were introduced into Greece by Phoroneus, king of Argos, 1773 B.C. Human 
sacrifices seem to have originated with the Chaldeans, from whom the custom passed into 
other Eastern nations. All sacrifices to the true God were to cease with the sacrifice of 
Christ, 33. Heb. x. 12-14. Pagan sacrifices were forbidden by the emjieror Constan- 
tius II. 341. 

SADDLES. In the earlier ages the Romans used neither saddles nor stirrups. Saddles 
Avere in use in the 3rd century, and are mentioned as made of leather in 304, and were known in 
England about 600. Side-saddles for ladies wei'e introduced by Anne, queen of Richard II. 
in 1388. Stow. 

SADDUCEES, a Jewish sect, said to have been founded by Sadoc, a scholar of Antigonus, 
about 200 B.C., who, misinterpreting his master's doctrine, taught that there was neither 
heaven nor hell, angel nor spirit ; that the soul was mortal, and that there was no resur- 
rection of the body from the dead. The Sadducees were opposed by the Pharisees. 



SAC 641 SAL 

SACRAJIENTO, St., a Portuguese settlement in S. America, claimed by Spain in 1680, 
but relinciuislieJ in 1713 ; ceded in 1777 ; and acquired by Brazil in 1825. 

SADLER'S WELLS (N. London), so called after Mr. Sadler, who built an orchestra to 
entertain the invalids who used the waters medicinally, 1683. In time the orchestra was 
enclosed, and the building became a place for dramatic performances. The present theatre 
was opened in 1765. Eighteen persons were trampled to death at this theatre, on a false 
alarm of fire, Oct. 15, 1807. See under Theatres. 

SAFETY-LAMP. One was invented in 1815 by sir Humphry Davy, to prevent accidents 
which happen in coal and other mines. The safety-lamp is founded on the principle that 
flame, in passing through iron-wire meshes, loses so much of its heat as not to be capable of 
igniting inflammable gases. It should be mentioned, that the father of all safety-lamps is 
Dr. Reid Clanny, of Sunderland, whose invention and improvements are authenticated in the 
Ti-ansactions of the Society of Arts for 181 7. A safety-lamp, the " Geordy," was also devised 
by George Stephenson, the engineer, in 181 5. A miner's electric light, by MM. Dumas and 
Benoit, was exhibited in Paris on Sept. 8, 1862. 

SAFFRON (Saffran, French ; Saffrano, Italian), the flower of crocus, was first brought 
to England in the reign of Edward III. by a pilgrim, about 1339, probably from Arabia, as 
the word is from the Arabic srtj^/iar. Miller. It was cultivated in England in 1582; and 
the best grows in Essex, between Cambridge and Saffron Walden. 

SAGE {Sauge, French ; Salvia, Latin), a wholesome herb, comfoi-table to the brain and 
nerves. Mortimer. A species of this garden plant grew eaidy in England, and some vai-ieties 
were imported. The Mexican sage. Salvia Mexicana, was brought from Mexico, 1724. The 
blue African sage. Salvia A fricana, and the golden African sage. Salvia aurea, were brought 
to England from the Cape of Good Hope in 1731. 

SAGUNTUM (now Mxirviedro, in Valencia, E. Spain), renowned for the dreadful siege 
it sustained, 219 B.C. The heroic citizens, after performing incredible acts of valour for eight 
months, chose to be buried in the ruins of their city rather than surrender to Hannibal. 
They burnt themselves, with their houses and all their eff"ects, and the conqueror became 
master of a pile of ashes, 218 B.C. 

SAILORS' HOME, in Wells-street, London Docks, established by Mr. George Green in 
1S35. In one )'ear it admitted 5444 boarders, who, besides a home, had evening instruction, 
the use of a savings' bank, &c. The establishment is self-supporting, aided by subscriptions. 
Similar institutions have since been established. 

SAINT. For the names with this prefix, see the names themselves throughout the book. 

SALADS, introduced into England from the Low Countries, 1520-47. 

SALAMANCA (W. Spain), taken from the Saracens, 861. The university was founded 
1240, and the cathedral built 15 13. Near here the British and allies, commanded by lord 
Wellington, totally defeated the French army under marshal Marmont, July 22, 1812. The 
loss of the victors was most severe, amounting in killed, wounded, and missing, to nearly 
6000 men. Marmont left in the victor's hands 7141 prisoners, 11 pieces of cannon, 6 stands 
of colours, and 2 eagles. This victory was followed by the ca])ture of Madrid. 

SALAMIS (near Athens). In a great sea-fight here, Oct. 20, 480 B.C., Themistocles, 
the Greek commander, with only 310 sail, defeated the fleet of Xerxes, king of Persia, 
which consisted of 2000 sail. — Near Salamis, in Cyprus, the Greeks defeated the Persian 
fleet, 449 B.C. 

SALDANHA BAY, S. Atlantic Ocean, northward of the Cape of Good Hope. Here, 
on Aug. 17, 1796, a Dutch squadron, under admiral Lucas, was captured by vice-admiral sir 
George Keith Elphinstone, without resistance ; sir George was created lord Keith. 

SALENCKEMEN, on the Danube. Here a victory was gained by the imperialists, 
under ]irince Louis of Baden, over the Turks, commanded by the grand vizier Mustapha 
Kiuprigli, Aug. 19, 1691. 

SALIQUE, or Salic Law, by which fcTuales are excluded from inheriting the crown of 
France, is said to have been instituted by Pharamond, 424, and ratified in a council of state 
by Clovis I., the real founder of the French monarchy, in 511. Henault. This law prevailed 
long in Spain, but was formally abolished, Mareli, 1830; and on the death of Ferdinand VII. 
his daughter succeeded to the sceptre as Isabella II., Sept. 29, 1833. See Spain. By this 

T T 



SAL 612 SAM 

law also Hanover was separated from England, when queen Victoria ascended the English 
throne, in 1837. 

SALISBURY (Wilts), founded in the beginning of the 13th century, on the removal of 
the cathedral hither from Old Sarum. National councils or parliaments were repeatedly held 
at Salisbury, particularly in 1296, by Edward I. ; in 1328, by Edward IIL ; and in 1384. 
Henry Stafl'ord, duke of Buckingham, was executed here by order of Richard IIL, in 1483. 
On Salisbuky Plain is Stonehenge (tchich sec). This plain was estimated at 500,000 acres. 
On it were so many cross-roads, and so few houses to take directions from, that Thomas, earl 
of Pembroke, planted a tree at each milestone from Salisbury to Shaftesbury, for the 
traveller's guide. The first seat of the Bishopric was at Sherborne, St. Aldhelm being 
prelate, 705. Herman removed the seat to Old Sarum, about 1072 ; and the see was removed 
to this city, under the authority of a papal bull, in 121 7. It has yielded to the church of 
Rome one saint and two cardinals. The biiilding of the cathedral commenced April 28, 
1220, and was completed in 1258. This edifice is reckoned one of our finest ecclesiastical 
erections. Its spire, the loftiest in the kingdom, was considered in danger in April, 1864, 
and subscriptions were begun for its repair. The bishopric is valued in the king's books at 
1367?, IIS. Sd. Present income, 5000?. 

KECEKT BISHOPS OF SALISBURY. 

1797. John Fisher, died July 2, 1825. I 1837. Edmund Denison, died March 6, 1854. 

1825. Thomas Burgess, died Feb. ig, 1837. | 1854. Walter Kerr Hamilton (present bishop, 1866). 

SALMON FISHERIES. The laws relating to them wei'e consolidated and amended in 
1861, and the report of a commission of inquiry (including sir Wra. Jardine) was published 
in Feb. 1862. An act restricting the exportation of salmon at certain times was passed 
in 1863. 

SALT (chloride of sodium, a compound of the gas chlorine and the metal sodium) is- 
procured from rocks in the earth, from salt-springs, and from sea-water. The famous salt- 
mines of Wielitzka, near Cracow, in Poland, have been worked 600 years. The salt-works 
in Cheshire, called the wit hes (Nantwich, Northwich, and Middlewich), were of great 
importance in the time of the Saxon heptarchy. Since 1797 salt has been largely employed 
in the manufacture of bleaching powder (by obtaining its chlorine), and soap (by obtaining 
its soda). On this are based the chemical works of Cheshire and Lancashire. The salt- 
mines of Staffordshire were discovered about 1670. Salt duties were first exacted in 1702 ; 
they were renewed in 1732 ; reduced in 1823 ; and in that year were ordered to cease in 1825. 
During the French war, the duty reached to 30Z. j^er ton. For the salt-tax in France, see 
Gahdlc. The government monopoly in India was abolished in May, 1863, by sir C. 
Trevelyan. 

SALT-PETRE (from sal iietra', salt of the rock), or nitre, is a compound of nitric acid 
and potash (nitrogen, oxygen, and potassium), and hence is called Nitrate of Potash. It is 
the explosive ingredient in gunpowder, many detonating powders, and lucifer matches. 
Boyle in the 17th century demonstrated that salt-petre was composed of aqua fortis (nitric 
acid) and potash ; but the discoveries of Lavoisier (1777) and Davy (1807) showed its real 
composition. Its manufacture in England began about 1625. During the French revo- 
lutionary war, the manufacture was greatly increased by the researches of Berthollet. 

SALUTE AT Sea. It is a received maxim at sea, that he who returns the salute always 
fires fewer guns than he receives, which is done even between the ships of princes of equal 
dignity ; but the Swedes and Danes return the compliment without regarding how many 
guns are fired to them. The English claim the right of being saluted first in all places, as 
sovereigns of the seas ; the Venetians claimed this honour within their gidf, &c. See Flay 
and Naval Salute. 

SALVADOR, SAN, one of the Bahamas, and^the first point of land discovered in the 
"West Indies or America by Columbus. It was previously called Guanahami, or Cat's Isle, 
and Columbus (in acknowledgment to' God for his deliverance) named it San Salvador, 
Oct. II, 1492. — A small reptiblic, with a constitution, established Jan. 24, 1859. It has 
been much troubled by internal dissension. Present president, Francis Duenas, elected 
April, 1865. The capital, San Salvador, was destroyed by an eartliquake, April 16, 1854, 
and is now abandoned. 

SAMARCAND (in Tartary) was conquered by the Mahometans, 707 ; by Genghis Klian, 
1219 ; and by Timour in 1359. 



SAM 643 SAN 

SAMARITANS. Sain avua was built by Omvi, 925 B.C., and became tlie capital of the 
kingdom of Israel. On the breaking np of that kingdom (721 B.C.), the conqueror Shal- 
maneser placed natives of other countries at Samaria. The descendants of these mi.xed races 
were abominable to tlie Jews, and much more so in consequence of the rival temple built on 
Mount Gerizim by Sanballat the Samaritan, 332 B.C., which was destroyed by John Hyrcanus, 
130 B.C. (See John iv. & viii. 48, and Luke x. 33.) 

SAMNITES, a warlike people of S. Italy, who strenuously resisted the Roman power, 
and were not subjugated till after three sanguinary wars, from 343 to 292 B.C. Their brave 
leader, Cains Pontius, who spared the Romans at Oaudium, 320, having been taken prisoner, 
was basely put to death, 292. They did not acquire the right of citizenship till 88 b.c. 

SAMOS, an island on the W, coast of Asia Minor. Colonised by lonians aboiit 1043 b. c- 
The city was founded about 986. Here Pythagoras was born 555 B.C., and flourished in the 
favour of Polycrates, who aided him in his travels, 532. Samos was taken by the Atlienians, 
440 ; and, with Greece, became subject to Rome, 146. It was taken by the Venetians, 
A.D. 1 125, who here made velvet {samet), and became subject to the Turks, 1459. 

SANCTION. See Pragmatic. 

SANCTUARIES. See Asylums. Privileged places for the safety of offenders are said to 
have been granted by king Lucius to churches and their precincts. St. John's of Beverley 
was thus privileged in the time of the Saxons. St. Burein's, in Cornwall, was privileged by 
Athelstan, 935 ; Westminster, by Edward the Confessor ; St. Martin' s-le-Grand, 1529. 
Being much abused, the privilege of sanctuary was limited by the pope in 1503, at the 
request of Henry VII. ; it was abolished at the Reformation. — In London, persons were secure 
from arrest in certain localities : these were the Minories, Salisbury-court, Whitefriars, Ful- 
wood's-rents. Mitre-court, Baldwin's-gardens, the Savoy, Clink, Deadmans-place, Montague- 
close, and the Mint. This security was abolished 1696, but lasted in some degree till the 
reign of George II. 

SANDALS. See Shoes. SANDEMANIANS. See GlasUes. 

SANDHURST, Royal Mit,tt.\ry College, founded, first at High "Wycombe, in 1799, 
Removed to Great Marlow in 1802, and to Sandhurst in 1812. The college, for which the 
land was purchased at Blackwater, near Bagshot, consists of senior and junior departments : 
competitive examination for entrance into the junior began in Feb. 1858. 

SANDWICH ISLANDS, a group in the Pacific Ocean, discovered by captain Cook iu 
1778. In Owhi/hee or Ilaivaii, one of these islands, he fell a victim to the sudden resentment 
of the natives, Feb. 14, 1779. The king and queen visited London in 1824, and died there 
in July. These people have made great progress in civilisation, and embraced Christianity 
before any missionaries were settled among them. The present king, Kamehameha V., 
succeeded his brother, Nov. 1863. The preceding king, Kam^ham4ha IV., married Miss 
Emma Rooker, 1856. She came to EngLind in 1865 ; landing at Southampton, July 13, 
and visited our queen, Sept. 9. An English bishopric was established at Honolulu in 1861, 
for which Dr. Thomas Staley was consecrated, Aug. 18, 1862. 

SANHEDRIM. An ancient Jewish council of the highest jurisdiction, of seventy, or, as 
some say, seventy-three members, usually considered to be that established by Moses, 
Ninn. xi. 16, — 1490 B.C. It was yet in being at the time of Jesus Christ, John xviii. 31. 
A Jewish Sanhedrim was summoned by the emperor Napoleon I. at Paris, July 23, 1806, 
and assembled accordingly, Sept. 18. 

SANITARY LEGISLATION. Strict cleanliness is enjoined in the law of Mo.ses, 
1490 B.C. Great attention has been paid to the public health in France since 1802. Tardieu 
publisheil his " Dictionnaire de Hygiene," 1852-54. To Dr. Southwood Smith is mainly 
attributable tlie honour of commencing the agitation on the subject of public health iu 
England about 1832 ; his " Philosophy of Health" having excited much attention. Since 
1838 he has published numerous sanitary reports, having been much employed by the 
government. Among the results are — 

Nuisances Removal Acts passed (repealed) 1845— 1860 I Smoke Nuisance Abatement Act (and amend-' 

Baths and Washhouses Act . . 1846— 1847 ' ment 1853 

Public Health Act, and subsequent Supple- ; Diseases Prevention Act 1855 

mental Acts 1848 , Public Health Act „ 

Common Lodging Houses Act . . 1851— 1853 1 Metropolitan Interments Acts . . 1850—1855 
Labouring Classes Lodging Houses Act . . 1851 [ 

SAN SALVADOR. See Salvador. 

T T 2 



SAN 644 SAR 

SANSKRIT, the languajre of the Brahmins of India, spoken at the time of Solomon, has 
been much studied of late years. Sir Wm. Jones, who published a translation of the poem, 
Sakuntala, in 1783, discovered that a complete literature had been pireserved in India, 
comprising sacred books (the Vedas), history and ])hilosophy, lyric and dramatic poetry. 
Texts and translations of many works have been published by the aid of the East India 
Company, the Oriental Translation Fund, and private liberality. The professorship of 
Sanskrit at Oxford was founded by colonel Boden. The first professor, H. H. Wilson, 
appointed in 1832, translated part of the Eig-veda Sanhitfl, the sacred hymns of the 
Brahmins, and several poems, &c. The present professor, Monier Williams (elected i860), 
published an English and Sanskrit dictionary, 1851. Professor Max Miiller published his 
History of Sanskrit Literature in 1859, and has edited part of the original text of the Vedas. 
Philologists have discovered an intimate connection between the Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, 
Latin, Teutonic, Slavonian, Celtic, and Scandinavian languages. 

SANTA CRUZ (Teneriffe, Canary Isles). Here admiral Blake, by daring bravery, 
entirely destroyed sixteen Spanish ships, secured with great nautical skill, and protected by 
the castle and forts on the shore, April 20, 1657. Clarendon. In an unsuccessful attack 
made upon Santa Cruz by Nelson, several officers and 141 men were killed, and the admiral 
lost his right arm, July 24, 1797.* 

SANTIAGO DE COMPOSTELA (N.W.Spain), was sacked by the Moors in 995, and 
lield by them till it was taken by Ferdinand III. in 1235. The order of Santiago, or St. 
James, was founded about 11 70 to protect pilgrims to the shrine of St. James, said to be 
buried in the cathedral. The town was taken by the French in 1809, and held till 1814. — 
Santiago, the cajDital of Chili, S. America, was founded by Valdina in 1541, has suffered 
much by earthquakes, especially in 1822 and 1829. About seven o'clock in the evening of 
Dec. 8, 1863, the feast of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary, and the last day 
of a series of religious celebrations in the "month of Mary," the church of the Campania, 
when brilliantly illuminated in a dangerous manner, was burnt down, the fire beginning 
amidst the combustible ornaments, and above 2000 persons, principally women, perished ; 
the means of egress being utterly insufficient. On Dec. 20 the government ordered the 
church to be razed to the ground, and much public indignation was excited against the 
fanatical priesthood. 

SAPPERS AND Miners, a name given in 1812 to the non-commissioned officers and 
privates of the corps of Royal Engineers. Brande. 

SAPPHIC VERSE, invented by Sappho, the lyric poetess of Mitylene. She was equally 
celebrated for her poetry, beauty, and a hopeless passion for Phaon, a youth of her native 
country, on which last account it is said she threw herself into the sea from Mount Leucas, 
and was drowned. The Lesbians, after her death, paid her divine honours, and called her 
the tenth muse, 594 b.c. Some consider the story fabulous. 

SAPPHIRE, a precious stone of an azure colour, and transparent ; in hardness it exceeds 
the ruby, and is next to the diamond. Thamas Kouli Khan is said to have possessed a 
sapphire valued at 300,000/., 1733. Artificial sapphires were made in 1857 by M. Gaudin. 
Equal parts of alum and suli)hate of potash -were heated in a crucible. 

SARACENS, an Arab race, the first disciples of Mahomet, who within forty years after 
his death (632) had subdued a great part of Asia, Africa, and Europe. They conquered 
Spain in 711, ct seg., and (under Abderahman) established the caliphate of Cordova in 755, 
which gave way to the Moors in 1237. The empire of the Saracens closed by Bagdad being 
taken by the Tartars, 1258. Blair. 

SARAGOSSA (N. E. Spain), anciently C^sarea Augusta, was taken from the Arabs by 
Alfonso of Spain, in 1118. Here Philip V. was defeated by the archduke Charles, in 17 10. 
On Dec. 17, 1778, 400 of the inhabitants perished in a fire at the theatre. Saragossa was 
taken liy the French, after a most lieroic defence by general Palafox, Feb. 20, 1809. The 
inhabitants, of both sexes, resisted until worn out by fighting, famine, and pestilence. 

SARAH SANDS. See Wrecks, 1857. 

* It was remarkable, that captain Fremantle, the friend of Nelson, and his companion in most 
of his brilliant achievements, was also wounded in the arm immediately before Nelson had received his 
wound in the same limb. The following characteristic note, addressed to the lady of captain Fremantle 
(who was on board with her hiisband at the time he wrote), has been preserved, as being the first letter 
written by the hero with his left hand :— " My de\r Mrs. Fremantle, — Tell me how Tom is, I hope he 
has saved his arm. Mine is off; but, thank God ! I am as well as I hope hf. is. 

"Ever yours, Horatio Nelson." 



SAR 



645 



SAR 



SARATOGA (New York State, N. America). Here, general Burgoyne, commander of a 
body of the British army, after a severe engagement with the Americans (Oct. 7), being 
surrounded, surrendered all his army (5791 men) to the American general Gates, Oct. 17, 
1777. This was the greatest check the British suffered in the war. 

SARAWAK. See Borneo. 

SARDINIA, an island in the Mediterranean, successively possessed by the Phoenicians, 
Greeks, Carthaginians (550 B.C.), Romans (subjugated it 231), Saracens, Genoese, and 
Spaniards. From settlers belonging to these various nations the present inhabitants derive 
their origin. Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy, acquired Sardinia in 1720, with the title of 
king. Sfe Savoy. Population of the Sardinian dominions in 1858, 5,194,807. Tiie king of 
Sardinia was recognised asking of Italy by his parliament in Feb. 1861. See Ikdy. 



James of Arragon becomes master of a large 

jiart of Sardinia 1324 

Conquered by the English naval forces, under 

sir John Leake and gen. Stanhope . . . 1708 
Given to the emperor Charles VI. . . . 1714 

Recovered by the Spaniards 1717 

Ceded to the duke of Savoy with the title of 

king, as an equivalent for Sicily . . . 1720 
Victor Amadeus abdicates in favour of his son . 1730 
Attempting to recover his throne, he is taken, 

and dies in prison 1732 

The court kept at Turin, tiU Piedmont is over- 
run by the French 1792 

The king resigns his crown to his brother, duke 

ofAosta June 4, 1802 

Piedmont annexed to Italy, and Napoleon 

crowned king of Italy . . . Dec. 26, 1805 
The king resides in Sardinia . . 1798 — 1814 
Piedmont restored to its rightful sovereign, 

with Genoa added to it . . . Dec. , , 
King Charles-Albert jiromulgates a new code . 1837 
Cavour establishes the newspaper '' II Risorgi- 

mento" (" the Revival ") .... 1847 
The king grants a constitution, and openly 

espouses the cause of Italian regeneration 

against Austria .... March 23, 1S48 
Defeats the Austrians at Goito ; and takes 

Peschiera May 30, ,, 

Sardinian army defeated by Radetzky, July 26, ,, 
Sardinians at Milan capitulate to Radetzky, 

Aug 5, ,, 
Armistice between Sardinia and Austria, 

Sept. 21, „ 
Hostilities resumed .... March 12, 1849 
Radetzky defeats a division of the Sardinians, 

and occupies Mortara . . . March 21, ,, 
Complete defeat of the Sardinians by the 

Austrians at Novara . . . March 23, ,, 
Charles- Albert abdicates in favour of his son, 

Victor- Emmanuel . . . March 23, ,, 
The Avistrians occupy Novara, &c. March 25, ,, 
Another armistice .... March 26, „ 
Death of Charles-Albert, at Oporto July 28, ,, 
Treaty of Milan between Austria and Sardinia, 

signed Aug. 6, ,, 

Adoption of the Siccardi law, which abohslies 

ecclesiastical jurisdictions . . . April 9, 1850 
Arrest of the bishop of Turin . . May 4, ,, 
He is released from the citadel . . June 2, ,, 
Cavoin- minister of foreign affairs . . .. 1851 
Bill for suppression of convents passed, 

March 2, 1855 
Convention with England and France signed ; 

a contingent of 15,000 troops to be supplied 

ag.aiust Russia .... April lo, ,, 

10,000 troops under general La Marmora arrive 

in the Crimea .... May 8, „ 



Who distinguish themselves in the battle of the 
Tcheniaya Aug. 16, 

The king visits London, (fee. . Nov. 30, <fec. 

Important note on Italy from count Cavour to 
England April 16, 

Rupture with Austria ; subsequent war, see 
Austria, 1857, et aeq. 

Cavour declares in favour of free-trade June, 

Prince Napoleon Jerome marries princess 
Clotilde Jan. 30, 

Preliminaries of peace signed at Villa Franca, 
July 11; count Cavour resign.s, July 13; 
Ratazzi administration formed . July 19, 

The emjieror Napoleon's letter to Victor-Em- 
manuel, advocating the formation of an 
Italian confederation : the latter de -lares it 
to be imiiraoticable, and maintains his en- 
gagements with the Italians . . Oct. 20, 

Treaty of peace signed at Zurich , . Nov. 

Garibaldi retires into private life . . Nov. 17, 

Count Cavour returns to office . . Jan. 16, 

Tlie Sardinian government refers the question 
of annexation of Tuscany, &c., to the vote of 
the people Feb. 29, 

Annexation of Savoy and Nice proposed by the 
French government ; the Sardinian govern- 
ment refer it to the vote of the people, 

Feb. 25, 

Annexation to Sardinia voted almost unani- 
mously by .iKmiUa, March 14 ; by Tuscany, 
March 16; accepted by Victor-Emmanuel, 
March 18-20, 

Treaty ceding Savoy and Nice to France, signed, 

March 24, 

Prussia protests against the Italian annexations 

March 27, 

New Sardinian parliament opens . April 2, 

Annexation to France almost unanimously 

voted for by Nice, Aj^ril 15; by Savoy, 

April 22, 

The government professes disapproval of Gari- 
baldi's expedition to Sicily {which see) May iS, 

The chambers ratify treaty of cession of Savoy 
and Nice ..... May 29, 

The Sardinian troops enter the papal territories 
{see Ifali/ auA Rome) . . . Sept. 11, 

Victor- Emmanuel enters thekingdom of Naples, 

Oct. 15, 

Naples and Sicily vote for annexation to Sardinia 

Oct 21, 
[For future history see Italy. '\ 

1 [For the disputes, and war with America, and 
the events of 1859-61, see Austria, France, 
Rome, Sicily, and Naples.] 



i8s5 



1857 
1859 



J 720. Victor- Amadeus I. kingCasduke II.); resigned, 

in 1730, in favour of his son ; died in 1732. 
1730. Charles-Emmauviel I. his son. 
Victor- Amadeus II. his son 
Charli-s-Emmanuel II., son of the preceding ; 
resigned his crown in favour of his brother. 



1773- 
1796, 



KINGS OF SARDINIA. See Savoy. 

1802. Victor-Emmanuel I. 

1805. [Sardinia merged in the kingdom of Italy, of 

w^hich the emperor Napoleon was crowned 

king. May 26, 1805.] 
1S14. Victor-Emmanuel restored; resigned in March, 

1821 ; and died in 1824. 



SAR 646 SAV 



SARDINIA, continued. 

1821. Charles-Felix ; succeeded by his nephew. 
1831. Charles-Albert ; abdicated in favour of his 

sun, March 23, 1S49. Died at Oporto, July 

28, 1849. 



g. Victor-Emmanuel II., March 23 ; born March 

14, 1S20 ; the PRESENT king of Italy. 
Heir : Humbert, prince of Piedmont ; bom 
March 14, 1844. 



SARDIS. See Seven Churches. 

SARMATIA, the ancient name of modern Rnssia and Poland. 

SARUM, Old (Wiltsliire), an ancient town, the origin of Salisbury, v)hich see. 

SATIRE. About a century after the introduction of comedy, satire made its appearance 
at Rome in the writings of Lucilius, who was so celebrated in this species of composition that 
he has been called the inventor of it, 116 B.C. Livy. The Satires of Horace (35 B.C.), 
Juvenal (about a.d. 100), and Perseus (about A.D. 60), are the most celebrated in ancient 
times, and those of Churchill (1761) and Pope (1729), in modern times. 

SATRAPIES, divisions of the Persian empire, formed by Darius Hystaspes about 5 16 B.C. 

SATURDAY (the last, or seventh day of the week ; the Jewish Sabbath. See Sabbath). 
It was so called from au idol worshipped on this day by the Saxons, and according to 
Verstegan, was named by them Saterne's day. Pardon. It is more properly from Saturn, 
dies Satarni. Addison. 

SATURN, the planet, ascertained to be about 900 millions of miles distant from the sun, 
and its diameter to be about 77,230 miles. One of the eight satellites was discovered by 
Huyghens (March 25, 1655) ; four byCas,sini (1671-84) ; two by sir William Herschel (1789), 
and one by Bond and Lassells (1848). The ring was discovered to be twofold by Messrs. 
Ball, Oct. 13, 1665 ; and an inner ring was detected in 1850 by Dawes in England (Nov. 29) 
and by Bond in America. 

SATURNALIA, festivals in honour of Saturn, father of the gods, were instituted long 
before the foundation of Rome, in commemoration of the freedom and equality which pre- 
vailed on the earth in his golden reign. Some, however, suppose that the Saturnalia 
were first observed at Rome in the reign of Tullus Hostilius, after a victory obtained over the 
Sabines : whilst others suppose that Janus first instituted them in gratitude to Saturn, from 
whom he had learned agriculture. Others assert that they were first celebrated after a 
victory obtained over the Latins by the dictator Posthumius. During these festivals no 
business was allowed, amusements were encouraged, and distinctions ceased. Lc7iglet. 

SAYINGS' BANKS.* The rev. Josejih Smith, of Wendover, began a Benevolent 
Institution in 1799 ; and in 1803-4 a Charitable Bank was instituted at Tottenham by Miss 
Priscilla Wakefield. Henry Dundas established a parish bank at Ruthwell in 1810. One 
was opened in Edinb\irgh in 1814. The benefit clubs, among artizans, having accumulated 
stocks of money for their progressive purposes, a plan was adopted to identify these funds 
with the public debt of the country, and an extra rate of interest was held out as an induce- 
ment ; hence were formed savings' banks to receive small sums, returnable with interest on 
demand. 

Sir Geo. Rose developed the system and brought it , unknown number of persons : the amount of de- 
under parliamentary control, 1816. j posits was 32, 893, 511^. 



lu 1840 there were 550 banks ; 766,354 depositors; 
amount 22,060,904^. 

Acts to consolidate and amend previous laws relat- 
ing to .savings' banks were passed in 1828 and 1847 ; 
extended to Scotland in 1835 ; again consolidated 
and amended in 1863. 

On Nov. 20, 1851, the immber of savings' banks in 
Great Britain and Ireland was 574, besides above 
twenty thousand friendly societies and charitable 
institutions. The depositors (in the banks) were 
1,092,581, while the societies embraced a vast but 



Amount of stock held on account of savings' banks 
ill 1853, 34,546,334^. ; in 1857, 35,108,596?. ; in 1859, 
38,995,876. In I £61 the savings' banks received 
8,764,870;. ; paid 9,621,539/. ; estimated capital, 
41,532,945?. (depo.sitors, 1,479,723). The military 
savings' bank held 204,377?. > ^^^ seamen's savings' 
banks held 26,448?. 

For Post-OflBce Savings' Banks, established in 1861, 
see under Post Office. 

The deposits in the old savings' banks had not 
diminished in consequence in 1864. 



CLASSIFICATION OF THE FIRST 20,000 DEPOSITORS WHO OPENED ACCOUNTS. 



Domestic servants . . _ 7245 

Persons in trade, mechanics, <fec. . . . 7473 

Labourers and porters 672 

Miners . 1454 



Friendly and charitable societies . . . . 58 
Persons not classed, viz., widows, teachers, 
sailors, <fec. 3098 



• The first of these was instituted at Berne, in Switzerland, in 1787, by the name of cainse de domes- 
tiques, being intended for servants only ; another was set up in Basel, in 1792, open to all depositors. 



SAV 



647 



SAX 




Courail, emperor of Germany, gave it to Humbert, with the title of count. Count Thomas 
acquired Piedmont in the 13th century. Ainadeus, count of Savoy, having entered his 
dominions, solicited Sigismund to erect them into a duchy, which he did at Camhray, 
Feb. 19, 141 7. Victor-Amadeus, duke of Savoy, obtained the kingdom of Sicily, by a treaty 
from Sjjain, in 17 13, which he afterwards exchanged with the emperor for the island of 
Sardinia, with the title of king, 1720. See Sardinia. The French subdued Savoy in 1792, 
and made it a department of France, under the name of Mont Blanc, in 1800. It was 
restored to the king of Sardinia in 1814; but was once more annexed to France in i86o, 
in accordance with a vote by universal suffrage, April 23, i860. Savoy was visited by the 
emperor and empress of the French in August, i860. The annexation was censured iii 
England. 



1439- 
J 465. 
1472. 
1482. 



DUKES OF SAVOY. 

Count Amadeus VIII. is made duke in 1417; 
he was named pope as Felix V. He aijdi- 
cated as duke of Savoy, 1439 ; renounced the 
tiara, 1449 ; died iu 1451. 

Louis. 

Amadeus IX. 

Philibert I. 

Charles I. 

Charles II. 



1496. rhilipll. 

1497. PhiUbert II. 
1504. Charles III. 

1553. Emmanuel-Philibert. 

1580. Charles-Emmanuel I. 

1630. Victor-Ainadeus I. 

1637. Francis-Hyacinthe. 

1638. Charles-Emmanuel II. 

1675. Victor-Amadeus II. became king of Sicily, 1713 
exchanged for Sardinia in 1720. 



SAYOY PALACE (London) was given to Peter of Savoy, uncle of Eleanor, queen of 
Henry III., iu 1236. Here was held the coxference between the clergy and the non- 
conformists in 1661. It was partially taken down to make way for Waterloo-bridge. The 
ancient chapel was destroyed by fire, ixAy 7, 1864, and was rebuilt at the queen's exj)ense, 
and reopened Nov. 26, 1865. 

SAW. Invented by Daedalus. Pliny. Invented by Talus. Apollodorus. Talus, it is 
said, having found the jaw-bone of a snake, employed it to cut through a piece of wood, 
and then formed an instrument of iron like it. Saw-mills were erected in Madeira in 1420 ; 
at Breslau, in 1427. Norway had the first saw-mill in 1530. The bishop of Ely, ambassador 
from Mar}^ of England to the court of Rome, describes a saw-mill there, 1555. The attempts 
to introduce saw-mills in England were violently opposed, and one erected by a Dutchman 
in 1663 was forced to be abandoned. Saw-mills were erected near London about 1770. 
Excellent saw-machinery exists in Woolwich dockyard. Powis and James's baud-saw was 
patented in 1858. 

"SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA (Central Germany), capitals Gotha and Coburg. Population, 
Dec. 1861, 159,431. The reigning family is descended from John, younger .son of Ernest, 
who became elector of Saxony in 1464. 



DUKES. 

182C. Ernest I. duke of Saxe-Saalfeld-Coburg ; mar- 
ried Louisa, heiress of Augustus, duke of 
Saxe-Gotha, and became by convention duke 
of Saxe-Coburg-Goth.a, Nov. 12.* 

1844. Ernest II. son, Jan. 29; born June, 21, 1818 



(married Alexandrina, ducliess of Baden, 
M.ay 3, 1842 ; no issue). 
Heir (presumptive) : Prince Alfred of England, 
bom Aug, 6, 1844 (in whose favour the 
prince of Wales resigned his rights, April 
19, 1863), 



SAXE-WEIMAR (Central Germany). The grand-dukes are descended from John Frederic, 
the Protestant elector of Saxony, who was deprived by the emperor in 1548. See Saxony. 
The houses of Saxe- Coburg- Gotha, Saxe-Gotha, Hilberghausen, and Saxe-Meiniugen also 
sprang from him. They are all termed the senior or Ernestine branch of the old family. — 
Saxe -Weimar became a grand duchy in 1815. The dukes have gi'eatly favoured literature, 
and their capital Weimar has been called the Athens of Germany. Population of the duchy, 
Dec. 1861, 273,252. 

853. Charles Alexander, July 8 ; born June 24, 
1818, the PRESENT (1866) grand-duke. 



GRANDDUKES. 

1815. Charles Augvistus. 
1828. Charles Frederic. 



Heir; Charles Augustus, bom July 31, 1844. 



* His brother, Leopold, married the princess Charlotte of England, May 2, 1816 ; became king of the 
Bolgi.ans, July 12, 1831 ; and Ferdinand, the son of his brother Ferdinand, miu-ried JIaria da Gloria, queen 
of Port\igal, April 9, 1836. 



SAX 648 SCH 

SAXONY, a kingdom in N. Germany. The Saxons were a fierce warlike race, the terror 
of the inhabitants of the later western empire, frequently attacked France, and conquered 
Britain {which see). After a long series of sanguinary conflicts they were completel}' subdued 
by Charlemagne, who instituted many fiefs and bishoprics in their country. Witikind, 
their great leader, who claimed descent from Woden, professed Christianity about 785. 
From him descended the first and the present ruling family (the houses of Supplinburg, Guelf, 
and Ascania intervened from 1 106 to 142 1). Saxony became a duchj% 880; an electorate, 
1 180 ; and a kingdom, 1806. It was the seat of war in 1813 ; the king being on the side 
of Napoleon. Population, Dec. 1861, 2,225,240. 

ELECTORS. I 1680. John George III. 

1423. Frederic I. 1691. John George IV. 

1428. Frederic II. t 1694. Frederic Augustus I., king of Poland, 1697. 



[His sons Ernest and Albert divide the states.] 
1464. Ernest. 
i486. Frederic III. 
1525. John. 
1532. John Frederic ; deprived by the emperor 

Charles V. ; succeeded by 
1548. Maurice (of the Albertine Une). 
1553. Augustus. 
1 586. Christian I. 
1591. Christian II. 
161 1. John George I. 
1656. John George II. 



1733. Froderis Augustus II., king of Poland. 
1763. Frederic Augustus III. becomes king, 1806. 

KINGS. 

1806. Frederic Augustus I. 

1827. Anthony Clement. 

1836. Frederic Augustus II. succeeded by his 

brother. 
1854. John, Aug. 9 (bom Dec. 12, 1801), the present 

king. 
Heir : His son, Frederic Augustus Albert, 

bom April 23, 1828. 



SCANDALUM MAGNATUM, a special statute relating to any wrong, by words or in 
writing, done to high personages of the land, such as peers, judges, ministers of the crown, 
officers in the state, and other great public functionaries, by the circulation of scandalous 
statements, false news, or horrible messages, by which any debate or discord between them 
and the commons, or any scandal to their persons, might arise. Chambers. This law was 
first enacted 2 Rich. II. 1378. 

SCANDINAVIA, the ancient name of Sweden, Norway, and great part of Denmark 
{which see), whence proceeded the Northmen or Normans, wlio conquered Normandy (about 
900), and eventually England (1066). TJiey were also called Sea-kings or Vikings. They 
settled Iceland and Greenland, and, it is thought, the northern regions of America, about the 
9th centurJ^ A "National Scandinavian Society " has been formed at Stockholm. See 
Sweden. Dec. 1864. 

SCARLET, or kermes dye, was known in the East in the earliest ages ; cochineal dj'c, 
15 18. Kepler, a Fleming, established the first dye-house for scarlet in England, at Bow, 
1643. The art of dyeing red was improved by Brewer, 1667. Beckmann. 

SCEPTICS, the sect of philosophers founded by Pyrrho, about 334 B.C. Pyrrho was 
in continual suspense of judgment ; he doubted of everj'thing ; never made any conclusions, 
and when he had carefully examined the subject, and investigated all its parts, he concluded 
by still doubting of its evidence. 

SCEPTRE, a more ancient emblem of royalty than the crown. In the earlier ages the 
sceptres of kings were long walking-staves ; afterwards carved and made shorter. Tarquin 
the elder was the first who assumed the sceptre among the Romans, about 468 B.C. The 
French sceptre of the first race of kings was a golden rod, a.d. 481. Le Gendre. 

SCHELDT TOLL was imposed by the treaty of Munster (or Westphalia), 1648. The 
toll was abolished for a compensation. The house of commons voted 175,650/. for the 
British portion on March 9, 1864. The Scheldt was declared free on Aug. 3, with much 
rejoicing at Antwerp and Brussels. 

SCHIEHALLIEN, a mountain in Perthshire, where Dr. Neville Maskelyne, the 
astronomer-royal, made his observation with a plumb-lino in 1774, from which Hutton 
calculated that the density of the earth is five times greater than water. 

SCHLESWIG. See Holstein, Denmarlc, and Gastein. 

SCHOOLS. Charity schools were introduced in London to prevent the seduction of the 
infant poor into Roman Catholic seminaries, 3 James II. 1687. Bapin. Charter schools 
were instituted in Ireland, 1733. Scully. In England there were, in 1847, 13,642 schools 
(exclusively of Sunday schools) for the education of the poor ; and the number of children 
was 998,431. The parochial and endowed schools of Scotland were (exclusively of Sunday 



i 



SCI 



649 



SCO 



icliools) 4836 ; and the number of oliildren, 181,467. The schools in Wales were 841, and 
;he number of children, 38,164; in Ireland, 13,327 schools, and 774,000 children. In 1851 
;here were 2310 schools in connection with the Education Committee actually inspected in 
England and Scotland. They included : 17 13 Church of England schools in England and 
Wales ; 282 Protestant Dissenting schools in England and "Wales ; 98 Roman Catholic 
schools in Great Britain ; and 217 Tresbyterian schools in Scotland, whereof 91 were of the 
?ree Church : the whole affording accommodation for 299,425 scholars. See Education, 
Design, &c. 

SCIENTIFIC RELIEF FUND. In 1859, several Fellows of the Royal Society (Messrs. 
]}assiot, Wheatstone, Miller, Tyndall, and others) commenced the collection of subscriptions. 
,vith the view of establishing a permanent fund to be expended in aiding necessitous men of 
science and their families, in imitation of the "Literary Fund." In the spring of i860, 
;365^. had been subscribed ; in Jan. 1865, 5320?., and many cases had been relieved. 

SCILLY ISLES (the Cassiterides or Tin-islands). They held commerce with the 
Phcenicians ; and are mentioned by Strabo as being ten in numljer. A memorable shipwreck 
)f the British squadron under sir Cloudesley Shovel occurred here. This brave admiral, 
•eturning from an expedition against Toulon, mistook these rocks for land, and struck upon 
:hem. His ship, the Association, in which were his lady, two sons, many persons of rank, 
\ lud 800 brave men, went instantly to the bottom. The Eagle, captain Hancock, and the 
' Romncy a.\id Firebrand, were also lost. The rest of the fleet escaped. Oct. 22, 1707. Sir 
Jloudesley's body, being found, was conveyed to Loudon, and buried in Westminster abbey, 
vhere a monument was erected to his memory. 

SCIO MASSACRE. See Chios. 

SCONE (near Perth). The Scotch coronation chair was brought from Scone to West- 
ninster abbey by Edward I. in 1296. 

SCOTLAND. (See Caledonia.) A kingdom till the death of queen Elizabeth, when 
Tames VI. of Scotland, as the most immediate heir, was called to the throne of England, 
iach country had a separate parliament till 1707, when both kingdoms were united under 
;lie general name of Great Britain. See England. 



Jamelon, capital of the Picts, taken by Ken- 
neth II. and every living creature put to the 
.sword or destroyed ...... 843 

?he Norwegians invade and occupy Caithness 
in the 9th century. 

'he feudal system established by Malcolm II. . 1004 

)ivided into baronies . . . . . . 1032 

'he Danes driven out of Scotland . . . 1040 

Duncan I. is murdered by his kinsman Mac- 
beth, by whom the crown is seized . . . ,, 

laleolm III. aided by Edward the Confessor, 
meets the u.surper at Duusinane ; Macbeth is 
killed by Macduff 1057 

'he Sa.xon-English language introduced into 
Scotland by fugitives from England escaping 
from the Normans loSo 

■iegc of Alnwick : Malcolm III. killed . . 1093 

leign of David I.J a legislator . . . 1124-53 

■cotland invaded by Hacho, king of Norway, 
with 160 ships and 20,000 men ; the invaders 
are cut to pieces by Alexander III., who now 
recovers the Western Isles .... 1263 

)eath of Margaret of Norway, heiress to the 
throne Oct. 7, 1290 

ohn Baliol and Edward Bruce contend for the 
throne, 1291 ; Edward I. of England, as um- 
pire, decides in fa %'our of John . . Nov. 1292 

ohn Baliol, king of Scotland, appears to a 
summons, and defends his own cause in 
Westminster hall against the earl of Fife . 1293 

)dward, wishing to annex Scotl.and to Eng- 
land, dethrones John, rav.ages the country, 
destroys the monuments of Scottish history, 
and seizes the prophetic stone (see Corona- 
tion) 1296 

/illiam Wallace defeats the English at Cambus 
Kenneth, and expels them, 1297 ; is defeated 
.at Falkirk, July 22, 1298 ; taken by the Eng- 
lish, and executed at Smithfield Aug. 24, 1303 



Robert Bruce, crowned, 1306 ; he defeats the 
EngUsh, 1307 ; and takes Inverness, 1313 ; 
defeats the English at Bannockburn, June 25, 

David II. taken prisoner at the battle of Du:- 
liam, by queen Philippa of England (and 
detained in captivity 1 1 years) . ... 

Battle of Chevy Cha.se, between Hotspur Percy 
and eail Douglas. (See Otlerburn.) Aug. 15, 

Robert III. defeated at Homelden Hill 

James I, captured bj' the Engli.sh near Flam- 
borough head on his passage to France . . 

St. Andrew's university founded by bishop 
William Turnbull 

University of Aberdeen founded . . . . 

Battle of Flodden Field ; James IV. is slain, and 
his army cut to pieces . . . Sept. 9, 

James V. banishes the Douglases 

He establishes the court of session 

Order of St. Andrew, or the Thistle, is revived. 

Mary, the queen of Scots, born. Dee. 8 ; succeeds 
her father, James V. . . . Dec. 13, 

The regent, cardinal Beaton, persecutes the 
reformers, 1539, 1546; he is assassinated at 
St. Andrew's May 29, 

The Scots defeated at Pinkie . . Sept. 10, 

Mary marries the dauphin of France April, 

Francis II. dies, leaving ilary a widow . Dec. 

The Reformation begins in Scotland, during 
the minority of Mary . between 1550 and 

The Reformation is consummated by John 
Knox 

Mary, after an absence of thirteen years, ar- 
rives at Leith from France . . Aug. 21, 

Upon an inqvusition, which was officially taken, 
by order of queen Elizabeth, only 58 Scots- 
men were found in London. Stow. . . . 

Mary marries her cousin, Henry Stuart, lord 
Darnley July 27, 



1346 

1388 
1402 

1406 

1451 
1494 

1513 
1528 

1532 
1540 



1546 
1547 
155a 
1560' 



1561 

1562 
1565 



SCO 



650 



SCO 



SCOTLAND, continued. 

David Rizzio, lier confidential secretaiy, mur- 
dered by Damley, in lior presence March g, 1566 

Lord Darnley blown up by gunpowder, in his 
Louse (Mary accused of conniving at his 
death) Feb. 10, 1567 

James Hepburn, earl of Bothwell, carries off 
the queen, who marries him . . May 15, ,, 

Mary made prisoner at Carberry hill by her 
nobles ...... June 15, ,, 

Resigns her crown to her infant son James VI. ; 
the earl of Murray appointed regent July 22, ,, 

Mary escapes from prison, and collects a large 
army, which is defeated by the regent 
Murray, at the battle of Langside May 15, 1568 

The regent Murray murdered . Jan. 23, 1570 

The earl of Lennox, appointed regent. July 12, ,, 

The carl of Lennox murdered ; the earl of Mar 
chosen regent .... Sept. 6, 1571 

Death of the Reformer John Knox . Nov. 24, 1572 

£His funeral in Edinburgh is attended by most 
of the nobiUty, and by the regent Morton, 
who exclaims, " There lies he who never 
feared the face of man !"] 

The university of Edinburgh founded . . . 1582 

The Raid ol Ruthven (see Ruthven) . . . ,, 

Mary, having taken refuge in England, May 16, 
1568, is, alter a long captivity, beheaded at 
Fotheringay castle. (Hee Fotheringay.)l^eb. 8, 1587 

Cowrie's conspu-acy . . . Aug. 5, 1600 

"Union of the crown of Scotland with that of 
England by the accession of James VI., 
March 24, 1603 ; James is proclaimed by the 
style of "kmg of Great Britain, France, and 
Ii-elund " Oct. 24, 1604 

Charles I. attempts in vain to introduce the 
Enghsh liturgy 1637 

Solemn league and covenant subscribed, 

March i, 1638 

A Scotch army enters England .... 1640 

Charles joins the Scotch army, 1646 ; betrayed 
into the hands of the English parliament 

Jan. 30, 1647 

Marquess of Montrose defeated at Philiphavigh, 
Sept. 13, 1645 ; put to death at Edinburgh, 

May 21, 1650 

Charles II. crowned at Scone, Jan. i ; defeated 
at Worcester .... Aug. 22, 1651 

Scotland miited to the English commonwealth 
by Oliver Cromwell .... Sept. ,, 

Charles II. revives episcopacy in Scotland . t66i 

The Covenanters defeated on the Pentland hills 1666 

Archbishop Sharpe murderednear St. Andrew's, 
by some fanatics, headed by John Balfour of 
Uurley May 3, 1679 

The Covenanters defeat Claverhouse at Drum- 
clog, June 1 ; but are routed at Bothwell 
bridge June 22, „ 

Revolution effected by a convention in favour of 
William III. and establishment of presbytery, 

March 14, 1689 

Insurrection of Claverhouse : killed at Killie- 
crankie July 27, ,, 



Massacre of the Maodonalds at Glencoe, Feb. 13, 1692' 
Legislative union of Scotland with England, 

May I, 1707 
Insurrection imder the earl of Mar in favour of 

the son of James II. (See Pretender.) . . 1715 
The rebels defeated at Preston, Nov. 12 ; and at 

Dumblane (or Sheriffmuir) . . Nov. 13, „ 
Captain Porteous is killed by a mob in Edin- 
burgh. (See Porteous.) . . . Sept. 7, 1736 
Prince Charles Edward proclaimed at Perth, 
Sept. 4 ; at Edmburgh, Sept. 16; with the 
Highlanders defeats sir John Cope at Preston- 
pans, Sept. 21; takes Carlisle, Nov. 15; 
arrives at Manchester, Nov. 28; at Derby, 
Dec. 4 ; retreats to Glasgow . Dec. 25, 1745 
Defeats general Hawley at Falkirk, Jan. 17 ; is 

totallj- defeated at Culloden . . April 16, 1746 
The Highland dress prohibited by act of parlia- 
ment Aug. 12, ,, 

Lords Kilmarnock and Balmerino executed for 

high treason on Tower-hill. . Aug. 18, ,, 

Simon Eraser, Lord Lovat, aged 80, e-xecutcd, 

April 9, 1747 
Thomson, the poet, dies . . Aug. 27, 1748 

The Old Pretender, " Chevalier de St. George," 

dies at Rome Dec. 30, 1765 

Prince Charles Edward Louis Casimir, the 

Young Pretender, dies at Rome . Jan. 31, 17S8 
Death of Robert Bums . . , July 21, 1796 
Scott's "Lay of the Last Minstrel" published . 1806, 
Cardinal Henry duke of York (last of the 

Stuarts) dies Aug. 1807 

The Court of Session is foi-med into two divisions , , 

" Waverley " publi.shed 1814 

The establishment of a jury court under a lord 
chief commissioner ... ... 1815 

Visit of George IV. to Scotland . October, 1822 

Sir Walter Scott dies . . . Sept. 21, 1832 
Seven ministers of the presbytery of Strath- 
bogie are deposed by the General Assembly 
of the Church of Scotland for obeying the 
civil in preference to the ecclesiastical law. 
(Their deposition was formally protested 
against by the minority of ministers, headed 
by Dr. Cook.) .... May 28, 1841 

The General Assembly condemn patronage as a 
grievance to the cause of true religion that 
ought to be abolished. . . . May 23, 1842 

Visit of the qxieen, prince Albert, and the court ; 

she landed at Granton pier . . Sept. i, ,, 
The Queen embarks . . . Sept. 13, ,, 
Secession of the non-intrusion ministers of the 
church of Scotland (about 400) at the General 
Assembly. (See Free Church) . . May 18, 1843 
Death of Jeffrey .... Jan. 26, 1850 

National Association for vindication of Scottish 

rights formed Nov. 1853 

Act for better government of the universities 
passed Aug. 1858 

See Edhi.hv.rfjh. 



KINGS OF SCOTLAND. 



BEFORE CHRIST. 

[The early accounts of the kings are by many his- 
torians deemed in a great measure fabulous. The 
series of kings is carried as far back as Alexander 
the Great.] 

330. Fergus I. : ruled 25 years ; lost in the Irish 
Sea.* 



AFTER CHRI.ST. 

57. Eugenius I., son of Fincormachus; slain in 
battle by Maximiis, the Roman general, and 
the confederate Picts. 

»* With this battle ended the kingdoni of the Scots 
after having existed from the coronation of 
Fergus I. , a period of 706 years, the royal 
family fled to Denmark. Boece ; Buchanan. 



* Ferg\is, a brave prince, came from Ireland with an army of Scots, and was chosen king. Having 
defeated the I3ritons and slain their king Coilus, the kingdom of the Scots was entailed upon his posterity 
for ever. Ho went to Ireland, and, having settled his affaiis there, was drowned on his return, launching 
from the shore, near the harbour, called Car rick -Fergus to this day, 3699 a.m. Anderson. 



SCO 



651 



SCO 



SCOTLAND, continued. 

[Interregnum of 27 j'cars.] 
404. Fergus II.*' (I.) great-grandson of Eugenius and 

4otli king ; slain iu battle with the Romans. 
420. Kugouius II. or Evenus, son of Fergus : reigned 

31 years. 
451. Dongardus or Domangard, brother of Eugenius ; 

defeated and drowned 
457. Constantino I., brotlier of Dongardus: assassi- 
nated by Dugall, a noble whose daughter he 

had dishonoured. 
479. Congallus I. nephew ; just and prudent. 
501. Goranus, brother ; murdered. Boece. Died 

while Donald of Athol was consph-ing to take 

his life. Scott. 
535. Eugenius III. nephew " none excelled him iu 

justice." 
558. Congallus II. brother. 

569. Ivinnatellus, brother ; resigned for 

570. Aidanus or Aldan, son of Goranus. 

605. Kenneth, son of Congallus II. 

606. Eugenius IV. son of Aidanus. 

621. Ferchard or Ferquhard I. son ; confined for 
misdeeds to his palace, where he laid violent 
hands upon himself. Scott. 

632. Donald IV. brother : drowned in Loch Tay. 

646. Ferchard II. son of Ferchard I. ; " most exe- 
crable." 

664. Malduinus, son of Donald IV. ; strangled by his 
wife for his supposed infidelity, for which 
crime she was immediately afterwards 
burnt. 

<'>84. Eugenius V. brother. 

0S8. Eugenius VI. son of Ferchard II. 

698. Amberkeletus, nephew ; fell by an arrow from 

an unknown hand. 

699. Eugenius VII. brother ; some ruffians designing 

the king's murder, entered his chamber, and 

he being absent, stabbed liis queen, Spon- 

tana, to death. Scott. 
715. Mordachus, son of Amberkeletus. 
730. Etfinus, son of Eugenius VII. 
761. Eugenius VIII. sou of Mordachus ; sensual and 

tyrannous ; put to death by his nobles. 
764. Fergus III. son of Etfinus ; killed by his jealous 

queen, who afterwards stabbed herself to 

escape a death of torture. 
767. Solvathius, son of Eugenius VIII. 
787. Achaius : a just and wise prince. 
819. Congallus III. ; a peaceful reign. 
824. Dongal or Dougal,son of Solvathius; drowned. 
831. Alpine, son of Achaius ; beheaded by the Picts. 
S34. Kenneth II. son of Alpine, and surnanied 

Mae Alpine ; defeated the Picts, slew their 

king, and luiited them and the Scots under 

one seeptre, and became the fii-st sole 

monarch of all Scotland, S43. 
854. Donald V. brother ; dethroned ; committed 

suicide. 
858. Constantine II. son of Kenneth II. ; taken in 

battle by the Danes and beheaded. 
874. Eth or Ethus, surnamed Lightfoot ; died of 

grief in prison, having been thrown into 

confinement for his sensuality and crimes. 
876. Gregory the Great ; br.ave and j u.st. 
893. Donald VI. son of Constantine II. ; excellent. 
904. Constantine III. son of Ethus ; became a monk, 

and resigned in favour of 
944. Malcolm I. son of Donald VI. ; murdered. 
953. Indulfus or Gondulph ; killed by the Danes in 

an ambuscade. 
961. Duff or Duflfus, son of Malcolm ; murdered by 

Donald, the governor of Forres castle. 
965. CuUen or Culenus, son of Indulfus ; .avenged 

the mvirder of his predecessor ; assassinated 



at Methven, by a thane, whose daughter he 
had dishonoured. 

970. Kenneth III. brother of DufTus ; murdered by 
Fenella, the lady of Fettercaim. 

994. Constantine IV. son of CuUen ; slain. 

995 Grimus or the Grim, son of Duffus ; routed 
and slain in battle by Malcolm, the rightful 
heir to the crown, who succeeded. 

1003. Malcolm II. son of Kenneth III. ; a.ssa.ssiDated 
on his way to Glamis ; the assassins in their 
flight crossing a frozen lake were drowned. 

1033. Duncan I. grandson ; assassinated by his cousin. 

1039. Macbeth, usurper ; slain by MacdutT, the thane 
of Fife. 

*j,* Historians so differ up to this reign, in the 
number of the kings, the dates of succes- 
sion, and the circumstances narrated, that no 
accoiuit can be taken as precisely accurate. 

1057. Malcolm III. (Canmore), son of Duncan; killed 
while besieging Alnwick castle. 

1093. Donald VII. (Donald Bane), brother of the 

usurper ; fled to the Hebrides. 

1094. Duncan II. naturalson of Malcolm : murdered. 
1094. Donald Bane again ; deposed . 

1098. Edgar, son of Malcolm (Henry I. of England 
married his sister Maud). 

1 107. Alexander the Fierce, brother. 

H24. David I. brother; married Matilda, daughter 
of Waltheof, earl of Northumberland. 

1153. Malcolm IV. grandson. 

1 165. William, surnamed the Lion ; brother. 

1214. Alexander II. son ; married Joan, daughter of 
John, king of England. 

1249. Alexander III. ; married Margaret, daughter 
of Henry HI. of England ; dislocated his 
neck, when hunting near Kinghorn. 

1285. Margaret, the " Maiden of Norway," grand- 
daughter of Alexander, " recognised by the 
states of Scotland, though a female,[an infant, 
and a foreigner ; " died on her passage to 
Scotland. 

A competition for the vacant throne ; Edward I. 
of England decides in favour of 

1292. John Baliol, who afterwards surrendered his 
cro^vn, and died in exile. 
[Interregnum.] 

1306. Robert (Bruce) I. a great prince. 

1329. David (Bruce) II. son ; Edward Baliol disputed 
the throne with him. 

1332. Edward Baliol, son of John ; resigned. 

1342. David II. again; eleven years a prisoner in 
England. 

1371. Robert (Stuart) II. nephew. 

1390. Ruljert III. son (whose name was John). 

1406. James I. second son ; imprisoned 18 years in 
England ; set at liberty in 1423 ; conspired 
against and murdered at Perth, Feb. 20, 
1437. Banl'K. 

1437. James II. son ; killed at the siege of Roxburgh 
castle by a cannon bursting, Aug. 3, 1460. 

1460. James III. son; killed in a revolt of his sub- 
jects at Bannockburu-field, June 11, 14S8. 

1488. James IV. son ; married Margaret Tudor, 
daughter of Henry VII. of England; killed 
at the battle of Flod'den. 

1513. James V. son ; succeeded when little more 
• than a year old ; a sovereign possessing 
many virtues. 

1542. Mary, daughter; bom Dec. 8, 1542, succeeded 
in her infancy. See Annals, above. 

1567. James VI. son. Succeeded to the throne of 
England, and the kingdoms became united, 
1603. 

See Evgland. 



* Some call this Fergus the first king, and suppose that either the foregoing kings were fabulous, or 
th.at they were only chicl's or generals of armies, having no royal authority. The controversy thiis arising 
1 leave to be decided by the antiquaries, and must follow the received histories of Scotland. Anderson. 



SCR 652 SEA 

SCREW was known to the Greeks. The pumping-screw of Archimedes, or screw- 
cylinder for raising water, invented 236 B.C., is still in use. It is stated that with the 
assistance of the screw, one man can press down or raise up as much as 150 men can do 
without it. — The Screw-Propellkr consists of two or more twisted blades, like the vanes 
of a windmill, set on an axi.s, running parallel with the keel of a vessel, and revolving 
beneath the water at the stern. It is driven b}' a steam-engine. The principle is as old as 
the windmill. It was shown by Hooke in 1681, and since by Du Quet, Bernouilli, and 
others. Patents for propellers were taken out by Joseph Bramah in 1784 ; by Wm. Lyttelton 
in 1794 ; and by Edward Shorter in 1799. But these led to no useful result. However, in 
1836 patents were obtained by F. P. Smith and captain John Ericsson, and to them the 
successful application of the screw-propeller must be attributed. The first vessels with the 
screw were the Archimedes, built on the Thames in 1836, and the Rattier, built in the United 
States (1814), and tried in England in 1845. Double screw-propellers are now employed. 

SCULLABOGUE. ^ee Massacres, 179S. 

SCULPTURE is said to have begun with the Egyptians. Pausanias refers the nearest 
approach to perfection in the art to 560 B.C. Bezaleel and Aholiab built the tabernacle in 
the wilderness, and made all the vessels and ornaments, 149 1 B.C., and their skill is recorded 
as the gift of God. Exocl. xxxi. 3. Dipoenus and Scyllis, statuaries at Crete, established a 
school at Sicyon. Pliny sjieaks of them as being the first who sculptured marble and 
polished it ; all statues before their time being of wood, 568 B.C. Alexander gave Lysippus 
the sole right of making his statues, 326 B.C. He left no less than 600 pieces, some of which 
were so highly valued in the age of Augustus, that they sold for their weight in gold. 
Sculpture did not flourish among the Romans ; and in the middle ages had much degraded. 
With the revival of painting, it revived also ; and Donato di Bardi, born at Florence, 
A.D. 1383, was the earliest jn'ofessor among the moderns. An institute of sculptors was 
established in 186 1. ] 



Pheidon flourisbed . .B.C. 86g 

Myron 480 

Phidias ..... 442 

Praxiteles 363 

Ly.sippus .... 328 

Chares 288 

Michael Aiigelo Buonarotti, 

A.D. 1474-1564 



EMINENT SCULPTOKS. 

Bernini .... 1598-1680 

Rovibiliac, stiitue of sir I. 

Newton . . . died 1762 

Bacon .... 1740-1799 

Canova . . . . 1757-1822 

Plaxman . . . 1754-1826 

Chantrey . . . . 1781-1841 



Thoi-waldsen . 


. 1770-1844. 


Sir R. Westniacott 


• 1775-1856 


Ranch 


• 1777-1857 


J. Thomas . 


. 1813-1862 


Wm. Behnes . 


-1864 


C. Kiss . 


. 1802-1865 


J. Gibson . 


■ 1791 



SCUTAGE or EscuA(;e. The service of the shield (scutum) is either uncertain or certain. 
Escuage uncertain is where the tenant by his tenure is bound to follow his lord ; and is called 
Castleward, where the tenant is bound to defend a castle. Escuage certain is where the 
tenant is set at a certain sum of money to be paid in lieu of .such uncertain services. The 
first tax levied in England to pay an army, 5 Hen. II. 1159. Cowcl. 

SCUTARI, Asiatic Turkej^, opposite Constantinople, of which it is a suburb. It wan 
anciently called Chrusopolis, golden cit}^ in consequence, it is said, of the Persians having 
established a treasury here when they attempted the conquest of Greece. Near here 
(,'onstantine finally defeated Licinius, 324. The hospital was occupied by the sick and 
wounded of the Anglo-French army, in 1854-5, whose sufferings were much alleviated by 
the kind exertions of Miss Florence Nightingale and a band of nurses under her, aided by a 
large fund of money (15,000^.) subscribed by the jiublic and placed in the care of the pro- 
prietors of the Times newspaper. See Times. 

SCYTHIA, situate in the most northern parts of Europe and Asia. The boundaries 
Avere unknown to the ancients. The Scythians made several irruptions upon the more 
southern provinces of Asia, especially 624 B.C., when they remained in possession of 
Asia Minor for twenty-eight years, and at diflferent periods extended their conquests in 
Europe, penetrating as far as Egypt. See Tartary. 

SEA FIGHTS. See Naval Battles. 

SEALS or Signets. Engraved gems were used as such by the Egj^ptians, Jews, 
Assyrians, and Greeks (see Eocod. xxviii. 14). The Romans in the time of the Tarquins 
(about 600 B.C.) had gemmed rings. They sealed rooms, granaries, bags of money, &c. The 
German emperor Frederick I. (a.d. 1x52) had seals of gold, silver, and tin. Impressions 
of the seals of Saxon kings are extant ; and the Engli.sh great seal is attributed to Edward 
the Confessor (1041-66). " A seal with armorial bearings before the eleventh century is 
certainly false." Foslrokc. The most ancient English seal with arms on it is said to be that 



SEA 653 SEC 

of Richard I. or John. "White aiul coloured waxes were \ised. Our pr-esenl sealing-wax, 
containing shellac, did not come into general use in Germany and England until about 
1556. Ked wafers for seals came into use about 1624 ; but were not used for public seals till 
the 1 8th century. 

SEAS, Sovereignty of the. The claim of England to rule the British seas is of very 
ancient date. Arthur is said to have assumed it, and Alfred afterwards supported this 
right. It was maintained by Selden, and measures were taken by government in con- 
se(|uence, 8 Chas. I. 1633. The Dutch, after the death of Charles I., made some attempts to 
obtain it, but were roughly treated by Blake and other admirals. Russia and other powers 
of the north armed to avoid search, 1780; again, 1800. See Armed Neutrality miii Flat/. 

SEBASTIAN, ST. (N. Spain), was taken by the French, under the duke of Berwick, in 
1 7 19. It was besieged by the British and allied army under Wellington. After a most 
heavy bombardment, by which the whole town was laid nearly in ruins, it was stormed by 
general Graham (afterwards lord Lynedoch), and taken Aug. 31, 1813. The loss sustained by 
the besiegers, though not considerable, was chietly British. — On May 5, 1836, the fortified 
works, through the centre of which ran the high road to Hernani, were carried by the English 
auxiliary legion under general Evans, after very hard fighting. The British naval squadron, 
off St. Sebastian, imder lord John Hay, lent very opportune aid to the victors in this 
contest. — A vigorous assault was made on the lines of general De Lacy Evans, at St. Sebastian, 
by the C'arlists, Oct. i, 1836. Both parties fought with bravery. The Carlists were repulsed, 
after suffering severely. The loss of the Anglo-Spanish force was 376 men and 37 officers, 
killed and wounded. General De Lacy Evans was slightly wounded. 

SEBASTOPOL, or Sevastopol, a town and once a naval ar.senal, at S.W. point of the 
Crimea, formerly the little village of Aktiar. The buildings were commenced in 1784, by 
Catherine II. after the conquest of the country. The town is built in the shape of an 
amphitheatre on the rise of a large hill flattened on its summit, according to a plan laid 
down before 1794, which has been since adhered to. The fortifications and harbour were con- 
structed by an English engineer, colonel Upton, and his sons, since 1830. The population in 
1834 was 15,000. This place will be memorable hereafter for its eleven months' Siege, by 
the English and French in 1854 and 1855. Immediately after the battle of the Alma, 
Scjjt. 20, 1854, the allied army inarched to Sebastopol, and took up its position on the 
plateau between it and Balaklava, and the grand attack and bombardment commenced 
Oct. 17, 1854, without succes.s.* After many sanguinary encounters by day and night, and 
repeated bombardments, a grand assault was made on Sept. 8, 1855, upon the Malakhofi" 
tower and the Redans, the most important fortifications to the south of the town. The 
French succeeded in capturing and retaining the Malakhofi'. The attacks of the English on 
the gi-eat Redan and of the French upon the little Redan were successful, but the assailants 
were compelled to retire after a desperate struggle with great loss of life. The French lost 
1646 killed, of whom 5 were generals, 24 superior and 116 inferior officers, 4500 wounded, 
and 1400 missing. The English lost 385 killed (29 being commissioned and 42 non-com- 
missioned ofilcers), 1886 wounded, ancl 176 missing. In the night the Russians abandoned 
the southern and principal part of the town and fortifications, after destroying as much as 
possible, and crossed to the northern forts. They also sank or burnt the remainder of their 
fleet. The allies found a very great amount of stores when they entered the place, July 9. 
The works were utterly destroyed in April, 1856, and the town was restored to the Kussiaus 
in July. See Russo-Turkish War. 

SECRETxYRIES of State. The earliest authentic record of a secretary of state is in 
the reign of Henry III., when John Maunsell is described as ^' Sccretarins Noster," 1253. 
Rijmer. Towards the close of Henry VIII. 's reign, two secretaries were appointed; and 
upon the union with Scotland, Anno ailded a third as secretary for Scotch affairs ; this 
appointment was afterwards laid aside ; but in the reign of George III. the number was 
again increased to three, one for the American department. In 1782 this last was aboli.shed 
by act of parliament ; and the secretaries were appointed for home, foreign, and colonial 
affairs. "When there were but two secretaries, one held the portefeuille of the Northern 

* In consequence of the sufferings and disasters of the army in the winter of 1854-5, the Sebastopol 
Inquiry Committee was appointed, and the Aberdeen administration resigned, Feb. 1855. The committee 
sat from March i to May 15, lord Aberdeen being the last person examined. Its report was presented 
June 18. Mr. Roebuck, the chairman, moved on July 17 that the house should pass a vote of severe 
reprehension on every member of the Aberdeen administration. On July 19 his motion was lost by a 
majority 107 against it. In 1S55 the government sent sir John M'Neill and col. TuUoch to inquire into 
the state of the armies in the Orimca. Their report was presented to parliament in Feb. 1856. A com- 
mission was appointed to consider the statements in the report (which were very unfavoui-able to many 
officers), but the substance of the report was unshaken.. 



SEC 654 SEM 

department, comprising the Low Countries, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Poland, Eussia, 
&c. ; the other, of the Southern department, including France, Switzerland, Italy, Spain, 
Portugal, and Turkey ; the affairs of Ireland belonging to the elder secretary ; both secre- 
taries then equally directed the home affairs. Beatson. There are now five secretaries — 
home, foreign, colonial, war, and India (appointed in 1858), all in the cabinet. ' 

SECTS, RELIGIOUS. See under Worship, and their respective titles, 

SECULAR GAMES (Ludi Scccularcs). Very ancient Roman games, celebrated on 
important occasions. Horace wrote his " Carmen Sseculare " for their celebration, in the 
reign of the emperor Augustus (17). This took place again in the reign of Claudius (47), of 
Domitian (88), and for the last time, of Philip (248), believed to be 2000 years after the 
foundation of the city. 

SECURITY FROM Violence Act, passed in 1863, appointed whipping as a punish-, 
ment for attempts at garotting. 1 

SEDAN CHAIRS, so called from Sedan, on the Meuse, in France. The first seen in 
England was in 1581, One was used in the reign of James I., by the duke of Buckingham, 
to the great indignation of the people, who exclaimed that he was employing his feilow- 
creatures to do the service of beasts. Sedan chairs came into fashion in London in 1634, 
when sir Francis Duncomb obtained the sole privilege to use, let, and hire a number of such 
covered chairs for fourteen years. They came into very general use in 1649. 

SEDGMOOR (Somersetshire), where the duke of Monmouth (the natural son of Charles II. 
by Lucy "Walters), who had risen in rebellion on the accession of James II., was completely 
defeated by the royal army, July 6, 1685. The duke was made a prisoner, in the disguise of 
a peasant, at the bottom of a ditch, overcome with hunger, fatigue, and anxiety. He was 
beheaded on July 15, following. 

SEDITION. Sedition acts were passed in the reign of George III. The proclamation 
against seditious writings was published May, 1792. The celebrated Sedition bill passed 
Dec. 1795. SeditioiTs societies were suppressed by act, June 1797. The seditious meetings 
and assemblies' bill passed March 31, 1817. In Ireland, during the Roman Catholic and 
Repeal agitation, acts or proclamations against sedition and seditious meetings were 
published from time to time until 1848. 

SEEKERS. See Quakers. SEICENTO. See Italy, p. 372, note. 

SEIDLICE (Poland), where a battle was fought April 10, 183 1, between the Poles and 
Russians. The Poles obtained the victory after a bloody conflict, taking 4000 prisoners and 
several pieces of cannon. The killed and wounded on both sides amounted to many 
thousands. This success was soon followed by fatal reverses. 

SEISMOilETRY (from scismos, Greek for earthquake), an apparatus for measuring the 
violence of the shocks. One is described by JMr. Robert Mallet in his work on earthquakes, 
published in 1858. 

SELENIUM, a greyish- white metal discovered in the stone riolite by Berzelius, in 181 7. 

SELEUCIA, a part of Syria, was made the capital of the Syrian monarchy by its builder, 
Seleucus Nicatoi-, 312 B.C. On the fall of the Seleucidfe, it became a republic, 65 b.c. It 
was taken by Trajan, a.d. 116 ; was several times given up and retaken ; was subjugated by 
the Saracens, and united with Ctesiphon, 636. 

SELEUCIDES, Era of the, dates from the reign of Seleucus Nicator. It was used in 
Syria for many years, and frequently by the Jews until the 15th century, and by some 
Arabians. Opinions vary as to its commencement. To reduce it to our era (supposing it to 
begin Sept. i, 312 B.C. ), subtract 311 years 4 months. 

SELF-DENYING ORDINANCE, which ordained that no member of parliament should 
hold any civil or military office or command conferred by either or both of the houses, or by 
authority derived from them, was passed April 3, 1645, by the influence of Cromwell, who 
thus removed the earl of Essex and other Presbyterians out of his way. A somewhat 
similar ordinance was adopted by the parliament at Melbourne in Australia, in 1858. 

SELLASIA (Laconia). Here the Sjjartans under Cleomenes were defeated by Antigonus 
Doson and the Achseans, 221 B.C. 

SEMINCAS (Castile, Spain). Here, in 938, the Moors were totally defeated by 
Ramirez II., king of Leon and Asturias. It is said that more than 80,000 of the infidels 
were slain. 



SEM 655 SER 

SEMTACH (Switzerland). Here was fouglit a battle between the Swiss and Leopold, 
dnlce of Austria, July 9, 13S6. The Swiss gained a great vietory; and the duke was 
slain. The liberty of their country was established ; and the day is still commemorated at 
Sempach. 

SEMPER EADEM ("Always the same"), one of the mottoes of queen Elizabeth, was 
adopted by queen Anne Dec. 13, 1702. Many suspected this motto to denote her Jacobitism. 
It ceased to be used after her reign. 

SENESCHAL, a high officer of the French royal household. In the reign of Philip I. 
1059, the otiice was esteemed the highest place of trust. 

SENONES, a Celtic tribe, invaded lower Italy, and were defeated by Camillus, 367 b.(;. 
They defeated iletellus the consul at Arretium, 284, but were almost exterminated bv 
Dolabella, 283. ^ 

SENTINUM (Central Italy). The site of a great victory of the Komans over the 
Samuites and Gauls, whose general, Gellius Egnatius, was slain, 295 b.c, 

SEPOYS (a corruption of Sipdhi, Hindostanee for a soldier), the term applied to the 
native troops in India. Under able generals they greatly aided in establishing British rule 
in India. For their mutinies, see Madras, 1807, and India, 1857. 

SEPTEMBER, the seventh Roman month reckoned from March (from sqjtimus, seventh). 
It became the ninth month when January and February were added to the year by Numa, 
713 B.C. The Roman senate would have given this month the name of Tiberius," but the 
emperor opposed it ; the emperor Domitian gave it his own name, Germanicus ; the senate 
under Antoninus Pius gave it that of Antoninus ; Commodus gave it his surname, Herculeus ;. 
and the emperor Tacitus his own name, Tacitus. 

SEPTEMBRIZERS. In the French revolution a dreadful massacre took place in Paris, 
Sept. 2-5, 1792. The prisons were broken ojien, and the prisoners butchered, among them 
an ex-bishop, and nearly 100 non-juring priests. Some accounts state the number of persons. 
slain at 1200, others at 4000. The agents in this slaughter were named Septembrizers. 

SEPTENNIAL PARLIAMENTS. Edward I. held but one parliament every two years. 
In the 4th Edward III. it was enacted, "that a parliament should be holden every year 
once." This continued to be the statute-law till i6th Charles I. 1641, when an act was 
passed for holding parliaments once in three years at least; repealed in 1664. The 
Triennial act was re-enacted in 1694. Triennial parliaments thence continued till the second 
year of George I.'s reign. May 1716, when, in consequence of the allegation that " a popish 
faction were designing to renew the rebellion in this kingdom, and the report of an invasion 
from abroad, it was enacted that the then parliament shoirld continue for seven years." 
This Septennial ad has ever since been in force. See Parliaments. Several unsuccessful 
motions have been made for its repeal ; one in May 1837. 

SEPTUAGESIMA SUNDAY in 1866, Jan. 28 ; in 1867, Feb. 17 ; in 1868, Feb. 9. 
See Quadragesima Sunday and Week. 

SEPTUAGINT VERSION of the Bible, made from Hebrew into Greek, 277 b.c. 
Seventy-two translators were shut up in thirty-six cells ; eacli pair translated the whole ; 
and on subsequent comparison the thirty-six copies did not vary by a word or letter. Justin 
Martyr. St. Jerome affirms that they translated only the Pentateuch ; but St. Justin and 
others say they translated the whole. Ptolemy Philadelphus gave the Jews about a million 
sterling for a copy of the Testament, and seventy translators half a million more for the 
translation. Joscphus. Finished in seventy-two days. Hewlett. The above statements 
are merely traditional. See Bible. 

SERAPIS, Temple of (near Naples), was exhumed in 1750. The investigations of 
Lyell and Babbage into the history of the sinking and burying of this temple are of great 
geological interest. 

SERFS. See Slavery (note) and Russia, 1861, 1863. 

SERINGAPATAM (S. India). See Mysore. The battle of Seringapatam, called also the 
battle of Arikera, in which the British defeated Tippoo Sahib, was fought May 15, 1791. The 
r.edoubts were stormed, and Tippoo was reduced by lord Cornwallis, Feb. 6, 1792. After this 
capture, jireliniinaries of peace were signed, and Tippoo agreed to cede one half of Mysore, 
and to pay 33,000,000 of rupees (about 3,300,000?. sterling) to England, and to give up to 
lord Cornwallis his two eldest sons as hostages. — In a new war the Madras army, under 
general Harris, arrived before Seringapatam, April 5, 1799 ; it was joined by the Bombay 



SER 



C56 



SEV 



army, April 14 ; and the place was stormed and carried by major-general Baird, May 4, 
same year. In this engagement Tippoo was killed. 

SEEJEANTS-AT-LAW are pleaders from among whom the judges are ordinarily chosen, 
and who are called Serjeants of the coif. The judges call them brothers. See Coif. 

SERVANTS. An act laying a duty on male servants was passed in 1775. This tax was 
augmented in 1781, et seq. A tax on female servants was imposed in 1785 ; but this latter 
act was repealed in 1792. The tax on servants yielded in 1830 about 250,0x20?. per annum ; 
in 1840 the revenue from it had fallen to 201,482?.; in 1850 it produced about the 
same sum. 

SERVIA, a hereditary principality nominally subject to Turkey, south of Hungary, 
The Servians are of Slavonic origin. They embraced Christianity about 640. The emperor 
Manuel subjected them in 1150; but they recovered their independence in 1180, and were 
ruled by princes, generally named Stephen, till their country was finally subdued by the 
sultan Mahomet II. in 1459. Population in 1854, 985,000. 



A Servian rebellion quelled .... 1737 
The Servians assist Austria by free comi^anies, 

1788-90 
Again rebel, and capture Belgrade . . . 1806 
Kara George, aided by the Russians, establishes 

a government 1807-11 

The Turks break a treaty and Kara George 

flees 1814 

Their governor Milosch rebels . . March, 1815 
Kara Geoi-ge returning, is executed . . . 1816 
Milosch I, recognised as hereditary jmnce by 

the sultan Aug. 15, 1829 

Milosch becoming despotic is compelled to 

abdicate, and a new constitution estabUshed, 

June 13, 1839 
His son Michael also retires ; Alexander, son of 

Kara George, chosen prince . Sept. 14, 1842 
Alexander becoming unpojiular, is compelled to 



abdicate, and Alexander Milosch is re-elected 
prince ...... Dec. 23, 

Plot against Milosch frustrated, July 1 1 ; the 
Servian assembly meets . . . July 13, : 

Milosch dies ; succeeded by his son Michael 
III. Obrenovitch (present raler) . Sept. 26, 

Rising movement to render Servia independent 
of Turkey March, j 

Disputes between the Servians and the Turkish 
garrison at Belgrade, which leads to blood- 
shed ; June 15, the city bombarded ; submits, 
June 17 ; the Turkish pasha dismissed, 

June 19, : 

A conference of the representatives of the great 
powers at Constantinople, Aug. ; the Porte 
agrees to liberal concessions to the Servians, 
which their prince accepts . . Oct 7, 



SESSION COURTS in England were appointed to be held quarterly in 14 13, and the 
times for holding them regulated in 1831. See Quartet' Sessions and Coui't of Session. The 
kirk-scssion in Scotland consists of the ministers and elders of each parish. They super- 
intend religious worship and discipline, dispense the money collected for the poor, &c. 

SESTUS, on the Thracian Chersonesus. See Hellespont. Near Sestus was the western 
«nd of Xerxes' bridge, across the Hellespont, 480 B.C. Sestus was retaken from the Persians 
by the Athenians, 478 B.C., and held by them till 404, giving them the command of the 
trade of the Euxine. 

SETTLEMENT, Act of, for securing the succession to the British throne, to the 
exclusion of Roman Catholics, was passed in 1689. This name is also given to the statute 
by which the crown, after the demise of William III. and queen Anne, without issue, was 
limited to Sophia, electress of Hanover, grand-daughter of James I., and to heirs being 
Protestant.s, 1702. The Irish act of settlement, passed in 1662, was repealed in 1689. See 
Hanover. 

SEVEN CHURCHES of ASIA, to the angels (ministers) of which the apostle John was 
commanded to write the epistles contained in the 2nd and 3rd chapters of his Revelation, 
viz., Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea, 96. 



. Ephesv.s (ivhich see). Paul founded the church 
here, 57. In 59 he was m great danger from a 
tumult created by Demetrius : to the elders of 
this church he delivered his warning address, 60 
(Acts xix. XX.). Kphesus was in a ruinous state 
■even in the time of Justinian (527), and stiU re- 
mains so. 

:. Smyrna. Now an important commercial city 
and seaport of Ionia. Polycarp, its first bishop, 
suffered martyrdom, 175. 

,. Pergamos. Capital of the kingdom of the same 
name, founded by Philetierus, whom Lysimachus, 
one of Alexander's generals, had made governor, 
2838,0. He was succeeded by Eumeues I., 263; 



Attalus (who took the title of king), 241 ; Eumenes 
II. (who collected a great library), 197 ; Attalus 
II., 159; Attalus III., 138. He bequeathed his 
kingdom to the Romans, 133. It revolted, was 
subdued, and made the Roman province, Asia. 
Pergamos is still an im^jortant place, called Ber- 
gamo. Parchment is said to have been invented 
here. 

Thyatira. Now a mean town of 2000 houses, 
called Ak-hissar, "White Castle." 

. Sardis. Formerly the capital of Lydia, the 
kingdom of Croesus (560 B.C.), is now a miserable 
village, named Sart. 

. Phdaddphia was built by Attalus (III.) Phila- 



SEV 657 SHA 

SEVEN CHURCHES of Asia, continued. 



delphus, king of Pergamos (159-138 B.C.); was 
fciken by Bajazet I. a.d. 1390. It is now called 
AUah Shcbr, "The city of God," aud is a miserable 
town 01 3000 houses. 



7. Laodicea. In Phrygia, near Lydia, has suffered 
much from earthquakes. It is now a deserted 
place caUed Eske-hissar, "The old castle " 



; SEVEN-SHILLING PIECES in gold were authorised to be issued Nov. 29, 1797. 

■ , ^^^^'^^ YEARS' WAR, the conflict maintained by Frederick II of Prussia a<^ainst 

' Austna, Russia, and France, from 1756 to 1763. See siulcs. He gained SileSa " 

SEVENTH-DAY BAPTIST. See article Sabbatarians, &c. 

SEVERUS'S WALL. See Roma^i Walls. 

was^t?Jlu!it^./unm PhiHn'T^'/T^'rf r V ^)''''^<^''^^'' ^"^ the Julia of the Roman,s, 
ItL + l7 i P ^^- ^"-'^^^ estabhshed Ins court at Madrid, 156^. It opened its 

gates to the Saracens, m 712, and was taken from them by the Chris ians in 1247,^X1 an 
obstinate siege. The peace of Seville between England, France, and Spain and also^ 
defensive alliance to which Holland acceded, signed Nov. 9, 1729. In te peninsular 
war heville surrendered to the French, Feb. 1,^^810; and was tak n by a au^by Se 
Britisli and Spaniards, after the battle of Salamanca, Aug. 27, 1812 ^ 

SEVRES. See Porcelain. 

into^^iY puW'ip i" p'* '' Tl ^T"^ "• '-^^7 enforcing the conveyance of the sewage of houses 
ATptro;\nlitnn p ■ ^^'' Commissioners ot Sewers in London were superse"led by the 

W r I .™ ''"'?°"r''-°^ ^'■'"''^ "0'"i"at*^d by the government. They abolished the 
bTtfthP ii. T. ' "^^^«^*^"^f^ pipe drains, and turned the contents of 30,000 cesspools 
svs?e of h^;?'"''- ,^\'''''''''y f°i- purifying the river led to the construction of a new 
system ot d.amage, under the superintendence of the Metropolitan Board of Works (u-Jiieh 

Eel S n"']" t'^'Tr ^'^''. P^? °f F'- J- ^^'- Bazalgette) Consists of the Northern Hgh- 
level, Middle-level, and Low-level, and Southern High-level and Low-level. On March 14 
1665 the works wei-e said to be completed, except the low-level sewer on the north side 
winch was waiting for the completion of the Thames embankment, &c. On April 4 i86q 
t he pnnce of Wales started the engines which commenced lifting the waters of the .STjuthern 
out Ml, at Crossness Point, near Enth.* Estimated total cost, 4,000,000^. See Carbolic 

SEWING-MACHINE The first practical sewing-machine was the invention of Elias 
Howe, an American mechanic, of Cambridge, in Massachusetts, about 1841. It is now 
kno«-ii under an nuproved form as Thomas's shuttle machine, by whom it was introduced 
".'to ^'iglfi'Kl in 1846. 1 wo threads are wrought into the fabric to be sewn, by a needle and 
shuttle, which interlace the threads and form a strong seam. In some machines now in 
extensive use, two needles are employed to make with two threads a double chain stitch, 
ami a more simple machine makes by the aid of one needle and a hook, the common single 
chain stitch with one thread. These machines are all of American origin. 

SEXAGESIMA SUNDAY. See Quadragesima Stmday and Week. 

SEXTANT an instrument used like a quadrant, containing sixty degrees, or the sixth 
part of a circle, invented by Tycho Brahe, at Augsburg, in 1550. Viv.ces Astron. The 
Arabian astronomers are said to have had a sextant of fifty nine feet nine inches radius, 
about 995. Ashe. ' 

SHAKSPEARE'S PLAYS. William Shaksi^eare was born at Stratford-upon-Avon, 
A\ anvicks nre, April 23, 1564, and died on his birthday, 1616. The first collected edition 
othis works IS dated 1623 [a facsimile of this edition was published, 1862-5] ; the second, 
1632 ;t the third, 1664 ; the fourtb, 1685 ; all in folio. Critical editions of the text, edited 
by Alexander Dyce, were published in 1857 and 1S64-6 ; Boydell's edition, with numerous 

* ?y^^. utUUaiionof (Hsinfected sewage as manure is now much advocated. Great success is said to have 
been a,ttained at Edinburgh Carhsle, Croydon, and other places. Much hot controversy has arisen respect- 
ing this dusposal of the London sewage. On Nov. 15, 1864, the Metropolitan board accepted a contract for 
ds disposa from Messi-s. Uope and Napier. The Sewage UtiUsation Act, and the Metropohtan Sewage aud 
Essex Reclama'ion Acts were passed in June, 1865. 6 ^ 

t In 1849, Mr J. P. Collier, editor of an edition of Shakspearc, purchased a copy of the second folio 
m which was written in pencil, .a number of corrections, supposed to have been made soon after the time 
jf publication. At first he thought little of these marks ; but in 1853 he was mduced to pubUsh " Notes 
uid Emendations derived from this volume. Much controversy ensued as to the authenticity of these 
xn-rcL-tions ; and in 1859 it was generally .agreed that they were of modern date, and consequently of httle 



SHA 



658 



SHE 



plates, was published in nine vols., folio, in 1802. Ayscongh's Index to Shakspeare was 
published in 1790 ; Twiss's Index, in 1805, and Mrs. Cowdeu Clarke's Concordance, 1847. 
See Ireland's Forgeries. 



Shakspeare's Globe Theatre, London, was situated 
near the spot still called Banksidc, at the com- 
mencement of the seventeenth century. Shak- 
speare was himself part-j^roprietor ; here some of 
his plays were first produced, and he himself 
performed in them. It was of a horse-shoe form, 
partly covered with thatch. After it was licensed, 
the thatch took fire, through the negligent dis- 
charge of a piece of ordnance, and the whole 
building was consvimed. The house was crowded 
to excess, to witness the play of Henry VIII., but 
the audience escaped unhurt. This was the end 
of Shakspeare's connection with this theatre : it 
was rebuUt the following year, much in the same 
style, about 1603. 

Shakspeark's Jubilee, and that projected by David 
Garrick, was celebrated at Stratford-on-Avon, 
Sept. 6-8, 1769 ; a similar festival was kept 
April 23, 1836. The tercentenary of Shakspeare's 
birth was celebrated with many festivities at 
Stratford-on-Avon, April 23, 1865. 



Shakspeare's Native Place. In 1847, a number of 
persons of distinction interested themselves for 
the preservation of the house in which Shakspeare 
was born, then actually set up for sale : they held 
a meeting at the Thatched-House Tavern, London, 
Aug. 26, in that year, and took measures for 
promoting a subscription set on foot by the Shak- 
spearian Club at Stratford-upon-Avon ; and a 
committee was appointed to carry out their object. 
In the end Shakspeare's house was sold at the 
Auction Mart in the city of London, where it wa.s 
"knocked down" to the United Committee of 
London and Stratford for the large sum of 3000^ 
Sept. i5, 1847. Ill 1856, a learned oriental scholar, 
Jolm Shakespeare, no relation of the poet, gave 
2500/. to pui-chase the adjoining hoiise, that it 
might be pulled down, in order to ensure the 
poet's house from the risk of fire. 

Shakspeare's Garden was bought by subscription 
got up by Mr. J. O. HalliweU, in Oct. and Nov. 



SHAMROCK. It is said that the shamrock used by the Irish was introduced by Patrick 
M'Alpine, since called St. Patrick, as a simile of the Trinity, 432. When he could not 
make them understand him by his words, he showed the Irish a stem of clover or trefoil, 
thereby exhibiting an ocular demonstration of the possibility of three uniting into one, and 
one into three. 

SHARPSBURG (Maryland). See Antietam. 

SHAWLS are of Oriental origin. The manufacture was introduced by Barrow and 
Watson, in 1784, at Norwich. It began at Paisley and Edinburgh about 1805. lire. 

SHEEP were exported from England to Spain, and, the breed being thereby improved^ 
produced the iine Simnish wool, which proved detrimental to our woollen manufacture, 
8 Edw. IV. 1467. Anderso7i. Their exportation was prohibited on pain of fine and impri- 
sonment, 1522. The number of sheep in the United Kingdom has been variously stated — 
by some at 43,000,000, by others at 49,000,000, and by more at 60,000,000, in 1840. The 
number must have progressively increased to the present time, particularly as the unre- 
stricted importation since 1846 vastly swells the amount. In 1851 there were imported 
into England 201,859 sheep and lambs ; in 1858, 184,482 ; in 1864, 496,243. In Aug. and 
Sept. 1862, many sheep in Wiltshire died of small-pox ; and on Sept. 11, government 
declared its intention of enforcing the act for the prevention of contagion. The evil soon 
abated. 

SHEEPSHANKS' DONATIONS. On Feb. 2, 1857, Mr. John Sheepshanks, by a deed 
of gift, presented to the nation his valuable collection of paintings and drawings, valued at 
60,000^. In accordance with the donor's directions, the pictures were placed at the South 
Kensington Museum. The collection is rich in the works of Mulready, Landseer, and 
Leslie. He died Oct. 5, 1863. — On Dec. 2, 1858, the trustees of his brother, the late Rev. 
Richard Sheepshanks, presented 10,000^. stock to Trinity college, Cambridge, for the 
promotion of the study of astronomy, meteorology, and magnetism . 

SHEERNESS (N. Kent), a royal dockyard, jilanned and fortified by Charles II. in 1667, 
was taken by the Dutch, under De Ruyter, June 11, same year. Improved since 1815. 

SHEFFIELD, on the river Sheaf, West Riding, Yorkshire ; renowned for cutlery, plated 
goods, &c. Sheffield thwytles are mentioned by Chaucer, in the time of Edward III. 
Sheffield in the time of the Conqueror was obtained by Roger de Euisli, and has since been 
held by the Lovetots, Nevils, Talbots, and Howards. 



St. Peter's church built temp. Henry I. 
Hcispital and almshouses erected by the earl of 

Malmesbury ....... 1616 

Cutlers' company incorporated .... 1624 

The castle (budt in the 13th century) was taken 

and demolished by the pai-liamentarians . . 1648 
Cutlers' hall built 1726 



Plate assay office established . . . . 1773 

Made a borough by the Reform Act . . . 1832 

Wesley college opened 1838 

Sheflield and Manchester railway opened . . 1845 
Athenaeum and Mechanics' Institution opened. 1849 
John A. Koebuck (grandson of Dr. Koebuck of 
Sheffield), M.P. for Sheffield . . May, 1849-C6 



SHE 



659 



SHI 



SHEFFIELD, continued. 



Embankment of the Bradficld water reservoir 
broke down, and flooded Sheffield and the 
coimtry 12 or 14 miles round ; about 250 lives 
were lost; many buUdings and much pro- 



perty destroyed; estimated loss, 327,000?., 

March 11, 1864 
52,7511. had been collected for the sufferers, 
rrn- c April 29, „ 

Ihe Surrey music hall burnt . March 25, 1865 

admiiStiS^^ termmated April, 1783; and was succeeded by the '• Coalition " 



Thomas, lord Grantham, and Thomas Townshend 

(afterwards lord Sydney), secretaries. 
Viscount Keppel, admiralty. 
Duke of Richmond, ordnance. 
Lord Thurlow, lord chancellor. 
Henry Dundas, Isaac Barre, sir George Yonge, &c. 



The earl of Shelbume (afterwards marquess of 

Landsdowne),,/!i-6-< lord of the treasuri/. 
William Pitt, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Lord (afterwards earl) Camden, 'president of the 

council. 
Duke of Grafton, 'privy seal. 

SHELLS. See Bombs. 

, l^,?^?^^.^- ^^''^ '5'\'^r°,t'''"'i^'' ^™"' shirc-reve, governor of a shire or county. London 
1ml Its sheriffs prior to William I- 's reign ; but some say that sheriffs were first nominated 
foi every count)' in England by William in 1079. According to other historians, Henry 
CoinhiU and Richard Reynere were the first sheriffs of London, i Rich. I. 1189. The nomi- 
nation of sheriffs according to the present mode took place in 1461. Stow. Anciently sheriffs 
were hereditary in Scot and and in some English counties, as Westmoreland. The sheriffs of 
i)ubim (hrst called bailiffs) were appointed in 130S, and obtained the name of sheriff by an 
incorporation of Edward VI. 1548. Thirty-five sheriffs were fined, and eleven excused in 
one year, rather than serve the office for London, 1734. See Bailiffs. 

SHERIFFMUIR. See Dumblane. SHETLAND ISLES. See Orkneys. 

SHIBBOLETH, the word by which the followers of Jephthah tested their opponents the 
Ephraimites, on passing the Jordan, about 1 143 b.c. Judges xii. The term is now applied 
to any party watchword or dogma. ^ 

SHIITES, a Mahometan sect, predominated in Persia. See Mahometanisrn. 

SHILLINa The value of the ancient Saxon coin of this name was fivepence, but it 
was reduced to fourpence about a century before the conquest. After the conquest the French 
solidus of twelve pence, in use among the Normans, was called shilling. The true English 
D 7 ""^r"* \ '^*''"'^^^' '^"* "' ■^™'''^^ quantity, 18 Hen. VII. 1503. Dr. Kelly. In 1505. 
Bislwp I'te^etivood A peculiar .shiUing, value nine pence, but to be current at twelve, was 
struck in Ireland 1560 ; and a large but very base coinage in England for the service of 
Ireland, 1598. Milled shillings were coined 13 Chas. II. 1662, See Coins. 

SHIP-BUILDING. The first ship (probably a galley) was brought from Egypt to Greece, 
by Danaus, 1485 b.c. Blair. The first double-decked ship was built by the Tyrians, 786 b. c. 
Len^gct. The first double-decked one built in England was of 1000 tons burthen 'by order 
of Henry VIII. 1509 ; it was called the Great Harry, and cost 14,000?. Stoiv. Port-holes 
and other improvements were invented by Descharges, a French builder at Brest, in the 
''^^"i^ of Louis XII., about 1500. Ship-buildmg was first treated as a science by Hoste, 
■ i' T i-'''^"^'^™ ship was put upon the stocks at Van Diemen's Land, to be sheathed 
with India-rubber, 1829. Iron is now greatly used in ship-building. See Navii and 
Steam Vessels. 

SHIP-MONEY was first levied about 1007, to form a navy to oppose the Danes 
This impost being illegally levied by Charles I. in 1634-6 led to the revolution. He 
assessed ^ondon in seven ships, 014000 tons, and 1560 men ; Yorkshire in two shii^s, of 
600 tons, or 12,000?.; Bristol in one ship, of 100 tons ; Lancashire in one ship, of 400 tons. 
John Hampden refused to pay the tax, and was tried in the Exchequer in 1636. Ship-money 
was included in a redress of grievances in 1641. The five judges, who had given an opinion 
'"" were imprisoned. Hampden received a wound in a skirmish with prince 



in its favoiu'. 

Rupert, and died June 24, 1643. 

SHIPPING, British. Shipping Avas first registered in the river Thames in 1786 ; and 
throughout the empire in 1787. In the middle of the i8th ccnturv, the shipping of England 
was but half a million of tons— less than London now. In 1830, the number of ships in the 
British empire was 22,785. See Navy and Navigation Acts. 

u u 2 



SHI 



6G0 



SHO 



SHIPPING, British, conlinued. 

NUMBER OF VESSELS llEOISTERED IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE ON JAN. I, 184O. 



Country. Vessels. 

England 15,830 

Scotland 3,318 

Ireland 1,889 

Guernsey, Jersey, and Man . . . 633 

British Plantations .... 6,075 



Total 



27.74s 




Seamen. 

114.593 
25,909 
11,288 

4.473 
35,020 



3,068,433 



181,283 



The following are the numbers of the llegistered Sailing and Steam Vessels (exclusive of 
Eiver Steamers) of the United Kingdom, engaged in the home and foreign trade : — 



1849. 


1856. 


1861. 




Vessels. 


Tonnage. 


Men 
employed. 


Vessels. 


Tonnage. 


Men 
employed. 


Vessels.* 


Tonnage. 


Sailing , . . 
Steamers 

Total . . . 


17,807 
414 


2,988,021 144,165 
108,321 8,446 


18,419 
851 


3,825,022 
33i.°55 


151,080 
22,838 


19,288 
997 


3.918,5" 
441,184 


18,221 


3,096,342 


152,611 


19,270 


4,156,077 


173.918 


20,285 


4.359.695 



Men employed — .sailing vessels, 144,949 ! steamers, 27,008 ; total, 171,957. 



SHIPWEECKS. See Wrecks. 



SHIRES. See Counties. 



SHIRTS are said to have been first generally worn in the west of Europe early in the 8th 
century. Bu Frcsnoy. Woollen shirts were commonly worn in England until about 1253, 
when linen, but of a coarse kind (fine coming at this period from abroad), was fii'st manu- 
factured in England by Flemish artisans. Storo. 

SHOEBURYNESS (Essex). Some ground here, purchased in 1842 and 1855, and by 
an act of parliament in 1862, was set apart as "ranges for the use and jjractice of 
artillery." See Cannon, note. Experiments with Mr. Whitworth's projectiles on Nov. 12, 
1862, showed their great improvement in form and material. Shells were sent through 
5.5 inch plate and the wood-work behind it. It was objected, that they might not do this 
with ships in motion. 

SHOEBLACK BRIGADES (Blue, Red, and Yellow) were established at various times, 
especially in 1851, by the Ragged School Union {which see), founded 1844. In 1855, 108 
boys had cleaned 544,800 pairs of boots and shoes, and thus earned 2270^. ; of wliich 1235/'. 
had been paid to the boys, 527Z. to their bank, and 516/. to the society. The brigades earned 
,4548;. in 1859. 

SHOES, among the Jews were made of leatlier, linen, rush, or wood. Moons were worn 
as ornaments in their shoes by the Jewish women. Isaiah iii. 18. Pythagoras would have 
his disciples wear shoes made of the bark of trees ; probably, that they might not wear what 
were made of the skins of animals, as they refrained from the use of everything that had life. 
The Romans wore an ivory crescent on their slices ; and Caligula enriched his with i^recious 
stones. In England, about 1462, the people wore the beaks or points of their shoes so long, 
that they encumbered themselves in walking, and were forced to tie them up to their knees ; 
tlie fine gentlemen fastened theirs witli chains of silver or silver gilt, and others with laces. 
This was prohibited, on the forfeiture of 20s. and on pain of being cursed by the clergy, 
7 Edw. IV. 1467. See Dress. Shoes, as at present worn, were introduced about 1633. 
The buckle was not used till 1668. Stov'; Mortimer. The buckle-makers petitioned against 
the use of shoe-strings in 1791. 

SHOP-TAX. The act by which a tax was levied upon retail shops was passed in 1785 ; 
but it caused so great a commotion, particularly in London, that it was deemed expedient to 
repeal it in 1789. The statute whereby shoplifting was made a felony, without benefit of 
clergy, was passed 10& 11 Will. III. 1699. This statute has been sometime repealed. 



SHO 661 SIB 

SHORE, JANE, the mistress of Edward IV. and afterwards of lord Hastings. She did 
public ])enance in 1483, and was afterwards confined in Ludgate ; but upon the petition of 
Thomas Hymore, who agreed to marry her, king Richard III., in 1484, restored her to 
liberty ; and sir Thomas Moore mentions having seen her, which contradicts the story of 
her having perished by hunger. Harleian MSS. 

SHORT-HAND. See Stenography. 

" SHORT-LIVED " ADJIINISTRATION-that of William Pulteney, earl of Bath, lord 
Carlisle, lord Winchilsea, and lord Granville, existed from Feb. 10 to Feb. 12, 1746. 

SHOT. In early times various missiles were shot from cannon. Bolts are mentioned in 
1413 ; and in 1418 Henry V. ordered his clerk of the ordnance to get 7000 stones made at 
the (piiirries at Maidstone. Since then chain, grape, and canister shot have been invented, 
as well as shells ; all of which are described in Scoffern's work on "Projectile Weapons of 
War, and Explosive Compounds," 1858. See Bombs and Cannon. 

SHREWSBURY ADMINISTRATION. Charles, duke of Shrewsbury, was made lord' 
treasurer, July 30, 1714, two days before the death of queen Anne ; his patent was revoked 
soon after the accession of George I., Oct. 13 following, when the earl of Halifax became first 
lord of the treasury. See Halifax. The office of lord treasurer has been executed by com- 
missioners ever since. 

SHREWSBURY (Shropshire), arose on the ruin of the Roman town Uriconium {see 
Wroxctcr), and became one of the chief cities of the kingdom, having a mint till the reign of 
Henry III. Here Richard II. held a parliament in 1397. On July 21 or 23, 1403, was 
fought the sanguinary battle of Shrewsbury between the army of Henry IV. and that of 
the nobles, led by Percy (surnamed Hotspur), sou of the earl of Northumberland, who had 
conspired to dethrone Henry. Henry was seen in the thickest of the fight, with his son, 
afterwards Henry V. The death of Hotspur by an unknown hand gave the victory to the. 
king. Hume. Shrewsbury grammar school was founded by Edward VI. in 1553, and 
endowed by Elizabeth. 

SHROPSHIRE, Battle of, in which the Britons were completely subjugated, and 
Caractacus, the renowned king of the Silures, became, through the treachery of the queen of 
the Brigantes, a prisoner to the Romans, 50.* 

SHROVE TUESDAY, the day before Ash -Wednesday, the first day of the Lent Fast. 
See Carnival. 

SIAM,+ a kingdom in India, bordering on the Burmese empire. Siam was re-discovered 
by the Portuguese in 151 1, and a trade established, in which the Dutch joined about 1604. 
A British ship arrived about 1613. In 1683, a Cephalonian Greek, Constantiue Phaulcon, 
became foreign minister of Siam, and opened a communication with France ; Louis XIV. 
sent an embassy in 1685 with a view of converting the king, without effect. After several 
inefTuctual attempts, sir John Bowring succeeded in obtaining a treaty of friendship and 
commerce between England and Siam, which was signed April 30, 1855, and ratified April 5, 
1856 ; and one with France followed in August. Two ambassadors from Siam arrived in 
Oct. 1857, and had an audience with the queen ; they brought with them magnificent 
presents, which they delivered crawling, on Nov. 16. They were at Paris in June, 1861. 

SIBERIA (N. Asia). In 1580 the conquest was begun by the Cossacks under Jermak 
Timofejew. In 1710 Peter the Great began to send prisoners thither. 

SIBYLS, Sibyllse were women believed to be inspired, who flourished in diflferent parts 
of the world. Plato speaks of one, others of two, Pliny of three, iElian of four, and Varro 
of ten. An Erythrean sibyl is said to have offered to Tarquin II. nine books containing the 
Roman destinies, demanding for them 300 pieces of gold. He denied her ; whereupon the 

* It is asserted that while Caractacns was being led through Rome, his ej'es were dazzled by the 
splendours that surrounded him. " Alas ! " he cried, "how is it possible that a people possessed of such 
magnificence at home, coiild envy me an humble cottage in Britain ? " The emperor was affected with the 
British hero's misfortunes, and won by his address. He ordered him to be unchained upon the spot, and 
3ct at liberty wirh the rest of the captives. 

t SiAMKSK Twins. Two persons born abo\it 1811, enjoying all the faculties and powers usually 
possessed by separate and distinct individuals, although united together by a short cartilaginous band at 
the pit of the stomich. They are named Chang and Eng, and were first discovered on the banks of the 
Siam river by an American, Mr. Robert Hunter, by whom they were taken to New York, where they were 
jxhibited. Captain Coffin brought them to England. Aftor having been exhibited for several years in 
Britain, they went to America, where they settled on a farm, and married sisters. In 1865 they were said 
;o be living in North Carolina in declining health. 



SIC 



6G2 



SIC 



sibyl threw three of them into the fire, and asked the same price for the other six, which 
being still denied, she burnt three more, and again demanded the same sum for those that 
remained ; when Tarquin conferring with the pontiffs was advised to buy them. Two 
magistrates were created to consult them on all occasions, 531 B.C. 

SIC! LI AN VESPERS, the term given to the massacre of the French in Sicily, com- 
menced at Palermo, March 30, 1282. The French had become hateful to tlie Sicilians, and 
a conspiracy against Charles of Anjou was already ripe, when the following occurrence led 
to its development and accomplishment. On Easter Monday, the chief conspirators had 
assembled at Palermo ; and while the French were engaged in festivities, a Sicilian bride 
happened to pass by with her train. She was observed by one Drochet, a Frenchman, who 
began to use her rudely, under pretence of searching for arms. A young Sicilian, exaspe- 
rated at this affront, stabbed him with his own sword ; and a tumult ensuing, 200 French 
were instantly murdered. The enraged populace now ran through the city, crying out, 
" Let the French die !" and, without distinction of rank, age, or sex, slaughtered all of that 
nation they could find, to the number of 8000. Even the churches proved no sanctuary, 
and the massacre became general throughout the island. 

SICILY (anciently Trincicria, three-cornered). The early inhabitants were the Sicani, a 
people of Spain, and Etruscans, who came from Italy about 1294 B.C. A second colony, 
under Siculus, arrived eighty years before the destruction of Troy, 12S4 B.C. The 
Phcenicians and Greeks settled some colonies here (735-582). It is supjiosed that Sicily was 
separated from Italy by an earthquake, and that the straits of the Charybdis were thus 
formed. Its government has frequently been united with and separated from that of Naples 
{which sec) ; the two now form part of the kingdom of Italy. Population of Sicily in 1856, 
2,231,020. 



Arrival of Ulysses. Homer. . . . B.C. 11 86 
Syracuse founded Eusehius . . about 732 

Gela founded. Thvcydides . . . 680 or 713 

Ao-rigentum founded 582 

Phalaris, tyrant of Agrigentum, put to death. 
See Brazen Bull ....... 549 

Law of Petalism instituted .... 460 

Athenian expedition fiiils 413 

War with Carthage ...... 409 

Dionysius becomes master of Syracuse, makes 

peace with the Carthaginians and reigns . 406-367 
Dionysius II. sells Plato for a slave, who is 
r.ansomed by his friends ..... 360 

Piunysius expelled by Tinioleon . . . . 343 

Who governs well : and dies .... 337 

Agathocles usurps sovereign power at Syracuse, 
317 ; defeated at Himera by the Carthaginians, 

310 ; poisoned 289 

Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, invades Sicily ; expels 
the Carthaginians from most of their settle- 
ments, but returns to Italy . . . 278-277 

The Romans enter Sicily 264 

Agrigentum taken by the Romans . .B.C. 262 
I'alermo be-sieged by the Romans . . . . 254 
Archimedes flourishes . . . .about 236 
Ilioro II. defeated by the Romans, 263 ; 

becomes their ally, and reigns till . . . 216 
The Romans take Syracuse, and make all Sicily 

a province; Archimedes .slain . . . 212 

The Carthaginians lose half their possessions, 

241 ; all the remainder „ 

The Servile wars . . . 135, 134, and 132 

Tyrannical governn\ent of Verres (for which he 

was accused by Cicero) 73-71 

Sicily held by Sextus Pompeius, son of the 
great Pompey 42-36 

Invaded by the Vandals, a.d. 440 ; bj' the 
Goths, 493 ; taken for the Greek emperors by 
Uelisarius a.d. 535 

Conquered by the Saracens .... 832 

The Greeks and Arabs driven out by a Norman 
lirinco, Roger I. son of Tancred, 1058 : who 
takes the title of count of Sicily . 1061-1090 

Roger II. s.m of the .above-named, unites Sicily 
with Naples, and is crowned king of the Two 
Sicilies ........ 1131 



Charles of Anjou, bi-other of St. Ijouis, king of 
France, conquers Naples and Sicily, deposes 
the Norman princes, and makes himself king, 1266 

The French becoming hated by the Sicilians, 
a general massacre of the invaders takes 
place. See Sicilian Vespers . . . . 1282 

Sicily is seized by a fleet sent by the kings of 
Aragon ; but Najjles remains to the house of 
Anjou ,, 

Alphonso, king of Aragon, takes possession of 
Naples 1435 

The kingdom of Naples and Sicily united to the 
Sp.anish monarchy under Ferdinand the 
Catholic ........ 1 501 

Victor, duke of Savoy, made king of Sicily, by 
the treaty of Utrecht 1713 

Which he gives up to the emperor Charles VI., 
and becomes king of Sardinia .... 1720 

Charles, son of the king of Spain, becomes king 
of the Two Sicilies 1735 

The throne of Spain, becoming vacant, Charles, 
who is heir, vacates the thi'one of the Two 
Sicilies in favour of his third son Ferdinand, 
agreeably to treaty 1759 

Dreadfid earthquake at Messina, in Sicily, 
which destroys 40,000 persons . . . . 1783 

The French conquer Naples {tohicU see) ; Ferdi- 
nand IV. retires to Sicily .... 1806 

Political disturbances iSio 

New constitution granted, under British 
auspices 1812 

The French expelled from Naples ; kingdom of 
The Two Sicilies re-establi.shed ; Ferdinand 
returns to Naples 1815 

He abolishes the new constitution . . , ,, 

Revolution at Palermo suppressed . . . 1820 

The great towns in Sicily rise and demand the 
constitution ; a provisional government pro- 
claimed . . . . . . J.an. 12, 184S 

The king nominates his brother, the count of 
Aquila, viceroy, Jan. 17 ; promises a new 
constitution Jan. 29, ,, 

The Sicilian parliament decrees the exclusion 
of the Bourbon family, April 13 ; and invites 
the duke of Genoa to the throne . July n, ,, 

Messina bombarded and taken by the Ne.apo- 
litans Sept. 7, ,, 



SIC 



663 



(SIE 



SICILY, continued. 

Catania taken by assault, April 8 ; Syracuse 
surrenders, April 23 ; and Palermo . May 15, 

Insurrections suppressed at PalernAi, Messina, 
and Catania, April 4 et scq. ; the rebels retire 
into the interior . . . April 21 et seq. 

Garibaldi and his followers (2,200 men) embark 
at Genoa, May 5 ; and land at Marsala, 
Maj' 1 1 ; he abandons his ships ; and assumes 
the dictatorship in the name of the king of 
Sardinia May 14, 

lie defeats the royal troops at Calatafimi, 
May 15 ; storms Palermo, May 27; which is 
bombarded by the royal fleet. May 28 ; an 
armistice agreed to . . . May 31, 

A provisional government formed at Palermo, 
June 3 ; which is evacuated by the Neapoli- 
tans ....... June 6, 

Giiribaldi defeats the Neapolitans at Melazzo, 
July 20, 21, 

Convention signed, by which the Neapolitans 
agree to evacuate Sicily (retaining the citadel 
of Messina) ..... July 30, 



The Sicilian constitution proclaimed . Aug. 3, i860 

Garibaldi embarks for Calabria : see Naples. 

Aug. 19, „ 

Professor Saffi (late of Oxford), a short time 
dictator Sept. „ 

The Sicilians by universal suffrage vote for 
annexation to Sardinia (432,054 against 667), 

Oct. 21, „ 

Victor-Emmanuel visits Sicily . Dec. i. ,, 

Citadel of Messina blockaded, Feb. 28 ; sur- 
renders to general Cialdini . . March 13, 1861 

King Victor-Emmanuel warmly received at 
Messina May, 1862 

Imprudent speeches of Garibaldi at Marsala, 
July iQ ; he enters Catania, and establishes 
a provisional government, Aug. 19 ; embarks 
for Italy Aug. 24, ,, 

Sicily placed under blockade ; removed in 
Sept. ; trajiquU Oct. „ 

(See Italif, 1862.) 



SICYON, au ancient Grecian kingdom in the Peloponnesus, founded, it is said, about 
20S0 B.C. In 252 it became a republic and joined the Achsean league formed by Aratus. It 
was the country of the sculptors Polycletes (436) and Lysippus (238 b.c). 

SI DON (Syria), a city of Phoenicia, to the north of Tyre. It was conquered by Cyrus 
4ibout 537 B.C.; and surrendered to Alexander, 332 B.C. ^&q Phoenicia. The town was taken 
I'rom the pacha of Egypt by the troops of the sultan and of his allies, assisted by some ships 
of the British squadron, under admiral the lion, sir Robert Stopford and commodore Charles 
Napier, Sept. 27, 1840. See Syria and Turkey. 

SIEGES, Memorable. Azoth, which was besieged by Psammetichus the Powerful, held 
out for nineteen years. Usher. It held out for twenty-nine years. Herodotus. This was 
the longest siege recorded iu the annals of antiquity. Tlie siege of Troy was the most cele- 
brated, and occupied ten years, 11 84 B.C. The following are the most memorable sieges 
since the 12th century; for details see separate articles. 



Acre, 1 192, 1799, 1832, 1840. 

Algesiras, 1341. 

Alsjiers, 1681 : Borah vessels first used 

by a French engineer named Re- 

nau, 1816. 
Alkmaer, 1573. 
Almeida, Aug. 27, 1810. 
Amiens, 1597. 
Ancona, 1174, 1799, i860. 
Antwerp, 1576, 1583, 1585, 1746, 

1832. 
Arras, 1640. 
Azoff, 1736. 
Badajoz, March 11, 1811 ; April 6, 

1812. 
Bagdad, 1258. 
Barcelona, 1697, 1714. 
Belgrade, 1439, 1456, 1521, 16S8, 

1717. i73<5. 1789- 
Belle-Isle, 1761. 

Bergen-op-Zoom, 1622, 1747, 1814. 
Berwick, 1333. 
Bethune, 1710. 
Bois le-l)uc, 1603, 1794. 
Bologna, 1512, 1796, 1799- 
Bommel : the invention of the coi'crt- 

woy, 1794. 
Bonn. 1672, 1689, 1703. 
Bouchain, 171 1. 
Boulogne, 1544. 
Breda, 1625. 

Brescia, 1238, 1512, 1849. 
Broslau, 1807. 
Bri.sac. 1638, 1704. 
Brussels, 1695, 1746. 
Bom.arsund, 1854. 
Buda, 1541, i5S6. 



Burgos, 1 81 2, 1813. 

Cadiz, 1812. 

Calais, 1347 (British historians affirm 
that cannon were used at C'ressy, 
1346, and here in 1347. First 
used here in 1388. Rymer's 

FCED.), 1558, 1596. 

Calvi, 1794. 

Candia : the larriest cannon then 

known in Europe, used here by the 

Turks, 1667. 
Cathagena, 1706-7, 1740. 
Chains, 1199. 
Charleroi, 1693. 
Charleston, U.S., 1864-5. 
Chartres, 1568. 
Cherbourg, 1758. 
Ciudad Rodrigo, 1810, 1812. 
Colchester, 1648. 
Comorn, 1849. 

Compihgne {Joan of Arc), 1430. 
Cond^, 1676, 1793, 1794. 
Coni, 1691, 1744. 
Constantinople, 1453. 
Copenhagen, 1658, i8oi, 1807. 
Corfu, 1716. 
Courtray, 1646. 
Cracow, 1702. 
Cremona, 1702. 

Dantzic, 1734, 1793, 1807, 1813, 1814. 
Delhi, 1857. 
Douay, 1710. 
Dresden, 1756, 1813. 
Drogheda. 1649. 
Dublin, 1500. 
Dunkirk, 1646, 1793. 
Flushing, Aug. 15, 1809. 



Frederickshald: Charles XII. lilled, 

1718. 
Gaeta, 1435, 1734, 1860-1. 
Genoa, 1747, 1800. 
Gerona, 1809. 
Ghent, 1708. 

Gibraltar, 1704, 1779, 1782-3. 
Gliitz, 1742, 1807. 
Gottingen, 1760. 
Graves, 1674. 
Grenada, 1491, 1492. 
Groningen, 1594. 
Haerlem, 1572, 1573. 
Harfleur, 1415. 
Heidelberg, 1688. 
Herat, 1838. 
Ismjiil, 1790. 
Kars, 1855. 
Kehl, 1733, 1796. 
Landau, 1702 et seq., 1792. 
Landrecy, 1712, 1794. 
Laon, 988, 991. 
Leipsic, 1757 et seq., 1813. 
Lerida, 1647, 1707, 1810. 
Leyden, 1574. 
Liege, 140S, 1688, 1702. 
Lille, 1708, 1792. 
Limerick, 1651, i6gi. 
LondondeiTy, 1689. 
Louisbourg, 1758. 
Luxemburg, 1795. 
Lyons, 1793. 
Maestricht, 1579, 1673 • Vauban 

first came into notice; 1676, 1748. 
Magdeburg, 1631, 1806. 
Malaga, 1487. 
Malta, 15O5, 1798, iSoo. 



SIE 



664 



SIL 



SIEGES, continued. 

Mantua, 1797, 1799. 

Marseilles, 1524. 

Meniii, 1706. 

Mentz, 1689, 1793. 

Messina, 1282, 1719, 1848, 1861. 

Metz, 1552-3. 

Mons, 1691, 1709, 1792. 

Montargis, 1426. 

Montauban, 1621. 

Montevideo, Jan. 1807. 

Mothe : the French, taught by a Mr. 

Muller, frst practised the art oj 

throwivg shells, 1634. 
Nanaur, 1692, 1746, 1794. 
Naples, 1435, 1504, 1557, 1792,1799, 

1806. 
Nice, 1706. 
Nieuport, 1600. 
Olivenza, iSoi, i8ii. 
Olmutz, 1758. 
Orleans, 1428, 1563. 
Ostend, 1601, 1798. 
Oudenarde, 1706. 
Padua, 1509. 
Pampeluna, 1813. 
Paris, 806, 1420, 1594. 
Parma, 1248. 
Pavia, 1524, 1655. 
Perpignan, 1542, 1642. 
PhiUpsburg, 1644, 1676, 1688, jh-st 



experiment of firivg artillery d-ri- 

cochet, 1734, 1799. 
Platfea, 427 b.c. 
Pondicherry, 1748, 1793. 
Prague, 1741— 1744. 
Que.snoy, 1793, 1794. 
Rheirus, 1359. , 

Rhodes, 1521. 
Richmond, U.S., 1864-5. 
Riga, 1700, 1710. 
Rochelle, 1573, 1627. 
Rome, 1527, 1798, 1849. 
Romorentin : artillery frst used in 

sieges. Voltaire, 1356. 
Ronen, 1419, 1449, 1591. 
Roxburgh, 1460. 
St. Sebastian, 1813. 
Saragossa, 1710, 1808, 1809; the 

two last dreadful. 
Sebastopol, 1854-5. 
Schweidnitz : fint erperiment to 

reduce a fortress by springing 

globes of compression, 1757 — 1762. 
Scio (see Greece), 1822.5 
Seringapatam, 1799. 
Sestos, 478 B.C. 
Seville, 1247-8. 
Silistria, 1854. 
Smolensko, 1632, 1812. 
Stralsund ; the method of throwing 



red-hot halls first practised with 

certainty, 1715. 
Tarragona, 181 1. 
Temeswar, 17 16. 
Thionville, 1792. 
Thorn, 1703. 
Tortosa, 181 1. 
Toulon, 1707, 1793. 
Toulouse, 12 1 7. 
Touruay, 1340, :5i3, 1583, 1667, 

1709 (this was the best deftnce ever 

drawn from counttr mines), 1792. 
Treves, 1635, 1673, 1675. 
Tunis, 1270, 1535. 
Turin, 1640, 1706. 
Valencia, 1705, 1707, 1712. 
Valenciennes, 1677, 1793, 1794- 
Vannes, 1342. 
Venloo, 1702. 
Verdun, 1792. 
Vicksburg, U.S., 1863. 
Vienna, 1529, 1683. 
Wakefield, 1460. 
Warsiw, 1831. 
Xativa, 1246. 
Xeres, 1262. 
Ypres, 1648. 
Zurich, 1544. 
Zutphen, 1586. 



SIERRA LEONE (W. Africa), discovered in 1460. In 1786, London swarmed witli free 
negroes living in idleness and want ; and 400 of them, with sixty whites, mostly women of 
bad character and in ill-health, were sent out to Sierra Leone, at the charge of government 
to form a settlement, Dec. 9, 1786. The settlement was attacked by the French, Sept. 1794; 
by the natives, Feb. 1802. Sir Charles Macarthy, the governor of the colony, murdered by 
the Ashantee chief, Jan. 21, 1824.— 16 & 17 Vict. c. 86, relates to the government, &c., of 
this colony. It is now a bishopric. See Ashantces. 

SIGNALS are alluded to by Polybius. Elizabeth had instructions drawn up for the 
admiral and general of the expedition to Cadiz, to be announced to the fleet in a certain 
latitude : this is said to have been the first set of signals given to the commanders of the 
English fleet. A system for the navy was invented bj' the duke of York, afterwards 
James II. 1665. Guthrie. See Fog-signals. 

SIGNETS. See Seals. 

SIGN MANUAL, ROYAL, a stamp employed when the sovereign was so ill as to be 
unable to write : in the case of Henry VIII. 1547 ; James I. 1628 ; and George IV., May 29, 
1830. Rosse. 

SIKHS, a peox^le of N. India, invaded the Mogul's empire, 1703-8. See Punjab and 
India, 1849. 

SILESIA, formerly a province of Poland, was invaded by John of Bohemia, 1325, and 
ceded to him, 1355. It was conquered and lost several times during the seven years' war by 
Frederick of Prussia, but was retained by him at the peace in 1763. 

SILICIUM (from siJex, flint), a metal, next to oxygen, the most abundant substance in 
the earth, as it enters into tlie constitution of many earths, metallic oxides, and a great 
number of minerals. The mode of procuring pure siliciuni was discovered by Berzelius in 
1823. Gmelin. See Water-glass and Ransomes Stone. 

SILISTRIA, a strong military town in Bulgaria, European Turkey. It was taken by the 
Russians, Sept. 26, 1829, after nine months' siege, and held some years by them as a pledge 
for the payment of a large sum by the Porte ; but was eventually returned. In 1854, it was 
again besieged by the Russians, 30,000 strong, under prince Paskiewitch, and many assaults 
were made. The Russian general was compelled to return in consequence of a dangerous 
contusion. On June 2, Mussa Pacha, the brave and skilful commander of the garrison, was 
killed. On June 9, the Russians stormed two forts, which were retaken. A grand assault 
took place on June 13, under prince Gortschakoff and general Schilders, which was 
vigorously repelled. On the 15th, the garrison assumed the ott'ensive, crossed the river, 
defeated the Russians, and destroyed the siege works. The siege was thus raised, and the 



SIL 665 SIM 

Russians commenced their retreat, as Omar Pacha was drawing near. The garrison was ably 
assisted by two British officers, captain Butler and lieutenant Nasniyth, the former of whom, 
after being wounded, died of exhaustion. To them, in fact, the successful defence is 
attributed. They were highly praised by Omar Pacha and lord Hardinge, and lieutenant 
Nasmyth was made a major. 

SILK. Wrought silk was brought from Persia to Greece, 325 B.C. Known at Rome in 
Tiberius's time, when a law passed in the senate prohibiting the use of plate of massy gold, 
and also foi'bidding men to debase tliemselves by wearing silk, fit only for women. Helio- 
gabalus first wore a garment of silk, a.d. 220. Silk was at first of the same value with gold, 
weight for weight, and was thought Lo grow in the same manner as cotton on trees. Silk- 
worms were brought from India to Europe in the 6th century. Charlemagne sent Off'a, king^ 
of Mercia, a present of two silken vests, 780. The manufacture was encouraged by Roger, 
king of Sicily, at Palermo, 1146, when the Sicilians not only bred the silk-worms, but spun 
and wove the silk. The manufacture spread into Italy and Spain, and also into the 
south of France, a little before the reign of Francis I. about 15 10; and Henry IV. pro- 
pagated mulberry-trees and silk -worms throughout the kingdom, aliont 1600. In England, 
silk mantles were worn by some noblemen's ladies at a ball at Kenilworth castle, 1286. 
Silk was worn by the English clergy in 1534. Manufactured in England in 1604; and 
broad silk wove from raw silk in 1620. Brouglit to perfection by the French refugees in 
London at Spitalfields. 16S8. A silk throwing-mill was made in England, and fixed up at 
Derby, by sir Thomas Lombe, merchant of London, modelled from the original mill then in 
the king of Sardinia's dominions, about 17 14. Six new species of silk-worm were rearing in 
France, 1861.* 

SI LURES, a British tribe, occupying the counties of Monmouth and Hereford, was 
subdued by the Roman general Ostorius Scapula, 50. The chief, Caractacus, was taken to 
Rome. — From this tribe is derived the geological term " Silurian strata, " among the lowest 
of the palaeozoic or primary series, from their occurrence in the above mentioned counties. 
Murchison's ' ' Sihiria." 

SILVER exists in most parts of the world, and is found mixed with other ores in v^arious 
mines in Great Britain. The silver mines of South America are far the richest. A mine 
was discovered in the district of La Paz in 1660, which was so rich that tlie silver of it was 
often cut out with a chisel. In 1749, one mass of silver weighing 370 lbs. was sent to Spain. 
From a mine in Norway, a piece of silver was dug, and sent to the Royal Museum at 
Copenhagen, weighing 560 lbs. and worth 1680?. In England silver-plate and vessels were 
first used by AViifrid, a Northumbrian bishop, a lofty and ambitious man, 709. Tyrrell. 
Silver knives, spoons, and cups, were great luxuries in 1300. See Mirrors. In 1855, 
561,906 oz. and in 1857, 532,866 oz. were obtained from mines in Britain. Pattinson's 
process for obtaining silver from lead ore was introduced in 1829. 

SILVER COIN. Silver was first coined by the Lydians, some say at ^gina, in Greece, 
783 ; others, by Pheidon of Argos, 869 n.c. At Rome it was first coined by Fabius Pictor, 
269 B.C. Used in Britain 25 B.C. The Saxons coined silver pennies which were 22^ grains 
weight. In 1302, the penny was yet the largest silver coin in England. See Skillings, &c. 
New silver coinage, 1816. From 18 16 to 1840, inclusive, were coined at our mint in 
London, 11,108,265^. 15.S. in silver, being a yearly average of 444,330^. The total amount 
of the scniorage received on this coin was 616, 747^. 8s. 2d. Pari. Rot. From 1837 to 1847, 
the amount of silver coined was 2,440, 614?. See Coin of England. 

SIMONASAKI. See Japan, 1864. 

SIMONIANS, a sect named after the founder, Simon Magus, the first heretic, about 41. 
A sect of social reformers called St. Simoni.a.ns sprang up in France in 1819, and attracted 
considerable attention ; the doctrines were advocated in England, particularly by Dr. Prati, 
who lectured upon them in London, Jan. 24, 1834. St. Simon died in 1825, and his 
follower, Pere Enfantin, died Sept. i, 1864. 

SIMPLON, a mountain road, leading from Switzerland into Italy, constructed by 
Napoleon in 1801-7. It winds up passes, crosses cataracts, and passes by galleries through 
solid rock, and has eight principal bridges. The number of workmen employed at one time 
varied from 30,000 to 40,000. 

• In 1858, M. Guerin-M£neville introduced into France a Chinese worm termed the Cynthia Bombyx, 
•which feeds on the AHantlmx ylraduhsa, s. htirdy tree of the oak kind. The Cynthia yields a silk-like sub- 
stance termed Ailanline, which promises to become valuable. It was brought to Turin by Fantoni in 1856. 



SIN 606 SLA 

SIISrGAPORE. See Straits Settlements. SINGING. See Music and Hymns. 

SINKING FUND. First projected by sir Robert Waliiole to redeem the debt to the 
bank of England ; act passed in 1716. The act establishing the sinking fund of Mr. Pitt 
Avas passed in March, 1786. A then estimated suriilus of 900,000/. in the revenue was 
augmented by new taxes to make up the sum of i,ooo,oooZ. which was to be invariably 
applied to the reduction of the national debt. The fallacy of the scheme was shown by 
Dr. Hamilton in 1813. In July, 1S28, the sinking fund was limited to the actual surplus 
of revenue. 

SINOPE (Sinonb), an ancient sea-port of Asia Minor, formerly capital of the kingdom of 
Pontus, said to have been the birth-place of Diogenes, the cynic philosopher. On Nov. 30, 
1853, a Turkish ileet of seven frigates, three corvettes, and two smaller vessels, was attacked 
by a Russian fleet of six sail of the line, two sailing vessels, and three steamers, under 
admiral NachimofT, and totally destroyed, except one vessel, which conveyed the tidings to 
Constantinople. Four thousand lives were lost by fire or drowning, and Osman Pacha, the 
Turkish admiral, died at Sebastopol of his wounds. In consequence of this event, the Anglo- 
French fleet entered the Black Sea, Jan. 3, 1854. 

SIGN COLLEGE and Hospital, situated on the site of a nunnery, which, having fallen 
to decay was purchased by William Elsynge, a citizen and mercer, and converted into a 
college and hospital, called from his name Elsynge Spital. In 1340 he changed it to an 
Austin priory, which was afterwards granted by Henry VIII. to sir John Williams, master 
of the jewel-office, who, with sir Roland Hayward, inhabited it till its destruction by fire. 
In 1623, Dr. Thomas White having bequeatiied 3000?. towards purchasing and building a 
college and alms-house on the ancient site, his executors erected the present college. It is 
held by two charters of incorporation, 6 Chas. I. 1630 and 16 Chas. II. 1664. It contains a 
valuable library (easily accessible by the public) maintained by a treasury grant. 

SIRENE, an instrument for determining the velocity of aerial vibrations corresponding 
to the diff'erent pitches of musical sounds, was invented by Baron Cagniard de la Tour of 
Paris in 1819. 

SIX ARTICLES. ii&& Articles. 

SIX CLERKS, officers of the court of chancery, who were anciently clcrici or clergy. 
They were to conform to the laws of celibacy, and forfeit their places if they married ; but 
when the constitution of the court began to alter, a law was made to permit them to marry ; 
statute 24 & 25 Hen. VIII. 1533. The six clerks continued for many ages officers of the 
chancery court, and held their offices in Chancery-lane, London, where proceedings by bill 
and answer were transacted and filed, and certain patents issued. Lcoiv Diet. The Six Clerks 
were discontinued by 5 & 6 Vict. c. 103, 1841. 

SKINS. The raw skins of cattle were nsually suspended on stakes and made use of 
instead of kettles to boil meat, in the north of England, and in Scotland, i Edw. III. 1327. 
Lcland. In 1857, 4,489,163 skins of oxen, lambs, kid, &c., dressed and nndressed, were 
imjiortcd into Great Britain. 

SLAVERY has existed from the earliest ages. The traffic in men came from Chaldsea 
into Egypt, Arabia, and all over the East. In Greece, in the time of Homer, all prisoners 
of war were treated as slaves. The Lacedremonian youths, trained up in the practice of 
deceiving and butchering slaves, were from time to time let loose upon them to show their 
proficiency; and once, for amusement onlj', murdered, it is said, 3000 in one night. — 
Alexander, when he razed Thebes, sold the whole people for slaves, 335 n.c. See Helots. 
There were 400,000 slaves in Attica, 317 B.C. In Rome slaves were often chained to the 
gate of a great man's house, to give admittance to the guests invited to the feast. By one 
of the laws of the XII. Tables, creditors could seize their insolvent debtors, and keep them 
in their houses, till by their services or labour the}' had discharged the sum they owed. 
C. Pollio threw such slaves as gave him the slightest oflPence into his fish-ponds, to fatten his 
lampreys, 42 e.g. Csecilius Isidorus left to his heir 41 16 slaves, 12 B.C. The first Janissaries 
were Ciiristian slaves, 1329.* 

* Serfs were peasants attached to, .and part of, the landed estates. The system was abolished by 
Frederic I. of Prussia in 1702 ; by Christian VII. of Denmark iu 1766, by the emperor Joseph II. in his 
hereditary states in 17S1 ; by Nicholas I. of Russia, on the imperial domaiiis in 1S42 ; and by his successor, 
Alexander II. (March 3, 1S61), throughout his empire. Slavery ceased in the Dutch "West Indies ou July 
I, 1863. 



SLA 



6G7 



SLA 



SLAVERY IN ExGLAND. Laws respcpting tlie sale of slaves were made by Alfred. The 
English iicasaiitry were so coinnionly sold for slaves in Saxon and Norman times, that 
children were sold in Bristol market like cattle for exportation. Many were sent to Ireland 
and others to Scotland. Under the Normans the vassals were termed villains (of and 
pertaining to the xilJ). They were devisable as chattels during the feudal times. 



Severe statutes were passed in the reigii of 
Richard II. 1377 and 1385 ; the rebellion of 
AVat Tyler, 1381, arose partly out of the evils 
of serfdom.* 

In 1574 queen Elizabeth ordered her bondsmen 
in the western counties to be made free at 
easy rates . . 

Serfdom was finally extinguished in 1660, when 
tenures in capite, knight's service, <fec., were 
abolished. 

In 1772 it was decided that slavery could not 
exist in England, t 



Act for the abolition of slavery throughout the 
British colonies, and for the promotion of 
industry among the manumitted slaves, and 
for compensation to the persons hitherto 
entitled to the services of such slaves by the 
grant from parhamentof 20,000,000/. sterling, 
passed Aug. 28, 1833 

Slavery terminated in the British possessions 
on Aug. I, 1834, and 770,280 slaves became 
free. 

Slavery was abolished in the East Indies, 

Aug. I, 1838 



1857 
i8s9 



SLAVERY TN LTnited States. Before the war of independence all tlie .states contained 
slaves. Lr 1783 the statement in the Massachusetts Bill of Rights, "All men are born free 
and equal," was declared in the supreme court at Boston to bar slave-liolding in that state. 
Slaves in the United States in 1790, 697,897 ; in 1810, 1,191,364 ; in 1820, 2,009,031 ; in 
1850, 3,204,313 ; in i860, 4,002,996. 

Congress passes unanimously the celebrated 
ordinance " for the government of the terri- 
tory to the N.W. of the Ohio," which con- 
tained an " unalterable " article, forbidding 
slavery or involuntarj' servitude in the said 
state, July 13, 1787 ; .after 1800, several of the 
states prayed, without effect, to be relieved 
from this prohibition. 

Louisiana purchased, which was considered by 
many as fatal to the constitution . . . 

The enormous increase in the growth of cotton 
in the Southern States (see Cotton) led to 
a corresponding increase in the demand for 
slave labour. The Missouri Compromise, dr.awn 
up by Henry Clay, by which slavery was per- 
mitted in that state, but was prohibited in all 
that part of it to the north of 36° 30' N. Ijat. 
carried ...... Feb. 

Contest between the slave-holders and their 
opponents at the annexation of Texas ; a 
similar division to that of Missouri obtained, 

Dec. 25, 

Another compromise effected ; California ad- 
mitted as a free state ; but the Fugitive Slave 
ant jiassed {which see) 



1845 



1S50 



The Missouri Compromise was abrogated by 
the admission of Nebraska and Kansas as 
slave-holding states ; civil war ensued. See 
Kansas ......... 

Dred Scot's case (see United States) 

John Brown's attempt to create a slave re- 
bellion in Virginia failed (see United States), 

Nov. 

Abraham Lincoln, the anti-slavery candidate, 
elected president of the United States, Nov. 4, 

Secession of South Carolina (see United States), 

Dec. 

Slavery abolished in the district of Colombia, 

April 16, 

President Lincoln proclaims the abolition of 

slavery in the Southern states if they have 

not returned to the Union on Jan. i, 1863, 

Sept. 22, 

Slavery was extinguished by the defeat and 
submission of the Southern states . April, 

The total abolition of slavery in the United 
States officially announced . Dec. 18, 

See United States, 1860-5. 



1865 



SLAVE TRADE. Tlie slave trade from Congou and Angola was liegun by the Portu- 
guese in 1481. The commerce in man has brutalised a tract fifteen degrees on each side of 
the equator, and forty degrees wide, or of 4,000,000 of square miles ; and men and women 
have Ijeen bred for sale to the Christian nations during'the last 250 years, and war carried on 
to make prisoners for the Christian market. The Abbe R.aynal computed (1777) that, at the 
time of his -writing, 9,000,000 of slaves had been consumed by the Europeans. The slave- 
trade is now approaching extinction. 

♦ A statute was enacted by Edward VI. th.at a runaway, or anyone who lived idly for three days, 
should be brought before two justices of the peace, and marked V with a hot iron on the breast, and 
.adjudged the slave of him who bought him for two years. He was to take the slave and give him bread, 
water, or small drink, and refuse meat, and cause him to work by beating, ch.aining, or otherwise ; and if, 
within that space, he absented himself fourteen d.ays, was to be marked on the forehead or cheek, by a 
hot iron, with an S, and be his master's slave for ever : second desertion was made felony. It was lawful 
to put a ring of iron round his neck, arm, or leg. A child might be put apprentice, and, on running away, 
become a slave to his master. 1547. 

t Determined by the judgment of the court of king's bench, at the instance of Mr. Gr.anville Sharpe. 
A poor slave named Somerset, broiight to England, was, because of his ill state, turned adrift by his 
master. By the charity of Mr. G. Sharpe, he was restored to health, when his unfeeling and avaricious 
master again claimed him. This was resisted, and a suit was the consequence, which established, by its 
result in favour of the lilack, the great point, that slavery could not exist in Great Britain, June 22, 1772. 
In 1853, John Anderson, a rimaway slave, killed Septimus Digges, a pl.anter of Missouri, who attempted 
to arrest him. .and escaped to Caii.ada. The American government claimed him as a murderer. The 
Can.adian judges deciding that the law required his surrender, Mr. Edwin J.ames, Q.C. (Jan, 15, 1861), 
obtained a writ of habeas corpus for his appearance fiefore the court of queen's bench. Anderson was, 
however, discharged on Feb. 16, following, on technical grounds. 



SLA 



668 



SMI 



tinction of the slave trade, died, aged 85, Sept. 
1846. 

Foreign Countries : — The trade was abolished by 
Austria in 1782 ; by the French convention in 
1794. 

The Allies at Vienna declared against it Feb. 1815. 

Napoleon, in the h\indred days, abolished the trade, 
March 29, 1815. 

Treaty for its repres.sion with Spain, 1817; with the 
Netherlands, May i8i8 ; with Brazil, Nov. 1826. 

Its revival was proposed in the congress of the 
United States of America, Dec. 14, 1856, and nega- 
tived by 183 votes to 58. 

In June, 1857, the French government gave permis- 
sion to M. Regis to conve}'//-ee negroes from Africa 
to Guadaloupe and Martinico, French colonies. 
This having led to abuses and consequent troubles 
(see Charles el Georges), was eventually given up in 
Jan. 1859. 

It is said that about 40,000 slaves were landed at 
Cuba in i860. 

A treaty between Great Britain and the United 
States for the abolition of the slave trade, was 
signed April 7 ; ratified May 20, 1862. 

Ths Spanish government denounce the slave trade 
as piracy, Nov. 1865. 



SLAVE TRADE, contiimcd. 

In 1768 the slaves taken from their own continent 

amounted to 104,100. In 1786 the annual number 

was about 100,000. 
In 1807 it w.is .shown by documents, produced by 

government, that since 1792 upwards of 3,500,000 

Africans had Vjcen torn from their country, and 

had either pcrislied on the passage or been sold in 

the West Indies. 
Slave Trade of England : begun by sir John 

Hawkins. His first expedition, with the object of 

procuring negroes on the coast of Africa, and 

conveying them for sale at the West Indies, took 

place in Oct. 1562. See Guinea. 
England employed 130 ships and carried off 42,000 

slaves, 1786. 
Slave-trade question debated in parliament, 17S7. 
The debate for its abolition lasted two days, April, 

1791. 
Mr. Wilberforce's motion lost by a majority of 88 to 

83, April 3, 1798. 
The question introduced under the auspices of lord 

Grenville and Mr. Fox, then ministers, March 31, 

1806. 
The trade abolished by parliament, March 25, 1807. 
Thomas Clarkson, whose whole life may be said to 

have been passed in labouring to effect the ex- 

SLIDING-SCALE. See Corn Laws. 

SLING, an ancient missive weapon. In Judges xx. 16, is mentioned the skill of the 
Benjamite slingers (about 1406 B.C.), and with a sling David .slew Goliath 1063 B.C. (i. Sam. 
xvii). Tlie natives of the Balearic isles (Majorca, Minorca, and Ivi9a) were celebrated 
slingers, and served as mercenaries in the Carthaginian and Roman armies. Slings are said 
to have been used by the Huguenots at the siege of Sancerre, in 1672, to economise their 
jjowder. 

SLUYS (Holland), near which Edward III. gained a .signal naval victory over the French. 
The English had the wind of the enemy, and the sun at their backs, and began the action, 
which was fierce and bloody, the English archers galling the French on their approach. Two 
hundred and thirty French ships were taken ; thirty thousand Frenchmen were killed, wrtli 
two of their admirals ; the lo.ss of the English was incon.siderable : June 24, 1340. 

SMALCALD (Hesse), Treaty of, entered into between the elector of Brandenburg and 
the other princes of Germany in favour of Protestantism, Dec. 31, 1530. See Protestants. 
The emperor, apprehensive that the kings of Fiance and England would join this league, 
signed the treaty at Nuremburg, in July 1532, allowing liberty of conscience. 

SMAIJj POX, Variola (the diminutive oi varus, a pimple), a highly contagious disease, 
supposed to have been introduced into Europe from the East by the Saracens. Rhazes, an 
Arabian, was the fust who accurately described it, about 900. From Europe it was carried 
to America, soon after its discovery, and raged there with great severity, destroying the 
Indians by thousands. In 1694, queen Mary of England died of small pox, as did in 171 1 
and 1 712 the emperor of Germany, dauphin and dauphiness of France and their son, in 
1730 the emperor of Russia, in 1741 the queen of Sweden, and in 1774 Louis XV. of France. 
It is stated that in the middle of the last century two millions perished b}' it in Russia. In 
London in 1723 one out of fourteen deaths was caused by small pox, and in France in 1754 
the rate was one in ten. For the attempts to alleviate this scourge, see Inoculation, 
introduced into England in 1722, and Vaccination, announced by Dr. Jenner in 1798. In 
Sept. and Oct. 1862 a great many sheep died of small pox in the West of England, till 
successful preventive measures were resorted to. 

SMITHFIELD, "WEST, in the heart of London, was once a favourite walk of the London 
citizens, outside the city walls. Sir W. Wallace was executed here, Aug. 24, 1305. On 
June 13, 1381, Wat Tyler was met by king Richard II. at this place, and was stabbed by 
Walworth the mayor. Many tournaments were also held here. In the reign of Mary, 
(1553-8), 277 persons perished by fire ; and Bartholomew Leggatt and Edward Wightraan, 
Arians, were burnt here in 1612. — ^Bartholomew fair was held here till 1853. — This place 
is mentioned as the site of a cattle-market as far back as 1150. The space devoted to this 
purpose was enlarged from about three acres to four and a half, and in 1834 to six ajid a 
quarter. The ancient regulations were called the "statutes of Smithfiuld." In one day 



SMI 669 SOA 

there were sometimes assembled 4000 beasts and 30,000 sheep. The annual amount of the 
sales was about 7,000,000/. In 1846 there were sold here 226, 132 beasts, 1,593,270 sheep 
and lambs, 26,356 calves, 33,531 pigs. There were about 160 salesmen. The contracted 
space of the market, the slaughtering places adjoining, and many other nuisances, gave 
ground to much dissatisfaction, and after parliamentary investigation, an act was passed on 
Aug. I, 1S51, appointing metropolitan market commissioners with powers to provide a new 
market, slaughtering i)laces, &c. ; and to close the market at Smithlield. Smithfield was 
used as a cattle market for the last time on June 11, 1S55 ; and the new market in Copen- 
liagen- fields was opened on June 13. See 3Ic(ropolitan Market. The act passed in 1861 by 
which a dead-meat and poultry market was ordered to be erected in Smithlield, and Newgate 
market to cease, has not yet been carried into effect, 1865.* 

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, "for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among 
men," a handsome building at Washington, U^S., was founded in 1846, by means of a legacy 
of above ioo,ooo7. bequeathed for the purpose to the United States government by James 
Smithson, illegitimate son of sir Hugh Smithson, who became duke of Northumberland in 
1766. It publishes and freely distributes scientific memoirs and reports. The library was 
burnt on Jan. 25, 1865. 

SMOKE NUISANCE. An act was passed in 1853 to abate this nuisance, proceeding 
from chimney shafts and steamers above London bridge. In 1856 another act, obtained for 
its further application to steamers below London bridge, and to potteries and glass-houses 
previously exempted, came into operation, Jan. i, 1858 ; enactments have been made for 
all the kingdom. 

SMOLENSK(^ (Russia). The French in a most sanguinary engagement here were three 
times repulsed, but ultimately succeeded in entering Smolensko, and found tlie city, which 
had been bombarded, burning and partly in ruins, Aug. 16-19, 1812. Barclay de Tolly, the 
Russian commander in chief, incurred the displeasure of the emperor Alexander because he 
retreated after the battle, and Kutusotf succeeded to the command. 

SMUGGLERS. The customs duties were instituted originally to enable the king to 
afford protection to trade against pirates ; and they afterwards became a branch of public 
revenue, but gave rise to much smuggling. The act so well known as the Smugglers' Act 
was passed in 1736. Its severity was mitigated iu 1781 and 1784. A revision of these 
statutes took place, 1826 and 1835. 

SMYRNA. See Seven Churches. 

SNEEZING. The custom of saying "God bless you" to the sneezer, originated, 
according to Strada, among the ancients, who, through an opinion of the danger attending 
it, after sneezing made a short prayer to the gods, as "Jupiter help me." Polydore Vergil 
says it took its rise at the time of the plague, a.d. 558, when the infected fell down dead 
sneezing, though seemingly in good health. 

SNUFF-TAKING took its rise in England from the captures made of vast quantities of 
snuff by sir George Rooke's expedition to Vigo in 1702. It soon became general, from which 
the revenue now draws, with tobacco, considerably more than 5,000,000/. per annum. In 
1839 there were imported 1,622,493 l^'s. of snutt", of which 196,305 lbs. were entered for home 
consutn]itiou ; the duty was 88,263/. See Tobacco. In 1858, 2,573,925 lbs. of snuff and 
cigars, iu 1S61, 2,110,429 lbs. were imported. 

SOANE MUSEUM, at No. 13, Lincoln's Inn Fields, was gradually formed by sir John 
Soane, the architect, who died in 1837, after making arrangements for its being open to the 
public. It contains Egyptian and other antiquities, valuable paintings, rare books, &c. 

SOAP was imperfectly known to the ancients. The first express mention of it occurs in 
riiny and Galen ; and the former declares it to be an invention of the Gauls, though he 
])refers the German to the Gallic soap. In remote periods clothes were cleaned by being 
rubl:)ed or stamped ujion in water. Nausicaa and her attendants. Homer tells us, washed 
theirs by treading upon them with their feet iu pits of water. Odyssey, book vi. The 
Romans used fuller's earth. Savon, the French word for soap, is ascribed to its having been 
manufactured at Sav^na, near Genoa. The manufacture of soap began in London in 1524, 
before which time it was supplied by Bristol at one penny per ])ound. The duty upon soap 
imposed in 171 1, was totally repealed in 1853, then set down b\' tlie chancellor of the 
exchequer, Mr. Gladstone, as yielding a yearly revenue of 1,126,000/. 

* The Smithfield Club, to promote improvoments in the breed of cattle, was cstabli.shcd in 1798. For 
many years the members supported a cattle show in December in Goswcll-strcot, which was i-emoved to 
Bakcr-strcet in 1840, and to the New Agricultural Hall, Liverpool-road, Islington, in 1S62. 



SOP. 



670 



SOC 



SOBRAON (N.W. India). The British army, 3S,ooo strong, under sir Hugh (afterwards 
viscount) Gough, attacked the Sikh force on the Sutlej, Feb. lo, 1846. The enemy was 
dislodged after a dreadful contest, and all tiieir batteries taken ; and in attempting the 
passage of the river by a floating bridge in their rear, the weight of the masses that crowded 
upon it caused it to" break down, and more than 13,000 Sikhs were killed, wounded, or 
drowned. The British loss was 2338 men. 

SOCIALISM was advocated in London, Jan. 24, 1834, by the celebrated Robert Owen. 
He laboured indefatigably to propagate his doctrines, and established a settlement at New 
Harmony in America in 1824. He died Nov. 17, 1858, aged 90. The French socialists, 
termed Communists, became a powerful political body in that country, and were much 
implicated in the revolution in 1848. 

SOCIAL SCIENCE. The National Association for the Promotion of Social Science 
originated in a meeting at lord Brougham's inMaj', 1857. Its object is to promote improve- 
ments in the administration of law, in education, in public health, and in social economy. 
It holds annual meetings, and publishes its proceedings. The first meeting was at Birming- 
ham, Oct. 12, 1857; 2nd at Liverpool, Oct. 11, 1858; 3rd at Bradford, Oct. 11, 1859; 4tk 
at Glasgow, Sept. 24, i860 ; 5th at Dublin, Aug. 14, 1861 ; 6th in London, June 5, 1862 ; 
7th at Edinburgh, Oct 7, 1863 ; 8th at York, Sept. 22, 1864 ; 9th at Sheffield, Oct. 3, 1865. 

SOCIAL WARS. See Alliens and Marsi. 

SOCIETIES AND Institutions, Literary AND Scientific, in Great Britain. Further 
details of many of these will be found under their respective heads. All in the list below 
are in London, except otherwise stated. An act was passed, Aug. 11, 1854, "to afford 
facilities for the establishment of institutions for the promotion of Literature and Science," 
by grants of land, &c. ; and for their regulation. The Royal and London Institutions arc 
exempted from the operation of the act. 



Eoyal Society Charter 1662 

Christian Knowledge Society .... 1698 
Society of Antiquaries . . (Charter 1751) 1717 

Society of Dilettanti 1734 

Royal Society of Edinburgh . (Ciiarter 1783) 
Society of Arts . . . (Charter 1847) 
Bath and West of England Society . 
Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society . 

Highland Society 

Royal Irish Academy . . . Charter 
Linn»an Society .... (Charter 1S02) 1788 
Newcastle Literary and Philosophical Society . 1793 
Royal Institution" . . . (Charter 1810) 1800 
Royal Horticultural Society . (Charter 1809) 1804 
Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society 

(Charter 1834) 1805 



1753 
1777 



1785 
1786 



(Charter 1826) 1807 



London Institution 
Geological Society 
Russell Institution . 

Swedenborg Society 

Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society . 

Roxburghe Club 

Institution of Civil Engineers (Charter 1828) 
Leeds Literary and Philosophical Society . 

Egyptian Society 

Cambridge Philosophical Society (Charter 1832) 
Royal Astronomical Society . (Charter 1831) 

Medico-Botanical Society 

Hull Literary and Philosophical Society . 
Yorkshire Philosophical Society . . . . 
Sheffield Literary and Philosophical Society 
Royal Society of Literature . (Charter 1826) 
Royal Asiatic Society . . (Charter 1824) 
Bannatyne Club, Edinburgh .... 

Athen«um Club 

Western Literary Institution .... 

Eastern Literary Institution 

Zoological Society 

Incorporated Law Society . (Charter 1S31) 

Mechanics' Institution, London 

Society for Diffusion of Useful Knowledge 

Ashmolean Suciety. Oxford 

Maitland Club, Glasgow 

Royal Geographical Society 

GaeUc Society 



1810 
1812 



1820 
1821 
1822 



1823 



1S24 
1825 



1826 
1827 



1830 



Roj-al United Service Institution . . . 1831 
Royal Dublin Society . . . , . . ,, 

Harveian Society ,, 

British Association ,, 

Marylebone Literary Institution . . . 1832 

Entomological Society 1833 

Statistical Society 1834 

Westminster Literary Institution . . . ,, 

Surtees Society, Durham . . . . • ,, 
Royal Institute of British Ai-chitects (Charter 

1837) ,, 

Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society . 1833 
Abbotsford Club, Edinburgh . . . 1835-7 

Numismatic Society 1S36 

Ornithological Society 1837 

Electrical Society 1837-8 

Etching Club ■. . 1838 

English Historical Society . . . .1838-56 

Royal Agricultural Society 1838 

Camden Society ,, 

Royal Botanical Society 1839 

Microscopical Society , , 

Ecclesiological Society . . . . . . ,, 

Spalding Club, Aberdeen ,, 

Royal Botanical Society of London . . . „ 

Parker Society 

Percy Society 

Irish Archieological Society, Dublin . 

London Library 

Shakespeare Society. .... 

Chemical Society 

Pharmaceutical Society .... 
Wodrow Society, Edinbvirgh . 
Philological Society .... 

jElfric Society 1843-56 

Chetham Society, Manchester .... 1843 
Si^ottiswoode Society, Edinburgh . . . . ,, 

Archasological Association ,, 

Archseological Institute ,, 

Sydenham Society ,, 

Ethnological Society „ 

Law Amendment Society ,, 

Handel Society 1844 

Syro-Egyptian Society ,, 

Ray Society ,, 



•0-55 
.0-52 



^1-7 



SOC G71 SOL 



SOCIETIES, conUniccd. 

Celtic Society, Dublin 1845-53 

Pathological Society 1846 

Sussex Archasological Society, Lewes . . „ 
Cambrian Ai-chajological Association . . . ,, 

Cavendish Society ,, 

Hakluyt Society . . . . . . ,, 

Palaionto^aphical Society 1847 

Institutcof Mechanical Engineers (Birmingham) ,, 

Institute of Actuaries 1848 

Arundel Society ,, 

British Meteorological Society . . . . 1850 



North of England Institute of Mining Engineers 1851 

Photographic Society 1852 

Philobiblon Society 1853 

Juridical Society 1855 

Genealogical Society 1S57 

National Association for Social Science . . ,, 

Horological Institute 1S5S 

Society for the Encouragement of Fine Arts . ,, 
Institution of Naval Architecture . . . i860 
Anthropological Society 1863 



SOCINIANS. Persons who accept the opiuioiis of Faustus Socinus (died 1562), and his 
nephew Ltelius (died 1604), Siennese noblemen. They hekl — i. Tliat the Eternal Father 
was the one only God, and that Jesus Christ was no otherwise God than by liis superiority 
to all other creatures ; 2. That Christ was not a mediator ; 3. That hell will endure for a 
time, after which the soul and body will be destroyed ; and 4. That it is unlawful for 
princes to make war. Hook. They established a church in Poland, and made proselytes in 
Transylvania, 1563. 

SODIUM, a remarkable metal, first obtained in 1S07 by sir Humphry Davy from soda 
(which was formerly confounded with potash, but proved to be a distinct substance by 
Duhamel in 1736). This metal, like potassium, was obtained by the agency of the electric 
battery. In consequence of Deville's improved processes, sodium is now manufactured by 
Bell Brothers, of Newcastle, at los. a pound. Common salt (chloride of sodium) is a com- 
pound of sodium and chlorine. 

SODOM AND Gomorrah (Palestine), with their inhabitants, were destroyed by fire from 
heaven, 1898 B.C., Gen. xix. 

SODOR is a village of Icolmkill. Dr. Johnson calls it "the luminary of the Caledonian 
regions, whence," ho adds, "savage clans and roving barbarians derived the benefits of 
knowledge, and the blessings of religion." The bishop's seat was at Eushin, or Castletown, 
in the Isle of Man, and in Latin is entitled Sodorensis. But when that island became 
dependent upon the kingdom of England the western islands withdrew themselves from the 
obedience of their bishop, and had a bishop of their own, whom they entitled also 
Sodorensis, but commonly bishop of the Isles. See Isles. Germanus was settled here by St. 
Patrick in 447. The bishop of Sodor and Man is not a lord of parliament. See Man. 

SOISSONS (France), capital of the Gallic Suessiones, was subdued by Julius Caesar, 
57 B.C. It was held by Syagrius, after his father ^gidius, till his defeat by Clovis, A.D. 4S6. 
Several Councils have been held at Soissons (in 744, 1092, 11 22). 

SOLAR SYSTEM, nearly as now accepted, is said to have been taught by Pythagoras of 
Samos, about 529 B.C. He placed the sun in the centre, and all the planets moving in 
elliptical orbits round it — a doctrine superseded by the Ptolemaic system {which see). The 
system of . Pythagoras, revived by Copernicus (1543), is called the Copernican system. Its 
truth was demonstrated by sir Isaac Newton in 1687. 

SOLDIERS' DAUGHTERS' HOME was established at Hampstead, near London, in 
Aug. 1857, by the surplus of the money collected by the central association in aid of the 
wives and families of soldiers in active service during the Crimean war, and opened in 1859. 

SOLEBAY, or Southwold Bay (Suffolk), where a fierce naval battle was fought between 
the fieets of England and France on one side, and the Dutch on the other, the former com- 
manded by the duke of York, afterwards James II., May 28, 1672. The English lost four 
ships, and the Dutch three ; but the enemy fled, and were pursued to their coasts. The 
earl of Sandwich was blown up, and thousands were killed and wounded. 

SOLFERINO (in Lombardy), the site of the chief struggle on the great battle of June 24, 
1859, between the allied French and Sardinian army commanded by their respective 
sovereigns, and the Austrians under general Hesse ; the emperor being present. The 
Austrians, after their defeat at Magenta, gradually retreated across the Mincio, and took up 
a position in the celebrated quadrilateral, and were expected there to await the attack. But 
the advance of Garibaldi on one side, and of prince Napoleon and the Tuscans on the other, 
induced them to recross the Jlincio and take the ofi'ensive, on June 23. The conflict began 
early on the 24th, and lasted fifteen hours. At first the Austrians had the advantage ; but 
the successful attack of the French on Cavriana and Solferino changed the fortune of the day, 
and the Austrians were after desperate encounters compelled to retreat. The French attri- 



SOL 672 SON 

bute the victory to tlie skill and bravery of their emperor and the generals M'Mahon and 
Niel ; the Austrians, to the destruction of their reserve by the rifled cannon of their adver- 
saries. The Sardinians maintained a fearful contest of fifteen hours at San Martino, it is said 
against double their number. Loss of the Austrians, 630 ofKcers, and 19,311 soldiers ; of the 
allies, 8 generals, 936 officers, and 17,305 soldiers killed and wounded. This battle closed 
the war ; preliminaries of i)eace being signed at Villa Franca, July 12. 

SOLFIDIANS (from solus, only, and Jides, Mih), a name given to the Antinomians 
(which see). 

SOLICITOR. See Attornaj. 

SOLICITOR-GENERAL, the legal officer next in rank to the attorney-general, to whom 
he is deputy. Those below with a* became attorney-general. 



1839. *Sir Thomas Wilde (afterwards lord Truro), 
Dec. 5. 

1841. *Sir William Follett (second time), Sept. 6. 

^844. *Sir Frederick Thesiger (since lord Chelms- 
ford), April 17. 

1845. *Sir Fitzroy Kelly, July 17. 

1846. *Sir John Jervis, July 4. 
„ Sir David Dundas, July 18. 

*Sir John Romilly, April 4. 



1851. Sir W. Page Wood, March 28. 

1852. *Sir Fitzroy Kelly, Feb. 

,, *Sir Richard BethoU, Dec. 

1856. Rt. Hon. James Stuart Wortley, Nov. 

1857. Sir Henry Keating, May.1 
1858 Sir Hugh M. Cairns, Feb. 26. 
1859. Sir Henry Ke.ating, June 18. 

,, *Sir William Atherton, Dec. 
Sir Roundell Palmer, .June 27. 



1850. *Sir Alex. J. E. Oookburn, Jidy II. 1863. Sir Robert Porrett Collier, Oct. 2. 

SOLOMON'S TEMPLE. See Temple. 

SOLWAY MOSS, bordering on Scotland. On Nov. 13, 1771, it swelled, owing to heavy 
rains. Upwards of 400 acres rose to such a height above the level of tlie ground, that at 
last it rolled forward like a torrent above a mile, sweeping along with it houses, trees, &c. 
It covered 600 acres at Netherby, and destroyed about 30 small villages. Near Solway Moss 
the Scots were defeated, Nov. 25, 1542. 

SOMBRERO (West Indies). On this desert isle, Robert Jefferj^, a Briti-sh man-of-war's 
man, was jjut ashore by his commander, the hon. captain W. Lake, for having tapped a 
barrel of beer when the ship was on short allowance. After sustaining life for eight days on 
a few limpets and rain- water, he was saved by an American vessel, Dec. 13, 1807 ; and 
returned to England. Sir Francis Burdett advocated his cause in parliament, and he 
received 600Z. as a compensation from captain Lake, who was tried by a court-martial, and 
dismisied the service, Feb. 10, 1810. 

SOMERSET THE BLACK. See Slavery in England. 

SOMERSET-HOUSE (London), formerly a palace, founded on the site of several churches 
and other buildings levelled in 1549, by the protector Somerset, whose residence fell to the 
<jrown after his execution. Here resided at times queen Elizabeth, Anne of Denmark, and 
Catherine, queen of Cliarles II. Old Somerset-house, a mixture of Grecian and Gothic, was 
demolished in 1775, and the present edifice, from a design by sir William Cliambers, was 
■erected for public offices. The Royal Academy of Arts first assembled in the apartments 
given to tlie members by the king, Jan. 17, 1771, and the Royal Society met here in 1780. 
.Large suits of government buildings were erected in 1774. The Navy-office, Pipe-office, 
Victualling and other offices, were removed here in 1788, and various government depart- 
ments since. The east wing, forming the King's College (see KUkjs College), was completed 
in 1833. B)' an act passed in 1854, the offices of the duchy of Cornwall were ordered to be 
transferred to Pimlico. 

SOMNATH GATES, the gates of an ancient Hindoo temple at Guzerat which was 
destroyed by Mahmoud of Ghuznee in 1025. The priests wished to preserve the idol ; but 
Mahmoud broke it to pieces and found it filled with diamonds, &c. He carried the gates to 
Ghuznee. When that city was taken by gen. Nott, Sept. 6, 1842, lord Ellenborough 
ordered the gates to be restored after an exile of 800 years. They are made of sandal wood, 
and are figured in the Archajologia of the Society of Antiquaries, vol. xxx. 

SONDERBUND. See Switzerland, 1846. 

SONNET, a poem in fourteen lines, the rhymes being adjusted by rules, invented, it is 
said, by Guido d'Arezzo, about 1024. Tlie most celebrated sonnets were written by 
Petrarch (about 1327), Shakspeare (1609), Milton (about 1650), and Wordsworth (1820). 

SONNITES, the orthodox Mahometans who now possess the Turkish empire. See 

Mahometa^iisvi. 



SON 673 SOU 

SONTHALS, a tribe of Nortlieni India, brought to Bengal about 1830, where they 
pro.si)creil ; till, partly from the instigation of a fanatic, and partly from the exactions of 
money-lenders, they broke out into rebellion in July, 1855, and committed fearful outrages. 
They were (luite subdued early in 1856, and many were removed to the uewly-conquered 
province of Pegu. 

SOPHIA, ST. (in Constantinople). Tlie first church was dedicated to St. Sophia (wisdom) 
by C'onstantius II., 360 ; having been destroyed, the second, the present edilice, Avas 
founded by Justini.in, 532. Since the Mahometan conquest in 1453, it has been used as an 
imperial mosque. Its lengtli is 269 feet, and its breadth, 243 feet. It abounds in curiosities. 
Six of its pillars are of green jasper, from the tem})le of Diana, at Ephesus ; and of 
porphyry, from the temple of the Sun, at Home. Four minarets were added by Selim II., 
who reigned in 1566. The interior of the dome is beautifully oj'uamcnted with mosaic work. 

SORBONNE, a society of ecclesiastics at Paris, founded by Robert de Sorbonne in 1252. 
The members lived in common, oTid devoted themselves to study and gratuitous teaching. 
They attained a European reputation as a faculty of theology, their judgment being 
frequently appealed to, from the fourteenth to the seventeenth centuries. The influence of 
the Sorbonne was declining when the society was broken up in 1789. 

SORCERERS and Magiciaxs. A law was enacted against their seductions, 33 Hen. 
VIII. 1541 ; and another statute equally severe was passed, 5 Eliz. 1563. The pretension to 
sorcery was made capital, i James I. 1603. See Witchcraft. 

SOUDAN, or Soujaii, the title of the lieutenant-generals of the caliphs, which tlicy 
bore in their provinces and armies. These officers afterwards made themselves sovereigns. 
Saladin, general of the forces of Noureddin, king of Damascus, was the first that took upon 
him this title in Egypt, 1165, after having killed the caliph Caym. 

SOULAGES COLLECTION. About 1827, M. Soulages of Thoulouse, collocteJ 790 
specimens of Italian art and workmanship, &c. These were bought for ii,ooo/. by 73 
English gentlemen, with the view of first exhibiting them to the luiblic, ami afterwards 
selling tiieni to the government (who gradually purchased them between 1858 and 1S65). 
They formed part of the "Art Treasures" exhibited at Manchester in 1S57. 

SOUND. Robesval stated the velocity of sound to be 560 feet in a second ; Gassendi, 
1473 ; Derham, 1142 feet. The velocity increases as the temperature falls. At Paris, where 
cannon were fired under many varieties of weather, in 1738, it was found to b3 1107. The 
range of perception of sound" by the human ear was determined by Savart (1830) to extend 
from 7 to 24,000 vibrations in a second. The fire of the British on landing in Egypt was 
distinctly heard 130 miles on the sea. See Acoustics. 

SOUND DUTIES. Till the year 1857 no merchant ship was allowed to pass the SduuiI 
(a narrow channel separating Zealand from Sweden) without clearing at Elsineur and paying 
toll. These duties had their origin in an agreement between the king of Denmark and the 
Hanse towns (1348), by which the former undertook to maintain lighthouses, &c., along the 
Cattegat, and the latter to pay duty for the same. The first treaty with England in relation 
to fill's was in 1450 ; other countries followed. In 1855 the United States determined to pay 
the dues no more ; and in the same year the Danish governuient proposed that these dues 
should be capitalised; which wns eventually agreed to, the sum agreed on baing 
30,476,325 rix-dollars. In Aug. 1857, the British government paid 10,126,855 rix-doUars, 
^ 1,125,206;.) to the Danes as their proportion. — The passage of the Sound was effected, in 
<lefiance of strong fortresses, by sir Hyde Parker and lord Nelson, April 2, 1801. See Baltic 
Expedition. 

SOUNDINGS AT Se.a.. Captain Ross of H.M.S. O^dipua, in 1840 took extraordinary 
soundings at sea. One of these was taken 900 miles west of St. Helena, where it extended 
to the depth of 5000 fiithoms. Another sounding was made in the latitude of 33 degrees S. 
and lon<Titude 9 degrees W. about 300 miles from the Cape of Good Hope, when 2266 tathonis 
were sounded ; the' weight employed amounted 450 lbs. 

SOUTHAMPTON, a seaport (S. England), a county of itself, near the Roman Clausentuui 
and the Saxon Hantune. It frequently suffered by Danish incursions : Canute when king 
occasionally resided here. The charter wns granted by Henry I. and conlirmed by Richard 
I and Ji.hn ; and the free grammar school was founded by i^lward VI. On July 17, 1861, 
a monnment'to Dr. Isaac Watts was inaugurated, and on Oct. 15, iS52, the Hartley insti- 
tution was opened by lord Palmerston. 

X X 



sou 674 SOU 

SOUTH AUSTRALIA was discovered by capt. Start in 1830, and explored shortly after 
loy capt. Parker and Mr. Kent, the former of whom was killed by the natives. The boun- 
daries of the province were fixed by 4 & 5 "Will. IV. c. 95 (1834) ; and it was occupied Dec. 
26, 1836, by capt. Hindmarsh, the first governor. It was colonised according to Mr. E. 
Gibbon Wakefield's scheme, which was carried out by the South Australian Colonisatio]i 
Association. The colony for several years underwent severe trials through the great influx 
of emigrants, land-jobbing, building speculations, &c., which produced almost irniversal 
bankruptcy in 1839. In five years after the energy of the colonists had overcome their 
difficulties, and the prosperity of the colony appeared fully established. In 1842 the 
highly productive Bm'ra Burra coj^per mines were discovered, and large fortunes were 
suddenly realised ; but in 185 1 the discovery of gold in New South Wales and Victoria 
almost paralysed this province by drawing otT a large part of the labouring population. 
Very little gold was found in South Australia ; but a reaction took place in favour of the 
copper mines and agriculture, &c. Before the discovery of gold, little trade existed between 
Adelaide (the capital of South Australia) and Melbourne ; liut in 1852 gold was transmitted 
from the latter to the former to the amount of 2,215, 167Z. principally for bread-stuffs, farm 
produce, &c. The bishopric of Adelaide was founded in 1847. Sir Dominic Daly was 
appointed governor in Nov. 1861. Population in 1855, 85,821 ; in 1857, 185,698. 

SOUTHCOTT, JOANNA, a fanatic, born in 1750, came from Exeter to London, where 
her followers at one period amounted to many thousands, among whom were military 
officers, but the low and ignorant were her principal dupes. In 1792 she announced 
lierself as the woman spoken of in the book of Pevelation, chap. xii. ; and a disorder gave 
her the appearance of pregnancy after she had passed her grand climacteric, favouring the 
delusion that she would be the mother of the promised Shiloh. She died Dec. 27, 1814. 
In 1 85 1 there existed in England four congregations, professing to expect her return. 

SOUTHERN CONFEDERATE STATES. See Confederates. 

SOUTHERN CONTINENT. The Southern Ocean was first traversed by Magellan in 
1520; and exjilored by Wallis and Carteret in 1766; and by Cook in 1773 and 1774. Of 
the southern continent little more is known than that it is ice-bound, and contains active 
volcanoes. It was discovered in the first instance by capt. John Biscoe, on Feb. 27, 1831, 
in lat. 65° 57' S., long. 47° 20' E., extending east and west 200 miles,— this he named 
Enderby Land, after the gentleman who had equipped him for the voyage. Capt. Biscoe 
also discovered Graham's Land on Feb. 15, 1832, situated in lat. 67° i' S., long. 71° 48' W. 
The Messrs. Enderby equipped three other expeditions in search of the southern continent, 
the last (in connection with some other gentlemen) in 1838, when capt. Balleny had 
coTnmand, W'ho on Feb. 9, 1839, discovered the Balleny Islands, in lat. 67° S., long. 165° E., 
and in ]\Iarch, 1839, Salvina Land, in lat. 65° 10' S., long. 118° 30' E. In 1840, a French 
expedition, under the comTuand of admiral D'Urville, and an American expedition, under 
the command of commodoi-e Wilkes, greatly added to our knowledge in respect to the exis- 
tence of a southern continent, and this was again increased by the expedition which sailed 
from England in 1839, under the command of capt. sir James Clark Ross, who discovered 
Victoria Land in 1S41, and subsequently penetrated as far south as 78° 11'. 

SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM, near Brompton old church (containing the pictures 
presented by Mr. Vernon, Mr. Sheepshanks, Mrs. Ellison, and those bequeathed by Turner, 
the great painter, as well as specimens of sculpture and art, educational collections, products 
of the aninuil, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms, &c.), was opened on June 24, 1857. A 
special Exhibition of Works of Art, of immense value, lent for the occasion, was opened here 
in the summer of 1862, and closed in November'. 

SOUTH-SEA BUBBLE commenced with the establishment of the South-sea company in 
1710, which was at first iinwiselyand afterwards dishonestly managed. It exploded in 1720, 
iiiining thousands of families, and the directors' estates, to the value of 2,014,000^. were 
seized in 1721 and sold. Mr. Knight, the cashier, absconded with 100,000/. ; but he com- 
pounded the fraud for 10,000?. and returned to England in 1743. Almost all tlie wealthy 
persons in the kingdom had become speculators ; the artifices of tlie directors having raised 
the shares, originally lOoZ. to the piice of 1000/. A parliamentary inquiry took place in 
Nov. 1720, and Aislabie, cliancellor of the exchequer, and several members of parliament 
were expelled the house in 1721. See Law's Bubble. 

SOUTHWARK (S. London), was governed by its own bailiffs till 1327. The city, 
however, found great inconvenience from the number of malefixctors who escajied thither, in 
order to be out of the reach and cognizance of the city magistrates ; and a grant was made of 
Southwark to the city of London by the crown, for a small annuity. In Edward VI. 's reign 



sou 



SPA 



it was formed into a city ward, and was named Bridge Ward Without, 1550. — Southivark 
bridge was Legun September 23, 1814, and was completed March 26, 1819, at an expense of 
800,000/'. It consists of three great cast-iron arches, resting on massive stone piers and 
abutments ; the distance between the abutments is 70S feet ; the centre arch is 240 feet span, 
the two others 210 feet each ; and the total weight of iron 5308 tons. 

SOUTHWOLD. See Sokhaij. 

SOVEREIGN, an ancient and modern British gokl coin. In 1489 22}i pieces, in value 205. 
"to be called the sovereign," were ordered to be coined out of a pound of gold. Ruding. 
In 1542 sovereigns were coined in value 20s., which afterwards, in 1550 and 1552 (4 & 6 
Edw. VI.), passed for 245. and 30*-. "Sovereigns " of the new coinage were directed to pass 
for 20s. July I, and half-sovereigns for los. Oct. 10, 1817. See Coin and Gold. 

SPA-FIELDS (N. London). Here upwards of 30,000 persons assembled to vote an 
address from the distressed manufacturers to the prince regent, Nov. 15, 1816. A second 
meeting, Dec. 2 following, terminated in an alarming riot; the shops of several gunsmiths 
were attacked for arms by the rioters ; and in the shop of Mr. Beckwith, on Snowhill, Mr. 
Piatt was wounded, and much injury was done before the tumult was suppressed. For this 
riot, Cashmau the seaman was hanged, March 12, 1817. 

SPAHIS, African horsemen, incorporated by the French in Algeria in 1S34'; three 
regiments of them came to France in 1863. 

SPAIN" (the ancient Iberia and Hispania). The first settlers are supposed to have been 
the progeny of Tubal, fifth son of Japheth. The Phcenicians and Carthaginians (360 B.C.) 
successively planted colonies on the coasts ; and the Eomans conquered the whole country, 
206 B.C. Population of Spain in 1857, 15,464,078 ; of the colonies, 4,528,633. Estimated 
revenue in 1861, 19,324,743?. ; expenditure, 19,386,800/. 



The Carthaginians enriched by the mines of 

Spain (B.C. 480 c< seg.) form settlements B.C. 360 
Hamilcar extends their dominions in Spain 238-233 
New Carthage (Carthagena) founded by 

Hasdrubal 229 

At his death, Hannibal, his son takes the com- 
mand, 221; and prepares for war, 220; ho 
takes Sagiuitum, 219 : crosses the Alps and 

enters Italy 218 

The Romans carry the wai- into Spain ; two 
►ti Scipios defeated and slain by Hasdrubal . 212 
Pub. Cornelius Scipio Africanus takes New 
Carthage, 210 ; and drives the Carthaginians 

ont of Spam 207 

Nuniantine war 153-133 

Viriathus, general of the Celtiberians and Lusi- 

tanians, subdued all West SiMin, 145 ; makes 

peace with the consul Fabius Servilianus, 

142 ; assassmated by order of the Romans. . 140 

Insurrection of Sertorius, 78 ; subdued by 

Pompey, and assassinated . . . t 72 
Julius C;^sar quells an insurrection in Spain . 67 

Pompey governs Spain 60-50 

Revolt through the rapacity of Crassus . . 48-47 

The N'andals, .Vlani, and Suevi wrest Spain from 

the Romans ..... a.d. 409 

Adolphus founds the kingdom of the Visigoths 414 
The Vandals pass over to Africa . . . . 427 
Thcodoric I. vanquishes the Suevi . . . 452 
Assassinated by his brother Euric, who becomes 

master of all Spain 466 

Recarcd I. expels the Franks .... 5S7 
He abjures Arianism. and ndes ably . till 601 
Wamba's wise administn^tion ; he prepared a 

fleet for defence against the Saracens . 672-677 
The Arabs invited into Spain against king 

Roderic 709 

His defeat and death at Xcrcs 711 

Establishment of the Saracens at Cordova . ,, 
Victorious progress of Mu.sa and Tarik . . 712-13 
Emirs rule at Cordova ; Pelayo, of Gothic blood, 

rules in Asturias and Leon 718 

The Saracens defeated at Tours by Charles 

Martel 732 or 733 

Abderahman the first king at Cordova . . 755 
Unsuccessful invasion of Ch.arlemagne . 777-78 

Sancho luigo, count of Navarre, &c. . . . 873 



Sancho of Navan-e becomes king of Castile . 1026 
The kingdom of Aragon commenced under- 

Ramirez I. 1035 

Leon and Asturias united to Castile . . . 1037 
Portugal taken from the Saracens by Henry of 

Besan^on. (See Portv.gal.) .... 1095 
The Saracens, beset on all sides by the Chris- 
tians, call in the aid of the Moors from Africa, 
who seize the dominions they came to protect, 
and subdue the Saracens . . . 1091 if s(q. 
Exploits of the Cid Rodrigo ; dies . about 1099 
Dynasty of the Almoravides at Cordova 1094-1144 
The Moors defeated in several battles by 

Alfonso of Leon 1144 

Dynasty of the Almohades at Cordova . 11^4-1225 
Cordova, Toledo, Seville, &c., taken by Ferdi- 
nand of Castile and Leon . . . 1233-1248 
The kingdom of Granada begun by the !Moors, 

last refuge from the power of the Christians . 1238 
The crown of Navarre passes to the royal family 

of France 1274 

200,000 Moors an'ive to assist the king of 

Granada 1327 

They are defeated at Tarifa by Alfonso XI. of 

Castile with great slaughter .... 1340 
Reign of Pedro the Cruel . . ... 
His alliance with Edward the Black Prince 
Defeated at Montiel and treacherously slain 
Ferdin.and II. of Ai-agon marries Isabella of 
Castile ; and nearly the whole Christian 
dominions of Spain are united in one 
monarchy ... . . 

Establishment of the Inquisition 
Persecution of the Jews .... 1492-8 
Granada taken after a two years' siege : and 
the power of the Moors is finally extirpated 

by Ferdinand 1492 

Columbus is sent from Spain to explore the 

western ocean .... April 17, ,, 
JIahometans persecuted and expelled . 1499- 1502 
Death of Cohimbus. . . . May 20, 1506 
Ferdinand conquers groat part of Navarre 
Accession of the house of Austria to the throne 
of Spain ; Charles I. of Spain .... 
Able administration of Ximeues ; ungratefully 

used, 1516 ; his death ". 

Charles elected emperor of Germany . 

X X 2 



1350 
1363 
1369 



1474 



1512 
1516 



1517 



SPA 



676 



SPA 



SPAIN, cmUlnued. 

Drculful insurrection in Ca«tile . . , 1520-21 
Philip of Spain rnarrics Mary of Kngland . . 1534 
Charles rctirfs from the world . . . . 1536 
War with France ; victory at St Qtientin, 

Ati^. 10, 1337 
Philip II. commences bis bloody persecution of 

the Protestants 1361 

The Escnri.il tiegim building . • . . . 1362 
Ttovolt of the Moriscoes, 1567; suj)presscd . 1570 
Nav.'il victory of Ijcpanto over the Turks . . 1571 
Portugal united to Hpairi by confiuest . . 1380 
The Spanish Ami.vla destroyed. See Anauda. 1388 
Philip III. (.laiiishes the Moors (c/x), 000) . i-z/j-ifjio 

Puilip IV. loses Portuffal 1640 

Death of Charles H., last of the hou-o of 
Aus'ria ; accession of Philip V. of the hou.so 

of BoTirixin 1700 

War of the Succession 1702-13 

Gibraltar taken by the Engli.sh . , . . 1704 

Siege of Barcelona 1713 

Abl-i govemrnciit of cardinal Albcrooi ; ho re- 
established the authority of the king, rcfonned 
many abuses, and raised Spain to tiic rank of a 
first power, 1715-17x0: oi-dcred tf> quit Spain 1720 
Charles, son of Philip V. conquers Nuples . . 1735 
Charles III. king of the Two Sicilies, succeeds 

to the crown of Spain 175O 

War with Kngland iy<:/> 

Battle of Cajie St. Vincent . . . Feb. 14, 1797 
Spani.ih treasure-ships, valued at 3,000,000 

dollars, seized by the Knglisli . Oct. 29, 1804 

Battle f>f Trafalgar. See Trafalfjar Oct. 21, 1805 
Sway of G'xloy, ^jrince of Peace . . . 1806 
The French enter .'^I>ain ; a Spanish amiy .sent 

to the Baltic 1807 

Conspiracy of the prince of Asturias again.st his 

father July 25, ,, 

Treaty of Fontainobleau . . Oct. 27, ,, 

The French take Ma'lrid . . . March, 1808 
The prince of Peace dismissed. . March 18, ,, 
Abdic ition of Charles IV. in favour of Ferdi- 
nand, March 79 ; and at B lyonne, in favour 
of his " friend and ally " Napoleon, when 
P'erdinand relinqtii.shed the crown . May r, ,, 
P.evolution ; the French massacred at Madrid, 

May 2, „ 
The province Asturias rises en m/itM . May 3, ,, 
Napoleon assembles thj notables at Bayonno, 

May 25, „ 
Joseph Bonaparte enters Madrid as king of 

Spain, July 12 ; retires . July 29, „ 

Battle of Virniera ; French defeated . Aug. 21, ,, 

Sitfirerne Junta insttiUed . . . Sept. ,, 

M.vlrid taken by the French, and Josei<h 

restored ...... Dec. 2, ,, 

Napoleon enters Madrid . . . i>ec. 4, ,, 
The royal family of Spain imprisoned in the 

palace of Ch!iml;ery in Savoy . Dec. 5, ,, 
The French take Ferrol, Jan. 27 : Saragossa, 
Feb. 21; Oporto, Feb. 29; Cordova and 
Seville, Nov. ; Ocrona . . . Dec. 12, 1809 
Ney takes Ciudad Ilodrigo . . July 10, 1810 
Th- Spanish cortcs meet . . . Pept. 24, ,, 
Wellington defeats Masssna at Fuentesd'Onore, 

May 6, 1811 
S<.>uU defeated at Albucra . . May 16, ,, 
(."ons'itutlon of the cortes . . . May 8, 1012 
Wellington takes Ciudad IJodrigo, Jan. 19, 
storms Bad.'ijoz, April 6; defeats Marmont 

at Salamanca July 22, ,, 

He occupies Madrid, and totally defetts tlie 

French at Vittoria, June 21 ; defeats Soult in 

the Pyrenees, July 28; takes St. Sebastian, 

Aug. 31 ; and enters Franco . . Oct. 8, 1813 

P'erdinand VII. (infamou.sly ungrateful) restored 

May 14, iSj4 
Slavfl tr.vle .abolished for a compensation . . 1817 
Insurrection .at Valencia repressed . . . 1819 
Span, vii 1 evolution btg.Hi .... Jan, 1820 



Ferdinand swears to the constitution of the 

cortes Murch 8, 1820 

The cortcs remove the* king to Seville, and 

thence to Cadiz .... March, 1823 

The French enter Spain April 7 ; and invest 

Cadiz June 23, ,, 

Battle of the Trocadero . . . Aug. 31, ,, 
Desjjoti.srn resumed ; the cortcs dissolved ; exe- 
cutions of literals Oct. „ 

Riego x>ut to death . . . . Nov. 27, ,, 

The French evacua'e Cadiz . . Sej)t. 21, 1828 
Cadiz Hiadc a free port . . . Feb. 24, 1829 

Salique law abolished . . . March, 1830 
Queen of Spain appointed regent during the 
king's indi-sposition ; change in the mini.stry, 

Oct. 23, 1832 
Don Carlos declares himself legitimate successor 

to the kino; April 29, 1833 

Death of Ferdinand VIT., and his qncen 
assumes the title of governing queen imtil 
Isabella II. her infant daughter, att'iins her 

majority Sept. 29, „ 

The royalist voltmteers disarmed with some 

blood.shed at Madrid . . . Oct. 27, ,, 
Queen Christina marries Ferdinand Mufioz 

(afterwards duke of jlianzards) . J)vc. 28, ,, 
The qu-odniplc treaty establishes the right of 

Lsabclla to the throne . April 22, 1834 

Don Carlos suddenly appears in Spain, July 10, ,, 
The peers vote his exclusion . . Aug. 30, „ 
Mendizat.)al, prime minister ; Mina and 
Esj)artcrocomm,'<nded the royalists ; the rebel 
leader, Zumlacarrcgiii killed near Bilboa , 1835 
Sir De Lacy Evans, lord John Hay, and others, 

raised a Briti.sh legion for the queen of Spain, ,, 
Tliey defeat the Carilstsat St.. Selxustian. Oct. i, 1836 
Espartero gtins the battle of Bilboa . Dec. 25, ,, 
General Evans t ikes Irun . . May 17, 1837 
The Carlists under Maroto desert Don Carlos 

"and conclude a treaty of peace . Aug. 29, 1839 
Don Carlos seeks refuge in France Sept. 13, ,, 
Surrender of Morello . . , May 28, 1840 
Cabrera, the Carlist general, unable to maintain 

the war, enters France _ . , . July 7, „ 
The IJriti.sh auxiliaries e'vacnate St. Sebastian 

and Pas.sages . . . , • Aug. 23, ,, 
Revolutionary movemeiit at Madrid : the 

authorities triumphant . . . Sept. i, ,, 
Dismi-ssal of the ministry and dissolution of the 

cortes Sept. 9, ,, 

Espartcro makes his triumphal entry into 

Madrid Oct. 3, ,, 

The queen regent appoints a new ministry, 
wlio are nominated by Espartcro, Oct. 5 ; she 
at»dicates and leaves the kingdom ; visits 
France ; next Sicily ; but returns to France, 

Oct. 12, ,, 
Espartcro, duke of Victory, expels the papal 

nuncio Dec. 29, ,, 

The Spanish cortcs declare Espartcro regent 
during the minority of the young queen, 

April 12, 1841 
Queen Christina's protest to the nation. 

July 19, „ 
Insurrection in favour of Cliri.stina is com- 
menced at Pamj^eluna by jencral O'Donnell, 
and Concha . . . . . Oct 2, ,, 
Don Diego Leon attacks the palace at Madrid ; 
his followers are repulsed, and numbers 
slain by the queen's gu.ards . Oct. 7, ,, 

Don iJiego Lton shot at Madrid . . Oct. 15, „ 
/urbano captures Bilboa . . Oct. 21, „ 

Rodil, the constitutional general, enters 

Vittoria Oct. 21 ,, 

Montcs do Oca shot . . . . Oct. 21, ,, 
Genaral O'Donnell takes refuge in the French 

territory Ojt. 21, ,, 

Espartcro decrcos the fcusi)Cn.sion of queen 
Christina's pen.siou .... Oct. 26, ,, 



SPA 



677 



SPA 



SPAIN, continued. 

I'lioros of tho Basque i)rovinccs abnlisbcd, 

Oct. 29, 1841 
Borio and Gobemado implicated in the Chris- 
tina plot, put to deatli at Madrid . Nov. 9, ,, 
E-ipartcro enters Madrid . . Nov. 23, ,, 

General pardon of all persons not yet tried, 

concerned in the events of October, Doc. 13, „ 
The etTeclivc strength of the army fixed at 
130,000 men ..... June 28, 1842 

An insurrection breaks out at Barcelona ; tho 
national guard joins the populace, Nov. 13 ; 
battle in the streets between the national 
guard and the troops ; the latter lose 500 in 
killed and wounded, and retreat ■ to the 
citadel • 'Nov. 15, ,, 

Barcelona blockaded ; the British cons\il refuses 
refuge to any but British subjects on board 
Br' sh ships .... Nov. 26, ,, 

The I -jgent Kspartero arrives before Barcelona, 
Nov. 29 ; its bombardment and surrender, 

Dec. 3, 4, ,, 

The disturbances at Malaga • . . May 25, 1843 

Tho revolutionary junta is re-established at 
Barcelona Jinie 11, ,, 

[Corunna, Seville, Burgos, Santia:?o, and 
numerous other towns, shortly afterwards 
'■pronounce " against the regent Espartero.J 

Arrival of general Narvaez at Aladrid, which 
surrenders July 15 ,, 

Espartero bombards Seville . . July 21. „ 

The siege is raised .... July 27, ,, 

[The revolution is completely successful, and 
Kspartero flies to Cadiz, and embarks on 
board her Majesty's ship MaltiMar.] 

The new governuieut dei)rivc3 Espartero of his 
titles and rank .... Aug. 16, ,, 

Espartero arrives in London . . Ang. 23, ,, 

Ke-action .against the new government breaks 
out at Madrid .... Aug. 23, „ 

The young queen Isabella II. 13 years old, is 
declared by the cortes to be of age ; Nar\-aez 
(friend of the queon-inothcr), lieutenant- 
general Nov. 8, ,, 

The queen-mother returns to Spain, March 23, 1844 

Zurbano's insurrection, Nov. 12, 1844; he is 
shot Jan. 21, 1845 

Don Carlos relinquishes his right to the crown 
in favour of his son . . . Jlay 18, ,, 

Narv.aezand his ministry resign Feb. 12 ; return 
to power, March 17; .again resign March 28, 1846 

Escape of Don Carlos from Franco Sept. 14, ,, 

Marriage of the queen to her cousin, Don 
Fr.ancisco d'Assiz, duke of Cadiz ; and 
marriage also of the infanta Louisa to the 
duke do Montpensier . . . Oct. lo, ,, 

[Tlic JI(jntpensicr niarri.agc ocjasions tho dis- 
pleasure of England, and disturbs tho fiicndly 
relations of the French and Englir^h govern- 
ments.] 

Amnesty granted to political offenders, Oct. 18, ,, 

Two shots fired at tho queen by an assassin, 
La Riva May 4, 1847 

lie is sentenced to " dcatli by tho cord," and i.s 
executed Juno 23, ,, 

Espartero restored .... Sept. 3, „ 

Sir Henry Lytton Bulwcr, Briti.sh envoy, 
ordered to quit Sp.ain in 4S hours . March 19, 1848 

Narvaez dismi.sscd and recalled . . . . 1849 

Diplomatic relations between the two countries 
not restored .... Tuitil April 18, 1S50 

Tho queen of Spain delivered of a male child 
which lives but ten minutes . . . . ,, 

The American expeditions under Lopez against 
Cubri. Soe Cuha and the United Utatct, 1850, 1831 

Resignation of Narv.acz . . . .Jan 10, „ 

The infante doti Ilcnri'iue permitted to return 
to Sjiain Feb. 2, „ 

Madrid-.Vraujncz railway opened . Feb. g, ,, 

Tho queen pardons the prisoners taken in the 
ottempt upon Cu'j.i .... Dec. 11 ,, 



Ilcr majesty gives birth to a princess Doc. 20, 1851 
Attempt made on the life of tho queen ; she is 
slightly wounded by the dagger of Merin >, a 

Franciscan Feb. z, 1852 

Gen. Castafios, duke of B.aylcn, renowned in 
the war against the French, dies in his 96th 

jxar Kept. 23, ,, 

Narvaez exiled to Vienna . . . Jan. 1853 
Ministerial changes — Lersundi forms a cabinet, 

April II, ,, 
Resignation of Lersundi — Sarlorius's cabinet, 

Sept. „ 
Birth and death of a princess . . Jan. 5, 1854 

General O'Donnell, Concha, and otheis 
banished Jan 18, 

Disturbances at Saragossa, (fee. . . Feb, ,, 

Don Franci.sco (father of the king consort), 
marries an "unfortunate" woman . March, ,, 

Military insurrection near Madrid . June 28, ,, 

The inr)vement headed by Espartero ; Barcelona 
and Madrid pronovuicc against the govern- 
ment; barricades in Madrid . . July 1-17, ,, 

Triumph of the insurrection ; resignation of 
the ministry ; the queen sends for Espartero, 

July 19, ,, 

Police restored : the degraded generals rein- 
st.atod, &e. ; Espai'tero forms an administra- 
tion July 31, ,, 

The ijueen mother impeached ; she quits Spain, 

Aug. 28, ,, 

Ministerial crisis; Espartero resign^, but re- 
sumes office .... Nov. 21-30, „ 

New constitution of the cortes propo.sed, 

Jan. 13, 1855 

The cortes vote that all power proceeds from 
the people ; they permit liberty of belief, but 
not of worship Feb. „ 

Don Carlos dies .... March 10, ,, 

Insurrection at Valencia . . . April 6, 1856 

llcsign.ation of Espartero ; new caljinct formed 
headed by m.irshal O'Donnell ; insurrection 
in Madrid, July 14; O'Donnell and the govern- 
ment troops subdue tho insurgents ; the 
niitional guard suppressed . July 15-16, „ 

Insurrection at Barcelona and Saragossa, quelled 
by O'Donnell, .as dictator. . July 15-23, „ 

Anmesty granted to political offenders, Oct. 19, ,, 

O'Donnell compelled to resign ; Narvaez 
becomes minister . . • . . Oct 12, ,, 

Espartero resigns as .senator . . Feb. i, 1857 

Insurrection in Andalusia ; quickly suppressed ; 
cruel military executions ; 98 insurgents shot 
(24 at Seville) . . • . June and July, ,, 

Mini-sterial changes; Armero becomes minister 

Oct. 26, ,, 

Istiiritz becomes minister, Jan. 14 ; O'Donnell 
becomes minister .... July i, 185S 

Cessation of state of siege at Barcelona, &c. 

Sept. 20, ,, 

Joint French .and Sp.anish expedition against 
Cochin China announced . . Dec. i, ,, 

War with Morocco {which see) Nov. and Dec. 1859 

An asanciation for reforming the tariflf, &c. 
formed ,, 

O'Donnell comm.ands the army in Africa; inde- 
cisive conflicts rei)orted; battle at Castellcjos; 
a Spani^'h " i$alaklava" charge . Jan. t, i860 

Tho Moors defeated near Totuan, vvhicli sur- 
renders Feb. 4, ,, 

An inefTeetual tnice . . . Feb. 16-23, >• 

Tlje Moors defeated .at Guad-el-ras, .March 23, ,, 

Treaty of peace signed ; 400,000,000 reals to be 
paid by Moors, and 'J'etuan to be held till 
paid March 26, „ 

General Ortega, governor of the Balearic Isles, 
lands near Tortoaa, in Valentia, with 3000 
men, and proclaims tho comte do Monfo- 
molin king, as Charles VI. : his troops resi-t, 
•and he is compelled to flee, with tho corntc 
and others April 3, ,, 



SPA 



678 



SPA 



SPAIN, contimced. 

He is arrested and sliot . . . . April ig. 

The comtc de Montemoliii and bis brother Fer- 
dinand are arrested at Tortosa, April 21 ; they 
renounce tbeir claim to the throne, April 23, 

An amnesty proclaimed . . . May 2, 

Tlieir brother Juan assorts his rig-ht, June 5 ; 
and they, when at Cologne, annul their re- 
nunciation June 28, 

The emperor Napoleon's proposal to admit 
Spain as a first-class power is opposed by 
England, and given up . . . Aug. 

The comte de Montemolin and his wife die at 
Trieste Jan. 14, 

The annexation of St. Domingo to Spain rati- 
fied ; slavery not to be re-established, May ig. 

Insurrection at Loja suppressed . . July, 

The queen said to be governed by the nun Pa- 
trocinio Dec. 

Intervention in Mexico (see JLTca'ifo) . Dec. 8, 

Much church property in course of sale, April, 

Jose Alhama and Maiuiel Matamoras, pi'otes- 
tant propagandists, sentenced to 10 years' im- 
jirisonment Oct. 14, 

Don Juan de Bovirbon renounces his right to 
the throne Jan. 8, 

Eesignation of the premier, marshal O'Don- 
nell, Feb. 26 ; a ministry formed by marquis 
de Miraflores . . . . March 4, 

Insurrection at St. Domingo ; war ensues (see 
Domingo) . . . ... . Sept i, 

Empress of France visits the queen . Oct. 

Rupture with Peru {which see) . April, 

■Oeneral Prim exiled for conspiracy . Aug. 13, 

>I. Mon forms a ministry, March i ; resigns, 

Sept. 13 ; Nai-vaez forms a cabinet . Seiit. 16, 

■Queen Christina returns to Spain . Sept. 26, 



English government recognises the insurrec- 
tion at St. Domingo ; Narvaez advises aban- 
donment of the contest ; the queen refuses ; 
the ministry resign ; but resume office, 
[Dec. 14-1S, 

Peace with Peru, which has to pay a heavy 
indemnity Jan. 27, 

The queen orders the sale of crown lands, 
giving up three-foiu-ths to the nation, Feb. 20, 

Student riots at Madrid ; several persons killed, 

April 10, 

Decree relinquishing St. Domingo . May 5, 

Dispute with Chili ; M.Tavira's settlement (iVla}- 
20) disavowed by the government . July 25, 

Suppression of a conspiracy at Yalentia to re- 
unite Spain and Portugal . . June 10, 

Resignation of Narvaez, June ig ; O'Donncll 
forms a liberal cabinet . . . June 22, 

Kingdom of Italy recognised by Spain, June 26, 

Admiral Pareja, at Valpai-aiso, insults the 
Chilian government, Sept. 18; which declares 
war, Sept. 25 ; Pareja declares a blockade. 

Oct. 

The Chilian capt. Williams captures the 
Spanish vessel Coradonga . . Nov. 26, 

Intel•^'ention fruitless .... Dec. 

New cortes elected : the great Progresista party 
still abstain from action in public affairs ; 
queen opens cortes .... Dec. 27, 

Military insurrection at Aranjiiez, headed by 
gen. Prim, Jan. 3 ; martial law in Madrid, 
Jan. 4 ; Conclia and Zabala march against 
rebels, Jan. 4, &c. ; riots at Barcelona ; state 
of siege in New Castile, Catalonia, and Arra- 
gon, Jan. 6-12 ; insurgents said to be en- 
deavouring to enter Portugal . Jan. 17, 



1S64 
I £65 



KINGS OF SPAIN. 



REIGN OF THE GOTHS. 



411. Ataulfo ; murdered by his soldiers. 
415. Sigerico ; reigned a few days only. 
,, Valia, or Wallia. 
420. Theodoric I. ; killed in a battle, which he 
gained, against Attila. 

451. Thorismund, or Torrismund; assas.sinated by 

bis favourite. 

452. Theodoric II. ; assassinated bj- 

466. Euric, the first monarch of all Spain. 
483. Alaric II. ; killed iu battle. 
506. Gesalric ; his bastard son. 
511. Amalric, or Amalaric ; legitimate son of Alaric. 
531. Theudis, or Theodat ; assassinated by a mad- 
man. 

548. Theudisela, or Theodisele ; murdered. 

549. Agila ; taken prisoner, and p\it to death. 
554. Atanagildo. 

567. Liuva, or Levua I. 

568. Leuvigildo ; associated on the throne with 

Liuva, in 568 ; and sole king in 572. 
586. Rccaredo I. 
601. Liuva II. ; assassinated. 
603. Vitericus ; also murdered. 
610. Gundemar. 

612. Sisibut, or Sisebutli, or Siscbert. 
621. Rccaredo II. 

„ Suintila ; dethroned. 
631. Sisenando. 
636. Cliintella. 
64c. Tulga, or Tulea. 
642. Cindasuinto ; died in 652. 
649. Recesuinto ; associated on the throne this 

year, and in 653 became sole king. 
672. Vamba, or Wamba ; dethroned, and died in a 

monastery. 
680. Ervigius, or Ervigio. 
687. Egica, or Ej?iza. 
69S. Vitiza, or Witiza ; associated on the throne ; 

in 701 sole king. 



711. Rodrigo, or Roderic ; .slain in battle. 

[Six independent Suevic kings reigned 409-469 ; 
and Two Vandalic kings : Gunderic 409-425 ; his 
successor Genseric with his whole nation passed 
over to Africa.] 

MAHOMETAN SPAIN. 

CORDOVA. 

I. Emirs. The fvst, Abdelasis ; the last, Yussuf-el- 
Tehri : a.d. 714-755. 
Kings. The first, Abderahman I. ; the last, Abu 
^^li •■ 755-1238- 

GRANADA. 

Kiitgs. The first, Mohammed I. ; the last, Ab- 
dalla : 1238-1492. 

CHRISTIAN SPAIN. 

KINGS OP ASTURIA.S AND LEON". 

71S. Pelagius, or Pelayo ; overthrew the Moors, 
and checked their conquests. 

737. Favila ; killed in hunting. 

739. Alfonso the Catholic. 

757. Froila ; murdered his brother Samaran, in 
revenge for which he was murdered bj' his 
brother and successor, 

768. Aurelius or Aurelio. 

774. Mauregato, the Usurper. 

788. Veremundo (Bermuda) I. 

791. Alfonso II., the Chaste. 

842. Ramiro I. : be put 70,000 Saracens to the 
sword in one battle. Rabhe. 

850. Ordofio I. 

S66. Alfonso III., sumamcd the Great; relin- 
quished his crown to his son. 



I 



SPA 



671 



SPA 



SPAIN, conliniicd. 



QI4. 
923. 
925- 

■93°- 
950- 
955- 
956- 
^57. 
983. 
999. 
1027. 



873. 
885, 
905- 
924. 
970. 



1054. 
1076. 
1094. 
1 1 04. 

II34- 
1 1 50. 
1 194. 
1234. 

1253- 
1270. 
1274. 



1316. 

1322. 
1328. 
1343- 
1349- 
1387. 
1425- 

1479. 

1483. 
1512- 



1035- 
1065. 



1072. 
1 109. 
1 1 26. 
II57' 
1158 



1214. 
1217. 



1284. 
1295. 
1312. 
I350. 



1369. 

1379- 

140(5. 
1454. 
1474. 



, tlic Monk ; abdicated. 
kiUcd in battle. 



Garcias. 

Ordofio II. 

Fioila II. 

Alfonso IV. 

Uamii'o II. ; 

Ordofio III. 

Ordoiio IV. 

Sanoho I., the Fat ; poisoned with an apple. 

Ramiro III. 

Veremuiido II. (Beniiuda), the Gouty. 

Alfonso V. ; killed in a siege. 

Yeromundo III. (Bermuda) ; killed. 

KISaS OF NAVARRE. 

Sanclio liligo, Cuuni. 

Garcia I., king. 

Sanclio Garcias ; a renovvTied warrior. 

Garcias II , surnamedthe Trembler. 

Sancho II., suniamod the Gi'eat (king of Cas- 
tile through his wife). 

Garcias III. 

Sancho III. 

Sancho IV., Ramirez, king of Aragon. 

Pejer of Aragou. 

Alfonso I., of Aragon. 

Garcias IV., Ramirez. 

Sancho V., surnamed the Wise. 

Sancho VI., surnamed the Infirm. 

Theobald I., count of Champagne. 

Theobald II. 

Henry Crassus. 

Joanna ; married to Philip the Fair of France, 
1285. 

Louis Hutin of France. 

John ; lived but a few days. 

Philip v., the Long, of France. 

Charles I. ti/e IV. of France. 

Joanna II., and Philip, count d'Evreux. 

Joanna alone. 

Charles II., or the Bad. 

Charles III., or the Noble. 

Blanche and her husband John II., afterwards 
king of Aragon. 

Eleanor. 

Francis Phcebus de Foi.t. 

Catherine and John d'Albret. 

Navarre conquered by Ferdinand the Catholic, 
and united with Castile. 

KINGS OF LEON AND CASTILE. 

Ferdinand the Great. 

Sancho II., the Strong, son of Ferdinand ; 

Alfonso in Lton and Asturias, and Garcias 

in Galicia. 
Alfonso VI., the Valiant, king of Leon. 
Uraca and Alfonso VII. 
Alfonso VII., Raymond. 
Sancho III., surnamed the Beloved. 
, Alfonso VIII., the Noble. 

[Loon is sej^aratcd from Castile under Fer- 
dinand II., 11571188. 
Alfonso IX., of Leon. 
Henry I. 
Ferdinand III. , the Saint and the Holy. By him 

Leon and Castile wei'c permanently united. 
Alfonso X., the Wise (the Alphonsino Tables 

were drawn up under his dhection). 
Sancho IV., the Great and the Brave. 
Ferdinand IV. 
Alfon.soXI. 
I'ctor tlie Cruel : deposed ; reinstated by 

lidward th3 Black Prince of England ; slain 

by his natural brother and successor. 
Henry II., the Gracious ; poisoned by a monk. 
John I : he united Biscay to Castile. 
Henry III., the Sickl}-. 
John 11., Son of Henry. 
, Henry IV , the Impotent. 
Isabciln, now (.jucen of Castile, married For- 

diuaiid of Aragon. 



1504. Joanna, (daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella) 
and Philip I. of Austria. On her mother's 
death Joanna succeeded, jointly vrith her 
husband Phili|) ; but Philip dying in 1506, 
and Joanna becoming imbecile, her father 
Ferdinand continued the reign ; and thus 
perpetuated the union of Castile with Aragon. 

KINGS OF ARAGON. 

1035. Ramiro I. 

1065. Sancho Ramirez (IV. of Navarre). 

1094. Peter of Navarre. 

1 104. Alfonso I., the Warrior, kmg of Navarre. 

1134. Ramiro II., the Monk. 

1137. Petronilla, and Rayniond, count of Barcelona. 

1 163. Alfonso II. 

1 196. Peter II. 

1213. James I. ; succeeded by his son. 

1276. Peter III. ; conqneved Sicili/(_which see) in 12S2. 

1285. Alfonso III., the Beneficent. 

1291. James II., surnamed the Just. 

1327. Alfonso IV. 

1336. Peter IV., the Ceremonious. 

1387. John I. 

1395. JIartin. 

1410. [Interregnum.] 

1412. Ferdinand the J u.st, king of Sicily. 

1416. Alfonso v., the Wise. 

1458. John II., king of Navarre, brother of Alfonso ; 
died 1479. 

1479. Ferdinand II., the Catholic, the next heir : in 
consequence of his marriage with Isabella of 
Castile (1474), the kingdoms were united. 

SPAIN. 

1 51 2. Ferdinand v. (of Castile), the Catholic. This 
prince having conquered Granada and Na- 
varre, became king of all Spain ; succeeded 
by his grandson, 

1516. Charles I., son of Joanna of Castile and Philip 
of Austria (became emperor of Germany, as 
Ch.arles v., in 1519); resigned both crowns, 
and retired to a monastery. 

1556. Philip II., his son, king of Naples and Sicily; 
a merciless bigot ; mai-ried llary, queen- 
regnant of England ; died a most dreadful 
death, being covered with ulcers. 

1598. PhiUp HI., his son, drove the Moors from 
Granada and the adjacent provinces. 

1621. Philip IV. his son : a reign of unfortunate war 
with the Hutch and French ; he lost Por- 
tugal in 1640. 

1665. Charles II., his son ; last of the Austrian line ; 
he nominated, by will, as his successor, 

1700. Philip v., duke of Anjou, grandson of Loui.? 
XIV. of France : hence arose the " war of 
the Succession," terminated by the treaty 
of Utrecht in 1713 ; resigned. 

1724. Louis I., son ; reigned only a few months. 
, , Philip V. : again. 

1746. Ferdinand VI., the Wise ; liberal and bene- 
ficent. 

1759. Charles III., brother-king of the Two Sicilies, 
which he gave to his third son Ferdinand. 

1788. Charles IV., son of Charles HI. ; the influence 
of Godoy, prince of Peace, reached to almost 
royal authority in this reign ; Charles abdi- 
cated in favour of his son and successor, in 
1808, and died in 1S19. 

180S. Ferdinand VII., whom Napoleon of France also 
forced to resign. 
,, Joseph Bonaiiarte, brother of Napoleon ; forced 
to abdicate. 

1814. Ferdinand VII., restored; succeeded by 

33. Isabella II. daughter (bom Oct 10, 1830); 
ascended the tlirone, Sept. 29, 1833 ; mar- 
ried her cousin, Don Francis d'Assisi, Oc- 
tober 10, 1846. The PRESENT queen of Spain. 
{Heir : Alfun.so, prince of A.sturias, born Nov. 
28, 1857.] 



SPA 



680 



SPA 



SPANISH ARMADA. Sec Armada. 



SPANISH ERA. See Eras. 



SPANISH GRANDEES, the higher nohilily, almost equal to the kings of Castile aiirl 
Aragoii, and who oi'ten set their authority at defiance, were restrained on the union of the 
crowns hy the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella in 1474, who compelled several to relin- 
quish the royal fortresses and domains which they held. Charles V. reduced the grandees 
to sixteen fomilies (Medina-Sidonia, Albuquerque, &p..) dividing thera into three classes. 

SPANISH LANGUAGE (Lengua Castellana), is a dialect of Latin largely intermingled 
with Arabic, which was the legal language till the fourteenth century. Spanish did not 
become general till the i6th century. 

EMINENT SPANISH AUTHORS. 



Soni 


Died 




Bom 


Died 




Dora 


Died 


Garcilasso de la Vega 1503 


1536 


Mariana . 


■ 1536 


1623 


Solis . 


. i6io 


1686 


Boscan . . . 1496 


1543 


Herrera 


• ■ 1565 


1625 


Fe3'jos . 


. . 1 701 


1765 


Las Casas . . . 1474 


1566 


Lope de Vega . 


. 1568 


i6^,S 


Yriarte 


• 1750 


1798 


Cervantes (author of 




Qusvedo 


• • 1570 


1647 


Conde . 


1765 


1820 


Don Quixote) . . 1547 


1616 


Calderon . 


. 1601 


1682 









SPANISH SUCCESSION AND MARRIAGES. See Sjiaiii, 1700 and Oct. 10, 1846. 

SPARTA, the capital of Laconia, the most considerable republic of the Peloponnesus, and 
the rival of Athens. Though without walls, it resisted the attacks of its enemies by the 
valour of its citizens for eight centuries. Lelex is supposed to have been the first king. 
From Lacedasmon the fourth king, and his wife Sparta, who are also spoken of as the 
founders of the city, it obtained the names by which it is most known. The Lacedaemonians 
were a nation of soldiers. They cultivated neither the arts, sciences, commerce, nor agri- 
culture. 



Sparta founded. Paiimnias . . . B.C. 149c 
Tyndaru.s marries Leda : Helen born . . . ■""'* 
Helen stolen by Thesevis, king of Athens, but 

recovered by her brothers .... 1213 
The princes of Greece demand Helen in mar- 
riage ; she makes choice of Menclaus of 

Mj-cena; ........ 1201 

Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy, carries off 

Helen, 119S; which leads to 

The Trojan war 1193 

After a war of ton years, and a disastrous voyage 

of nearly eight, Menelaus and Helen return 

to Sparta 1176 

Eeign of Orestes, the son of Agamemnon. 

Pausatiias 1175 

The kingdom Is seized by the Heraclidi«. 

LenfiUt ......... 1 104 

Establishment of two kings, Eurysthencs and 

Proclos, by their father, Aristodennis . . 1102 
Kiile of Bycurgus, who establishes the senate, 

and enacts a code of laws. Eusebiv.i . . 881-S84 
Charilaus declares war against Polymnestor, 

king of Arcadia S4S 

Alcamenes, known by his apophthegms, makes 

war upon the Messenians 813 

Kicander succeeds his father, Charilaus ; war 

with the Argives Soo 

Theopompus introduces the Ejihori into the 

government about 757 

"War declared against the Jlessenians, and 

Amphia taken 743 

War with the Argives, and celebrated battle"' . 735 
The Progeny of the Partheniiu, the sons of 

Virgnis 733 

Hattle of Ithome 730 

Iihome taken; the Messenians become vassals 

to Sj)arta, and the war ends, which had lasted 

nineteen years 724 

Conspiracy of the Parthenii with the Helots to 

take Sparta 707 



The Parthenii colonise Tarentum . . b c. 

The Messenians revolt, and league with Elis, 
Argos, and Arcadia, against the LacediBmo- 
nians. [This war lasts fourteen years ] . 

Camian festivals instituted 

The Messenians settle in Sicily .... 

The states of Greece unite against the Persians 

Leonidas, at the head of 300 Spartans, with- 
stands the Per.-ian arms at the defile of 
Thermopyla-!. (See Thermopyla>, Battle of) 

Pci'sians defeated by Pausanias .... 

lie is put to death for treason ; the Grecian 
armies choose an Athenian general . . . 

An earthquake at Sparta destroys thirty thou- 
sand persons ; rebellion of the Helots 

Platsea taken by tbe Spartans . . . . 

Tlic Spartans, under Agis, enter Attica, and 
lay waste the country ..... 

Agis (king 427) gains a great victory over the 
Argives and the Mantin;eans . . . . 

The Liccda?monian fleet, nnder Mindarns, 
defeated at Cyzicnm, and Mindarus slain in 
the battle 

Tlie Sp.artans, defeated by land and at sea, 
sue for peace, which is denied by the Athe- 
nians 

Reign of Pausanias 

The Athenians defeated at iEgospotamos by 
Lysander 

Athens taken by him, which ends the Pelopon- 
nesian war 

Agesilaus (king 398) enters Lydia 

The Athenians, Thelians, Argives, and Corin- 
thians enter into a league against the Spartans 
which begins the Corinthian war . . . 
Agesilaus defeats the Allies at Coronea 
The Lacediemonian fleet, under Lysander, 
defeated by Conon, the Athenian commander, 
near Cnidos ; Lysander killed in an engage- 
ment 



706 



68s 
675 
669 
482 



479 
472 



466 
428 



426 
418 



409 
408 



404 
30 



395 
394 



* This celebrated battle was fought between 300 select heroes of each nation, and all jicrished except 
two Argives and one Spartan. The latter remained on the f5eld, whilst the two former repaiicd to Argos to 
f.nnounee their victory. Each party claimed the advantage ; the Argives because they had lost the fewest 
men ; the Lacodnamoninns, because they remained masters of the field. A second battle was fought, in 
which the Argives wore beaten. Paufmiias. 



SPA 



681 



SPE 



SPARTA, continued. 

The Thobans drive the Sisartans from Cudme.a. 

Leii'ilct . . . . . . .B.C. 

Thu SparUns lo.sc the dominion of the .seas ; 

their fleet totullj' destroyed by Timotheus 
The Spartans defeated at Leuetra . 
Epaminondas, beading 50,000 Tbebans, appears 

before Sjiartii 

Battle of Mantinea : ths Thcban.s obtain the 

victory. See Mantinea ..... 
Pyrrhus invades Sparta ; i.s defeated before the 

walls 

Agis endeavours to revive the laws of Lycurgus 
Loonidas vacates the throne, and flies from 

Sparta 

He is recalled, and becomes sole sovereign ; 

Agis put to death 

Reign of Cleomenos III. the son of Leonidas . 
He re-establishes most of the laws of Lycurgus. 
Antigonus moots Cleomenes on the plains of 

Sellasia, routs his army, and enters S]xirta as 

conqueror 



1 Cleomenes retii'cs to Ejj'pt . . . b.c. 222 

375 The hipartans murder the Ephori . . . 221 
I Jlafhanida.s ascends the throne, and alidi.shcs 

376 I the Ephori ........ 210 

371 He is defeated and slain by Philopoemcn, Prast or 

of the Achajan league ..... 206 
369 Government of Nabis, execrable fur his 

cruelties ,, 

362 The Romans besiege Sp.arta, and the tjTant 

sues for peace ig^ 

294 The vEtoIians obtain Sparta by treachery : Nabis 

244 is assas.sinated 192 

The laws of Lycurgus .abolished .... 188 

243 Sp.arta, under the protection or rather subjuga- 
tion of Rome, retains its authority for a short 
241 time ......... 147 

236 

225 Taken by Mahomet II a.d. 1460 

Biirnt by Sigismund Malatesta .... 1463 
Rebuilt at Misitra ; it is now called Sparta, and 
222 I is part of the kingdom of Greece (1865). 



SPAETACrS'S INSURRECTION. IIo was a noble Tliraciaii, wlio served in an 
auxiliary corps of the Roman al■nl3^■ Having deserted and been apprehended, he was reduced 
to shivery and made a ghadiator. With some companions he made his escape, collected a 
body of slaves and gladiators, 73 B.C. ; ravaged Southern Italy ; and defeated the Roman 
forces under the cou.suls sent against him. Knowing the impossibility of .successfully 
resisting the republic, he endeavoured t'o conduct his forces into Sicily, but on the way was 
defeated and slain by Crassus, 72 B.C. 

SPEAKERS OF THE House of Common.s. Peter de Mont fort, afterwards killed at the 
battle of Evesham, was the iirst speaker, 45 Hen. III. 1260 ; but sir Peter de la Mare is 
supposed to have been the first regular sj)eaker, 50 Edw. III. 1376. The king refused his 
assent to the choice of sir Edward Seymour, as speaker, ilarch 6, 1678 ; and Serjeant William 
Gregory was chosen in his room. Sir John Trevor was expelled the chair and the house for 
taking a gratuity after the act for the benefit of orphans had passed, March 20, 1694. 



1801. Heniy Addington (afterwards viscoimt Sid- 

niouth), Jan. 22. 
,, Sir John Mitford (afterwards baron Redesdale), 

Feb. II. 
i8o2. Charles Abbot (afterwards lord Colchester), 

Feb. 10. 



KECENT SrKAKERS 
17 



Charles Planners Sutton (afterwards viscount 
Canterbvu-y), June 2. 

1S33. James Aborcromby (afterwards baron Dun- 
fermline). Feb. 19. 

1839. Charles Shaw Lefovre (afterwards visootmt 
Eversley), -May 27. 

1S57. John Evelyn Denison, April 30. 



SPEAKING-TRUMPET, used by ships at sea. One is said to have been used by 
Alexander, 335 B.C. One was constructed from Kircher's description by Salaiid, 1652. 
Philosophically explained and brought into notice by Moreland, 1671. 

SPECIES. Mucli controversy among naturalists arose in consequence of tlie piib- 
lication, in 1859, of Mr. Charles Darwin's "Origin of Species," in which he suggests that 
all tlie various species of animals were not created at one time, but have been gradually 
developed by what he terms "natural selection," and the struggle for life of the strong 
against the weak. 

SPECTACLES, unknown to the ancients, are generally supposed to have been invented 
by Alexander de Spina, a monk of Florence, in Italy, about 1285. According to Dr. Plott, 
they were' invented by Roger Bacon, about 1280. Mr. Manni in his Treatise gives proof 
in favour of Salvino being the inventor. 

SPECTATOR. The first number of this periodical appeared on Jlareh i, 171 1 ; the last 
■was No. 635, Dec. 20, 17 14. The papers by A<ldisou have one of the letters c L i o at the 
end. The most of the other papers are by sir Piichard Steele, a few by Hughes, Budgell, 
Eusden, Miss Shephard, and others.— The Spectator newspaper began in 1S28. 

SPECTRUM, the term given to the image of the sun or any other luminous body formed 
on a wall or screen, by a beam of light received through a small hole or slit and refracted 
by a prism. The colours thus produced are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and 
violet. The discovery was made by Newton, whose "0[)tics" were published in 1704. 



SPE 682 SPI 

Several of these colours are considered to be compoimds of three primary ones, by Mayer 
<i775), red, yellow, and blue ; by Dr. Thos. Young (1801), red, green, and violet ; by Prof. 
Clerk Maxwell (i860), red, green, and blue.* As the colour of a flame varies according to 
the substance producing it or introduced into it, so the spectrum varies also. This has led 
to the invention of a method of chemical analysis by professors Bunsen and Kirchhoff (i860), 
bv which the}' liave discovered two new metals, and have drawn conclusions as to the nature 
of the atmosphere of the sun and stars, and of tlie light of the nebuloB, by comparing the 
spectrum with that produced by flames into which iron, sodium, and other substances have 
been introduced. f 

SPECULATIVE SOCIETY, Edinburgh (wliich had included amongst its members 
David Hume), celebrated its hundredth anniversary on Oct. 14, 1863. 

SPHERES. The celestial and terrestial globes, and also sun-dials, are said to have 
been invented by Anaximander, 552 B.C. ; and the armillary sphere by Eratosthenes, about 
225 B.C. The planetarium was constructed by Archimedes before 212 B.C. Pythagoras 
maintained that the motions of the twelve spheres must produce delightful sounds, inaudible 
to mortals, which he called the music of the spheres. 

SPINNING was ascribed bj' the ancients to Minerva, the goddess of wisdom. Areas, 
king of Arcadia, taught his subjects the art about 1500 B.C. Lucretia with her maids was 
found spinning, when her husband Collatinus paid a visit to her from the camp. The wife 
of Tarquin was an excellent spinner ; and a garment made by her, worn by Servius Tullius, 
was preserved in the temple of Fortune. Augustus Ca^.sar usually wore no garments but such 
as were made by his wife, sister, or daughter. The spinning-wheel was invented at 
Brunswick, about a.d. 1530. Till 1767, the spinning of cotton was performed by the hand 
spinning-wheel, when Hargreaves, an ingenious mechanic, near lilackburn, made a spinning 
jenny, with eight spindles. Hargreaves also erected the first carding machine, with 
cylinders. Arkwright's machine for spinning by water was an extension of the principle of 
Hargreaves ; but he also applied a large and snndl roller to expand the thread, and, for this 
ingenious contrivance, took out a patent in 1769. At first he worked his machinery by 
horses ; but in 1771 he built a mill on the stream of the Derwent, at Cromford. In 1774-9, 
Crompton invented the Mule (which sec). 

SPIRES (in Bavaria). The emperors held many diets at Spires since 1309, and it was the 
seat of the Imperial chamber till 168S, wlien the city was burnt by the French, and not 
rebuilt till after the peace of Ryswick, in 1697. The diet to condemn tlie reformers was 
held at Spires, called there by the emperor Charles V. 1529. See Protestants. 

SPIPvIT-KAPPING, &c. Spiritual manifestations (so called) began it is said in America, 
about 184S, and attracted attention in this country about 1S51, in the shape of table-turning, 
&c. Many inquisitive or credulous persons visited Mr. Hume and Mr. Forster, noted 
"spiritual mediums." 

SPIRITS. See Distillation. In all nations spirituous liquors have been considered as a 
proper subject of heavy taxation for the support of the state. See Alcohol, Brandy, Methij- 
latcd Sjnrits, d-c. 

Ill 1S40 Kngland made about ten millions of gallons' In 185S, 9,195,154?. was paid as duty on 27,370,934 

of spirits, Scotland about seven millions of gallons, j gallons. 

and Ireland about nine millions of gallons. I In 1855, methylated spirits of wine, for use in tliearta 

In 1S51 the number of gallons on which duty was and sciences, were made duty free. 

paid for home consumption was 23,976,596. The In 1S59, 27,657,721 gallons of spirits were distilled in 

total amount paid was 6,017,218?., of which ' the United Kingdom. The uniform duty of 8«. 

3,758,186?. were paid by England, 1,252,297?. by | per gallon was paid on 24,254,403 gallons for home 

Scotland, and 1,006,735?. by Ireland. | consumption, producing 9,701,764?. 

The total duty on home consuniptiun paid in 1853 In 1S61 an act was passed repealing whoUy or in part 

was 6,760,422?. I 26 ^previous acts, and embodying all regulations for 

' the guidanceof manufacturers and dealers in spirits 

SPITALFIELDS (East London). Here the French Protestant refugees settled and 
established the silk manufacture in 1685. In consequence of commercial changes the 
weavers endured mucli distress about 1829. 

' Frcnoihnfer's Lines. In 1802 Dr. Wollaston observed several dark lines in the solar spectrum ; in 
1815 Joseph Fraunhofer not only observed them but constructed a map of them, giving 590 lines or dark 
bands. By the researches of Brewster and others tlie number observed is now above 2000. 

t Air. Fox Talbot observed the orange line of strontium in the spectrum in 1826: and sir David 
Brewster observed other lines, 1S33-42-3. In 1S62-3 Mr. Wm. Huggins analysed the light of the fi.xed stars 
and of the nebuhe ; and in 1865 Dr. Benoe Jones, by means of spectrum analyses, detected the presence of 
luinute quantities of metals in tha living body, iiitoduoad only a fev/ minutes previously. 



SPI 683 STA 

SPITZBERGEN, an archipelago in the Arctic ocean, discovered in 1553, by sir Hugh 

Willoughb}', who called it Greenland, supposing it to be a part of the western continent. 

In 1595 it was visited by Barentz and Cornelius, two Dutchmen, who yjretended to be the 

1 original discoverers, and called it Spitzbergen, or sharp mountains, from the many sharp 

pointed and rocky mountains with wluch it abounds. See Phipps. 

SrOXTANEOUS GENERATION. The origin of the germs of infusorial animalcules 
devclo])cd during putrefaction, &,c., has been and is still fiercely debated by naturalists. 
Spallanzani (about 1766), and especially M. Pasteur and others at the present time (1865), 
assert that these germs are really endowed with organic life existing in the atmosjihere. 
Needham (about 1747), and especially M. Pouchet and his friends in our day, p)retcnd that 
these germs are spontaneously formed out of organic molecules, and may be formed- 
artiticiall}\ Pouchet's " Beterogenie," appeared in 1859. 

SPORTS. The frsi "Book of Sports," under the title of "The King's Majestie's 
Declaration to his Subjects concerning Lawful Sports to be used " on Sundays after evening 
prayers, was published b}' king James I. May 24, 1618. The second " Book of Sports, " with 
a ratification by his majesty Charles I. is dated Oct. 18, 1633. On the publication of the 
first " Book of Sports," there arose a long and violent controversy among English divines 
on certain jioints. See Sabbatarians, Sunday, &c. The book was ordered to be burnt by 
the hangman and the sports were suppressed by the parliament. 

SPRINGFIELD (Missouri), near which was fought the desperate battle of Wilson's 
i Creek, in which the federals liad the advantage over the confederates, but lost their brave 
1 general, Nathaniel Lyon, Aug. 10, 1861. 

SPURS. Anciently the difference between the knight and esquire was, that the knight 
wore gilt spurs {cqucs auratus) and the esquire silver ones. Two sorts of spurs seem to have 
been in use at the time of the Conquest, one called a pryck, having only a single point, the 
other a number of points of considerable size. Spurs nearly of the present kind came into 
use about 1400. See Plating. 

SPURS, Battle of. Henry VIII. of England, the emperor Jlaximilian, and the Swiss, 
in 15 13, entered into an offensive alliance against France. Henry VIII. landed at Calais iu 
the month of July, and soon fonnod an army of 30,000 men, counting his own troops. He 
was joined by the emperor with a good corps of horse and some foot. The emperor was so 
mean as to act as a mercenary to the king of England, who allowed him a hundred ducats a 
day for his table ! They invested Teroiienne with an army of 50,000 men ; and the due dc 
Longueville, marching to its relief, was signally defeated on the i6th of August, at Guine- 
gate. This battle was called the battle of Simrs, because the French used their sinirs more 
ithan they did their swords. The English king laid siege to Tournay, which submitted in a 
few days. Ile'nault. Sec Conrtrai, for another "battle of spurs." 

STADE DUES. At a castle near the town of Stade, in Hanover, certain dues were 
charged by the Hanoverian government on all goods imported into Hamburg. The British 
government .settled these dues in 1844; and they were resisted by the Americans in 1855. 
Negotiations on the .subject began iu i860, and the dues were abolished in June, 1861. 
Great Britain paid i6o,oooZ. as her share of the compensation. 

STADTHOLDER. See Holland. 

STAFF COLLEGE (Sandhurst), for providing an education to qualify military officers 
for the duties of tlie staff. The foundation stone was laid by the duke of Cambridge, on 
Dec. 14, 1859. 

STAGE-COACHES. So called from the stages or inns at which the coaches stopped to 
refresh and change horses. Bailey. The stage-coach duty act pas.sed in 1785. These 
coaches were made subject to salutary provisions for the safety of passengers, iu 1S09 ; to 
mileage duties, 18 14. See Mail Coaches, &c. 

STAI\tP-DUTIES, first instituted in 1671. They were re-enacted 1694, when a duty was 
imposed upon paper, vellum, and parchment. The stamp-duty on newspapers was com- 
mcnced in 1713, and every year added to the list of articdes upon which stamp-duty was 
made payable. 

The American Stamp Act, a memorable statute. j Stamp duties in Ireland commenced 



one of tho.se imposts levied Viy the parliament 
of (h'cat Britain, which led \o the American 
war, and the independence nf that country, 
l)a>sjd March 22, 1765. It was repeal, d in . 1766 



Stamps on notes and bills of exchange in . 
The stamp-duties produced in England, in iSoo, 

a revenue of 3,126,535^ 
Many alterations mide iu 1353 and 1S57. In 



STA 681 ST A 

STAMP-DUTIES, continued. 

June, 1855, the stamp-duty on newspapers as 1 (on leases, bills of exchange . dock wairants, 

such was totally abolislied : the stamp uu j extracts from registers of births, kc.) ; in 

them being henceforth for postal purposes. [ 1861 (on leases, licences to hou'^e agents, etc J. 

In July and Aug. 1854, 19,115,000 newspaper Stamp-duties rcdiiced in 1864, 1865. 

stamj)s were issued ; iu the same months, \ All fees payable in the suiierior courts of law, 

1S55, only 6,870,000. I after Dec. 31, 1865, are to be collected by 

Drafts on bankers to bo stamped . . . . 185S ' stamps, by an act passed in June, 1865. 

Additional stamp duties were enacted in 1S60 i 

AMOUNT OF STAMP DUTIES RECEIVED IX THE UNITED KINGDOM. 

1840 .... .€6,726,817 I 1850 .... £6,558,332 I 1859 (to Mar. 31) . . £7,994,636 
1845 7,710,683 I 1855 6,805,605 I 1864 (ditto) . . 9,324,850 

STANDARD. First fi.Ked by the law ffji- gold and silver in England, 1300. Standard 
gold is 22 parts ont of 24 of pure gold, the other two parts or carats being silver or copper, 
The standard of silver is 11 oz. 2 dwts. of fine silver alloyed with 18 dwts. of copper, or 37 
I^arts out of 40 pure silver, and three parts copper. In 1300 these 12 oz. of silver were 
coined into 20 shillings; in 1412 they were coined into 30 sliillings ; and in 1527 into 45 
shillings. In 1545, Henry Vlll. coined 6 oz. of silver and 6 oz. of alloy into 48 shillings ; 
and the next year he coined 4 oz. of silver and 8 oz. of alloy into the same sum. Elizabeth, 
in 1560, restored the old standard in 60 shillings ; and in 1601 in 62 shillings. It is now 66 
shillings. The average proportions of silver to gold at the royal mint are 154 to i. The 
standard of plate and silver manufactures was affirmed, 6 Geo. I. 17 19 ct s?q. See Gold and 
Coi'^agfc— Battle of the Standard. See Northallerton. 

STANDARD MEASURES. In the reign of Edgar a law was made to prevent frauds 
arising from the diversity of measures, and for the establishment of a legal standard measure 
to be used in every part of his dominions. The standard vessels made by order of the king 
were deposited in the city of Winchester, and hence originated the well-known term of 
" Winchester measure." The bushel so .made is still preserved in the guildhall of that city. 
Henry I. also, to prevent frauds in the measurement of cloth, ordered a standard yard of the 
length of his own arm to be made and deposited at Winchester, with the standard measures 
of king Edgar. The Guildhall contains the standard measures of succeeding sovereigns. 
Camden. — The standard weights and measures were settled by parliament in 1824. The 
pound troy was to be 5760 grains, aud the pound avoirdujjois 7000 grains. The " Standard 
yard of 1760," in the custody of the clerk of the house of commons, was declared to be the 
Imperial Standard yard aud the unit of measures of extension. This standard having been 
destroyed by the fire in 1834, a new commission was appointed to reconstruct it, and 
researches for this purpose, in conformity with the act, which directed the comparison of the 
standard with a pendulum vibrating seconds of time in the latitude of London, were begun 
by Francis Baily (died iu 1844), continued by the rev. R. Sheep-shanks till his death in 1855, 
and completed by G. II. Aiiy, astronomer royal. In 1855 was passed "an act for legalising 
and preserving the lost standards of weights and measures." The parliamentary cojiies of the 
standard pound and yard are deposited at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. 

STANDARDS. See Banners, Flags, &c. The practice in the army of nsing a cross on 
standards and shields is due to the asserted miraculous appearance of a cross to Constantine, 
previou-sly to his liattle with Maxentius ; Eusebius says that he received this statement from 
the emperor himself, 312. For the celebrated French standard, sec A urijlamme. — Standard 
OF Mahomet ; on this ensign no infidel dared look. It was carried in procession about 
1768, wlien several hundred Christians, who ignorantly looked upon it, were massacred by 
the Turkish populace. — The British Imperial Standard was first hoisted on the Tower of 
London, and on Bedford Tower, Dublin, and displayed by the Foot Guards, on the union of 
the kingdoms, Jan. i, 1801. 

STANFORD BRIDGE, York. In 1066, To.stig, brother of Harold II., rebelled against 
liis brother, and joined the invading army of Harold Hardrada, king of Norway. They 
defeated the northern earls and took York, but were defeated at Stanford-bridge by Harold, 
Sept. 25, and were both slain. The loss by this victory no doubt led to his own ruin at the 
battle of Hastings on Oct. 14, following. 

STANHOPE ADIMINISTRATION was formed by James (afterwards earl) Stanhope and 
the earl of Sunderland in April, 171 7. It included earl Stanhope, chancellor of the exche- 
quer ; earl Cowper, lord chancellor ; earl of Sunderland and Joseph Addison, secretaries of 
state, &c. In March, 1718, Addison resigned, and the earl of Sunderland became premier. 

STANNARY COURTS of Devon and Cornwall for the administration of justice among 



STA 685 STA 

the tin iiiiiieis, wliose privileges were confirmed hy 33 Edw. I. 1305. They were regulated 
liy pailiiuncnt iu 1641 and 1855. 

STAKOII is a sediment produced at the bottom of vessels wherein wlu^at has been 
steeped iu water : it is soft and friable, easily broken into powder, and is used to stiffen and 
clear linen, with blue ; its powder is employed to powder the hair. The art of starching 
linen was brought into England by Jlrs. Dinghein, a Flemish woman, i Mary, 1553. Slon: 
Patents for obtaining starch from other substances have been taken out : iVom i)otatoes by 
Samuel Newton and others in 1707 ; from the horse-chestnut by Wm. Murray in 1796 ; from 
rice by Thomas Wickham in 1823 ; from various matters by Orlando Jones in 1839-40. 

STAE-CHAMBEIJ, Court of. So called haply from its roof being garnislied with stars. 
Coke. This court of justice was called Star-Chamber, not from the sta7~s on its roof (whieli 
were obliterated even before the reign of queen Elizabeth), but from the Starra, or Jewish 
covenants, deposited there by order of Richard I. No star was allowed to bo valid except 
found in those repositories, and here they remained till the banisliment of the Jews by 
Edward 1. The court was instituted 2 Hen. VII. i486, for trials by a committee of tlio 
])rivy council, whieli was in violation of IMagna Charta ; as it dealt with civil and criminal 
causes unfettered by the rules of law. In Charles I.'s reign (1634-37), it exercised its ])owcr 
xipon several bold innovators iu liberty, who only gloried in their sulferings, and contributed 
to render government odious and contemptible. It was abolished iu 1641. There were in 
this court froni 26 to 42 judges, the lord chancellor having the casting voice. 

STAR OF INDIA, a new order of knighthood for India, gazetted June 25, 1861.* 

STARS, THE Fixed. They were classed into constellations, it is supposed, about 
1200 B.C. Hicetas, of Syracuse, taught that the sun and the stars were motionless, and 
that the earth moved round them, about 344 B.C. (this is mentioned by Cicero, and perha})s 
gave the first hint of this system to Copernicus). Job, Hesiod, and Homer mention 
several of the constellations. The Royal Library at Paris contains a Chinese chart of the 
heavens, made about 600 B.C. in which 1460 stars are correctly inserted. The aberration of 
the stars was discovered by Dr. Bradley, 1727. See Asfyonomy and Solar Si/stem. Maps 
of the stars were publishe<l by the Society for the Diffusion of Knowledge in 1839, and a set 
of Celestial Maps, issued under the superintendence of the Royal Prussian Acadeni}', was 
completed in 18159. 

STATE PAPER OFFICE was founded in 1578. In 1857 the British government began 
the publication of Calendars of State Papers, which will be invaluable to future historians. 

STATES-GENERAL of FRANCE. An ancient assembly of Franco, first met, it is said, 
in 1302 to consider the exactions of the pope. Previously to the Revolution, it had not met 
since 16 14. The states consisted of three orders, the clergy, nobility, and commons. They 
were convened by Louis XVI. and assembled at Versailles, May 5, 1789 (30S ecclesiastics, 
285 nobles, and 621 dej)iities or tiers etat). A contest arose whether the three orders should 
make three distinct houses, or but one assembly. The commons insisted upon the latter, and, 
assuming the title of the National Assembly, declared that they were competent to proceed 
to business, without the concurrence of the two other orders, if they refused to join them. 
The nobility and clergy found it exiiedient to concede the })iiiiit, and they all met in one 
hall. See ^'alional Assembly. 

STATES OF THE CHURCH. See Pope and Rome. 

STATIONERS. Books and papers were formerly sold only at stalls, hence the dealers 
M'ere calleil stationers. The company of stationers of Loudon is of great antii[uity, and 
existed long before printing was invented, yet it was not incorporated until 3 Philip & Mary, 
1555. Their old dwelling was in Paternoster-row. Mortimer. 

STATISTICS, defined as the science of figures applied to life, is stated to have been 
founded by sir Wm. Petty, who died iu 16S7. The term is said to have been invented by 
professor Achenwail of Giittingen in 1 749. The first statistical society in England was formed 
at Manchester in 1833 ; the Statistical Society of London, Avhieh publishes a quarterly 
journal, was established in 1834 ; similar societies have liceu established on the continent. 
International Statistical Congresses are now held occasionally. The ist at Brussels, in 1853 ; 
2nd at Paris, 1855 ; 3rd at Vienna, 1857 ; 4th at London, under the presidency of the 
prince consort, July 16-21, i860. 

* It comprises the sovereign, the graml master, 25 knigTits (Europeans aii'l natives), and extra or 
honorary kniithts, such as the ijriuce consort, the priucoof Wales, &c. The quoon invested several kuig-hts 
on Kov. I, 1C61. 



ST A 



686 



STE 



STATUES. See Sculpture, &c. Phidias, Avliose statue of Jupiter passed for one of the 
wonders of the workl, was the greatest statuary among the ancients, 440 B.C. He had 
])veviousIy made a statue of Minerva at the rei[uest of Pericles, whicli was placed in the 
Parthenon. It was made of ivory and gold, and measured 39 feet in height. Acilius raised 
a golden statue to his father, the first that appeared in Italy. Lysippus invented the art of 
taking likenesses in plaster moulds, from which he afterwards cast models in wax, 326 B.C. 
IMichael Angelo was the greatest artist among the moderns. The first equestrian statue 
erected in Great Britain was that of Charles I. in 1678.* By 17 & 18 Vict. c. 10 (July 10, 
1854), public statues are placed under the control and protection of the Board of Works. 
The following are the chief public statues in London : — 



Achilles, Hyde-park, in bonour of the duke of 

Wellington, by the ladies of Great Britain, 

Juno 18, 

Albert, prince consort, Horticultural Society 
gardens 

Anno, queen, St. Paul's Church-yard . . . 

Bedford, duke of, Russell-square 

Canning', George, New Palace-yard . . . 

Cartwright, major, Bui-ton Crescent . 

Charles I. Charing Cross 

Charles II. Sobo-square 

Cumberland, duke of, Cavendish-square . . 

Elizabeth, queen, St. Dunstau's, Fleet-street . 

Fox, Charles James, Bloomsbui-y-square . 

George I. Grosvenor-square 

George I. Leicester-square ..... 

George III. Somerset-house 



1816 
1726 



George III. Cockspur-street 
Havelock, sir Henry, Trafalgar-square . 
Howard, John ; first erected in St. Paul's . 
Jenner, Edward, Trafalgar- square, 1858 ; 
moved to Kensington-gardens . 

James II. Whitehall 

Myddelton, sir Hugh, Islington-green . 

Napier, gen. sir Charles J., Trafalgar-square 

Nelson, lord, Trafalgar-square . 

Pitt, William, Hanover-square 

Peel, sir Robert, Cheapside 

Richard Cceur de Lion, near Westminster abbey 

Wellington, duke of. Royal Exchange . 

Wellington, duke of, arch, Hyde-park corner 

William III. St. James's-squaro . 

William IV. King William-street . 

York, duke of, Waterloo-place . 



1836 
1 861 
1796 

1S62 
1687 
1862 
1856 
1843 
1 83 1 

1S55 
i860 
1844 
1846 
1717 
1845 
1834 



STATUTES. See Acts of Parliament, Clarendon, Merton, &c. The Statute Law 
Revision act was passed in 1863. 

STEAM CAERIAGE (for ordinary roads), invented by the carl of Caithness, was said to 
he successful in i860. It travels over rough roads at the rate of 8 miles an hour, at a cost 
of less than id. per mile. His lordship made a journey of 140 miles in two days. 

STEAILEXGINE and NAVIGATI0J7. Hero of Alexandria, in his "Pneumatics," 
describes various methods of employing steam as a power ; and to him is ascribed the 
^■Elopile, which, although a toy, possesses the properties of the steam-engine : he flourished 
about 284-241 B.C. Roger Bacon appears to have foreseen the aiiplication of steam-power. 
See Railways, Locomotives, &c. 

Solomon de Cans, a French protestant, pub- 

ILshes a worlc which Ar.ago considers to have 

contained the germs of the steam-engine . . 1615 
The marquess of Worcester alludes to steam in 

his " Century of Inventions " . . . . 1663 
Papin's digester invented . . . • . . 1681 
Captain Savery's engine constructed for raising 

■water 1698 

Papiu's engine exhibited to the Royal Society 

about 1699 
Atmospheric engine by Savery and Newcomen 171 3 
First idea of steam naviriatioii set forth in a 

patent obtained by Jonathan Hulls . . 1736 
Watt's invention of performing condensation 

in a separate vessel from the cylinder . . 1765 

His first patent 1769 

His engines upon a large scale erected in manu- 
factories, and his patent renewed by act of 

parliament 1775 

Thomas Paine proposes the application of 

steam in America 177S 

Engines made to give a rotary motion . . . ,, 

Watt's expansion engine ,, 

Double-action engines proposed by Dr. Falck 

on Newcomen's jsrinciple 1779 

Watt's double-engine, and his fii'st patent for it 

granted 1781 



The marquess Jouffroy constructed an engine 
on the yadne 1781 

Wm. Patrick Miller patented paddle-wheels . 1787 

[He and Mr. Symington arc said to have con- 
structed a small steamboat which travelled at 
about 5 miles an hour soon after.] 

W. Symina;ton made a j^as.sage on the Forth 
and Clyde canal 1789 

First steam-engine erected in Dublin by Henry 
Jackson 1791 

First experiment with steam navigation on the 
Thames iSoi 

Trevethick's high -pressure engine , 

Woolf's double cylinder expansion engine con- 
structed 1804 

Manufactories wanned by steam . ... 1806 

Fidton's steam-boat " Clermont" on the Seine, 
Aug. 9, 1S03 ; at New York . . . . ,, 

Fulton started a steam-boat on the river 
Hudson, America 1807 

Steam power to convey coals on a railway, 
employed by Blenkinsop 1811 

The Comet built by Henry Bell, plies on the Clyde, 

Jan. 1812 

Steam applied to printing in the Times ofBoe. 
See Printing Machines. 1814 



This statue is of brass, cast by Le Sueurs, in 1633, at the expense of the Howard-Arundel family. 
During the civil war, the parliamt-nt sold it to John River, a brazier, in Holborn, with strict orders to 
break it to pieces ; but he cancealed it underground till the Restoration, when it was erected, in 1678, on a 
pedestal executed by Grinlin Gibbons. The first equestrian statue of bronze, founded at one cast, was that 
of Louis XIV. of France, 1699 ; it was elevated .about 1724. 



STE 



6S7 



STE 



STEAM-ENGINE, continued. 
There wore five steam-vessels in Scotland (/'oW. 

Rdurm) 1814 

First steam-vessel on the Thames brought by 

Mr. Dodd from Glasgow 1815 

First steamer built in England (Pari. lieturiii) . ,, 
The Saimnndh steamer, of 350 tons, came from 
New York to Liverpool in 26 daj's July 15, 1S19 

First steamer in Ireland 1820 

Steam-gxni invented by Perkins .... 1824 

Steam-jet applied 1825 

Captain Johnson obtained io,oooi. for making 
the first steam voyage to India, in the Enter- 
prise, which sailed from Falmouth . Aug. 16, ,, 
The locomotive stea:n-carriagcs on railways, 

at Liverpool Oct. iSag 

The railway opened. See Liverpool . . . 1830 
Peninsular and Oriental Steam Company formed 1 836 
The Great IFf-s/o-ra arrives from Bri.stolat New 
York, being her first voyage in 18 day.s, 

June 17, 1838 

War-steamers built in England , 

War-steamers built at Birkenhead, named the 
J^emeais and Phlegethon, carrying each two 
thirty-two pounders, sent by government to 
China 1840 



Tlio Canard steamers began to 80,11 . Julys, 1840 
fSir Sam. Canard died April 28, 1865, aged 78.] 

The Collins steamers began 1850 

The Pacific crosses the Atlantic in 9 day.s, 

19 hours, 25 minutes, arriving at Holyhead, 

May 20, 1851 
Steam packets leave Galway for America . . 1S58 
The merits of an attacking vessel termed a 

steam ram advocated by sir G. Sartorius, were 

discussed in iSs9 60 

An iron-plated frigate. La Glolre, completed in" 

France. See Navi/, French i860 

The Warrior, an iron-plated vessel, launched, 

Dec. 29, ,, 
The Far East, a vessel with two screws, launclied 

at Mill wall Oct. 31, 186^ 



Steam vessels belonging to the Brifitsh empire in 
1814, 6 ; in 1815, 10 ; in 1820, 43 ; in 1825, 168 ; in 
1830, 315; in 1835, 545; in 1845, looi ; in 1850, 
1187 ; in 1864, 2490. 

See Navy and Shipping. 



Great Western 
Duke of Wellington . 
British Queen 
Great Britain . 
Himalaya 



THE LARGE STEAM VE.SSELS OF ENGLAND. 

Lonr/. Broad. 

. 236 feet 35 feet 

. . 240 feet 60 feet 

. 275 feet 61 feet 

. . 322 feet 51 feet 

. 370 feet 43 feet 



Long. Broad. 

Persia 390 feet 45 feet 

Great Eastern* . ... 692 feet 83 feet 

Horse Power : — Paddles, 1000 ; Screw, 1600 ; 

Weight of ship, &c., 12,000 tons ; ordinary 

light draught 1 2,000 tons. 



STEAM-HAJBIER Avas invented by Mr. James Na.smytli in 1838, and patented by liim 
June 18, 1842. The main feature in tlie construction of the steam-hammer is, the abso- 
lutely direct manner by which the elastic power of steam is employed to lift up and let fall 
the mass of iron whicli constitutes the hammer, which mass or block of iron is attached 
direct to the end of a piston-rod passing through the bottom of an inverted steam cylinder 
placed immediately over the anvil. The vast range and perfect control over the power of the 
blows enable the largest or smallest forge-work to be executed by the same steam-hammer, f 
In 1842, Mr. Nasm3^th applied his steam-hammer to driving piles, which invention has 
importantly assisted in the execution of every great public work in which pile-driving has 
been required. 

STEAM NAVIGATION. See under Sicam. 

STE A:\I-PL0UGH was invented by John Fowler, who died in 1864. 



* The Great Eastern — for a short time only (in 1857-8) called Leviathan — was designed by Mr. I. K. 
Brunei [who died Sept. 15, 1859], and built by Messrs. Scott Russell and Co., at Millwall. Its launching lasted 
from Nov. 3. 1857, to Jan. 31, 1858. The capital sub.scribed having been all expended, a new company was 
formed to fit her for sea. On Sept. 7, 1859, she left her moorings at Deptford for Portland-roads. On the 
voyage an explosion took place (off Hastings), througli some neglect in regard to the casing of one of the 
chimneys, when ten firemen were killed, and many persons seriously injured. After repairs she sailed 
to Holyiiead, arriving there Oct. 10 ; she endured the storm of Oct. 25-26 well ; and proceeded to South- 
ainptoii for the winter, Nov. 4. — She was constructed to convey 5000 persons from London to Australia, a 
distance of 22,500 miles ; with accommodation for Soo ist class passengers ; 2000 2nd class ; and 1200 3rd 
class. Her able captain (Harrison) was drowned in the Solent, Jan. 22, i860, deeply regretted. She sailed 
for New York, June 17, under command of captain Vine Hall, and arrived there jtnie 2Sth. After being 
exhibited she left Ne%v York, Aug 16, and returned to England Aug. 26. Owing to a lawsuit in April, the 
shij) came into the hands of sherifl''s officers ; but was released and sailed for New York on May i, 1861. 
On Sept. 12, 1861, .she siiffcred much loss through a violent gale. In 1S62 she performed several voyages 
to and from New York ; but on Aug. 1862, ran on a rock near Long Island, and injured her bottom. She 
was rcijaired .ind arrived at Liveri)ool, Jan. 17, 1863, and sailed to New York (May 16-27). The ship was 
bought by Glass, Elliot, and Co., in ilarch or April, 1864, and was chartered to convey the Atlantic 
telegraph cable. It sailed from Shecrnes.s, July 15 ; and returned, Aug. 19, 1865. See Electric Ttkgraph, 
p. 270. 

t It is now employed in every country where the working of malleable iron is can-ied on. Owing to 
the vast range of power possessed by the steam hammer, forged iron work can now by its means bo 
executed on a scale, and for a variety of purposes, with such ease and jicrfection as could not have been 
possible by the means previously existing. Parts of the most gigantic marine steam-engines, anchors, and 
Armstrong guns, as well as the most minute details of machinery, as in Enfield rifles, are now executed 
by the steam-hammer. 



STE 6S8 STE 

STEAM-RAM (to be used in naval warfare^ was invented by Mr. James Nasmyth in 
1836, and communicated to the Admiralty in 1S45. Steam-rams built by Mr. James Laii'd 
of Birkenhead for the confederates in N. America, -were stopped and eventually bought by 
the British government in 1864. 

STEARINE (from stcar, suet), that part of oils and fats wliicli is solid at common teni- 
]>eratures. The nature of tlicse siibstauces was first made known by Chevreul, in 1823, who 
showed that they were comjjounds of peculiar acids, with a base termed (jhjcerine ; of these 
compounds the chief are stearine, margarine, and elaine. See Candles. 

STEEL, metal, a compound of iron and carbon, exists in nature, and has been largely 
fabricated from the earliest times. A manufactory for cast steel is said to liave been set up 
by Benjamin Huntsman at Handsworth, near Slielheld, in 1740. The manufacture of shear 
steel began at Sheffield about 1 800. German steel was made at Newcastle previously by Mr. 
Crawley. The inventions of Mushat (1800) and Lucas (1804) were important stejis in this 
manufacture. See Engraving. In 1856, Air. H. Bessemer made steel by passing cold air 
through liquid iron ; in 1859, tungsten steel was made in Germany ; and in 1861, M. Fremy 
juade steel by bringing red hot iron in contact with carbonate of ammonia. The subject has 
been much investigated by M. Caron, 1 86 1-5. In i860, much attention was excited by 
cutlery made from a metallic sand, lu'ought from Taranaki or New Plymouth, in New 
Zealand. In consequence of improved modes, steel is now made cheaply in large masses, 
and will be employed in the manufacture of cannon, &c. 

STEEL PENS. "Iron pens" are mentioned liy Chamberlayne in 1685. Steel pens 
came into use about 1820, when the first gross of three-slit pens was sold wholesale iovjl. 4s, 
In 1830, the price was 8s., and in 1832, 65. A better pen is now sold for 6(1. a gross ; the 
cheapest sort at 2 tZ. ; Birmingham in 1858 produced about 1000 million pens per annum. 
Women and children are principally em2)loyed in the manufacture. Perry, Mitchell, and 
Gillott are eminent makers. 

STEEL- YARD. An ancient instrument, the same that is translated hala)icc in the Pen- 
tateuch. The Statcra Romana, or Roman steel-yard, is mentioned in 315 B.C. — The Steel- 
Yard CoMi'ANY, London merchants, who liad the steel-yard assigned to them by Henry III. 
A.D. 1232, were Flemings and Germans, and the only exporters, for many years after, of the 
staple commodities of England. Anderson. The company lost its privileges in 155 1. 

STEENKIRK. See Enghein. 

STENOGRAPHY (from stcnos, narrow), the art of short-hand, said to have been 
practised by the ancients. Its inijn-ovement is attributed to the poet Ennius, to Tyro, 
Cicero's freedman, and still more to Seneca. The Ars Seribcndi Characleris, written about 
1412, is the oldest system extant. Peter Bales, the fiimous penman, publislied on steno- 
graphy in 1590 ; an<l John Willis 'published his '^Stenographic " in 1602. There are now 
numerous systems : Byrom's (1750), Gurney's (1753), Taylor's (17S6), Pitman's (phono- 
graphic), (1857). . 

STEPHEN'S CHAPEL, ST., Westminster. The commons of England held their 
assemblies in this chapel, which was built by king Stephen, and dedicated about 1135. It 
was rebuilt b}^ Edward III. in 1347, and by him made a collegiate church, to which a dean 
:and twelve secular priests were appointed. Soon after its surrender to Edward VI., about 
1548, it was applied to the use of parliament. See Parliament. It was destroyed by fire, 
Oct. 16, 1834. The Society of Antiquaries published memorials of it about 1810 ; and Mr. 
Mackenzie's work appeared in 1844. 

STEREOCHROMY, a mode of painting in which water-glass (an alkaline solution of 
flint, silex) serves as the connecting medium between the colour and the substratum. Its 
invention is ascribed to Von Fuchs, who died at Munich on March 5, 1856. Fine specimens 
of this art by Kaulbach and Ecliter exist in the Museum at Berlin, and also at Munich. 

STEREOMETER, by which is compassed the art of taking the contents of vessels of 
liquids by gauging, invented about 1350. Amlcrson. M. Say's stereometer, for deter- 
mining the specific gravity of liquids, porous bodies, and powders as well as solids, was 
■described in I797- 

STEREOSCOPE (from stereos, solid, and sJ:(>2)cin, to sec), an optical instrument for 
representing in apparent relief natural objects, &c., by uniting into one image two plane 
representations of these objects as seen by each eye separately. The first stereoscope by 
reflection was constructed and exhibited by professor Charles Wheatstone in 1838, who 
announced its principle in 1833. Since 1S54, stereoscopes have been greatly improved. 



STE 689 STO 

STEREOTYPE (a cast from a page of moveable printing-types). It is said that stereo- 
typing was known in 171 1. It was practised by Wm. God of P^dinburgli, about 1730. Some 
of Ged's plates are at the Royal Institution, London.* A Mr. James attempted to introduce 
Gcd's process in London, but failed, about 1735. Nichols. Stereotype printing was in use 
in Holland, in the last century ; and a quarto Bible and a Dutch folio Bible were pi'inted 
there. Phillips. It was revived in London by "Wilson in 1804. Since 1850 the durability 
of stereotypes has been greatly increased by electrotypiug them with copper or sUver. 

STEELING (money). Camden derives the word from castcrling or estcrling, observing 
that the money brought from the east of Germany, in the reign of Eichard I., was the most 
esteemed on account of its purity, being called in old deeds, " nummi easierUng.'" 

STETHOSCOPE. In 1816 Laennec, of Paris, by rolling a quire of paper into a kind of 
cylinder, and applying one end to the patient's chest and the other to his own ear, perceived 
the action of the heart in a much more distinct manner than by the immediate application 
of the ear. This led to his inventing the stethoscope, or "breast-explorer;" the principle 
of which, now termed "auscultation," was known by Hippocrates. 

STEWARD OF England, Lord High. The first grand officer of the crown. This 
office was established prior to the reign of Edward the Confessor, and,was formerly annexed 
to the lordship of Hinckley, Leicestershire, belongifig to the family of Montfort, earls of 
Leicester, who were, in right thereof, lord high stewards of England ; but Simon de Mont- 
fort, the last earl of this family, having raised a rebellion against his sovereign Henry III., 
was attainted, and his estate lorfeited to the king, who abolished the office, 1265. It is now 
revived only 2}>'o hdc vice, at a coronation, or the trial of a peer. The first afterwards 
appointed was Thomas, second son of Henry IV. The first for the trial of a peer was 
Edward, earl of Devon, on the arraignment of the earl of Huntingdon, in 1400. The last 
was lord Denman at tlie trial of the earl of Cardigan, Feb. 16, 184 1. The duke of Hamilton 
was lord high steward at the coronations of William IV. and Victoria. 

STEWARD OF THE Household, Lord (an ancient office), has the sole direction of 
the king's house below-stairs ; he has no formal grant of his office, but receives his charge 
from the sovereign in person, who, delivering to him a white wand, the symbol of his office, 
says, "Seneschal, tenez le baton de notre maison." This officer has been called lord steward 
since 1540 ; previously to the 31st of Henry VIII. , he was styled grand master of the house- 
hold. His function as a judge was abolished in 1849. 

STICKLESTADT (Norway). Here Olaf II., aided by the Swedes, was defeated in his 
endeavours to recover his kingdom from Canute, king of Denmark, and slain, July 29, 1030. 
He was afterwards sainted, on account of his zeal for Christianity. 

STIRRUPS were unknown to the ancients. Gracchus fitted the highwaj-s with stones 
to enable the horsemen to mount. AVarriors had projections on their spears for the same 
purpose. Stirrups were used in the 5th century, but were not common even in the 12th. 

STOCKHOLM, capital of Sweden, was fortified by Berger Jarl in 1254. Here the 
Swedish nobility was massacred by Christian II. in 1528. 



Peace of Stockholm, between the king of Great 
Britain and the queen of Sweden, bj' which 
the former acquired the duchie.s of Bremen 
and Verden as elector of Brunswick, Nov. 20, 1719 



Treaty of Stockholm, between Sweden and 
Russia, in favour of the duke of Holstein- 
Gottorp March 24, 1724 

Another between England and Sweden, March 3, 1813 



STOCKINGS of silk were first worn by Henry II. of France, 1547. In 1560 queen 
Elizabeth was presented with a pair of kuit black silk stockings, by her silk-woman, 
Mrs. Montague, and she never wore cloth ones any more. Hoivell. He adds, " Henry VIII. 
wore ordinary cloth hose, except there came from Spain, by great chance, a pair of silk 
stockings ; for Spain very early abounded with silk." Edward VI. was presented with a pair 
of Spanish silk stockings by his merchant, sir Thomas Gresham ; and the present was then 
much taken notice of. Idem. Others relate that AVilliam Rider, a London apprentice, 
seeing at the Inuise of an Italian merchant a pair of knit woi'sted stockings from Mantua, 
made a pair like them, the first made in England, which he presented to the earl of 
Pembroke, 1564. Stow. The art of weaving stockings in n frame was invented in England 
by the rev. Mr. Lee, of Cambridge, in 1589, twenty-five years after he had learnt to knit 
them with wires or needles. Cotton stockings were first made in 1730. See Cotton. 

* In the library of this in.stitution is an edition of Sallust, (printed .at Edinburgh by William Ged 
fif Edinburgh, goldsmith, not with moveable types, as is commonly done, but with cast tablets or plates," 
with this imprint : " Edinburgi, GuHelmus Ged, auri f.aber Edineusis, uon typis mobilibus, ut vulgo fieri 
solet, sed tabellis seu laminis fusis, excudebat. 174.^-" 

Y Y 



STO 



690 



STO 



^TOOKPORT (in Cheshire) has hecome eminent on account of the cotton trade. 

^ere -utted, and their furniture and other contents smashed or bmut, June 29, 1852. 

STOCKS, in ^vhich drunkards were placed. The last in London was removed from 
St. Clement's Danes, Strand, Aug. 4, 1S26. 

^TOOKS The -public funding system originated in Venice, about 1 173, and was mtro- 
duceI?S?Flore^nce ^1340' The English fuSding system may be sard to have had rts rrse 
in 1690 



Act to prevent stock-jobbing, passed March, 
1714: repealed . . • ' „ ; " : ' 

The foundation of the Stock Exchange, m 
Capel-court, the residence of the lord mayor, 
Bir Wm. Capel, in 1504, was laid on May 18 
1 801 It was stated on the first stone that 
the public debt was then 552,73o,924(. 

The memorable Stock Exchange hoax, for 
which lord Cochrane, the celebrated admn-al 
Johnstone, and others were convicted, teb. 
22 1814 Lord Cochrane was in consequence 
expelled the house of commons. His inno- 
cence was afterwards proved, and he was 
restored to his rank by king WiUiam IV., and 
to the honours belongmg to it by queen 

Stock-exchange coffee-house destroyed by^fire, 



The number of stock-holders in 1840 amounted 

to 337,481. , 

Three per cent, annuities created . . • 1720 
Three per cent, consols created . . • • 173' 
Three per cent, reduced . . z^, • • ^74° 
Three per cent, annuities, payable at the boutn 

Sea-house . . • • ■ ■ , / " ^'^^l 
Three-and-a-half per cent, annuities created . 1750 

Long annuities ^7°! 

Four per cent, consols \ ^l 

Five per cent, annuities . . . i797 and 1802 
Five per cents, reduced to four . . • • 1022 
Old four per cents, reduced to three-and-a-hall 

in ^^^4 

Further reductions made in 1825, 1830, 1834, 

1841, and 1844: the maximum being now 

three per cent. 



r .1 .^^;„o ^f +V,P ■niiV.lic funds by the commissioners for the reduction 

per annum) averaged m the year— 



1749 
1780 

1785 
1790 
179s 



1798 
1800 
1805 
1810 
1815 



£59 10 

66 3 
58 14 

67 16 
58 13 



1820 
1825 
1830 



£68 12 
90 o 
89 15 
89 17 



1845 



1850 
1852 



1863, 
1864, 



• £93 2 
. 86 15 
. 96 10 
. 99 12 



from £94 to £90 

9'i .. 87i 



. £100 o 

. . 63 13 

. 68 6 

74 8 

The price of £100 stock varied in . , .„ .ps, 

x8s3,from£xox to £90! 1 1856, from £96^ to £87| h 59, f-m ^Qji to £ 9 
1854 „ 96 „ 85I i8S7, ,. 95l .. 86| 1861, „ 94, ,. 89. 

1855! " 93I » 86| 1 1858. „ 98I „ 94 1 1862, „ 94i „ 90B 1 

^TOTr<^ dificiDles of Zeno, the philosopher (about 290 B.C.) ; obtained the name J^ecause 
they'Sd'rt^nstructions i^ a po^rch or P^^o at Athens,^ c^^^^^^^ Greek ^.^^ 
Zeno taught, that man's supreme happine.ss consisted m living agieeaDiy to u 
reason, aSd that God was the soul of the world. Stanley. . , „ , 

sit! an'/st3T"ose lit was spared, 'was afterwards employed m the king's household 
^TOT^F BUILDINGS, &c. Stone buildings were introduced into England, bya ^ 
stoSge wl^^mlt at'Bow, in ,087 and i-counte^d th^^^^^^^^^^^^ -st.^at 

Crowland -l-h - sa^'i to -ve been bu^ in ^^o- S e ^-^^;-^^ j^^^^^^ ,^^,1 , 
\",6r ttTS sTot' or statues wl"m:ii^;factured by a Neapolitan, and introduced into 
iS'and 177 r Sto'ne paper was made in 1776. See Ransom^s ArU^al Stone. 

°ciTO^FHFNGE (on Salisbury-plain, Wiltshire) is said to have been erected on the 

hent -here lat were made, justice administered, and heinous crimes punished 

STONE OPERATION. Extracting stone from the bladder was first P;rfo™'^<i b^ 
STOI«IL ^/^^^{^;,^^ ^ ^^t 2 ° Cutting for the stone was first performed on a 

^rr^aT^tlirii int;:: SUtss. A remedy discovered by Mrs. Stevens, for which 

she was rewarded by government, 1 739- See Lithotomy. 



STO 



C91 



STO 



STORMS. The following are among the best authenticated and most memorable. In 
London a storm raged which destroyed 1 500 houses, 944. One in several parts of England, 
the sky being very dark, the wind coming from the S.W. ; many churches were destroyed ; 
and in London 500 liouses fell, Oct. 5, 1091. One on the coast of Calais, when Hugh de 
Beauvais and several thousand foreigners, on their voyage to assist king John against the 
barons, jierished, 1215. Holinshed. See Meteorology. 



It thundered 15 days successively, with tempests of 
rain and wind, 1233. ' 

Storm with violent lightnings ; one flash passed 
through a chamber where Edward I. and his 
queen were conversing, did them no damage, but 
killed two of their attendants, 1285. Hoveden. 

Violent storm of hail near Chartres, in France, which 
fell on the army of Eilward III. then on its march. 
The hail was so large that the army and horses 
suffered very much, and Edward was obliged to 
conclude a peace, 1339. Matt. Paris. 

When Richard II. 's queen came from Bohemia, on 
her setting foot on shore an awful storm arose, 
and her ship and a number of others were dashed 
to pieces in the harbour, Jan. 1382. Holinshed. 

Richard's second queen also brought a stonn with 
her to the English coasts, in which the king's 
baggage was lost, and many ships cast away, 1396. 
Idem. 

Hurricane throughout Europe, which did very con- 
siderable dam.ige, on Sept. 3, 1658, the day that 
Cromwell died. Mortimer. 

Storm on east coast of England : 200 colliers and 
coasters lost, with most of their crews, 1696. 

The " Crreat Storm," one of the most terrible that 
ever raged in England. The devastation on land 
was immense ; and in the harbours and on the 
coasts, the loss in shipping and in lives was still 
greater, Nov. 26-27, 1703.* 

Snow-storm in Sweden, when 7000 Swedes, it is 
said, perished upon the mountains, in their march 
to attack Drontheim, 1719. 

One in India, when many htmdrcds of vessels were 
cast away, a fleet of Indiamen greatly damaged, 
and some ships lost, and 30,000 persons perished, 
Oct. II, 1737. 

Dreadful hurricane at the Havanah : many public 
edifices and 4048 houses were destroyed, and 1000 
inhabitants perished, Oct. 25, 1768. 

Awful storm in the North of England, in which many 
vessels -were destroyed, and four Dublin packets 
foundered, Oct. 29, "1775. 

One at Surat, in the East Indies ; destroyed 7000 of 
the inhabitants, April 22, 17S2. 

One hundred and thirty-one villages and farms laid 
waste in France, 17S5. 

One general throughout Great Britain : several 
hundred sail of shipping destroyed or damaged, 
Oct. 6, 1794. 

One which did vast damage in London, and through- 
out almost the whole of England, Nov. 8, 1800. 

A tremendous storm throughout Great Britain and 
Ireland, by which immense damage was done, and 
many sliips wrecked, Dec. 16 17, 1814. 

An awful gale, by which a great number of vessels 
were lost, and much damage was done to the 
shipping in general on the English coast, Aug. 31, 
1816. 

l^readful hurricane, ravaged the Leeward Islands, 
from the acta to 22nd Sept. 1819. At the island of 
St. Thomas alone, 104 vessels were lost. 



Great storm along the coast from Durham to Corn- 
wall ; many vessels lost, Nov. 1821. 

In Ireland, particularly in the vicinity of DubUn, 
many houses were thrown down, and vast num- 
bers unroofed, Dec. 12, 1822. 

Awful storm on the coast of England : many vessels 
lost, and 13 driven ashore and wrecked in Ply- 
mouth alone, Jan. 12-13, 1828. 

At Gibraltar, where more than 100 vessels were de- 
stroyed, Feb. 18, 1828. 

Dreadful storm at the Cape of Good Hope, where 
immense property was lost, July 16, 1831. 

A hurricane visited London and its neighbourhood, 
which did great damage to the buildings, but 
without the destruction of human life, though 
many serious accidents occurred, Oct. 28, 1838. 

Awful hurricane on west coast of England, and in 
Ireland. The storm raged through Cheshire, 
Staflbrdshire, and Warwickshire ; 20 jiersons were 
killed in Liverpool, by the falling of buildings, 
and 100 were drowned in the neighbourhood ; the 
coast and harbours were covered with wrecks ; 
the value of two of the vessels lost being nearly 
half-a-million sterling. In Limerick, Galway, 
Athlone, and other places, more than 200 houses 
were blown down, and as many more were burnt, 
the winds spreading the fires. Dublin suffered 
dreadfully ; London ani its neighbourhood scarcely 
sustained any damage, Jan. 6-7, 1839. 

[The winter of 1S52-3 (Dec. and Jan.) was one of 
storms, many of which were very destructive, 
particularly to shipping.] 

Great storm in the Black Sea, Nov. 13-16, 1854, 
causing much loss of life, shipping, and stores sent 
for the allied armies in the Crimea. 

Great storm on N. coast of Europe, <fec., Dec. 31, 1854. 

Great storm on N. E. coast of Scotland ; 42 fishermen 
lost, Nov. 23, 1857. 

Dreadful storm on the night Oct. 25-26 : the Royal 
Charter totally lost, and many other vessels ; 
another storm Oct. 31, and Nov. i, 1859. 

Great storm in the channel causing much loss of 
life and property, Jan. i, i860. 

Dreadful gales, doing much mischief, Feb. 26, 27, 2S ; 
May 28 ; and June 2, i860. 

Great storm : part of the Crystal palace blown down ; 
Chichester cathedral steeple fell, Feb. 20, 21, 1S61. 

Great storm on British coasts, 143 wrecks. May 28, 
1 861. 

Storm on the north-east ; 50 wi-ecks, Nov. 13, 14, 
1 861. 

At Market Laverton, &c. ; h.ail six and seven feet 
deep ; much damage to crops ; Sept. 2, 1862. 

Storm on British coasts ; very many wrecks ; Oct. 
ig, 20, 1862. 

There were severe gales, doing much damage and 
loss of life, Jan. 19, &c., 1863 ; and Jan. 14, (fee, 
1865. (See under Wrecls.) 

Dreadful hurricance in the Indian Ocean, «fec. (see 
Cyclone, Calcutta), Oct. 5, 1864. 

Hiu-ricane at Lisbon, causes much damage ; worst 
for many years, Dec. 13, 1864. 



• The loss sustained in London alone was calculated at 2,000,000?. sterling. The number of persons 
drowned in the floods of the Severn and Thames, and lost on the coast of Holland, and in ships blown 
from their am-hors and never heard of afterwards, is thought to have been 8000. Twelve men-of-war, with 
more than 1800 men on board, were lost within sight of their own shore. Trees were torn up bj' the roots, 
17,000 of them in Kent alone. The Eddystone light-house was destroyed, and in it the ingenious contriver 
of it, Winstanloy, and the persons who'wcre with him. The bishop 'of Bath and Wells and his lady were 
killed in bed in their palace in Somersetshire, Multitudes of cattle were also lost : in one level 15,000 
sheep were drowned. 

Y Y 2 



STO 692 STR 



STORTHING, the Norwegian parliament, said to have been first held at Bergen by 
Haclio V. in 1223. 

STOVES The ancients used stoves which concealed the fire, as the German stoves yet 
do Thev licrhted the fire also in a large tube in the middle of the room, the root being open. 
Apartments were warmed by portable braziers. Stoves on this old principle, improved, con- 
tinue in use in many houses and public establishments in England, and generally on the 
continent. See Chimneys and Cottager's Stove. 

STRAITS SETTLEMENTS, including Malacca, Penang or Prince of Wales island, and 
Singapore, were made a separate dependency of the British crown in 1S53, and placed under 
the governor-general of India. 

STRAND (London). Houses were first built upon the Strand about 1353, at which 
period it was the court end of the town, or formed the communication between the two cities 
of London and \Yestminster, being then open to the Thames and to the helds. Somerset 
and other palaces were erected 1549-1605. Stow. The Strand bridge was commenced Oct. 11, 
181 1. See Waterloo Bridge. The Strand improvements were commenced in 1829. 

STRASBURG the Vyomaw Argentoratum, the capital of Alsace. Here Julian defeated 
the AUemanni, 357. This town, formerly imperial, was taken by Louis XIV. in i6bi. 
The citadel and fortifications, which he constructed, have been so much augmented, that 
Strasburgmay be considered one of the strongest places in Europe. It was confirmecl to 
France by the peace of Ryswick in 1697. Strasburg is remarkable for its magnificent cathe- 
dral and tower, the latter, the loftiest in the world. An attempt at insurrection in the city 
was made Oct. 30, 1836, by prince Louis Napoleon (afterwards president ot the J^rench 
republic, and now emperor), aided by two officers and some privates. It was instantly 
suppressed by their arrest. The prince was then shipped off to America by the Irene h 
government. See France. 

STRATHCLUYD, a kingdom formed by the Britons, who retired northward after the 
Saxon conquest, about 560. It extended from the Clyde to Cumberland. The Britons in it 
submitted to Edward the Elder, in 924. 

STRATHMORE, Countess of. Miss Bowes of Durham, the then richest heiress in 
Europe whose fortune was 1,040,000^. with vast additions on her mother's death, and 
immense estates on the demise of her uncle, married the earl of Strathmore Feb. 25, 1766. 
Havino- after the earl's death, married Mr. Stoney, she was forcibly earned off by him and 
other armed men, Nov. 10, 1786. She was brought uj) to the King's Bench by haUas corpus 
and released, and he committed to prison, Nov. 23. The lady recovered her estates, which 
slie had assigned to her husband under the influence of terror, in May, 1 788. 

STR\TTON-HILL, Battlf, of, in Cornwall, May 16, 1643, between the royal army 
under sir Ralph Hopto'n, and the forces of the parliament under the earl of Stamford. The 
victory was gained over the parliamentarians, who lost numbers in killed and wounded. 

STRAWBERRY-HILL, the Gothic villa of Horace Walpole, erected by him, 1753-76, at 
Twickenham, near London. In April and May, 1842, his collection of pictures, and articles 
of taste and virtii, were sold by auction for 29,615^. 8s. gd. 

STREET-MUSIC. An act was passed in 1864 for the better regulation of street-music 
in the metropolitan police districts. 

STREET RAILWAYS, previously established by Mr. Train in New York, were opened 
by him at Birkenhead, Cheshire, Aug. 30, i860, and at Bayswater, London, March 23,^ 1861. 
A street railway bill was rejected by the house of commons in April, 1861. Several ot these 
railways existed for a time in various parts of the metropolis in 1861, but were all taken up 
in 1862. 

STRELITZ, the impe^al guard of Russia, established by Ivan IV. in 1568. Becoming 
frequently seditions, it was suppressed by Peter the Great ; great numbers were put to death, 
many by the czar's own hand, 1697- 1704. 

STRIKES See Preston and London, 1 859-1 861. The tailors of London struck for 
increase of wages in April, 1834. The strike of tlie calico-printers of Glasgow, lasted nine 
months in 1834. The strike of the amalgamated engineers took place in 1852 ; and of the 
London cabmen, July 27-30, 1853. A strike amongst the silk- workers at Coventry came to 
an end Auo-. 30, i860. An unsuccessful attempt to get up a strike in the building trade 



STR 693 SUE 

began March 23, 1S61. A strike of the puddlers iu the iron trade occnrred in the siiriiKi- of 
1865. See Iron. ° 

STRONTIUM. The native carbonate of strontia was discovered at Strontian, in Argyle- 
shire, in 1787. Sir Humphry Davy first obtained from it the metal strontium in 1808.^ 

STRYCHNIA, a poisonous vegetable alkaloid, discovered in 1818 by Pelktier and 
Cayentou in the seeds of the stryclinus ignatia and nux vomica, and also in the upas poison. 
It is so virulent that half a grain blown into the throat of a rabbit occasions death in four 
minutes ; its operation is accompanied l)y lock-jaw. JMuch attention was given to strychnia 
in 1856, during the trial of William Talmer, who was executed for the murder of Cook, 
June 14, 1856. 

STUCCO-WORK was known to the ancients, and was much prized by them, particularly 
by the Romans, who excelled in it. Abbe Lenglet. It was revived by D'Udhie, about 1550 ; 
aud in Italy, France, and England in the i8th century. 

STYLE. The style was altered by Augustus Ctesar's ordering leap-year to be once in 
four years, and the month Sextilis to be called Augustus, 8 B.C. See Nciv Style. 

STYLE Royal, iieejiajcsfi/ and TUles. The siijles of the English sovereigns are given 
in the later editions of Nicolas's ''Chronology of Historj'. " 

SUBMARINE TELEGRARH. See Telegraph (under Electricity^. 

SUBSIDIES. Subsidies to the kings of England formerly granted in kind, particularly 
in wool ; 30,000 sacks were voted to Edward III. on account of the war with France, 1340. 
Anderson. Subsidies were raised upon the subjects of England by James I. 1624 ; but they 
were contained in a bill for the redress of giievances, 1639. Four subsidies were granted to 
Charles II. in 1663. England granted subsidies to foreign powers in several wars, particu- 
larly in the war against the revolutionists of France, and the war against Bonaparte. One 
of the most remarkable of these latter was June 20, 1800, when a treaty of subsidies was 
ratitied at Vienna between Austria and England, stipulating that the war should be 
vigorously prosecuted against France, and that neither of the contracting powers should 
enter into a separate peace. Subsidies to Austria, Prussia, Russia, the Porte, and other 
powers, were afterwards given by England to the amount of many millions sterling. 
Phillips. 

SUCCESSION ACTS. See Settlement. 

SUCCESSION, War of (1702-1713), distinguished by the achievements of the duke of 
Marlborough and the earl of Peterborough, and their unprofitable results, arose on the 
question whether an Austrian prince or a French prince, should succeed to the throne of 
Spain. Tlie British court opposed Louis, and Marlborough was victorious ; but the allies 
withdrew one alter another, and the French prince succeeded. See Spain, Utrecht. 

SUCCESSION DUTY ACT (16 & 17 Vict. c. 51), after much discussion, was passed 
Aug. 4, 1S53. By this act the legacj* duty was extended to real estate, and was made 
payable on succession to both landed aud personal property. 

SUDBURY, in Suffolk, was disfranchised for bribery in 1848. 

SUEVI, a warlike Gothic tribe, which with the Alani and the Visigoths entered Spain 
about 408, were overcome by the latter, and absorbed into their kingdom about 584. 

SUEZ CANAL. A plan for a canal between the head of the Red Sea and the ba}^ of 
Pelusiuni was brought forward by i\I. de Lesseps in 1852. The consent of the Egyptian, 
Turkish, Russian, French, and Austrian governments was gradually obtained, but not tliat 
of the British. A company has been formed for the purpose, aud the work commenced iu 
1858. The cost was estimated at 8,000,000^.* 

* M. de Lesseps undertook to cut a canal through 90 miles of sand, to run out moles into the Medi- 
terranean ; to deepen the shallow waters ; to create ports to receive the ships from India and Australia, 
and to adapt the canal to irrigation. Writing on Nov. 7, 1862, M. Delacour, a French engineer, after 
viewing the works which were "emploj-ing 25,000 men in the desert," expresses bis conviction that this 
important work will be completed iu four or five years. Cusmos. The waters of the Mediterranean have 
been admitted into a narrow channel communicating with Lake Timsah. This, however, is a very insigni- 
ficant part of the work (Dec. 1862). In 1S63 the works were visited by the sultan and by Mr. Hawksliaw. 
In Aug. 1863 the company were compelled, by the Egyptian government, to give up the employment of 
compulsory labour, and litigation ensued. In Feb. 1S65, M. de Lesseps reported that a vessel con- 
taining 30 persons had been tugged along the canal the whole distance between the two seas. On April 17, 
1865, delegates from the British chambers of commerce visited the works, and reported that the success of 
the scheme was only an affair of time ,and money. On Aug. 15, 1S65, the Hoodgates of the smaller Suez 
Canal were opened, the fresh water from the Nile was admitted, and a coal vessel passed from the Medi- 
terranean to the Red Sea. M. dc Lesseps expects the larger canal for ships will be ready in 1868. 



SUF 694 SUI 

SUFFRAGAN BISHOPS. Power to appoint them was given by parliament in 1534 to 
Henry VIII. as head of the church. See Sujnemacij. 

SUGAR* {Saccharum officinariim) is supposed to have been known to the ancient Jews. 
Found in the East Indies by Nearchus, admiral of Alexander, 325 B.C. Straho. Au oriental 
nation in alliance with Pompey used the juice of the cane as a common beverage. Lucan. 
The best sugar was produced in India. Pliny. It was prescribed as a medicine by Galen. 
Brought into Europe from Asia, a.d. 625. In large quantities, 1150. It was attempted to 
be cultivated in Italy ; but not succeeding, the Portuguese and Spaniards carried it to 
America about i5io.t Our chief importations of .sugar are from the British West Indies, 
the East Indies, Mauritius, and Brazil. Sugar was first taxed by name, i James II._ 1685. 
The previous customs duties upon sugar were repealed, and moderated duties substituted, 
by the act 9& 10 Vict. c. 63, passed Aug. 18, 1846, by which act the same duties were 
levied upon the sugar of foreign countries as levied upon sugar the produce of British 
colonies: annually reduced until July 5, 1851. The importations of sugar have in con- 
sequence considerably increased, and amounted in 1852 to upwards of 8,000,000 cwts., 
paying a duty exceeding 4,000,000?. sterling. Sugar imported in 1854, 9,112,364 cwts. ; in 
1864, 10,767,538 cwts. In 1855, the duty was increased, but was reduced in 1864.^ Sugar 
was extracted from beet-root in France, by Achard, in 1799, and has been since largely 
manufactured. 

SUGAR-REFINING was made knomi to Europeans by a Venetian, 1503, and was first 
practised in England in 1659, though some say that we had the art a few years earlier. Dr. 
Scoffern's improved processes were patented in 1848-50. 

SUICIDE (from sui, self; ccedcre, to kill), the slayer of himself. The first instances 
recorded in Jewish history are those of Samson, about 1120, and Saul, 1055 B.C. The Greek 
and Roman philosophers deemed it a crime, and burned the offending hand apart from the 
rest of the body. In the early part of the Roman history, the only instance recorded occurs 
in the reign of Tarquin I., when the soldiers, thinking themselves di.sgraccd by being ordered 
to make common sewers, destroyed themselves, 606 B.C. Instances afterwards occurred, 
however, of illustrious men committing suicide, as Cato, 46 b.c.§ In the Roman Catholic 
church, in the 6th century, it was ordained that no commemoration .should be made in the 
Eucharist for such as committed self-murder. This ecclesiastical law continued till the 
Reformation, when it was admitted into the statute law of England by the authority of 
parliament, with the confiscation of land and goods. Till 1823 the body of tlie suicide was 
directed to be buried in a cross-road, and a stake to be driven through it. 

A FEW OF TUE MOST MEMORABLE LATE CASES OF SUICIDE IN GREAT BRITAIN", ETC. 

Gen. Pichegru April 7, 1S04 | Marshal Berthier .... June i, 1815 

Miss Champante .... Aug. 15, ,, Samuel Whitbread, Esq. . . . Sept. 6, ,, 
Sellis, valet of the duke of Cumberland, May 31, 1810 Sir Samuel Romilly . . . . Nov. 2, 181S 
Abraham Goldsmid, an eminent merchant . ,, Sir Richard Croft .... Nov. 6, ,, 

WilUams, murderer of the Marr family, Dec. 15, 1811 Christophe, king of Hayti . . . Oct. 8, 1820 

Jjord French Dec. 9, 1814 | Adm. sir George Campbell . . . Jan. 23, 1821 



• Sue;ar, long considered a neutral .substance, without congeners, has of late years become the head of 
a numerous family, daily increasing, viz. : Cane-sugar (sucrose, from the sugar-cane ; boiled with dilute 
acids it yields jrtMcosf) ; fruit-sugar (from many recent fruits) ; gra.pc-snga.r (glvcnse ; froni dried fruits and 
altered starch) ; sugar of milk ; Melitose (from Eucalyptus, by Berthelot in 1856) ; sorbiti (from the berries 
of the mountain ash, by Pelouze) ; inosite (from muscular tissue, Scherer) ; dulcose (by Laurent) ; mannite 
(from manna, obtained from the Fraxinus Ornus, a kind of ash) ; quereite (from acorns) ; to these have been 
lately added mycose, by M. Mitscherlich, and melezetnse and trilinlnte, by M. Berthelot. 

t About the year 11 38 the sugar-cane was transported from Tripoli and Syria to Sicily, thence to 
Madeira, and finally to the West Indies and America. It is not known at wh.it date sugar was introduced 
Into England, but it seems to have been prior to the reign of Henry VIII. Mr. Whittaker, in the History 
of Whalley, p. 109, quotes an earlier instance in 1497. A manuscript letter from sir Edward Wotton to lord 
Cobham, dated Calais, 6th March, 1546, advertises him that sir Edward had taken up for his lordship 
twenty-five sugar-loaves at six shillings a loaf, " whiche is eighte pence a pounde." 

X In 1840, the imports of sugar into the United kingdom were nearly 5,000 000 cwts., of which nearly 
four millions were for home consumption ; and the diity amoimted to about five millions and a half sterling. 
In 1830, the imports were 8,285,734 cwts. and the reduced duty, amounted to4,i38,g5it. ; in 1853, 7,272,833 
cwts. were retained for home consumption ; duty, 4,083, 836L ; in 1859, 8,641,920 cwts. were retained for 
home consumption; duty, 5,935,909/. ; in 1864, 8,937,798 cwts. were retained. 

§ There have been three instances of self-destruction by fire ; that of the philosopher Empcdoclcs, who 
threw himself into the crater of Mount Etna ; of a Frenchman, who, in imitation of him, threw himself, in 
1820, into the crater of Vesuvius ; and of an Englishman, who jumped into the furnace of a forge about the 
year 181 1. Plutarch relates that an im.accountable passion for suicide seized the Milesian virgins, from 
which they could not be prevented by the tears and prayers of their friends ; but a decree being issued 
that the body of every young maid who did self-riiurder shoidd bo drawn naked through the streets, a stop 
was soon put to the extraordinary frenzy. 



SUI 



695 



sux 



Ch.irlos Russell, Esq., late chairman of Great 
Western Railway .... J[ay 15, 1856 

Hugh Miller, geologist, author of The Old Red 
Sandstone (insane, through overwork) Dec. 23, ,, 

Major- gen. Stalker, C'.B. of Indian army (March 
14), and commodore Ethersey, of the Indian 
navy. (Both through physical and mental 
depression while on the expedition against 
Per-sia ; see Bushire.) . . March 17, 1857 

Major Warburton. JI.P. for Harwich, brother 
of Eliot, lost in the >4»iazo?i . . Oct. 23, ,, 

Henry M. Witt, a promising young chemist, at 
the Government School of Mines June 19, 185S 

Dr. Sadleir, Senior Fellow of Trinity College, 
Dublin July, ,, 

Rev. G. Martin, chancellor of the diocese of 
Exeter Aug. 27, i86o 

Lord Forth, son of earl of Perth . . Oct. 8, 1861 

Wm. G. Prescott, banker. . . April 29, 1865 

Admiral Robert Fitz-Roy (see New Zealand and 
Meteorology) April 30, ,, 



INQUESTa ON SUICIDES IN ENGLAND AND W.\LES. 



gig males 


395 females 


1314 


909 .. 


366 „ 


1275 


961 ,, 


396 „ 


1357 


961 „ 


363 „ 


1324 


938 ,, 


346 ,, 


1284 


048 „ 


337 .. 


138s 


973 „ 


359 .. 


1337 



SUICIDE, continued. 

Marquess of Londonderry . . Aug. is, 1822 

Hon. colonel Stanhope . . . Jan. 26, 1825 

Mr. Montgomery in Xewgate (see Prussic Acid), 

July 4, 1828 

Miss Charlotte Both . . . Jan. 3, 1830 

Lord Grcavc.-i ...... Feb. 7, „ 

Colonel Brercton .... Jan. 13, 1S32 

Major Thompson June 13, ,, 

Mr. Simpson, the tr.aveller . . July 24, 1840 

Lord James Beresford . . . April 27, 1841 

Gen. sir Riifane Shaw Donkin . . May i, ,, 

The earl of Miinstcr . . . March 20, 1842 

Lord Congleton .... .Tune 8, ,, 

Laman Blanchard .... Feb. 15, 1845 

Colonel Gurwood .... Dec. 29, ,, 

Rear-admiral Cullard . . . March 18, 1846 

Haydon, the eminent p.-xinter . June 22, „ 

Count Bresson Nov. 2, 1847 

Colonel King, in India . . . July 12, 1S50 

Walter Watts, lessee of the Olympic theatre, 

July 13, ,, 

ReT. Dr. Rice Jan. 20, 1853 

Lieut, col. Layard .... Deo. 27, ,, 

Rev. T. Robinson (threw himself off Shak- 
apere's Cliff, Dover) . . . Aug. 16, 1854 

Dr. Franks, late editor of the Allgtmeine Zeltung, 

after killing his son . . . Nov. 3, 1855 1858 

John Sadleir, M.P. (in 1852, a lord of the trea- 
sury), by prussic .acid : on Hampstead Heath. 
(He was found to have been guilty of enormous 
frauds upon the Tipperary bank, &c. ) Feb. 16, 1856 

A. Smart, a watchmaker, threw himself from 
the whispering gallery in St. Paul's, March 14, ,, 

SUITORS' FUND (in the Court of Chancery), in 1862 amounted to 1,290,000?. As this 
money had no specific owner, a jiroposal was made by government to apply it to the buihiing 
of new law-courts, payment of all le;^al claims being guaranteed. The scheme was deferred 
by parliament. 

SULPHUR has been known from the earliest times. Basil Valentine mentions its pro- 
duction from green vitriol. Sul[ihuric acid (vitriol), produced from the burning of sulphur, 
was introduced into England about 1720. Sulphur has been the object of research of many 
eminent chemists during the present century, and many discoveries have been made, such as 
its allotropic condition, &c. It is the inflammable constituent in gunpowder. — The sulphur 
mines of Sicily have been wrought since the i6th century, but the exportation was incon- 
siderable till about 1820 ; in 1838 the trade increased so much that Great Britain alone 
imported 38,654 tons. In that year the Neapolitan government was induced to grant a 
monopoly of the trade to a French company; but a firm remonstrance from the British 
government led to a discontinuance of this impolitic restriction in 1841, which, however gave 
a great and a lasting impetus to the British sulphur manufacture. 

SULTAN, a Turkish title, from the Arabic, signifjang king ofhings, and given to the 
grand siguior or emperor of Turkey. It was first given to the Turkish princes, Angrolijiez 
and Musgad, about 1055. Vattier. It was first given, according to others, to the emperor 
Mahmoud, in the 4th century of the Hegira. 

SUMPTUARY LAWS restrain excess in dress, furniture, eating, &c. Those of Zaleucus 
ordained that no woman should go attended by more than one maid in the street, unless she 
were drunk ; and that she should not wear gold or embroidered apparel, unless she designed 
to act unchastely, 450 B.C. l)ioii. Laert. The Lex Orchia among the Romans (181 B.C.), 
lin)ited the guests at feasts, and the number and quality of the dishes at an entertainment ; 
and it also enforced that during supper, which was the chief meal among the Romans, the 
doors of every liouse should "be left open. The Engli,sh sumptuary laws, chiefly of the reigns 
of Edward HI. and Henry VIII., were repealed in 1856. See Dress. 

SUN.* Pythagoras taught that the sun was one of the twelve spheres, about 529 B.C. 



• The estimated diameter is 882,000 miles, and the distance from the earth, till lately given as 93,000,000 
miles, has been recently corrected to g4,ooo,ooo, by the result of the experiments and calculations of N. M. 
Fizeau and Foucault (1864). "The error corrected corresponds to the apparent breadth of a human hair 
at 125 feet, or of a sovereign at 8 miles off." Hersehel. The sun is now described as consisting of a solid or 
liquid nucleus, surrounded by aluminous envelope (photosphere) over which is a dense atmosphere, eon- 
taining the vapours of various mjt;il.s .and other elements (1865). See Spectrum. 



SUN 696 SUR 

The relative distances of the sun and moon were first calculated geometrically by Aristarchus, 
who also maintained the stability of the sun, about 2S0 B.C. Numerous theories were 
ventured during fifteen centuries, and astronomy lay neglected until about a.d. 1200, when 
it was brought into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain. The Copernican system 
was made known in 1530. See Cojjernican System and Solar System. Galileo and Newton 
maintained that the sun was an igneous globe. The transit of Mercury was observed by 
Gassendi. 



By the observations of Dr. Halley on the spot 
which darkened the sun's disc in July and 
August, 1676, he established the certainty of 
its motion round its own axis. 

Parallax of the sun, Dr. Halley .... 

Solar spots were first observed by Fabricius and 
Harriot in 1610. A macula three times the 
size of the earth passed the sun's centre 



Herschel measured two spots, whose length 
together exceeded 50,000 miles . Ajsril 19, 1779. 

Since 1S51 much attention has been given to the 
luminous protuberances observed on the edge 
of the sun's disc during a total eclipse. On 
July 18, i860, Mr. Warren De la Rue took two 
photographs at the time of total obscuration. 
Solar physics " especially studied by Messrs. 



April 21, 1766, and frequently since. I Warren De la Rue, Balfoui-, Stewart, i&c. 1S65-6 

SUNCION, Treaty of, between general Urquiza, director of the Argentine confede- 
ration, and C. A. Lopez, president of the republic of Paraguay, recognising the independence 
of Paraguay, July 15, 1852. 

SUNDAY, or Lord's Day. Most nations liave counted one day in seven holy. Sunday 
was the day on which, anciently, divine adoration was paid to the Sun. Among Christians 
it is commonly called Dies Dominica, or Lord's day, on account of our Saviour's appearance 
on that day, after his resurrection. The first civil law tliat was issued for the observance of 
this day, combined it with that of the seventh-day Sabbath and other festivals {Eusebius, 
Life of Constantine), and it was followed by several imperial edicts in favour of this day, 
which are extaut in the body of Roman law, the earliest being that of Constantine the 
Great, dated March 7, 321, Corpus Juris Civilis. See Sabbath; Sabbatarians ; Sjjorts, 
Book of, &c. 

The council of Orleans prohibited country i Act restraining amusements, i Charles I. . 1625 



labour, which that decree had allowed . . 338 

The Sabbath-day was ordained to be kept holy 

in England, from Saturday at three in the 

afternoon to Monday .at break-of-day, 4th 

Canon, Edgar 960 

Act of parliament, levying one shilhng on every 
person absent from church on Sundays, 3 

James 1 1606 

James I. and Charles I. authorised certain 
sports after divine .service on Sundays. See 
Sports. 



Act restraining the performance of servile 
works, and the sale of goods except milk at , 
certain hours and meat in public-house.s, and 
works of necessity and charity, on forfeiture 
of five shillings, 29 Charles II 1677 

The Sunday act was passed in 1781. In March, 
1855, Lord Robert Grosvenor (since lord 
Ebury), introduced a bill to suppress Sunday 
trading. It met with much opposition and 
was withdrawn. 



SUNDAY SCHOOLS were first established in England about 1781, by Robert Raikes, 
an eminent printer of Gloucester, conjointly with Dr. Stock. See Education and Sabbath 
Schools. 

SUNDERLAND ADMINISTRATION, formed in 1718, arose out of a modification of 
the Stanhope ministry. After various changes it was broken up in 1721. 

Charles, earl of Sunderland, /rs< lord of the inasuri/. I Earl Stanhope and Mr. Craggs, .secretaries. 
Earl Cowper, lord chancellor. \ Sir. Aislabie, chancellor of the exchequer, &c. 

SUN-DIALS were invented by Anaximander, 550 B.C. Pliny, I. 2. The first put up 
at Rome was by Papirius Cursor, at tlie temple of Quirinus, when time was divided into 
hours, 293 B.C. Sun-dials were first set up in churches, A.]). 613. Lcnglct. 

SUPERANNUATION ACT for the Civil Service was passed in April, 1859. 

SUPREMACY over the church was claimed by pope Gela.sius I. as bishop of Rome, 494. 
On Jan. 15, 1535, Henry VIII. by virtue of the act 26 Hen. VIII. c. i, formally as.sumed 
the st3'le of " on earth Supreme Head of the Church of England," which has been retained 
by all succeeding sovereigns. The bishop of Rochester (Fisher) and the ex-lord chancellor 
(sir Thomas More), and many others were beheaded for denying the king's supremacy in 
1535 ; and in 1578, John Nelson, a priest, and Thomas Sherwood, a young layman, were 
executed at Tyburn for the same offence. 

SURAT (E. Indies). Before the English East India Company obtained possession of 
Bombay, the presidency of their affairs on the coast of Malabar was at Surat ; and they had 



SUR 697 SITS 

a factory here established under captain Best in 1611. The Great Jlogid had hci-e an officer 
who was styled his admiral. An attack of the Mahratta cliief Sivajee, on the British factor3^ 
was defeated by sir George Oxenden, 1664. The English were again attacked in 1670, and 
1702, and often subsequently. The East India Company, in 1759, fitted out an armament, 
which dispossessed the aduiiral of the castle ; and, soon after, the possession of this castle 
was coiilii-med to them by the court of Delhi. Surat was vested in the British by treatj' in 
1800 and 1803. 

SURGEONS, Royal College of. The first charter was granted by Henry VIII. 1540. 
Formerly barbers and surgeons were united, until it was enacted that " no person using any 
shaving or barbery in London shall occupy any surgerj', letting of blood, or other matter 
excepting only the draAving of teeth." The surgeons obtained a new charter in 1745, 1800, 
and 1844. Since that period, various legislative and other important regulations have been 
adopted to promote their utility and respectability ; and no person is legally entitled to 
practise as a surgeon in the cities of London and Westminster, or within seven miles of the 
former, who has not been examined at this college. The college in Lincoln's-inn-Fields was 
re-modelled in 1836, and the interior completed in 1837. The premises were enlarged in 
1852-3. See Medical Council. 

SURGERY. It was not until the age of Hippocrates that diseases were made a separate 
study from philosophy, &c., about 410 B.C. Hippocrates mentions the ambc, the ancient 
instrument with which they reduced dislocated bones. C'elsus flourished about a.d. 17 ; 
Galen, 170; vEtius, 500; Paulus ^Egineta, in 640. The Arabians revived surgery about 
900 ; and in the i6th century a new era in the science began ; between these peiiods surgery 
was confined to ignorant priests and barbers. Anatomy was cultivated under the illustrious 
Vesalius, the father of modern surgery, in 1538. Surgeons and doctors were exempted from 
bearing arras or serving on juries, 15 13, at which period there were only thirteen in London. 
See Physic. 

SURINAM (Dutch Guiana). The factories established by the English in 1640 were 
occupied by the Portuguese, 1643 ; by the Dutch, 1654 ; taken by the British, 1804 ; and 
restored to the Dutch, 18 14. 

SURNAMES first began in Greece and Egypt, us Soter, Sa,vionv : Nicator, conqueror; 
Euergctes, benefactor ; Philopator, lover of his father ; Phihmetor, lover of his mother, &c. 
Strato was surnamed Physicus, froin his deep study of nature ; Aristides was called the 
Just; Phocion, the Good; Plato, the Athenian Bee ; Xenophon, i\\Q Attic Masc ; Aristotle, 
the Stagyrite ; Pythagoras, the Samian Sage ; Menedemus, the Erctrian Bull ; Democritus, 
the Laughing Philosopher ; A^irgil, the Mantuan Swan, &c. Surnames were introduced into 
England by the Normans, and were adoptetl by the nobility about iioo. The old Normans 
used Fitz, which signifies son, as Fitz-herbert. The Irish used O, for grandson, as O'Neal, 
O'Donnell. The Scottish Highlanders used JIac, as Macdonald, son of Donald. The 
Saxons added the word son to the father's name, as Williamson. Many of the most common 
surnames, such as Johnson, Wilson, Dyson, Nicholson, &c., were taken by Brabanters and 
other Flemings, who were naturalised in the reign of Henry VI. 1435. J\I. A. Lower's 
" Dictionaiy of English Surnames" was published in i860. 

SURPLICES. First worn by the Jewish priests, and said to have been first used in 
churches, 316, and encouraged by pope Adrian, 786. Every minister saying public prayers 
shall wear a comely surplice with sleeves. Canon 58. The garb prescribed by stat. 2 Edvv. 
VI. 1547 ; again, i Eliz. 1558 ; and 13 & 14 Chas. II. 1662. 

SURREY ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS (near London), were established in 183 1, by Mr. 
Edward Cross, who brought hither the menagerie formerly at Exeter change. Various 
picture models have been exhibited here since 1837, viz. Vesuvius, Iceland, &c., accompanied 
l)y fireworks. In 1856, a company which had taken the gardens, erected a large yet elegant 
building for concerts ; the architect being Mr. Horace Jones. On Oct. 19, 1856, when the 
hall contained about 9000 persons, attending to hear the rev. C. H. Spurgeou, seven were 
killed and thirty seriously injured, by a false alarm of fire. In 1862 the hall was temporarily 
taken for the reception of the patients of St. Thomas's hospital. 

SURVEY. See Ordnance. 

SUSPENSION BRIDGES. The oldest in the world is in China, near King-tung ; it is 
formed of chains. Rope suspension bridges, from rocks to rocks, are also of Cliinese origin. 
The bridge over the JMenai Strait is a most surprising work. The Hungerford (or Charinf 
Cross) sus]iension bridge, opened May i, 1845, was removed to Clifton and opened there, 
Dec. 8, 1864. Parliament empowered the commissioners of woods to erect (among other 



sus 



693 



SWE 



improveraeiit.s there) a suspension bridge at Battersea, Sept. 1846 ; and many bridges of 
similar construction have been erected in various parts of the kingdom. Lambeth and 
"Westminster suspension bridge was opened Nov. lo, 1862. See Menai Strait, Uungerford, 
Clifton, &c. 

SUSSEX, Kingdom of. See Britain. 

SUTLE.J, a river in N.-W. India, on tho banks of which were fought the desperate 
battles of Aliwal and Sobraon {ivhich see). 

SUTTEES, the burning of widows. This custom began in India from one of the wives of 
" Bramah, the Son of God," sacrificing herself at his death, that she miglit attend him in 
heaven. So many as seventeen widows have burnt themselves on the funeral pile of a rajah ; 
and in Bengal alone, 700 have thus perished, until lately, in each year. But the English 
government, after long discouraging suttees, formally abolished them, Dec. 7, 1829. They 
have since occasionally taken place. Tho wife of the son of the rajah of Beygoon thus 
perished, June, 1864. 

SWABIA, a province in S. Germany ; was conquered by Clovis, and incorporated into 
the kingdom of the Franks, 496. After various changes of rulers, it was made a duchy by 
the emperor Conrad I. in 912, for Erchanger ; according to some, in 916, for Burckhardt. 
The duchy became hereditary in the house of Hohenstaufen in 1080. Duke Frederic III. 
became emperor of Germany as Frederic I. (usually styled Barbarossa, red beard), in 1152. 
Conradin, his descendant, was defeated at the battle of Tagliacozzo {luhich sec), in 1268, and 
beheaded shortly after. The breaking up of the duchy gave rise to many of the small 
German states ; part of Swabia is included in "Wurtemberg and Switzerland. Swabia was 
made a circle of the empire in 1387 and 1500. 

SWAN PtIVER SETTLEMENT. See Western Australia. 

SWEABORG, a strong fortress in Finland, 3^ miles south, of Helsingfors : it is situated 
on seven rocky islands, the fortifications were commenced by the Swedes in 1748, and 
were not completed in 1789, when Finland was united to Russia, by whose government the 
works were zealously continued. It is termed the Gibraltar of the north. On Aug. 6, 1855, 
the English and a part of the French fleet anchored off Sweaborg, and bombarded it by 
mortar and gun-boats from the 9th to the nth, causing the destruction of nearly all the 
principal buildings, including the dockyard and arsenal. But few casualties and no loss of 
life ensued in the allied squadron. Success could not be pursued for want of mortars. 

SWEARING ox the Gospels, first used about 528, and introduced in judicial pro- 
ceedings about 600. Rapin. Profane Swearing made punishable by fine ; a labourer or 
servant forfeiting is. others 2s. for the first offence ; for the second offence, 45. ; the third 
offence, 65. ; 6 Wm. III. 1695. See Oaths. 

SWEATING SICKNESS. See Plague. 

SAVEDEN (N. Europe). The ancient inhabitants were the Fins, now the modern 
inhabitants of Finland, a diminutive race, who retired to their present territory on the 
appearance of the Scandinavians or Goths, who have ever since been masters of Sweden. 
See Scandinavia. The internal state of this kingdom is little known previously to the nth 
century. By the union of Calmar in 1397, Sweden became a province of Denmark, and was 
not rescued from this subjection till 1521, when Gustavus Vasa recovered the kingdom from 
the Danish yoke. He became king in 1523, and his descendants ruled till 1809. The 
government of Sweden is a limited monarchy. The diet consists of four orders, the nobles, 
the clergy, the peasants, and the burghers, and meet every three years (last time Oct. 15, 
1865). The king is, as in Britain, the head of the executive. There are two imiversities, 
Upsal and Lund ; and Sweden can boast, among its great men, Linnseus, Celsus, Scheele, 
Bergman, Berzelius, Thorwaldsen, and Andersen. Population of Sweden (1863) 4,022,564 ; 
of Norway (1855) 1,490,007. 



Odin arrives in the north, and dies . .B.C. 70 

His son Skiold reigns 40 

The Skioldungs reign till Olaf the Infant is 

baptised, and introduces Cliristianity among 

his people .... about a. d. iooo 

Waldemar I. of Denmark subdues Rugen, and 

de.stroys the pagan temples . . . . n63 

Stockholm founded 1260 

Magnus Ladelus establishes a regular form of 

government . 1279 



The crown of Sweden which had been here- 
ditary, is made elective ; and Steonchel Mag- 
nus, surnamedSmeek, or the Foolish, king of 
Norway, is elected ...... 1319 

Waldemar lays Gothland waste . . . . 1561 

Albert of Mecklenburg reigns .... 1363 

Treaty or union of Calmar (which see), by which 
Sweden is united to Denmark and Norway, 
under Margaret ....... 1397 

University of Upsal founded .... 1476 



SWE 



699 



SWE 



SWEDEIST, continued. 

Christian II. " the Nero of the North," massa- 
cres the Sweiiish nobility, to fix his despotism 1520 
The Swedes delivered from the Danish yoke by 

the valonr of Gustavus Vasa .... 1521 
Gnstaviis Vasa is raised to the throne . . . 1523 
He introduces Lutheranisni and religions liberty 1527 
Makes the crown hereditary .... 1544 
Gustavus Adolphus heads the Protestant cause 

in Germany ; takes Magdeburg and Munich, 1630 
He is slain at Lutzen . . . Nov. 6, 1632 

Bugen ceded to Sweden by Denmark . . 164S 

Abdication of Christina 1654 

Charles X. overriins Poland .... 1657 
Arts and sciences begin to flourish . . . 1660 

University of Lund founded .... i656 
Charles XII. " the Madman of the North," be- 
gins his reign ; he makes himself absolute ; 

and abolishes the senate 1699 

Battle of Pultowa, where Charles is defeated 

by the czar of Russia (see Pultowa) . . . 1709 
He escapes to Bender, where, after three years' 

protection, he is made a prisoner by the Turks 1713 
He is restored ; and after ruinous wars, and 
fighting nimierous battles, is killed at the 
siege of Frederickshald . . . Dec. ir, 171S 
Queen Ulrica Eleanora abolishes despotic 
government ........ 1719 

Boyal Academy founded by Linne, afterwards 
called Linn«us ....... 1741 

Conspiracy of counts Brahe and Home, who 

are beheaded 1756 

The Hats and Caps (Trench and Russian parties), 
1738-57: put down by Gustavus III. . . 1770 

Despotism re-established 1772 

Order of the Sword instituted . . . . ,, 

Assassination of Gustavus III. liy count Anker- 
strom, at a ball, Mai'ch 16 ; he expired the 
29th ......... 1792 

The regicide was scourged with whips of iron 
thongs three successive days ; his right hand 
was cut off, then his head, and his body im- 
paled . . . " . . . May 18, ,, 
Gustavus IV. dethroned and the government 
assumed by his uncle, the duke of Suder- 
mania ..... March 13, 1809 

Representative constitution established, June 7, ,, 



Sweden cedes Finland to Russia . Sept. 17, 1809 
Marshal Bernadotte, the prince of Ponte Corvo 
(one of Bonaparte's greatest generals), is 
chosen the crown prince of Sweden, Aug. 21, iSio 
Gustavus IV. arrived in London . Nov. 12, ,, 
Swedish Pomerania seized by Napoleon, Jan. 9, 18x2 
Alliance with England . . . July 12, „ 
Sweden joins the gi-and alliance against Na- 
poleon March 13, 1813 

Norway is ceded to Sweden by the treaty of 

Kiel, Jan. 14 ; carried into effect . Nov. 1814 

Bernadotte ascends the throne of Sweden, as 

Charles John XIV. . . . Feb. 5, 181S 

Canals and roads constructed .... 1822 
Treaty of navigation between great Britain and 

Sweden May 19, 1826 

Death of Bernadotte, whose son Oscar ascends 

the throne ..... March 8, 1S44 
Treaty of alliance with England and France, 

Nov. 21, 1855 
Banishment decreed against Catholic converts 

from Lutheranism .... Oct. 1857 
Demonstration in favo\ir of Italian indepen- 
dence Dec. 17, 1859 

Increased religious toleration towards seceders. 

May, i860 
The king visit.s England and Franco . Aug. 1861 
He is warmly received in Denmark . July 17, 1S62 
Treaty of commerce with Italy, signed June 14, ,, 
Strong demonstration in favour of Poland, 

April, 1863 
Inauguration of free trade . . Jan. i, 1864 
Sweden protests against the occupation of Sles- 

wig by the allies. . . . Jan. 22, ,, 
Great excitement throughout the country, 
March : preparation for war ; (no result) 

April, ,, 
Foundation of a "National ScanHinavian So- 
ciety " at Stockholm to obtain by legal means 
a confederation of the three kingdoms for 
military and. foreign affairs, reserving inde- 
pendent interior administration . Dec. ,, 
Refcirm of the constitution proposed Nov.; 
adopted by the legislature ; great rejoicings, 

Deo. ,, 
Commercial treaty with France signed,Feb. 15, 1865 



KINGS OP SWEDEN (prcviousli/ Kings of Upsal). 



1026. 
105 1. 
1056. 
1066. 
1090. 
II 12. 
m8. 
1129. 
II55- 
ii6i. 
1 167. 
1199. 
1210. 
1216. 

1222. 
1250. 
1266. 
1275. 
1290. 
1319- 
1350- 

1359- 
1363. 



Olaf Schotkonung, or Olif Schoetkonung the 

Infant, is styled king, 1015. Christianity 

introduced in this reign. 
Edmund Colbrenner. 
Edmimd Slemme. 
Stenkill. 
Halstan. 

Ingo I. styled the Good. 
Philip. 
Ingo II. 

Swerker or Suercher I. 
St. Eric I. 

Charles VII. : made prisoner by his successor, 
Canute, son of Eric I. 
Swerker or Suercher II. ; killed in battle. 
Eric II. 
John I. 

Eric III. the Stammerer. 
Birgcr Jarl, regent. 
Waldemar I. 
JIagnus I. 
Birger II. 

Magnus II. ; dethroned. 
Eric IV. 

Magnus restored. 
Albert of Mecklenburg : 

revolt of his subjects, 

of Denmark to the throne. 
Margaret, queen of Sweden and Norway, now 

also of Denmark, and Kr;c XIII. 



his tjT.anny causes a 
who invite JIargaret 



1397. [Union of Calmar, by which the three king- 
doms are united under one sovereign.] 
1412. Eric XIII. governs alone ; deposed. 
1440. Christopher III. 
1448. Charles VIII. surnamed Canuteson. 
1471. [Interregnum.] Stcn Sture, Protector. 
1483. John II. (I. of Denmark) 

1502. [Interregnum.] 

1503. Swante Sture, Protector. 
1512. Sten Sture, Protector. 

1520. Christiem, or Christian II., of Denmark, st3-led 

the "Nero of the North ; " deposed for his 

cruelties. 
1523. Gustavus Vasa; by whose valour the Swedes 

are delivered from the Danish yoke. 
1560. Eric XIV., son of Gustavus ; dethroned and 

slain by 
156S. John III. his brother. 
1592. Sigismund, king of Poland, sou of John III. ; 

disputes for the succession continued the 

whole of this reign. 
1604. Charles IX. brother of John III. 
161 1. Gustavus (Adolphus) II. the Great ; fell at the 

liattle of Lutzen, Nov. 6, 1632. 
1633. [Interi-egnum.] 
,, Christina, daughter of Gustavus Adolphus. 

Resigned the cro'mi to her cousin ; died at 

Rome in i68g. 
1654. Charles X. (Gustavus), son of John Casimir, 

count ijalatine of the Rhine. 



SWE 



100 



SWI 



SWEDEN, continued. 



1660. 
1697. 



1719. 



1741. 
1751- 



Charles XI. son of the preceding ; the arts and 

sciences flourished in this reign. 
Cliarles XII. styled the "Alexander" and 

the "Madman of the North;" killed at 

Frederick.shald, Dec. 11, 1718. 
Ulrira Eleanora, his sister, and her consort 

Frederick I. landgrave of Hesse Cassel. 

Ulrica relinquishes the crown, and in 
Frederick reigned alone. 

Adolphus Frederick of Holbein Gotlorp, de- 
scended from the family of Vasa. 
Gustavus (Adolphus) HI.; assassinated by 

count Ankerstrom at a masked ball. 



i8og. 
1S14. 



1S44. 
1859. 



Gustavus (Adolphus) IV, ; dethroned and the 

government assumed by his uncle, the duke 

of Svulermania. 
Charles XIII. duke of Sudermania. 
Treaty of Kiel, by which Norway falls under 

the sovereignty of Swedtn. 
Charles (John) XIV. Bernndotle the French 

prince of Ponte Corvo ; succeeded by his son, 
Oscar, Mai'ch 8. 
Charles XV. July 8 (born May 3, 1826) ; the 

PRESENT king of Sweden and Norway. 
Daughter, Princess Louisa, born Oct. 31, 1851. 
Brother, Prince Oscar, born Jan. 21, 1829. 



SWEDEN BORGlAlSrS. A sect (calling themselves "the New Church" or "the New 
Jerusalem Church " *) which holds the opinions of baron Emanuel Swedenborg (born at 
Stockholm, 1688 ; died at London, 1772). He stated that he began to receive spiritual 
manifestations, &c., in 1745, of which an account is given iu his numerous works. The 
sect arose about 1760, and began to spread in 1783 in England, where there were 50 congre- 
gations in 1 85 1. 

SWEET-BAY, Lcmrus nobilis, was brought to these realms from Italy before 1548. 
Laurus indica, or Eoyal Bay, was brought from Madeira in 1665. The Sv/eet-Fern bush, 
Comptonia aspknifuUa, came from America, 17 14. Luurus aggrcgata, or the Glaucous 
Laurel, came from China in 1806. 

SWING. Between 1830 and 1833 many haystacks and barns were fired in the rural 
districts of England, and attributed to an imaginary person named " Swing." Many persons 
were caught and punished. The probable cause was disputes between the farmers and their 
deluded labourers. 

SWITHIN, ST., lived in the ninth century, and, having been the preceptor to king 
Ethelwulf, was by that prince made bishop of Winchester in 852. The tradition, that if it 
rain upon St. Swithin's day, July 15, it will rain forty days following, is supposed to have a 
shadow of reason only from the circumstance of some constellations, which have the 
character of portending rain, rising cosmically about the time of St. Swithin's festival. 

SWITZERLAND, the ancient Helvetia, was con([uered by the Romans, 15 B.C. ; and 
afterwards was successively subject to the Burgundians and Germans. Franks also settled 
here in the early ages. The canton of Schweitz was peopled by the Cimbrians, who, leaving 
their original habitation in Scandinavia, invaded Italy, and were defeated by the Roman 
general Marius ; after which they tied into Helvetia, about 100 B.C. This canton has given 
name to the whole confederacy. — The present national council is elected every third year, 
at the rate of one member for 2000 persons. 



The Helvetians, invading Gaul, severely de- 
feated by Julius Ca3sar . . . B.C. 

The Helvetians converted to Christianity by 
Irish missionaries . . . . . a.d. 

Helvetia ravaged by the Huns . . . . 

Becomes subject to Germany .... 

Friburg built by Berthold IV 

Berne built 

Tyranny of Gessler, which occasions the memo- 
rable revolt under the j^atriot William Tell . 

Confederati<jn against Au.stria ; declaration of 
Swiss indeijendence 

A malignant fever carries off, in the canton of 
Basle, 1 100 souls 

Form of government made perpetual 

Leopold 1. of Austria defeated at Morgarten, 

Nov. 16, 

Lucerne joins the confederacy . . . . 

The canton of Zurich joins and becomes head 
of the league 

Beme, Glaris, and Zug join 

Leopold II. of Austria defeated and slain at 
Sempach July 9, 



6r2 
909 
1032 
1179 
1191 

1306 



1314 
1315 



1350 
1351 



The Austrians defeated at Xiifels ; make peace, 

April 9, 

The Orisons league (see Caddee) . . . • 

Second league of the Grisons . . . . 

The third league of the Grisons .... 

Battle of St. Jacobs on the Birs, near Basle 
(1600 Swiss resist 30,000 French, and are all 
killed, the enemy losing 10,000) . Aug. 26, 

The Swiss defeat Chai'les the Bold at Granson, 
April 5 ; and at Morat . . Jvme 22, 

And aid the duke of Lorraine at Nancy, where 
Charles is slain. . . . Jan. 5, 

Swiss soldiers first enter into the pay of France, 
under Louis XI. 

Union of Fribourg and Soleure . . . . 

Maximilian I. empei'or acknowledges Swiss in- 
dependence ....... 

Schaffhausen joins the union . . . . 

The Swiss invade Milan and defeat the French 
at Novara June 6, 

Defeated by them at Marignano Sept. 13, 14, 

The Swiss confederacy acknowledged by France 
and other powers 



1400 
1424 
1436 



1444 
1476 

1477 
1480 



1499 
1501 

1513 
1515 

1516 



* It does nfit receive the usual doctrine of the Trinitj', believing that the three persons are one in 
Christ ; it rejects the doctrine of justification by faith alone, and the imputed righteousness of Christ, and 
holds that salvation cannot be obtained except by faith and good works. It accepts baptism and the Lord's 
Suppei-, and uses a liturgy and hymns. 



SWI 



701 



8 YD 



SWITZERLAND, continued. 

The Reformation begins at Basle ; the bishop 
compelled to retire ...... 1519 

The Grison leagues join the Swiss confederacy 

as allies . 1544 

Appenzel joins the other cantons . . . . 1597 

Charles Emanuel of Savoy attempts Geneva by 
surprise, scales the walls, and penetrates the 
town, but in tlie end is defeated . . . 1602 
[Tliis circumstance ^-ave rise to an annu.al 
festival commemorative of their escape from 
tyranny.] 
Independence of Switzerland recognised bj' the 

treaty of Westphalia (see H'ettphalia, Peace of) 1648 
[From this period until the French revolution 
the cantons enjoj'ed tranquillity, disturbed 
only by the changes arising out of tbeir 
various constitutions,] 
Alliance with France . . . May 25, 1777 
Strife in Geneva, between the aristocratic and 

democratic parties ; France interferes . . 17S1 
1000 fugitive Genevese seek an asylum in 
Ireland (see Gennm) ...... 1782 

Swiss guards ordered to quit France . . . 1792 
Helvetic confederation dissolved ; its subjuga- 
tion by France 1798 

Helvetian republic formed . . . ■ . ,, 
Switzerland the seat of war . . 1799-1S02 

The number of cantons increased to 19 ; the 
federal government restored ; and a lan- 
damman appointed by France . May 12, 1802 
Uri, Schweitz, and Underwald separate from 

the repuV>lic ..... July 13, ,, 
Switzerland joins France with 6000 men, Aug.24, 1811 
The allies entered Switzerland in the spring of 1814 
The number of cantons increased to 22, and the 
independence of Switzerland secured by the 

treaty of Vienna 1815 

Revision of the constitution of the cantons . 1830 
Law to make education independent of the 

clergy 1839 

It leads to dissensions between the Catholics 

and Protestants 1840-4 

Dispute about the convents of Aargau, 1844; to 

put education into the hands of the Jesuits, 

"(fcc. : opposition of the Protestant cantons 1846 

Lucerne, Uri, Schweitz, Unterwalden, Freiburg, 

Zug, and Valais (Roman Catholic cantons). 



form a separate league (Sondeibund) to sup- 
port education by the Jesuits. &c. . . . 1846 

Insurrection at Geneva against Jesuit teaching ; 
a temporary provisional government estab- 
lished Oct. 7, ,, 

The diet declares the Sonderbund illegal, and 
dissolves it, July 20 ; the seven cantons pro- 
test, July 22 ; the diet orders the expulsion 
of the Jesuits, Sept. 3 ; communal assemblies 
held to resist it, Sept. 26; Oct- 3, 10 . . . 1847 

The diet prepares to repress the Sonderbund, 
Nov. 4 ; civil war ; the Sonderbund defeated ; 
submits to the expulsion of the Jesuits, and 
the secularisation of monastic property, 

Nov. 19-29, ,, 

New federal constitution . . Sept. 12, 1848 

Dispute about Neufchatel (ipTi/c/Uff) . . 1857 

Declaration of neutrality in the coming Italian 
war March 14, 1859 

Mutiny and punishment of the Swiss mercenary 
troops at Naples ; the confederation forbid 
foreign enlistment . . July and Aug. „ 

Swiss government protests agamst the annex- 
ation of Savoy to France . . March 15, 1S60 

150 Swiss attempting to enter Savoy, are 
stopped by the Genevese government, 

March 30, ,, 

M. Thorel, a Swiss, obtains a prize at the 
national shooting match at Wimbledon, July, „ 

The government forbid the Swiss to enlist in 
foreign service without permis.sion July 30, ,, 

Proposed European congress to preserve Swiss 
neutrality, put off ... . July, ,, 

Glarus destroyed by fire . . . May 3, 1S61 

French troops occupy Valine des Dappes, Oct. 
28 ; the Swiss announce the violation of their 
territory ..... Nov. 5, ,, 

Treaty of France settles the question of the 
Valley of Dappes by mutual cession of terri- 
tory ; no military works to be constructed on 
territory ceded ; signed . . Dec. 8, 1862 

Serious election riots at Geneva, with bloodshed, 
Aug. 22 ; federal troops arrive . Aug. 23, 1864 

Federal troops quit Geneva . . Jan. 11, 1865 

Revision of the constitution ; deliberations 
begin Oct. 23, „ 

M. Ivntisel elected president . . Nov. 6, ,, 



Uri 

Schweitz 

Unterwalden J 

Zurich 

Berne 

Lucerae 



SWISS CONFEDERATION OF 1815. 



") fir.st con- 
• federa- 
J tiou. 


Schaffhausen 


Solothiirn 


Appenzel 


Basel 


St. Gall 


Orisons 




Glarus 


Aargau 




Zug 


Thurgau 




Frieburg 


Tessius 



Pays de Vaud 
Valais 
Neufchatel 
Geneva 



SWORDS were formed of iron taken from a mountain by the Chinese, 1879 B.C. Univ. 
JTist. The Roman swords were from 20 to 30 inclies long. The broadsword and scimitar 
are of modern adoption. The sword of state carried at an Englisli king's coronation by a 
king of Scothrnd, 1194. Damascus steel swords are most prized; the ne.xt the sword of 
Ferrara steel. The Scotch Highlanders were accustomed to procure the latter from the 
celebrated artificer named Andrea di Ferrara, and used to call them their Andrew Ferrar as. 
The broad-sword was forbidden to be worn in Edinburgh in 1724. 

SYBARIS, a Greek colony in S. Italy, founded about 720 B.C. ; destroyed by the Croto- 
nians about 510 B.C. The people were greatly addicted to luxury, hence the term Sybaiite. 

SYCAMORE TREE, called the Egyptian fig-tree. In Mrs. Jameson's "Memoirs of 
Female Sovereigns," we are told that Mary queen of Scots brought over from France a little 
sycamore tree, which she planted in the gardens at Holyrood, and that from this have 
sprung all the beautiful groves of sycamore now to be seen in Scotland. 

SYDNEY, ca]>ital of New South Wales ; founded by governor Phillip, on a cove on 
Port Jackson, in 1788, as a British settlement for the colony of convicts originally intended 
fur Botany bay. It was named after lord Sydney, secretary for the colonies. A legislative 



SYM 



702 



SYR 



council was first held July 13, 1829 ; the university opened, Oct. 11, 1852. Sj'dney -was 
erected into a bishopric in 1836, afterwards into an archbishopric. It was lit with gas in 
May, 1 84 1, the first place so lit in Australia. The Roman Catholic cathedral burnt, and 
valuable property destroyed, June 29, 1865. See Australia, New South Wales, Convicts, &c. 

SYMPIESOMETER, a species of barometer invented by Adie of Edinburgh in 1819. 

SYNAGOGUE (usually an assembly), a congregation of the Jews, the place where such 
assembly is held for religious purposes. When first held is uncertain ; some refer it to the 
times after the Babylonish captivity. In Jerusalem were 4S0 synagogues. In 1851 there 
were in London 10 synagogues, in England and Wales, 53. 

SYNOD. The first general synods were called by emperors, and afterwards by Christian 
princes ; but the pope ultimately usurped this power, one of his legates usually presiding 
(see Councils). The first national synod held in England was at Hertford, 673 ; the last was 
held by cardinal Pole in 1555. Made unlawful to hold synods but by royal autliority, 
25 Hen. VIII. 1533. See Dort and Thurles. 

SYRACUSE, S.-E. Sicily, founded by Archias, 734 B.C. ; 732 B.C. Eusehius ; 749 B.C. 
Univ. Hist. See Sicily. 



Gelon becomes supreme . . . . B.C. 485 | 

Succeeded by Hiero 478 \ 

Republic established 467 1 

Becomes predominant in Sicily .... 453 ^ 
Athenian expedition against Syracuse, \inder 

Nicias . . . . . . . . . 415 

Gy lippus the Lacedtemouian succours Syracuse ; | 

defeats Nicias .... ... 413 

Government of Dionysius the elder, 406; he \ 

receives Plato well 389 ' 

Dionysius, the younger, succeeds . . . 367 ' 
Opposed by L>ion, 361 ; who is banished, and 

Plato, who endeavoured to reconcile them, is 

sold for a slave 360 

Dion returns with a Greek army and fleet, and 

expels Dionysius, 356 ; rules Syracuse, 355 ; 

assassinated by Callippus .... 353 
Dionysius recovers his authority, 347 ; but is 



banished to Corinth by Timoleon, 343 ; who 

governs well till his death . . . B.C. 337 

Apathocles usurps power 317 

He is poisoned by Hicetas, and the republic 

restored 2S9 

Hiero, pretor of Syi'acuse, 275 ; elected king, 

270 ; rules in peace till his death, 216 ; 

Hieronymus, his grandson, succeeds, 216 ; 

murdered 214 

Syracuse declares against Rome, besieged by 

Marcellus, 214, and taken ; Archimedes, the 

illustrious mathematician, slain. . . . 212 
Syracuse taken by the Saracens, a.d. 669, and 

retaken by count Roger, the Norman . . 1088 
Destroyed by earthquakes in T542, Jan. 1693 ; 

and nearly destroyed .... Aug. 6, 1757 
In the insurrection, Syracuse surrendered to 

the Neapolitan troops . . . April 8, 1849 



SYRIA. The capital was originally Damascus ; but after the battle of Ipsus, Seleucus 
founded Antioch. 



Alliance of king David and Hiram king of 

Syria B.C. 1049 

Syria conquered by David ..... 1040 

Liberated by Rezin . 980 

Benhadad, king of Syria, makes war on the 

Jews 898 

Benhadad II. reigns .... about 830 
SjTia subjugated by Tiglathpileser king of 

Assyria 740 

Syria conquered by Cyrus 537 

And by Alexander 333 

Seleucus Nicator enters Babylon . . . . 312 
yEra of the Seleuoidse (vhich see) . . . • ,, 
Great battle of Ipsus ; death of Antigonus, de- 
feated by Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Lysimachus 301 

The city of Antioch founded 299 

Antiochus, son of Seleucus, falling in love with 
his father's queen, Stratonice, he pines away 
nearly to death ; but the secret being dis- 
covered, she is divorced by the father, and 

married by the son 297 

Battle of Cyropedium ; Lysimachus slain by 

Seleucus 281 

Seleucus foully assassinated by Ceraunus ; 

Antiochus I. king 2S0 

Antiochus I. defeats the Gauls, and takes the 

n:ime of the Soter, or Saviour . . . . 275 
Antiochus II. surnamed by the Milesians Theos 

(God !), king 261 

Poisoned by Laodice 246 

Seleucus II. (king, 246) makes a treaty of 

alliance with Smyrna and Magnesia . . 243 
Seleucus III. Ceraunus (or Thunder), king . . 226 



Antiochus III. the Great (king, 223), conquers 
Palestine, but is totally defeated at RaphiaB.c. 217 

Again conquers Palestine, 198 ; but gives it to 
Ptolemy 193 

Entei-s Greece, 192 ; defeated by the Romans 
at Thermopyte, 191 ; and at Magnesia . . 190 

Makes peace with the Romans, giving \ip to 
them Asia Minor . . . . , .188 

Seleucus Philopator king 187 

Antiochus IV. king, who assumes the title of 
Tlieos-Epiphanes, or ilieWhxstriowa Q06. . . 175 

He sends ApoUonius into Judea ; Jerusalem is 
taken ; the temple pillaged ; 40,000 inhabi- 
tants destroyed, and 40,000 more sold as slaves 16S 

Antiochus V. Eupator (king, 164), murdered by 
Demetrius Soter, who seizes the throne . . 162 

Demetrius is defeated and slain by his successor 
Alexander Bala, 150; who is also defeated 
and slain by Demetrius Nicator . • . 146 

Antiochus VI. Sidetes (son of Demetrius Soter) 
rules during the captivity of his brother 
Demetrius Nicator (after slaying the usurper 
Trypho) 137 

Antiochus grants peace to the Jews, and 
Placates the Romans, 133 ; invades Parthia, 
129 ; and is defeated and slain . . . 12S 

Demetrius Nicator restored ,, 

Cleopatra, the queen, murders her son Seleucus 
with her own hand . . . . . .124 

Her son Antiochus VII. Grypus (king, 125), 
whom she attempts to poison ; but he com- 
pels his mother to swallow the deadly draught 
herseLf 123 



SYR 



703 



TAG 



SYEIA, continued. 

Reif^i of Antiochus VIII. Cj-zir^enus at Damas- 
cus, and of Grypus at Antioch . .B.C. Ill 

Seleucus, king 95 

Antiochus Eusebes, king ..... 94 

Dethroned by Philip 85 

11f,''"Mies, king of Armenia, acquires Syria . 83 
Antiochus X. Asiaticus, solicits the aid of the 

Romans ........ 75 

Defeat of Tigranes by LucuUus, 6g ; he submits 
to Pompcy, who enters Syria, and dethrones 

Antiochus Asiaticus 65 

Syria made a Roman province . . . . 63 



Syria invaded by the Parthians . . . a.d. 162 

By the Persians 256 

Violent earthquakes . . . ... . 341 

Invaded by the Saracens, 497, 502, 529 ; by the 

Persians 607 

Conquei-ed by the Saracens .... 638 

Conquest of Syria by the Fatimite caliphs . . 970 

Revolt of the emirs of Damascus . . . 1067 

The emirs of Aleppo revolt 1068 

The crusades commence (see Cnisadei) , . 1095 
Desolated by the Crusades {uhich see) . 1096-1272 

Nourcddin conquers Syria .... 1166 

Saladin dethrones the Fatimite dynasty . . 1171 

Tlic Tartars overrun all Syria .... 1259 

The sultans of Egypt expel the Crusaders . . 1291 

Syria overrun by Tamerlane .... J400 

Syria and Egypt conquered by the Turks . . 1517 
Syria continued in possession of the Turks till 

the invasion of Eg.vpt by the French July i, 1798 
Bonaparte defeats the Mamelukes with great 

loss, Aug. 6 ; overruns the country, and takes 

Gaza and Jaffa ,, 

Siege of Acre . . . March 6 to May 27, 1799 
Bonaparte returns to France from Egypt, 

Aug. 23, .,, 
Egypt and Syria evacuated by the French army, 

Sept. 10, iSoi 
Mehemet All attacks and captures Acre, and 

overruns the whole of Syria . . . 1831-32 



Ibrahim Pacha, his son, defeats the army of 
the grand signior at Konieh . . Dec. 21, 

Numerous battles and canflicts follow with 
various success : the European powers 
intervene and peace is made . . May 6, 

The Turkish fleet arrives at Alexandria, and 
deserts to Mehemet Ali . . . July 14, 

The war renewed. May ; Ibrahim defeats the 
Turks at Nezib June 24, 

The Five Powers unite to support the Porte, 

July, 

Death of lady Hester Stanhope . June 23, 

Treaty of London (not signed by offended 
Franco) July 15, 

Capture of Sidon (see Sidon) . . Sept. 27, 

Fell of Beyrout (see Beyrout) , . Oct. 10, 

Fall of Acra (see Acve) . . . Nov. 3, 

Long negotiations : the sultan grants hereditary 
rights to Mehemet, who gives up Syria Jan. 

The Druses said to have destroyed 151 Christian 

villages and killed 1000 persons (see Dm^sis), 

May 29 to July i, 

The Mahometans massacre Christians at Da- 
mascus : about 3300 slain ; many saved by 
Abd-el-Kader .... Julyg, &c., 

The English and French government intervene; 
a convention signed at Paris; 12,000 men to 
be sent by France .... Aug. 3, 

Vigorous conduct of Fuad Pacha ; he punishes 
the Mahometans implicated in the massacres 
at Damascvis very sevei'ely ; 167 of all ranks, 
including the governor, executed, Aug. 20, 

et seq. 

4000 French soldiers, under general Hautpoul, 
land at Beyrout .... Aug. 22, 

Lord Dufferin, the British commissioner in 
Syria, arrives at Damascus . . Sept. 6, 

The French and Turks a'ivance against Le- 
banon ; 14 emirs surrendered . . Oct. 

Pacification of the country effected . Nov. 

The French occupation ceases . . June 5, 

Prince of Wales visits Syria . . . April, 



1832 



1839 



T. 

TABERNACLE, the Holy Place of the Israelites, till the erection of Solomon's temple, 
■was constructed by Divine direction, 149 1 B.C. When the Jews were settled in Canaan, the 
tabernacle was set up at Shiloh by Joshua, 1444 B.C. It was replaced by the temple erected 
by Solomon, 1004 B.C. — The chapel erected for George Whitfield in Moorfields in 1741, being 
of a temporary nature, received the name of Tabernacle, which was afterwards given to their 
chapels by the Calvinistic Methodists. Whitfield's Tabernacle in Tottenham-court-road was 
erected in 1756, and enlarged in 1760. His lease expired in 1S28 ; and the chapel was 
opened by the Independents in 1830. A large Metropolitan Tabernacle, erected for the 
ministrations of Mr. C. H. Spurgeon, a Baptist, near the Elephant and Castle, Kenuington- 
road, Surrey, was opened on March 31, 1861. 

TABOR, in Bohemia, was founded by Ziska in 1419, and became the chief seat of the 
Hussites, or Taborites. Casimir of Poland, invited to be their king, was defeated here by 
Albert of Austria in 1438. Tabor itself was taken by the emperor in 1544. 

TADMOR. See Palmyra. TAEPINGS. See (77u?ia, 1851, note. 

TAFFETY, an early species of silken manufacture, more prized formerly than now, 
woven very smooth and glossy. It was worn by our elder queens, and was first made in 
England by John Tyce, of Shorcditch, London, 41 Eliz. 1598. Stows Chron. 

TAGLIACOZZO, in the Abruzzi mountains, S. Italy, where, on Aug. 23, 126S, Charles 
of Anjou, the usurping king of Naples, defeated and made prisoner the rightful monarch, 
young Conradin (the last of the Hohenstaufens, and grandson of the emperor Frederic II.), 
who had been invited into Italy by the GhibcUine or Imperial party ; their opponents, the 
Guelfs, or papal party, supporting Charles. Conradin was beheaded, Oct. 29, following. 



TAH 70d TAP 

TAHITI. The French abbreviated name for Otaheite. See Otaheife. 

TALAVEEA de la Reyna, Central Spain, was taken from the Mahometans by Ordono, 
king of Leon, 913. Here a battle was fonght July 27, 28, 1809, between the united British 
and Spanish armies under sir Arthur Wellesley (19,000 British and 30,000 Spaniards), and 
the French army (47,000) commanded by marshals Victor and Sebastiani. After a battle on 
the 27th, both armies remained on the field during the night, and the French at break of 
day renewed the attack, but were again repulsed by the British with great slaughter. At 
noon Victor cliarged the whole British line, but was repulsed at all points, and sir Arthur 
"Wellesley secured the victory, the enemy retreating with a loss of 10,000 men and 20 pieces 
of cannon. The British lost Soo killed, and 4000 wounded or missing. Soult, Ney, and 
Mortier, being in the rear, obliged tlie British to retire after the battle. 

TALBOTYPE. See Photograpluj. 

TALLY OFFICE in the Exchecjuer took its name from tlie French word taillcr, to cut. 
A tally is a f)iece of wood written upon both sides, containing an acquittance for money 
received ; whicli, being cloven asunder by an officer of the Exchequer, one part, called the 
stock, was delivered to the person who paid, or lent, money to the government ; and the 
other part, called tlie counter-stock, or counter-foil, remained in the office, to be kept till 
called for, and joined with the stock. This manner of striking tallies is very ancient. 
Bcatson. The practice was ordered to be discontinued in 1782. On Oct. 16, 1834, the 
liouses of parliament were burnt down by too many of these tallies being used in heating the 
stoves in the house of lords. See Exchequer. 

TALMUDS, two books concerning the religion and morality of the Jews, — the Talmud 
of Jerusalem, and the Talmud of Babylon. The one composed b)"- the Eabbi Juda 
Hakkadosh, about the close of the 2nd century ; tlie second contains commentaries, &c. , 
liy succeeding rabbis, collected by Ben Eliezer, about the 6th century ; abridged by 
Maimonides in the 12th century. 

TANAGRA (Bceotia). Here the Spartans defeated the Athenians 457 B.C., but were 
defeated by them in 426, when Agis II. headed the Spartans, and Nicias the Athenians. 

TANDY ARREST. James Napper Tandy proposed his plan of reform in 1791. In the 
French expedition against Ireland he acted as a general of brigade, Aug. 1798. He failed, and 
fled to Hambuig, and was there delivered up to the English, Nov. 24 ; for which Bonaparte 
declared war upon Hamburg, Oct. 15, 1799. Tandy was liberated after the peace of Amiens 
in 1802. 

TANGIER (Morocco, N.W. Africa). Besieged by prince Ferdinand of Portugal, who 
was beaten and taken pi-isoner, 1437. It was conquered by Alfonso V. of Portugal in 1471, 
and given as a dower to princess Catherine, on her marriage with Charles II. of England, 
1662 ; but he did not think it worth keeping, and in 1683, caused the works to be blown up, 
and the place abandoned. Tangiers afterwards became a piratical station ; but the discon- 
tinuance of piracy has greatly diminished its importance. 

TANISTRY (in Ireland), the equal division of lands, after the decease of the owner, 
amongst his sons, legitimate or illegitimate. If one of the sons died, his son did not 
inherit, but a new division was made by the tauist or chief. AbolisJied 1604. Davies. 

TANNING leather with the bark of trees was early practised. It was introduced into 
these countries from Holland bj- William III. for raising orange-trees about 1689. It was 
discontinued until about 17 19, when ananas were first brought into England. Great 
improvements have been made in tanning by means of chemical knowledge. 

TANTALUM, a rare metal, discovered in an American mineral by Hatehett, in iSoi, and 
named by him Colubium ; and in a Swedish mineral by Ekeberg, who gave it its present 
name. Wollaston pointed out the indentity of the two metals in 1809 ; and Berzelius 
prepared pure metallic tantalum in 1824. In 1846 Rose discovered that tantalum was really 
a mixture of three metals, which he named tantalum, niobium, and pelopium. Gmclin. 

TAPESTRY. An art of weaving borrowed from the Saracens, and hence its original 
workers in France were called Sarazinois. The invention of tapestry hangings belongs [the 
date is not mentioned] to the Netherlands. Gidcciardini. Manufactured in Fi-auce under 
Henry IV. by artists invited from Flanders, 1606. The art was brought into England by 
William Sheldon ; and the first manufactory of it was established at Mortlake by sir Francis 
Crane, 17 James I. 1619. l^almon. Under Louis XIV. the art of tapestry was much 
improved in France. See Gobelin Tapestry. Very early instances of making tapestry are 



TAR 705 • TAV 

mentioned by the ancient poets, and also in Scripture ; so that the Saracens' manufacture is 
a revival of the art. For the tapestry wrouglit by Matilda of England, see Baycux Tapestry. 

TAR. The chnnist Becher first proposed to make tar from pit-coal — the carl of Diin- 
donald's patent, 1781. The mineral tar was discovered at Colebrook-dale, Shropshire, 1779 ; 
and in Scotland, Oct. 1792. Tar- water was iirst recommended for its medicinal virtues by 
the good Dr. Berkeley, bishop of Cloyne, about 1744. From coal-tar brilliant dyes ai'e now 
produced. Sec Aniline. 

TARA, a hill in Meath, Ireland, where it is said a conference was held between the 
English and Irish in 11 73. Near here, on May 26, 1798, the royalist troops, 400 strong, 
defeated the insurgent Irish (4000 men), 500 killed. On Aug 15, 1843, Daniel O'Connell 
held a monster meeting here (250,000 persons said to have been assembled). 

TARANTISM. See Dancing. 

TARBES (S. France, near the Pyrenees). The French, under" Soult, Avere forced from 
their position at Tarbes, with considerable loss, by the British army commanded by Wel- 
lington, Marcli 20, 1 8 14. See Toulouse. 

TARENTTJM (now Taranto, S. Italy) was founded by the Greek Phalantus, B.C. 708. 
The people of Tarentum, assisted by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, supported a war against the 
Romans, which had been undertaken B.C. 281, by the Romans, to avenge the insults the 
Tarentines had oti'ered to their ships when near their harbours ; it was terminated after ten 
j-ears ; 300,000 prisoners were taken, and Tarentum became subject to Rome. Tarentum 
has shared in all the revolutions of Southern Italy. 

TARIFF, a book of duties charged on goods exported or imported. Our tariff in 1840 
comprised 1042 articles ; the number was reduced (by sir Robert Peel) in 1845 and 1847. It 
comprised 439 articles in 1857 ; the number was greatly reduced in i860. 

TARRAGONA (N.E. Spain), occupied as a naval station by the British before their 
capture of Gibraltar, in 1704. It was stormed and sacked by the French under Suchet, 
Jan. 28, 181 1, and the inhabitants put to the sword. 

TARTAN, or Highland Plaid. This dress of the Scottish Highlanders is said to have 
been derived from the ancient Gauls, or Celtoj, the Galli non braccati. 

TARTARIC ACID is said to have been the first discovery of tlie eminent chemist, 
Scheele, who procured it in a separate state by boiling tar with lime, and in decomposing 
tlie tartrate of lime thus formed by means of sulphuric acid, about 1770. In 1859 Barou 
Liebig formed tartaric acid from other sources. 

TARTARY (Asia). The Tartars, Mongols, or Moguls, were known in antiquity as 
Scythians. During the decline of the Roman empire, these tribes began to seek more fertile 
regions ; and the tirst who reached the Irontier of Italy were the Huns, tlie ancestors of the 
modern Mongols. The first acknowledged sovereign of this vast country was the famous 
Genghis Khan. His empire, by the compiest of China, Persia, and all Central Asia 
(1206-27), became one of the most formidable ever established ; but it was split into parts in 
a few reigns. Timur, or Tamerlane, again conquered Persia, broke the power of the Turks 
in Asia Minor (1370-1400), and foumled the Mogul dynasty in India, which Ijcgan with 
Baber in 1525, and formed the most splendid court in Asia till the close of the i8th century. 
See Golden Horde. The Calmuck Tartars, expelled from China, settled on the banks of the 
Volga in 1672, but returned in 1771, suffering much on the journey. 

TASMANIA, the name no\V- given to the British settlement in Van Diemen's Land 
{icliich see). 

TAVERNS maybe traced to the 13th century "In the raigne of king Edward the Third, 
only three taverns were allowed in London : one in Chepc, one in Walbrok, and tlie other in 
Lombard-street." * Spelman. The Boar's Head, in Eastcheap, existed in the reign of Henry 
IV., and was the rendezvous of prince Henry and his dissolute companions. Shakspeare 
mcn'tions it as the residence of Mrs. Quickly, and the scene of Falstaff"s merriment. 
Shakspeare, Henry IV. The White Hart, Bishopsgate, established in 1480, was rebuilt in 
1829. Taverns were licensed in 1752. 

- Taverns were restricted by an act of Rdw.ard VI. 1552, to 40 in London, 8 in York, 4 in Norwich, 3 in 
Westminster 6 in Bristol, 3 in Lincoln, 4 in Hull, 3 in Shrewsbury, 4 in Exeter, 3 in Salisbury, 4 iu 
Gloucester 4' in Chester, 3 in Ilercfcnd, 3 in Worcester, 3 in Southampton, 4 in Canterbury, 3 in Ipswich, 
3 in Winchester, 3 in O.-cford, 4 in Cambridge, 3 in Colchester, 4 in Newca.-itle-upon-Tync. 

z z 



TAX 



70G 



TEE 



TAXES were levied by Solon, the first Athenian legislator, 540 B.C. The first class of 
citizens paid an Attic talent of silver, about 55Z. of our money. Darius, the son of Ilystaspes, 
levied a land-tax by assessment, which was deemed so odious that his subjects styled him, by 
way of derision, Darius tlie Trader, 480 B.C. D'Eon. Taxes in specie were first introduced 
into England by Wniiam I. 1067, and he raised them arbitrarily ; yet subsidies in kind, 
as in wool, leather, and other products of the country, continued till the accession of 
Eichard 11. 1377. Camden. See Eevejme and Income Tax. 





Assessed Taxes. 




iSoo 


. £3,468,131 


1800 


1805 . 


• • 4508,752 


1805 


1810 


. 6,233,161 


1810 


1815 . 


. . 6,524,766 


1815 


1820 


• 6,311.346 


1820 


1825 . 


• 5,176,722 


1825 


1830 


• 5.013,405 


1830 


1835 . 


• ■ 3,733,997 


1835 


1840 


. 3,866,467 


1840 



£1,307,941 
1,596,481 
1,418,337 

1,084,251 
1,192,257 
1,288,393 

1,189,214 

1,203,579 

1,298,622 



Assessed Taxes. — Gross Amount. 
1851 (to Jan. 5) . . £4,365,033 
1855 (year end. March 31) 3,160,641 
i860 ,, ,, 3,232,000 

1865 ,, ,, 3,292,000 



TCHERNAYA, a river in the Crimea. On Aug. 16, 1855, the lines of the allied army at 
this place were attacked by 50,000 Russians under prince Gortschakotf without success, being 
repulsed with the loss of 3329 slain, 1658 wounded, and 600 prisoners. The brunt of the 
attack was borne by two French regiments under general D'Herbillon. The loss of the 
allies was about 1200 ; 200 of these were from the Sardinian contingent, which behaved with 
great gallantry rmder the command of general La Marmora. The Russian general Read, and 
the Sardinian general Montevecchio, were killed. The object of the attack was the relief of 
Sebastopol, then closely besieged by the English and Ercnch. 

TEA was brought to Europe by the Dutch, i5io. It is mentioned as having been used 
in England on very rare occasions prior to 1657, and sold for 61. and even 10/. the pound. 



Samuel Popys records bis i:rst "cup of tea," 

Sept. 25, 1C60 

A duty of Sd. was charged upon every gallon of 
tea made for sale (12 Ch. II. c. 13), i66o; the 
East India Company first impox-t it . . 1669 

It was brought into England in 1666, by lord 
Ossory and lord Arlington, from Holland : 
and being admired by persons of rank, it was 
imported from thence, and generally sold for 
60 shillings per pound, till our East India 
Company took up the trade. Anderson. 

Green tea began to be used '1715 

Price of black tea per lb. 13s. to 20s., of green, 
I2S. to 30S ........ 172S 

The duty imposed on tea in America, 1767 : 
this tax occasioned the destruction of 17 
chests at New York, and 340 at Boston, Nov. 
1773, and ultimately led to the American war 
(see Boston). 

The tea-plant brought to England . . about 1768 

Tea-dealers obliged to have sign-boai'ds fixed 
up, annomicing their sale of tea . Aug. 1779 

Commutation act for reducing the duty on tea 
from 50 to 122 per cent, and taxing windows 
in lieu June, 1784 



" Millions of pounds' weight of sloe, liquoi'ice, 
and a.sh-tree leaves, are every year mixed 
with Chinese teas in England." Rcxiort of the 
House of Commons ...... 1818 

"The consumjition of the whole civilised woi'ld, 
exclusively of England, is about 22,000,000 of 
pounds, while the annual consumption in 
Great Britain is 30,000,000." Evidence in 
House of Commons ^ ...... 1830 

The first tea-sale in London on the abolition of 
the exclusive privilege of the East India 
Company took place in Mincing-lane, 

Aug. 19, 1834 

New duties were charged, 1796 ; the duty was 
q6 and 100 per cent., made 2s. id. per pound 1S36 
The duty derived from the import of tea in i S50 
amounted to 5,471,461?. : and the amount was 
5,902,433? in 1852 

Various changes made in 1854, 1855 . . and 1056 

Duty of IS. 5rf. per pound begun . . April, 1S57 

The duty upon tea gradually reduced Irom 
2S. a^rf. to IS. per pound ; reduced to 6d. per 
pound Juno i, 1S65 



TFAS IMPORTED INTO ENGLAND, OE CHARGED WITH DUTY, IN THE rOLLOWING YEARS :- 



172G . 
1766 
1792 . 
1800 
1805 . 
1810 



lb. 700,000 
7,000,000 
13,185,000 
23,723,000 
24,133,000 
25,414,000 



1815 . 
1820 . 
1825 . 


. lb 


26,368,000 
25,662,474 
24,803,668 


1845 . . . 
1850 govt, rcti'.rns 
1856 . 


. lb 


44,193,433 
50,512,384 
86,200,414 


1830 

183s . 

1840 




30,544,404 
44,360,550 
38,068,555 


1858 . 
1861 . 
1864 . 




75,432,535 
96,577,383 
124,359,243 



TE-DEUM. A song of thanksgiving used in the Romish and English Churches, beginning 
"Te Dcum laudarmis — We praise thee, God," supposed to be the composition of 
Augustin and Ambrose, about 390. 

TEETOTALLER. Eichard Turner, an artisan of Preston, Lancashire, in addressing 
temperance meetings, acknowledged that he had been a hard drinker, and being an illiterate 
man, and in want of a word to express how much he then abstained from malt and spirits. 



TEL 707 TEM 

oxclaimccl " I am now a Teetotaller ;" about 1S31. See EncratUcs, Temperance, and United 
Kincjdom. 

TELEGRAniS. Polybius calls the different instruments used by the ancients for 
communicating information, 2^1/rsia;, because the signals were always made by fire. In 1663, 
a plan was suggested by the marquess of Worcester, and a modern telegraph was suggested 
by Dr. Hooke, '1684. "JM. Amontons is also said to have been the inventor of telegraphs 
about this jieriod. M. Chappe then invented the telegraph first used by the French in 1793, 
and two were erected over the Admiralty-office, London, 1796. The Semaphore was erected 
there 1816. Tlie naval signals by telegraph enabled 400 previously concerted sentences to 
be transmitted from ship to ship, Ijy varying the combinations of two revolving crosses. See 
Electric Telcfjraph, under Electricity. 

TELESCOPES were noticed by Leonard Digges, about 1571. Roger Bacon, about 1250, 
described telescopes and microscopes exactly, and yet neither were made till one Metius, at 
Alkmaer, and Jansen, of Middleburg, constructed them about 1590-1609. Galileo imitated 
their invention by its description, and made three in succession, one of which magnified 
a thousand times, 1630. With these he discovered Jupiter's moons and the phases of 
Venus. Telescopes were improved by Zucchi, Huyghens, Gregory, and Newton, and after- 
wards by Martin, Hall, Dollond, and Hcrschel. 

standing its grRat weight and size, is moved 
with the utmost ease, and can be lowered to 
any angle, while it sweeps the horizon by- 
means of wheels running ou a graduated 
circle 1828-1845 

One of gigantic size, 85 feet in length (vei-y nn- 
perfect), completed at Wandsworth by tho 
rev. John Craig 1S52 

JIagnifioent equatorial telescopes set vip at the 
national observatories at Greenwich and Paris i860 

M. Foucault exhibits at Paris a reflecting 
telescope, the min-or 314 inches in diameter; 
the focal length 17J feet 1862 



The reflecting telescope invented by Newton . 1668 
Achromatic telescopes made by More Hall about 1723 
A telescope made in London for the observatory 

of Madrid, which cost ii,ooo(., in 1S02 ; but 

the Herschel ti;lcscopc, made 1789-1795, was 

superior ; it had the great speculum 48 inches 

diameter, 32 inches thicli, weighed 2118 lbs., 

and magnified 6400 times. See Herschel. 
The earl of Ko.sse erected on his estate at Par- 

sonstown, in Ireland, the largest telescope 

ever constructed, at a cost exceeding 20,000/. 
This wonderful instrument is 7 feet in 

diameter, and 52 feet in length ; the machinery 

is supported on massive walls, and notwith- 

TELLURIUM, a rare metal, in its natural state containing small quantities of iron and 
gold, was discovered by Miiller at Keichenstein in 1782. 

TEMESWAR (Hungary), capital of the Banat, often besieged by the Turks. On ^"S- 
10, 1849, Haynau totally defeated the Hungarians besieging this town, and virtually ended 
the war. 

TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES originated with Mr. Calhoun, who, while he was secretary 
of war in America, in order to counteract the habitual use of ardent spirits among the 
people, i)rohibited them altogether in the United States' army, 181S. The first public 
temperance society in America was projected in 1825, and formed Feb. 13, 1826 ieni- 
pcrance societies immediately afterwards were formed in England and Scotland. In Ireland, 
the rev. Dr. Edgar, of Belfast, published upon temperance in 1829-31 ; and Father Mathew, a 
Roman Catholic clergyman, affirmed that in 1839, 1840, and 1841, he had made more than 
a million of converts to temperance.* In England, the National Temperance Society was 
formed in 1842; the London Temperance League in 185 1 ; and the United Kingdom 
Alliance for the legislative suppression of the sale of intoxicating liquors, June i, 1853. bee 
Teetotaller. 

TEMPLARS. The first military order of Knights Templars was founded in 11 18, by 
Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem. The Templars were numerous in several countries, and 
came to England 1185. Their wealth having excited the cupidity of the French kings, the 
order was suppressed by the council of Vienne, and part of its revenues was bestowed upon 
other orders in 1312. Numbers of the order were burned alive and hanged in 1310, and it 
suffered great persecutions throughout Europe. The grand-master Molay was burnt ahve at 
Paris in 13 14. 

TEMPLE (London), the dwelling of the Knights Templars, at the suppression of tho 
order, was purchased by the professors of the common law-, and converted into inus, 1340. 
They are called the Inner and Middle Temple, in relation to Essex-house, which was also a 

* This success was probably owing to the general poverty, as the majority of the convert^ are stated 
to h.ave relapsed on the return of prosperity. Father Mathew arrived m America in July, 1849, but was not 
so successful there. He died Dec. 8, 1856, aged 66. 

z z 2 



TEM 



708 



TET 



it employed 220 years ; destroyed by the Goths, 

A.D. 260. 

The temple of Piety was built by Acilius, on the spot 
where once a woman had fed with her milk her 
aged father, whom the senate had imprisoned, and 
excluded from all aliments. Val. Max. 

Temple of Theseus, built 480 B.C., is at this day the 
most perfect ancient edifice in the world. 

Most of the heathen temples were destroyed 
throughout the Roman empire by Constantine the 
Great, 331. See separate articles. 

The temple at Paris, formerly an asylum for debtors, 
was made the site of a market in 1809, and rebuilt 
in 1864. 



part of the house of the Templars, built in 1 185, and called the Outer Temple, because it 
•was situated without Temple Bar. — St. Mary's, or the Temple Church, situated in the Inner 
Temple, is an ancient Gothic stone building, erected by the Templars in 1240, and is remark- 
able for its circular vestibule, and for the tombs of the crusaders, who were buried here. 
The church was recased with stone by Mr. Smirkc in 1828. — The Tcrnxilc Hall was built in 
1572, and Temple Bar in 1672. The new Middle Temple library was opened by the prince 
of Wales, Oct. 31, 1861. 

TEMPLES originated in the sepulchres built for the dead. EiiseUus. The Egyptians 
were the first who erected temples to the gods. Herodotus. The first erected in Greece is 
ascribed to Deucalion. ApoUonius. 

The temple of Jerusalem built by Solonion, 1012 B.C. ; 
consecrated 1004; pillaged by Sheshak, 971 ; re- 
paired by Joash, 856 ; profaned by Ahaz, 740 ; re- 
stored by Hezekiah, 726 ; pillaged and fired by 
Nebuchadnezzar, 588, 587 ; rebuilt, 536 ; i^illaged 
by Antiochus, 170 ; rebuilt by Herod, 18 ; destroyed 
by Titus, a.d. 70. 

The temple of Ajjollo, at Delphi, first a cottage with 
boughs, built of stone by Trophonius, about 
1200 B.C. ; burnt by the Pisistratidse, 548; a new 
temple raised by the family of the Alcmaionida;, 
about 513. 

Temple of Diana at Ephesus, built seven times ; 
planned by Ctesiphon, 544 B.C. ; fired by Hero- 
stratu.s, to perpetuate his name, 356 B.C. ; to rebuild 

TENANT. See Bc7it. "Tenant-right" in Ireland has caused much discussion in that 
country. 

TENASSERIM {N.E. India), ceded by Burmah to the British, Feb. 1826. 

TENERIFFE (Canaries, KW. coast of Africa). The celebrated peak of Teneriffe is 
15,396 feet above the level of the sea. It was ascended in 1856 by professor C. Piazzi 
Smyth for a.stronomical observations. An earthquake in this i.sland destroyed several town.s 
and many thousands of people in 1704. In an unsuccessful attack made at Santa Cruz, 
admiral (afterwards lord) Nelson lost his right arm, and 141 officers and men were killed, 
July 24, 1797. For the particulars of this heroic affair, see Santa Cruz, 

TENNESSEE, a southern state of North America, was settled in 1765, and admitted 
into the Union, June i, 1796. An ordinance of secession from the Union was passed, it is 
asserted illegally, on May 6, 1861. On Feb. 23, 1S62, the Federal general Nelson entered 
Nashville, and in March, Andrew Johnson (now the president of the United States) was 
made military governor over a large part of Tennessee. In Sept. 1863, Eosencrans expelled 
the Confederate government. 

TENTHS. See Tithes. 

TENURES, the mode in which land is held. Military tenures were abolished in i56o. 
Lyttelton's book on Tenures is dated 1481. 

TERBIUM, a metal sometimes found with yttrium (which see), 

TERMS OF Law anb Vacatioxs. They were instituted in England from the Norman 
usage, the long vacation being suited to the time of the vintage in France, 14 Will. I. 1079. 
Glanville cle Leg. Anglic. They were gradually formed. Spclman. The terms were fixed 
by statute 11 Geo. IV. and i Will. IV. July 22, 1830 : Hilary Term to begin Jan. 11 and 
end Jan. 31 ; Easter, April 15, to end May 8 ; Triniti/, May 22, to end June 12 ; Michccelmas, 
Nov. 2, to end Nov. 25. This act was amended i Will. IV. Nov. 15, 1830. 

TERROR. See Reign of. 

TEST ACT, directing all officers, civil and military, under governinent, to receive the 
sacrament according to the forms of the Church of England, and to take the oaths against 
transubstantiation, &c. ; enacted March 1673. The Test and Corporation acts were repealed 
by statute in 1828. 

TESTER. Tcstone. A silver coin struck in France by Louis XII. 1513 ; and also in 
Scotland in the time of Francis II. and of ilaiy, queen of Scots, 1559. It was so called from 
the head of the king, stamped upon it. In England the tester was of I2d. value in the reign 
of Henry VIII., and afterwards of 6cl (still called a tester). 

TETUAN (Morocco), was entered by the Spaniards, Feb. 6, 1S60, after gaining a decisive 
victory on Feb. 4. The general, O'Donuell, was made a granclee of the first class. 



TEU 



f09 



Til A 



TEUTONES (hence Deutsche, Gevman), a people of Germanj^ who with the Ciinbri made 
incursions n])ou Gaul, and cut to pieces two Roman armies, 113 and 105 B.C. They were at 
last defeated by the consul Marius at Aix, and a great number made prisoners, 102 B.C. 
See Cimhri, with whom authors commonly join the Teutones. The appellation came to be 
applied to the German nation in general. 

TEUTOXIC ORDER, military knights established in the Holy Laud about 119 1, through 
the humanity of the Germans (Teutones) to the sick and wounded of the Clu'istiau army in 
the Holy Land, under the celebrated Guy of Lusignan, when before Acre. The order was 
confirmed by a bull of pope Crelestine III. On their return to Germany, they were invited 
to subdue ^jid Christianise the country now called Prussia and its neighbourhood, which they 
gradually accomplished. A large part of their possessions was incorporated into Poland in 
1466, and into Brandenburg about 1521. In 1525, the grand-master was made a prince of 
the empire. The order was dissolved, and its remaining possessions seized, by Napoleon L 
iu 1S09. See Prussia, &c. 

TEWKESBURY (Gloucestershire), where Edward IV. gained a decisive victory over the 
Lancastrians, May 4, 147 1. Queen Margaret, the consort of Henry VI. and her son, were 
taken prisoners. The queen was conveyed to the Tower of London, where king Henry 
expired a few days after this fatal engagement ; being, as is generally supposed, murdered 
by the duke of Gloucester, afterwards Richard III. The queen was ransomed in 1475 by the 
French king, Louis XL , for 50,000 crowns. This was the last battle between the houses of 
York and Lancaster. See Roses. 

TEXAS (N. America). Separated from Mexico in 1836. Its independence was acknow- 
ledged in 1840. Its proposed annexation led to war between Mexico and the United States. 
It was admitted into the Union by the latter iu 1846 ; seceded from it in 1861 ; submitted 
in 1865. 

TEXEL (at the mouth of the Zuyder Zee, Holland). Its vicinity has been the scene of 
memorable naval engagements. An engagement of three days' continuance, between the 
English under Blake, Dean, and Monk, and the Dutch under Van Tromp and De Ruyter, 
in which the latter were worsted, and admiral Van Tromp was killed, 1653. Again, iu the 
mouth of the Texel, when D'Etrees and Ruyter were signally defeated, Aug. il, 1673. The 
Dutch fleet vanquished by lord Duncan, on Oct. 11, 1797. See C'am2)erclown. _ The Dutch 
fleet of twelve ships of war, and thirteen Indiamen, surrendered to admiral IMitchell, who, 
entering the Texel, possessed himself of them without firing a shot, Aug. 28, 1799. 

THALLIUM, a metal, occurring in the sulphuric-acid manufacture, discovered by Mr. 
"Wm. Crookes, by means of the s^jectrum analysis iu March, 1861. 

THAMES (London). The richest river in the world. It has been erroneously said that 
its name is Isis till it arrives at Dorchester, when, being joined by the Thame or Tame, it 
assumes the name of Thames. "What was the origin of this vulgar error cannot now be 
traced : poetical fiction, however, had perpetuated the error, and invested it Avith a kind of 
classical sanctity. It was called Thames or Tems before it came near the Thames. Camden. 

the tunnel is 1300 feet ; its width is 35 feet ; 
height, 20 feet ; clear width of each archway, 
including foot-path, about 14 feet ; thickness 
of earth between the ci-own of the tunnel and 
the bed of the river, about 15 feet. 

In consequence of tlie great contamination of 
the Thames by the influx of the sewage of 
London, and the bad odours emanating from 
it in the summer of 1S5S, an act was passed 
empowering the Metropohtan Board of Works 
(u-fcich sec) to undertake its purification by 
constructing new drainage. The works are 
still in progress iS65 

Thames Embankment : sir Christopher Wren 
recommended it in 1666. The corporation 
embanked a mile in 1767. It was further 
recommended by sir Fred. Trench, in 1824 ; by 
the duke of Newcastle iu 1844 ; and by John 
Martin the painter in 1S56. In i860, the 
Metropolitan Board of Works recommended 
that the north bank of the Thames should 
be embanked ; whereby the l^ed of the river 
would be improved ; a low-level sewer 
could be easily constructed beneath a broad 
roadway ; docks to be constructed within 
the embankment wall ; the expense to be 
defrayed by the city duties on coal, and by 



The river rose so high at Westminster that the 
lawyers were brought out of the hall in boats 1235 

It rose to a great height, 1736, 1747, 1762 . . 1791 

The conservation of the Thames was given to 
the mayors of London 1489 

The Thames was made navigable to Oxford . 1624 

It ebbed and flowed twice in three hours, 1658 ; 
again, three times in four hours, March 22, 
T6S2 : again, twice in three hours Nov. 24, 1777 

An act of parliament gave the conservation of 
the Thames to the corporation of London : 
twelve consei-vators were to be appointed- 
three by the government 1857 

Thames Ti'NNEl.— Projected by Mr. I. K. 
Brunei, to form a communication between 
llotherhithe and Wapping. The bill received 
the royal assent, June 24, 1S24. The shaft 
was begun in 1S25 ; the first brick was laid 
by Mr. Smith, March 2 ; the excavation com- 
menced, April I ; and the first horizontal 
excavation in Dec. 1S25 

At a distance of 544 feet from the shaft, the first 
irruption took place . . . May 18, 1S27 

The second irruption, by which six workmen 

perished Jan. 12, 1828 

The tuimel was ojiened throughout for foot- 
Ijasscngers, March 25, 1843. The length of 



Til A 



710 



THE 



THAMES, continued. 

means provided by government. The prin- 
ciple of tliis recommendation was approved 
by parliament, and a committee was ap- 
pointed, which sat for the first time April 30, 

An act for "embanking the north side of the 
Thames from Westminster bridge to Black- 
friars bridge, and for making new streets in 
and near thereto," passed Aug. 7 ; the work 
begun in Nov. 

Mr. J. W. Bazalgette presented a report, with a 
plan for embanking the south side of the 



Thames, Nov. 6, 1862; act for carrying it out 
passed July 28, 1863 

The Thames Angling Preservation Society 
(establi.shed about 1838) is revived in . . ,, 

First stone of the embankment laid by Mr. 
Thwaites near Whitehall-stairs . July 20, 1864 

Mr. Leach, engineer of the conservators, re- 
ported that "the river is dreadfully mis- 
managed from its source to its mouth," 

July 23, ,, 



THANE, a Saxon title of nobility, abolished iu England at the conquest, upon the intro- 
duction of tlie feudal system, and in Scotland by king Malcolm III., when the title of earl 
was ado^Dted, 1057. 

THANET, Kent, was the first permanent settlement of the Saxons, 428. The Danes held 
a part of it, 853-865, and ravaged it 980. 

THEATINES. An order of religious, the first who assumed the title of regular clerics, 
founded by Caraffa, bishop of Theate, in Naples (afterwards pope Paul IV.), 1524, to repress 
heresy. They first established themselves in France, according to the historian Henault, in 
Pari.s, 1644. The Theatines endeavoiired, but vainly, to revive among the clergy the poverty 
of the apostles. A&lie. 

THEATRES. That of Bacchus, at Athens, built by Philos, 420 B.C., Avas the first erected. 
Marcellus' theatre at Rome Avas built about 80 B.C. Theatres were afterwards numerou.s, 
and were erected in most cities of Italy. There was a theatre at Pompeii, where most of the 
inhabitants of the town were assembled on the night of Aug. 24, A.D. 79, when an eruption 
of Vesuvius covei'cd Pompeii. Scenes were introduced into theatres, imiuted by Balthazar 
Sienna, a.d. 1533. See Drama, Plays, &c. 

THEATRES in England. The first royal licence for a theatre in England was in 1574, 
to master Burbage and four others, servants of the earl of Leicester, to act plays at the 
Globe, Bankside. See Globe. But, long before that time, miracle plays were represented in 
the fields. The prices of admission in the reign of queen Elizabeth were — gallery, 2d. : lords' 
rooms, \s. The first play-bill was dated April 8, 1663, and is.sued from Drury-lane ; it runs 
thus : " By his Majestic his company of Comedians at the New Theatre in Drury-lane, will 
be acted a comedy called the Iluuwvrous Lievienant.'" After detailing the characters, it 
concludes thus : " The play will begin at three o'clock exactly." Lincoln's-inn theatre was 
opened in 1695. The licensing act (10 Geo. II. c. 23, 1735) was passed in consequence of 
the performance of Fielding's Pasquin at the Haymarket, satirising Walpole's administration. 
Marionettes or Puppets Avere produced at the Adelaide Gallery in 1852. See Covcnt Garden, 
Drury Lane, Opera House, Drama, &c. In Jan. i860, several of the theatres were first 
opened on Sunda}' evenings for religious worsliip, and were filled. 



DRURY LANE. 



April 25, 
April 8, 



KiUigrew's patent 

Opened . . . . . 

Nell Gwynn performed 

Theatre burnt down 

Rebuilt by sir Christopher Wren, and opened, 

March 26, 

Gibber, Wilkes, Booth 

Garrick's cUbut here 

Garriok and Lacys tenure (revival of Shak- 
speare) 

Interior rebuilt by Adams ; opened Sept. 23, 

Garrick's farewell .... June 10, 

Sheridan's management ..... 

Theatrical fund founded by Mr. Garrick . . 

Mrs. Siddons' debut as a star . . Oct. 10, 

Mr. KemVile's lUbut as Hamlet . Sept. 30, 

The theatre rebuilt on a large scale, and re- 
opened March 12, 

Charles Kemble's first ajipearance (as Malcolm 
in Macbeth) April 21, 

Dowton's first appearance (as Sheva in the Jew), 

Oct. II, 

Hatfield fired at George III. . . May 11, 

The theatre burnt .... Feb. 24, 



1662 
1663 
1666 
1671 

1674 
1712 
1742 

1747 
1775 
1776 

1777 
1782 

1783 



1796 
1800 
1809 



Rebuilt by Wyatt, and re-opened with a pro- 
logue by lord Byron . . . Oct. 10, 1 812 
Edmund Kean's appearance (as Shyloci:), 

Jan. 26, 18 14 
Mr. Elliston, lessee .... Oct. 3, 18 19 

Madame Vestris's first appearance (as Lilla), 

Feb. ig, 1820 
Real water introduced in the Cataract of the 

Ganrjes Oct. 27, 1823 

Mr. Price, lessee July, 1826 

Miss Ellen Tree's appearance (as Violante), 

Sept. 23, ,, 
Charles Kean's appearance (as Norval) Oct. i, 1827 
Mrs. Nisbett's first appearance (as the Widow 

Cheerly) Oct. 9, 1829 

Mr. Alexander Lee's and Captain Polhill's 

management 1830 

Mr. Alfred Bunn, lessee 1831 

Mr. Forrest's first appearance (as Spartacus), 

Oct. 17, 1836 
Mr. Hammond's management . . . . 1839 
German operas commenced at this theatre, 

March 15, 1841 
Mr. Macready's management . . . . ,, 
Mr. Buim, again lessee 1843 



TFIE 



711 



THE 



THEATRES, continued. 
Miss Clara Webster burnt on the stage, Dec. 14; 

and died Dec. 16, 1844 

Mr. Anderson's management 1849 

'Mr. Macrtady'.s farewell . . . FcVj. 26, 1851 
Mr. Bunn, lessee and manager . . . . 1852 

Jlr. E. T. Smith 1853-9 

English opera (Mr. Harrison and Miss Pyne) . 1858 

Italian opera 1859 

Opened by Mr. E. T. Smith . . Oct 15, i860 
Suddenly closed .... April 20, 1861 
Mr. G. V. Brooke appears (as Othello) Oct. 27, ,, 

[Drowned in the London. See ]Frecks. Jan 11, 1866] 

Mr. Falconer Dec. 1862-1865 

Messrs. Falconer and Chatterton, managers, 

Jan. 1866 

COVENT GARDEN. 

(The Duke's Theatre) Sir William Davenant's 

patent April 25, 1662 

The theatre opened by Rich . . . Dec. 7, 1732 
Beef-steak Society, founded by Rich and 

Lambert 1735 

Theatrical fund instituted 1765 

Mr. Harris's tenure 1767 

Lewis's first appearance in the character of 

Btlcour Sept. 15, 1773 

Miss Reay killed by Jlr. Haekman, commg 

from the house .... April 7, 1779 
Jack Johnstone's first appearance in Irish 

characters Oct. 3, 17S3 

Munden's appearance .... Dec. 2, 1790 
Fawcett's first appearance (as Cafc6) Sept. 21, 1791 
G. F. Cooke's appearance (as Richard III), 

Oct. 31, 1800 
Braham's appearance .... Dec. 9, iSoi 
Mr. Kemble's management .... 1802 
.Appearance of Master Betty, the Infant Rosciiis, 

Dec. I, 1803 
Lewis's last appearance (as the Copper Captain), 

May 28, 1808 
Theatre burnt down . . . Sept. 20 ,, 
Rebuilt by R. Smirke, R.A., and reopened 

with Macbch Sept. 18, 1809 

The O. P. Riot (jc7t?c?i «ee) . Sept. 18 to Dec. 10, ,, 
Horses first introduced ; in Bluebeard . Feb. 18, 1811 
The farewell benefit of Mrs. Siddons (immense 
hou-se) ...... June 29, 1812 

[Mrs. Siddons, however, performed once after- 
wards, in June, 1819, for Mr. and Mrs. C. 
Kemble's benefit.] 
Miss Stephens's first appearance (as Mandane), 

Sept 7, 1813 
Miss Foote's appearance here (as Amanthis), 

May 26, 1 81 4 
Miss O'Neill's appearance here (as Juliet), Oct. 6, , , 
Miss Kelly fired at by George Barnet, in the 

house Feb. 7, 1816 

Mr. Macready's first appearance (as Orestes), . 

Sept. 16, ■ ,, 
Mr. J. P. Kemble's farewell (as Coriolanus), 

June 23, 1817 
Henry Harris's management. . " . . 1818 
Chailes Kemble's m.anagement . . . . 1823 
!\liss Fanny Kemble's ajjpearance (as Juliet), 

Oct 5, 1829 
Mr. Fawcett's farewell . . . >Iay 21, 1830 
Charles Young's farewell . . May 30, 1832 
Mr. Macready's management .... 1837 
jtladame Vcstris's management . . . . 1839 
l»Iiss Adelaide Kemble's appearance (a.s Norma), 

Nov. 2, 1841 
Chai-les Kemble again . . Sept. 10, 1842 

Jtlr. Lavu-enfs management . . Dec. 26, 1844 
Opened for Italian opera . . . April 6, 1847 
Destroyed by fire (during a hal masriv.e, eon- 
ducted liy Anderson the Wizard) . March 5, 1856 
New theatre (by Barry), opened by Mr. F. Gye 

{Les Huguenot x) May 15, 1858 

Tlnglish opera (Miss Pjnie and V.r. Harrison), 

Oct. 1859 



All principal actors perform parts of plays for 
the benefit ot the Dramatic College, Mai ch 29, 
Balfe's BUnica brought out . . . Dec. 6, 
Italian opera (Mr. Gye) . . . April, 

Last appearance of Grisi . . . Aug. 3, 
English opera (Pyne and Harrison) . Oct. 21, 
Italian opera {Mr. Gye) . . . April, 

English opera (Pyne ai u Ilai'rison) . Aug. 25, 
Italian opera (Mr. Gye) . . .A] ril 7, 
Gounod's Faust ..... July, 

English opera (Pyne and Harrison) . Oct. 12, 
Italian opera (Mr. Gye) .... April, 
English opera, &c. (Opera Company, Limited), 

Oct. 17, 

Italian opera (Mr. Gye) . . . April 28, 

Becomes the property of a comp.any, Mr. Gye 

manager Aug. 



1S60 
1861 



1863 



186s 
1 865 



ITALIAN OPERA-HOUSE, OR QUEEN'S 
THEATRE. 

Opera-house opened. Pennant. (See Opn-a- 

ho^tse) ........ 1705 

The theatre was enlarged 1720 

Burnt down Juno 17, 17S9 

Rebuilt, and re-opened . . . Sept. 22, 1791 

Exterior improved by Mr. Nash . . . 1818 

The riliero by Mr. Bubb 1821 

Madame Rachel's appear.ance . . May 10, 1841 

Mr. Lumley's management . . ... 1842 

Jenny Lind's first appearance . . M.iy 4, 1847 
Association formed for conducting financial 

affairs of the house 1832 

Jullien's concerts Oct. 1857 

Festive performances on the marriage of the 

princess royal Jan. 1859 

Macfarron's ifo6i)i /food brought out . Oct. 11, 1S60 

[Not opened in 1861.] 
Italian opera (Mr. Mapleson) . AprU 26, 1862 — 

April, 1865 



HAYMARKET. 

Built 1702 

Opened by French comedians . Dec. 29, 1720 
Fielding's Mogul company .... 1734-5 
A French company prohibited from acting by 

the audience 1738 

Mr. Foute's patent 1747 

The Bottle-conjuror's dupery (see Bottle Con- 
juror) Jan. 16, 1748 

The theatre rebuilt 1767 

Mr. Colman's tenure . . . Jan. i, 1777 

Miss Fairen's appearance here (afterwards 

countess of Derby) . . . . . • >> 
Royal visit — great crowd — 16 persons killed and 

many wounded .... Feb. 3, 1794 
Mr. Elliston's debut here . . Jime 24, 1796 

First axjpearance of Mr. JIathews (as Lingo), 

May 16, 1803 

3Ir. Morris's management 1805 

Apjjearance of Mr. Listen (as Sheep/ace), June 8, ,, 
The tailors' riot .... Aug. 15, ,, 
Appearance of Mr. Young(as Hamlet), June 22, 1807 
Of Miss F. Kelly (as Floreita) . . June 12, 1810 
Theatre rebviilt by Na.sh ; opened . July 4, 1821 
Miss Baton's (Mrs. Wood) appearance (as 

Su.iannah) Aug. 3, 1822 

Mr. Webster's management . . June 12, 1837 
Mr, Charles Ke.an's appearance here . . . 1839 
Mr. Webster's management (16 years) termi- 
nated with his farewell appearance, March 14, 1853 
First appearance of Our American Cousin (said 
to be by Tom Taylor, and to have been acted 
800 times in America), Mr. Sothern, Lord 
Bundreary . . . , , Nov. 11, 1S61 
Mr. Buckstone's management . . . 1853-66 



THE 



712 



THE 



THEATEES, continued. 

ENGLISH OPERA-HOUSE, or LYCEUM. 

Built by Dr. Arnold 1794-5 

Winsor experiments with gas-ligliting , , 1803-4 

Opened as the Lyceum in 1809 

Appeai-ance of Mr. Wrench {o.» Bdcour) . Oct. 7, ,, 
Re-opened with an address spoken by Miss 

Kelly June 15, 1816 

House destroyed by fire . . . Feb. 16, 1830 
Re-built, and rc-oponed . . . July 14, 1834 
Equestrian performances . . Jan. 16, 1844 
Mrs. Keeley's management . . April 8, ,, 
Madame Vestris and Mr. C. Mathews' manage- 
ment Oct. 1847-56 

Retirement of Mr. C. Mathews . March, 1S55 

Appearance of Madame Ristori . . June, 1856 
Taken by Mr. Gye for Italian opera for forty 

nights April 14, 1857 

Opened for Engli.sh opera by Miss Louisa Pyne 

and Mr. Harrison .... Sept. 21, „ 
Balfe's opera, iiose 0/ CtwfJic, produced . Oct. ,, 
Mr. G. Webster and Mr. Falconer, July, 1858 ; 

closed April, 1859 

Opened by Madame Celeste, Nov. 1859, and 

Oct. i860 
The " Savage Club" perform before the queen 

• and prince March 7, ,, 

Italian opera Juno 8, 1861 

Mr. Falconer, manager (English comedy), 

Aug. ig, ,, 
Pesp o' Day brought out . . . Nov. g, ,, 
Mr. Fechter . . . Jan. 10, 1863— June, 1865 



THE ADELPHI THEATRE. 

Formerly called the Sans Pareil, opened under 
the management of Mr. and Miss Scott, 

Nov. 27, 1806 

Under Rodwell and Jones, who gave it the 
present name ...... 1820-1 

Terry and Yates 1825 

Messrs. Mathews and Yates' management join 
{Mathews at Home) 1828 

New front 1840 

Madame Celeste's management . . Sept. 30, 1844 

Rebuilt and opened, with improved arrange- 
ments Dec. 27, 1858 

CuUeen Bawn represented . . Sept. 10, i860 
[Immense run ; above 360 nights. ] 

Miss Bateman appears as Leah, Oct i, 1863, to 

Jtuie II, 1S64 

Mr. B. Webster, present lessee 



844-66 



PRINCE'S, LATE ST. JAMES'S. 

This theatre was built by, and opened under 

the management of, Mr. Braham . Dec. 14, 1835 
German operas perfoi-med here under the 

management of Mr. Bunn 1840 

Mr. Mitchell's tenure ; performance of French 

plays Jan. 22, 1844 

German plays 1852 

Mrs. Seymour's tenure . . . Oct. 22, 1854-5 

French plays 1857 

Neapolitan Buffo-oijera .... Nov. ,, 

Italian plays 1858 

French opera Jan. 1859 

French plays May, ,, 

English comedy, under Mr. F. Chatterton, 

manager Oct. ,, 

French plays IMay 28, i860 

English plays Aug. 12, ,, 

Mr. Wigan, manager 1860-2 

French plays May 20, i86i 

PRINCESS'S THEATRE, OXFORD STREET. 

First opened 1840 

Sold for 16,400? Sept. 9, 1841 



Mr. Bartley's farewell here . . Dec. 18, 1852 
Mr. Charles Kean's management, 1850 ; closed, 

Aug. 29, 1859 
Mr. A. Harris's management; opened, Sept. 29, ,, 
Zouave Crimean company . . . July 23, i860 
Mr. Fechter appears (as //am^cO . Marcia 20, i86i 

Mr. Harris, lessee i86o-i 

Mr. Lindus, manager . . . Oct. 20, 1862 
Mr. G. Viuing, lessee and manager . May, 1863-66 



OLYMPIC. 

Erected by the late Mr. Astley, and opened 

with horseman.ship .... Sept. 18, 1806 
Here the celebrated Elliston (1813), and after- 
wards Aladame Vestris, had managements ; 

the latter until 1839 

Ml-. George Wild's tenure 1840 

Miss Davenport's tenure . . . Nov. 11, 1844 

Mr. Watts's naanagement 1848 

The theatre destroj'ed by fire . . March 29, 1849 
Rebuilt and oijened — Mr. Watts resumes his 

management .... Dec. 26, ,, 
Mr. William Farren's management . . . 1850 
Lessee and manager, Mr. A. Wigan . Oct. 17, 1853-7 
Messrs. Robson and Embdens management, 

Aug. 1857-62 
Mr. Horace Wigan, manager. Nov. 1864 — June, 1865 



STRAND THEATRE. 

First opened — Mr. Rayoer and Mrs. Waylett . 1831 
Mr. AVilliam Farren's management . . . 1849 
Lessee, Mr. F. AUcroft ; manager, Mr. T. Payne 1855 
Lessee, Miss Swanborough .... 1S58-61 
Mr. Swanborough, sea. .... Dec. 1862 
Mrs. Swanborough . . June, 1S65 — Jan. 1S66 



ASTLBY'S AMPHITHEATRE. 

Built by Philip Astley, .and opened . . . 1773 
Destroyed by fire, with numerous adjacent 

houses ...... Sept. 17, 1794 

Rebuilt 1795 

Burnt again, with forty houses . , Sept. i, 1803 
Ducrow's management . . . . . . 1825 

Again destroyed by fire . . . June 8, 1841 
Rebuilt and reopened by Jlr. B.atty . April 17, 1843 
Lessee and manager, Mr. W. Cooke . 1855-60 

Mr. W. Cooke's farewell benefit . Jan. 30, i860 
A man killed by a lion .... Jan 7, 1S61 

Opened by Mr. Batty . . . Dec. 6, ,, 
Opened by Mr. Boucicault, as the Theatre 

RovAL, Westiiixster . . . Dec. 26, 1862 
Horsemanship and opera (under Mr. E. T. 

Smith) exhibiting in . . . . June, 1865 



CIRCUS, NOW SURREY THEATRE. 

[Originally devoted to equestrian exercises, 

under Mr. Hughe.s] .... Nov. 4, 17S2 
Opened for performances . . Nov. 4, 1783 

Destroyed by fire .... Aug. 12, 1805 
Mr. EUiston's management .... 1809 

Mr. Elliston again .... June 4, 1827 

Mr. Davidge's tenure 1833 

Mr. Shepherd and Mr. Anderson, managers, 

Sept. 12, 1863-5 
Destroyed by fire, Jan. 31 ; rebuilt and opened, 

Dec. 26, 1865 



COBURG, NOW VICTORIA. 

[The erectiim was commenced i;nder the 
patronage of the late princess Charlotte and 
the prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg . .1016 

The house was opened iSiS 



THE 



THE 



THEATRES, coiilinucd. 

Slessrs. Egerton and Abbott had tbc manage- 
ment in 1S33 

5Ir. Osbaldiston's tenure 1S40 

Alarm of lire, sixteen persons killed . Dec. 27, 1858 



SADLER'S WELLS. 

Opened as an orchestra 

Tresent house opened 

Eighteen persons trampled to death on a false 
alarm of fire . . . . . Oct. 15, 
JIanagemeut of Mrs. Warner and Mr. Phelps, 
Jlay 20, 18. 
Slanagcment of Mr. Joseph . March 25, 
Ke-opened by Mr. Phelps . . Sept. 7, 
Lessee, Miss C. Lucette . . . Sept. 27, 
Miss Mariott, manager, Septs, 1863— May 20, 
Miss C. Lucette, for opera . . May 22, 
Miss Mariott, legitimate drama . . Oct. 



OTHER THEATRES. 

Queen's Theatre, TottenLam-court-road . 
LJarrick Theatre, Goodman's-fields . . . 

Dowcry Theatre, Lambeth 

City Theatre, Norton-Folgate . . . . 

Miss Kelly's Theatre 

Jliirylebone, opened 

Pavilion Theatre burnt . . . Fob. 23, 
New Royalty (Soho) . . . Aug. 31, 



DUBLIN THEATRES. 

Wcrburg-stroet, commenced 
Orange-street, now Smock-alley . 
Aiuigier-street ( Victor) 
Ditto, management of Mr. Hitchcock 
Crow-street Music-hall 
Rainsford-street Theatre 
Smock-alley Theatre, rebuilt 
Fi.shamble-street Music-hall . 
Caiiel-streot Theatre .... 
Crow-street, Theatre Royal . 
Ditto, Mr. Daly's patent 
Ditto, Mr. Fred. Edw. Jones's patent 
Peter-street, Theatre Royal 
ILawkin's-street, Theatre Royal . 
Ditto, Mr. Abbott, lessee . 
Ditto, Mr. Bunn, lessee . 
Ditto, Mr. Calcraft, lessee . 
Queen's Theatre, Brunswick-street 



EDINBURGH THEATRES. 

Theatre of !Music 

Allan Ramsay's ....... 

Theatre, Shakspeare-square .... 

'J'lie Caledonian Theatre 

Adelphi Theatre burnt down . . May 24, 
Royal Theatre burnt do^vn (several lives lost), 

Jan. 13, 

FIRST OR LAST APPEARANCES. 

Quin's first appearance 

Macklin at Lincoln's-inn-fields . . . . 
Garrick's at Goodman's-fields, as /i!ic'7iO/\? ///., 

Oct. 19, 

Miss FaiTcn (afterwards countess of Derby) 

first aijpears at Liverpool .... 

Garrick's last appearance . . June 10, 

Mrs. Robinson, Perdito. : her last aiipo.'i ranee, 

Dec. 24, 



16S3 
1765 

1807 

(4-59 
1 861 

1862 
1864 
1865 



1828 
1850 

1837 
1840 
1842 
1856 
1863 



1635 
1662 
1728 
1733 
1731 
1732 
1735 
1 741 
1745 
1758 
1786 
1798 
1789 
1821 
1824 
1827 
1830 



1672 
1736 
1769 
1822 
1S53 

1865 

1716 
1725 



1773 
1776 



Braham's first appearance at the Royalty, 

April 20, 1787 
Madame Storace ; her first appearance in 

London Nov. 24, 17S9 

Incledon's first appearance .... 1790 

Miss Slellon, her first appearance as Lydia 

Lanrjinsh Jan. 31, 1795 

Liston's first appearance in London . June i, 1805 
Romeo Coates appears as Lothario April 10, 1811 

Mrs. Jordan's last appearance, as Lady Teazle, 

June I, 1S14 
Mr. Macready's fii'st appearance at Bath, as 

Jiomeo ...... Dec. 29, ,, 

Booth's first appearance . . Feb. 12, 1817 

W. Farren's first appearance .... 1818 

Munden's last appearance . . May 31, 1824 
Fanny Kemble's first appearance . Oct. 5, 1S29 

Edmund Kean's farewell 1833 

Liston's last appearance . . . May 31, 1838 
Adelaide Ivemble's first appearance Nov. 2, 1841 

.Jenny Lind s first appearance . . May 4, 1847 
Mrs. Glover's farewell . . . July 12, 1850 
Mr. Bartley's farewell . . . Dec. 18, 1852 

Mr. W. Farren's farewell 1855 

Clara Novello's farewell . . . Nov. 21, i860 
Miss Bateman appears as Leah . . Oct. i, 1S63 
Her farewell at'H.M.'s theatre . Dec. 22, 1865 

MEJIORANIiA. 

David Garrick died 1779 

Charles Macklin died 1797 

Mr. Palmer died on the stage at Liverpool, 

Aug. 2, 1798 
Bannister retired from the stage . . . 1S15 
.John P. Kemble died ...... 1823 

Talma died in Paris 1826 

Weber came to London . . . Feb. ,, 

The Brunswick theatre fell, owing to the weight 
of a newly-erected roof, and niuiibers of per- 
sons were wounded and some killed, Feb. 29, 1828 

Sarah Siddons died 1831 

Edmund Kean died 1833 

Madame Malibran died at Jlanchester, Sept. 23, 1836 

Paganini died May 29, 1840 

Power lost in the President steamer, about 

March 13, 1841 
Elton lost in the Pe(/asii,5 . . . July ig, 1843 
Theatres' Registry Act passed . Aug, 22, ,, 
Madlle. Mars died at Paris . . March 23, 1847 

M.adame Catalini died at Paris . June 13, 1849 
Alexander Lee died . . . Oct. 9, 1851 

Jlrs. Warner died .... Sept. s, 1854 

C. Kemble died Nov. 5, ,, 

John Braham died .... Feb. 17, 1856 
Madame Vestris died .... Aug. S, ,, 
Madlle. Rachel died . . . Jan. 4, 1858 

Mrs. Nisbett (lady Boothbyj died . Jan. 16, „ 
Louis Lablache (bufib singer) died . Jan. 23, ,, 
John Pritt Harley died . . . Aug. 22, ,, 
Flexmore, celeljrated clown, died . Aug. 20, i860 
Mrs. Bates died .... Oct. 30, ,, 

Alfred Buini died .... Dec. 20, ,, 

William Farren died . . . Sept. 25, i86i 
Mr. Vandenhoff died .... Oct. 4, ,, 
M. Tree (Mrs. Bradshaw) died . . Feb. 1862 

Subscription testimonial (value 2000^) pre- 
sented to C. J. Kean : Mr. Gladstone in the 

chair March 22, ,, 

Sheridan Knowlcs died . . . Nov. 30, ,, 

Mrs. AVood (once Miss Paton) died . July 21, ,, 
Mr. F. Robsondied. . . . Aug. n, 1864 
Madame Pasta died, aged 66 . . April i, 1S65 



THEATRICAL FUNDS. Tlie Theatrical fund of Covent Ganleu was established iu 
1765; that of Drury Lane in 1776. They grant pensions to their members and their families. 
Tiie General Theatrical fund was established in 1839. 



THE 714 THE 

THEBES or Luxor, in Eg3'pt, called also Hecatompylos on account of its hundred gates, 
and Diospolis, as being sacred to Jupiter. In the time of its splcndonr, it extended above 
tliirty-three miles, and upon any emergency could send into the lield, by each of its hundred 
gates, 20,000 lighting men and 200 chariots. Thebes was rained by Gambyses, king of 
Persia, 521 B.C., and few traces of it were seen in the age of Juvenal. Plutarch. Thebes 
(the capital of the country successively called Aonia, Messapia, Ogygia, Hyantis, and 
Boeotia) was called Cadmeis, from Cadnuis, its founder, 1493 B.C. It became a republic 
about 1120 B.C., and flourished under Epaminondas 378 — 362 B.C. It was taken by the 
Romans, 198 a.d. See Bceotia and Greece. 

THEFT, This offence was punished bj"- heavy fines among the Jews. By death at 
Athens, by the laws of Draco. See Draco. The Anglo-Saxons nominally punished theft 
with deatli, if above i2d. value ; but the criminal could redeem his life by a ransom. In 
the 9th of Henry I. this power of redemption was taken awaj'-, 1108. The punishment of 
theft was very severe in England, till mitigated by Peel's acts, 9 & 10 Geo. IV. 1829. The 
laws respecting theft were consolidated in 1S62. 

THEISTS {Thcos, God). A kind of deists about 1660. Lean Martin. 

THELLUSSON'S WILL. One of the most singular testamentary documents over 
executed. Mr. Peter Isaac Thcllusson, an aflluent London merchant, left 100,000?. to his 
widow and children ; and tlic remainder, amounting to more than 600,000/., he left to 
trustees, to accumulate during the lives of his three sons, and the lives of their sons ; then 
the estates, directed to be purchased with the produce of the accumulating fund, were to be 
conveyed to the eldest lineal male descendant of his three sons, with the benefit of survivor- 
ship. Should no heir then exist, the whole Avas to be applied, by the agency of the sinking- 
fund, to the discharge of the national debt. Mr. Theilusson died on July 21, 1797. His 
will incurred much public censure,* and was contested by the heirs-at-law, but finally 
estaljlished by a decision of the house of lords, June 25, 1805. Tlie last surviving gi'andsou 
died in Feb. 1856. A dispute tlien arose whether the eldest male descendants or the 
descendants of the eldest son should inlierit the property. Tlie question was decided on 
appeal to tlie house of lords (June 9, 1859), in favour of the latter, lord Eendlesham, and 
Cliarles S. Theilusson, confirming the decision of the Master of tlie Rolls in 1858. In 
consequence of legal expenses the property is said not to exceed greatly its value in the 
testator's lifetime. 

THEOLOGY (from the Greek Thcos, God), the science which treats of the nature and 
attributes of God, of his relations to man, and of the manner in which they may be 
discovered. It is generally divided into two heads. i. Insinred (including the H0I3' 
Scriptures, their interpretation, &c.). 2. Natural ; which lord Bacon calls the first part 
of Philosophy. — Butler's Analogy of Religion (1736) and Paley's Natural Theology (1802) 
are eminent books on the latter subject. — The " Summa Totius Theologiise " by Thomas 
Aquinas (born about 1224), a standard Roman Catholic work, was printed with commen- 
taries, &c., in 1596. 

THEOPHILANTHROPISTS (lovers of God and man), a sect formed in France in 1796; 
was headed by one of the five directors, Lepaux, in 1797, and broke up iu 1802. 

THERMIDOR REVOLUTIOlSr. On the 9th Thermidor of the 2nd year (July 27, 
1794), the Convention deposed Robespierre, and on the next day he and twenty-two of his 
partisans Avere executed. 

THERMO-ELECTRICITY. See under Electricity and Heat. 

THERMOMETER. The invention of this instrument is ascribed to several scientific 
pei'sons, all about the same time. To Galileo, before 1597. Libri. Invented by Drebbel of 
Alcmaer, 1609. Boerhaave. Invented by Paulo Sarpi, 1609. Fulgcntio. Invented by 
Sanctorio in 1610. Borclli. Fahrenheit's thermometer was invented about 1726 ; Reaumur's 
and Celsius's (the latter now termed Centigrade) soon after. Fahrenheit's scale is iisually 
employed in England and Reaumur's and the Centigrade on the continent. Freezing point : 
Fah. 32° ; iJ. 0° ; C. 0°. Boiling point : Fah. 212°, R. 80, C. 100. The mode of con- 
struction by substituting quicksilver for spirits was invented some years subsequently. 
Halley proposed it in 1697. Mr. L. M. Casella issued a minimum thermometer in Sept. 
1 86 1, It registers degrees of cold by means of mercury ; hitherto deemed impossible. 

* In 1800 an act of parliament was passed, preventing testators devising tlieir property for purposes of 
accumulation for longer than 20 years after their death. 



THE 715 THO 

THERMOPYLAE, in Doris N. Greece. Leonidas, at the head of 300 Spartans and 700 
Thespians, at the dclilc of TlicrmopyhT, withstood tlie Avhole force of the Persians during 
three days, Aug. 7, 8, 9, 4S0 B.C., when Ephialtes, a Tracliinian, perfidiously leading the 
enemy by a secret path up the mountains, brought them to the rear of the Greeks, Avho, thus 
placed between two assailants, perished gloriously on heaps of their slaughtered foes. One 
Greek only returned home, and he was received with reproaches for having fled. Here 
Antiochns the Great, king of Syria, was defeated by the Romans, 191 B.C. 

THESSALONICA (now Salonica), a city in Macedonia. Here Paul preached, 53 ; and to 
the church here he addressed two epistles in 54. In consequence of seditions, a frightful 
massacre of the inhabitants took place in 390, by order of the emperor Thcodosius. Thes- 
salonica jiartook of the changes of the Eastern empire. It was sold to the Venetians by the 
emperor Andronicus in 1425 ; taken by the Turks in 1430 ; burnt, July 11, 1856. 

TIIESSALY CN. Greece), the seat of many of the adventures described by the poets. 
The first king of M'hora we have any certain knowledge was Hellen, son of Deucalion, from 
whom his subjects were called Hellenists, a name afterwards extended to all Greeks. From 
Thessaly came the Acha'ans, the yEtolians, the Dorians, the Hellenists, &c. The two most 
remarkable events in the early history of this country are the deluge of Deucalion, 1548 B. c, 
and the expedition of the Argonauts, 1263 B.C. See them severally. Thessaly was conquered 
by the great Philip, 352 b.c.^ and partook of the fortunes of Macedon. It is now part of the 
kingdom of Greece. 

THETFORD (Norfolk), the Roman Sitomagus, was a bishopric from 1070 to 109 1, when 
tlie see was removed to Norwich. 

THIMBLES arc said to have been found at Hereulaneum.— The art of making them was 
lironght to England by John Lofting, a mechanic, fi-om Holland, who set up a workshop at 
Islington, near London, and practised the manufacture in various metals with profit and 
success, about 1695. Anderson. 

THIRTY-NINE ARTICLES. Bee Articles. 

THIRTY TYRANTS, a term applied to the governors of Athens, in 404 B.C., who were 
expelled liy Thrasybulus ; and also to the aspirants to the imperial throne of Rome during 
the reigns of Gallienus and Anrelian, A.D. 259 — 274. 

THIRTY YEARS' WAR, in Germany, between the Catholics and Protestants. It 
liegan with the latter in Bohemia in 1618, and ended with the peace of Westphalia in 1648. 
It is renowned for the victories of Wallenstein and Gustavus Adolphns, of Sweden. 

THISTLE,* Order of the, Scotland, founded by James V. 1540. It consisted 
originally of himself, as sovereign, and twelve knights, in imitation of Christ and his twelve 
apostles. In 1542, James died, and the order was discontinued, about the time of the 
Reformation. The order was renewed by James VII. of Scotland and II. of England, by 
making eight knights, May 29, 1687 ; increased to twelve by queen Anne in 1703 ; to 
sixteen by George IV. in 1827. 

THE OKIGINAL KNIOnXS OF 1 687. 
George, duke of Gordon. I James, earl of Perth ; attainted, 

.John, marquess of Athol. 
James, earl of Arran, afterwards duke of Ilsmilton ; 

killed in a duel, 1712. 
Alexander, earl of Moray. 

THISTLEWOOD'S CONSPIRACY. See Ccdo-sircet Conspiracy. 

THOMAS'S HOSPITAL, St. (Soulhwark), was founded as an almshouse by Richard, 
prior of Bermondscy, in 1213, and surrendered to Henry VIII. in 1538. In 1551 the mayor 
and citizens of London, having purchased of Edward VI. the manor of Southwark, including 
this hospital, repaired and enlarged it, and admitted into it 260 poor, sick, and helpless 
objects ; upon which the king, in 1553, incorporated it, together with Bethlehem, St. 
Bartholomew's, &c. It was built in 1693. In 1862, the site was sold to the railway com- 
pany, and the patients were removed to the Surrey music hall. A new hospital is to be 
erected near the Surrey side of Westminster bridge. 

* Some Scottisli historians make the origin of this order very ancient. The abbot Justinian says it 
was (iii-stitutcd by Achaius 1. of Scotland, 809, when that monarch made .an alliance witli Charlemagne, 
and then took for his device the thistle. It is stated that king Hungus, the Pict, had a. dream, in which 
St. Andrew made a midnight visit, and promised him a sure victory over his foes, the Northumbrians ; and 
that the next day St. Andrew's Cross appeared in the air, aud the Northumbrians were defeated. On this 
story, it is said, Achaius framed the order more than 700 years before James V. revived it. 



Kenneth, earl of Seaforth : attainted. 
George, earl of Dumbarton. 
John, earl of Melford ; attainted. 



THO 716 THU 

THOMITES (or Tomites), a body of enthusiasts who assembled at Broii^htou, near 
Canterbury. A Cornish publican named Thorn, or Tom (religiously insane), assumed the 
name of sir W. Courtenay, knight of Malta and king of Jerusalem, and incited the rabble 
against the Poor Law Act. On May 31, 1S38, a farmer of the neighbourhood, whose servant 
had joined the crowd which attended Thom, sent a constable to fetch him back ; but on his 
arrival on the ground he was shot dead by Thom. The military were then called out, and 
lieut. Bennett proceeded to take the murderer into custody ; but Thom advanced, and, 
tiring a pistol, killed the lieutenant on the spot. One of the soldiers fired at Thom, and 
laid him dead by the side of lieut. Bennett. The people then attacked the military, who 
were com])ellcd to fire ; and several persons were killed before the mob dispersed. Many 
considered Thom a saint. 

THORACIC DUCT, discovered first in a horse by Eustachius, about 1563 ; in the human 
body, by 01. Kudbec, a Swedish anatomist. Thomas Bartholine, of Copenhagen, and 
Dr. Jolitfe, of England, also discovered it about 1654. See Zadeals. 

THORINUM, a very rare metal (a heavy gray powder), discovered by Berzelius in 1828. 
THORN (on the Vistula, Poland) was founded by the Teutonic Knights in 123 1. Many 
Protestants were slaiu here (after a religious riot) at the instigation of the Jesuits in 1724. 

THRACE (now Roumclia, in Turkey) derived its name from Thrax, the son of Mars. 
Asjjin.. Thraces, the people, were descendants of Tiras, son of Japhet, and hence their 
name. They were a warlike people, and therefore Mars was said to have been born and to 
have liis residence among them. Euripides. Thrace was conquered by Philip and 
Alexander, and annexed to the Macedonian empire about 335 B.C. ; and it so remained till 
the conquest of Macedonia by the Romans, 168 B.C. On the ruins of Byzantium, the 
capital of Thrace, Constantinople was built. The Turks under Mahomet II. took the 
country A. n. 1453. Priestley. 

THRASHING-MACHINES. The flail was the only instrument formerly in use for 
thrashing corn. The Romans used a machine called the trihulum, a sledge loaded with 
stones or iron, drawn over the corn-sheaves by horses. Tlie first machine attempted in 
modern _ times was invented by Michael Menzies, at Edinburgh, about 1732; Andrew 
Meikle invented a machine in 1776. Many improvements have been since made. 

THRASYMENE (N. Italy). A most bloody engagement took place here between the 
Carthaginians under Hannibal and the Romans under Flaminius, 217 b.c. No less than 
15,000 Romans were left dead on the field of battle, and 10,000 taken prisoners ; or, accord- 
ing to Livy, 6000; or Polybius, 15,000. The loss of Hannibal was about 1500 men. 
About 10,000 Romans made their escape, all covered with wounds. Livy j Polybius. On 
the same day an earthquake occurred which desolated several cities iu Italy. 

THREATENING LETTERS. Sending letters, whether anonymously written, or with 
a fictitious name, demanding money, or threatening to kill a person or fire his house, was 
made ]Hinishable as a felony without benefit of clergy, in 1723, 1730. Persons exto'rtin"- 
money by threatening to accuse others of such offences as are subjected to death, or other 
infamous punishments, were to be adjudged imprisonment, whipping, or transportation by 
30 Geo. II. 1756 ; and other acts, the latest 10 & 11 Vict. c. 66, 1847. ' 

THUMB-SCREW, an inhuman instrument, commonly used in the first stages of torture 
by the Spanish inquisition. It was in use in England also. Tlic rev. Wm. Carstairs was 
the last who suffered by it before the privy council, to make him divulge secrets entrusted 
to him, which he firmly resisted. After the revolution in 1688, the thumb-screw ^vas 
presented to him by the council. King William expressed a desire to see it, and tried it on 
bidding the doctor to turn the screw ; but at the third turn he cried out, "Hold ■ hold} 
doctor ; another turn would make mc confess anything." ' 

THUNDERING LEGION. During a contest with the invading Jlarcomanni, the 
prayers of some Christians in a Roman legion are said to have been followed by a storm of 
thunder, lightning, and rain, which tended greatly to discomtit the enemy. Hence the 
legion received the name above, A.D. 174. 



d 

the 



THURINGIA, an early Gothic kingdom iu central Germany, was overrun by Attila an 
the Huns, 451 ; the last king, Hermanfried, was defeated and slain by Thierry, kin'' of the 
Pranks, who annexed it to his dominions. It was made an independent duchy,^674 • a 
landgraviate, 8S0 ; given to Otho of Saxony, 909, when the landgrave Burchardt was slaiu • 
it was separated from Saxony, 1180 ; but reunited to it in 1548. ' 



Tiru 717 TIM 

THlTRIvES (S. IrfiLuid). Here was held a synod of the Roman Catholic archbishops, 
lusliops, inferior clergy, and religious orders, under the direction of archbishop Culleii, the 
li'ouian Catliolic primate, Aug. 22, 1850. It condemned the Queen's Colleges, and recom- 
mended tlio foundation of a Roman Catholic _univerj.ity, Sept. 10, following. The acts 
were forwarded to Rome for approval of the pope, Pius IX. 

THUROT'S INVASION. Thurot, an Irish commodore in the French service, by his 
courage and daring became a terror to^all the merchant-ships of this kingdom. He had the 
command of a small armament, and landed 1000 men at Carrickfergus in Ireland, and 
plundered the town. He reached the Isle of Man, and was overtaken liy captain Elliot, 
with tlireo frigates, who engaged his little squadron, which Avas taken, and the commodore 
killed, Feb. 28, 1760. Thurot's true name was O'Farrell ; his grandfather had followed the 
fortunes of James II. ; but his motlier being of a family of some dignity in France, he 
assumed her name. Burns. 

THURSDAY, the fifth day of the week, derived from Tlior, a deified hero worshipped by 
tlic northern nations, particularly by the Scandinavians and Celts. His authority Avas said to 
extend over the winds, seasons, thunder and lightning, &c. He is said to have been the 
most valiant of the sons of Odin. This day still retains his name in the Danish, Swedish, 
and Low-Dutch languages, as well as in the English. Thursday is in Latin dies Jovis, or 
Jupiter's day. 

TIARA, the triple crown of the pope, indicative of his civil rank, as the keys are of his 
ecclesiastical jurisdiction. The ancient tiara was a high round cap. Pope Damasus II. first 
caused liimself to be crowned with a tiara, 1048. John XX. encompassed the tiara with a 
crown, 1276. Boniface VIII. added a second, 1295 : and Benedict XII. formed the tiara 
about 1334. 

TICINUS, a river, N. Italy. Here Hannibal defeated the Romans, 217 B.C. 

TICKETS OF Leave. See Transportation and Crime. 

TICONDEROGA (N. America). The French fortress here was unsuccessfully besieged 
by Abercromby in July, 1758; taken July 26, 1759. The Americans took it in 1775, but 
retired from it in July, 1777. The British retired from it shortly after. 

TIDES. Homer is the earliest profane author who speaks of the tides. Posidonius of 
Apamea accounted for the tides from the motion of the moon, about 79 b. c. ; and Ctesar 
speaks of them in his fourth book of the Gallic war. The theory of the tides was first 
satisfactorily explained by Kepler, 1598 ; Init the honour of a complete explanation of them 
was reserved for sir Isaac Newton, about 1683. 

TIEN-TSIN. See China, 1858. 

TIERRA DEL FUEGO. See Missions, note. 

TIGRIS, a river forming the eastern boundary of Mesopotamia, celebrated for tlie cities 
founded on its banks :— Nineveh, Seleucia, Ctesiphon, and Bagdad. It was explored by an 
English steamer in 1838. 

TILBURY (Essex). The camp formed here in 158S to resist the Spanish invasion was 
visited by queen Elizabeth. 

TILES were originally flat and sipiare, and afterwards parallelogramic, &c. First made 
in England about 1246. They were taxed in 1784. The number of tiles taxed in England 
in I S20 M-as 81,924,626 ; and in 1S30, 97,318,264. The tax was discontinued as discouraging 
liouse-building and interfering with the comfort of the jjeople, in 1833. 

TILSIT (on the river Niemen), where a treaty was concluded between France and Russia. 
Napoleon restored to the Prussian monarch one-half of his territories, and Russia recognised 
tlie Confederation of the Rliine, and the elevation of Napoleon's three brothers, Joseph, 
Louis, and Jerome, to the thrones of Naples, Holland, and Westphalia. Signed July 7, 
1807, and ratified July 19 foUowing. 

TILTS. See Tournaments. 

TIMBER. Tlie annual demand of timber for the royal navy, in war, was 60,000 loads, 
or 40,000 full-grown trees, a ton each, of which tliirty-tive will stand on an acre ; in peace, 
32,000 tons, or 48,000 loads. A seventy-four gun ship consumed 3,000 loads, or 2,000 tons 
(.f trees, the produce of iifty-scvcn acres in a centuiy. Hence the whole navy consumed 
102,600 acres, and 1026 per annum. Alhmt. Iron is now much used, in preference to 



TIM 



71S 



TIN 



timber. In 1843 we imported 1,317,645 loads of timber (cut and imcut) ; in 1857, 2,495,964 
loads ; in 1864, 3,366,478 loads. The duties on timber were modilied in 185 1. 

TIMBER BENDIISrG. Apparatus was invented for this purpose by Mr. T. Blanchard, 
of Boston, U.S., for which a medal was awarded at tlic Paris Exhibition of 1855. A 
company was formed for its application in this country in 1856. 

TIME. Our ideas in.regard to time have been of late greatly extended. Tlie distant 
planet Neptune, discovered by Le Yerrier and Adams in 1846, requires above 900 of our 
j'ears for a sin.i^le revolution ; and the coal measures in Wales, a thickness of strata of more 
than twelve miles, would require for its deposition hundreds of thousauds of years ; while 
other formations could only be estimated in millions of years. PldlUps. See ClocX; Sun- 
dials, Wcdchcs, &c. 

TIMES NEWSPAPER. On Jan. 13, 1785, Mr. John Walter published the first number 
of the Daily Universal Register, price zid., printed on the logographic system (invented by 
Henry Johnson, a compositor), in which types containing sylhiUles and words Avere employed 
instead of single letters. 



On Jan. i, 1788, the paper was named the Times. 

In 1803, when Mr. Walter gave up the paper to his 
son, the ch-culation was about 1000; that of the 
Morning Post being 4500. 

Dr. Stoddart (satirised as Dr. Slop by Moore the 
poet) became editor in 1S12, but five years after 
retired and set up in opposition the New Times, an 
luiprofitable speculation. Thomas Barnes became 
next editor. He died May 7, 1841. ;The .succeeding 
editors were William F. A. Delane, who died in 
1858, and John Thaddous Delane (his son). 

On Nov. 28, 1814, the Times was f.rst printed bysteam 
power (the invention of F. Konig), 1200 per hour, 
afterwards increased to 2000 and 4000. 

The powerful articles contributed liy Edward Stir- 
ling gained the paper the name uf the Thunderer. 

On Jan. ig, 1829, the first double number appeared. 

In July, 1834, an .attack of Mr. O'ConnoUin theliou.se 
of commons on the correctness of the reports of 
the debates in the Times was signally defeated. 

Shortly after began the convenient summary of 
the debates, written in the first instance by 3Ir. 
Horace Twiss. 

In 1841 the 2'Miicswas instrumental in detecting and 
exposing a scheme organised by a companj^, to 
defraud by forgery all the influential bankers of 
Europe. This brought on the laroprietors .an action 
f(jr libel (in the case Bogle v. Lawson). The jurj' 
found the charge to be true, giving a verdict of 
one farthing damages, but the judges refused costs. 
Subscriptions were set on foot In all parts of 
Europe to reimburse the proprietors for the 
immense outlay in defending the action. This 
they firmly declined ; and the money was exiiended 
in establishing Times Sdiolarships at Oxford and 
Cambridge, and at Christ's Hospital, and other 



schools ; marble tablets also, commemorating the 
event, were set up in the Royal Exchange and in 
other places. These were the greatest honours 
ever conceded to a newspaper. 

In Oct. 1845, the Times express was for the first time 
convej'cd to India overland, by the agency of lieut. 
Waghorn. 

Of the number of the Times containing the life of 
the duke of Wellington for Nov. 19, 1S52, 70,000 
were sold — the ordinary number being then 36,000 ; 
the present circulation is stated to vary from 
50,000 to 60,000 (1S66). 

In 1854, the proprietors sent Mr. W. H. Bussell as 
their special correspondent to the seat of war in 
the Crimea ; in 1857 to India, and in 1S61 to the 
southern states of North America. 

Times Fund. — On the 12th of October, 1854, sir Robert 
Peel originated by a letter in the Times a subscrip- 
tion for the sick and wounded in the Crimean war, 
and in less than a fortnight, 15,000?. were sent to 
the Times' office to be thus appropriated. Mr. 
Macdonald (the ijresent manager) was sent out by 
the proprietors as special commissioner to ad- 
minister the fund, from which large quantities of 
food and clothing were supplied to the sufferers, 
with inestimable advantage. See Scutari and 
Nightingale. 

In Deo. 1S58, the Times drew attention to the state 
of the houseless poor of London ; and in a few 
days Soooi. were sub.scribed for their rehef. 

In 1851, 13,000,000 copies were sold; in 1857. 
16,100,000; in 1859, 16,900,000 ; in i860, 16,670,000. 

In 1S60, 16,400 copies per hour were printed. 

On June 21, 1S61, the Times consisted of 24 pages, 
containing 4076 advertisements (about 1810 it con- 
tained 150 advertisements). 



TIN. The PhaBuiciaus traded with England for this article for more than iioo years 
before the Christian era. It is said that this trade first gave them commercial importance 
in the ancient world. Under the Saxons, our tin mines appear to have been neglected ; but 
after the coming in of the Normans, they produced considerable revenues to tlie earls of 
Cornwall, piarticularly to Richard, brother of Henry III. A charter and various immunities 
were granted by Edmund, earl Richard's brother, who also framed the Stannary Luvs {ichicli 
sec), laying a duty on the tin, payable to the earls of Cornwall. Edward III. confirmed the 
tinners in their privileges, and erected Cornwall into a dukedom, with which he invested his 
son, Edward the Black Prince, 1337. Since that time, the heirs-apparent to tlie crown of 
England, if eldest sons, have enjoyed it .successively. Tin mines were discovered in 
Germany, which lessened the value of those in England, till then tiie only tin mines in 
Europe, 1240. Anderson. Discovered in Barbary, 1640 ; in India, 1740 ; in New Spain, 
1782. We export at present, on an average, 1500 tons of unwrought tin, besides manufac- 
tured tin and tin plates, of the value of about 400,000?. In 1857, 9783 tons, in i860, 
10,462 tons, in 1864, 10,108 tous of metallic tin were procured from British mines. Of tin 
plates and tin and pewter ware, we exported in value, in 1S47, 484, 184?. ; in 1854, 1,075,531?. ; 
in i860, 1,500,812/. ; in 1861, 907,590/. ; in 1864, 1,264,100/. 



TIN 



719 



TOB 



TIXCHEBRAY (N.W. France), where a Lattle was fought between Henry I. of England 
and Itobert duke of Normandy. England and Normandy were reunited under Henry, on 
the decease of William Rufus, who had alreadj^ possessed himself of Normandy, though he 
had no other right to that province than by a mortgage from his brother Kobert, at his 
setting out for Palestine, llobert, on his return, recovered Normandy by an accommodation 
with Henry ; but the two brothers having afterwards quarrelled, tlic former was defeated by 
the latter in the battle of Tinchebray, Sept. 28, 1106, and Normandy was annexed to the 
crown of England. Henault, 

TITANIUM, a rare metal, discovered by Gregor in nienakite, a Cornish mineral, in 1791, 
and in 1794 by Klaproth. 

TITHES, or Tenths, were commanded to be given to the tribe of Levi, 1490 n.c. 
Lev. xxvii. 30. Abraham returning frnni his victory over the kings {Gen. xiv.), gave tithes 
of the spoil to Melehisedek, king of Salem, priest of the most high God (1913 B.C. ). For the 
first 800 years of the Christian church they were given purely as alms, and were voluntary. 
Wickliffe. "I will not put the title of the clergy to tithes upon any divine right, though 
such a right certainly commenced, and I believe as certainly ceased, with the Jewish 
theocracy." Blackstonc. They were established in France by Charlemagne, about 800. 
IlCncmlt. Tenths were conlirmed in the Lateran councils, 12 15. liainailda. — The pay- 
ment of tithes appears to have been claimed by Augustine, the first archbishop of Canter- 
bury, and to have been allowed by Ethelbert, king of Kent, under the term "God's fee," 
about 600. 



TITHES IN ENGLAND. 

The fir.st mention of them in any English written 

law, is a constitutional decree made in a synod 

strongly enjoining tithes, 786. 
Offa, king of Mercia, gave unto the church the tithes 
. of all his kingdom, to expiate the death of Ethel- 

hert, king of the East Angles, whom he had caused 

to be basely murdered, 794. 
Tithes were first gi-anted to the English clergy in a 

general assembly held by Ethelwold, a.d. 844. 

Ikarij. 
In 1545, tithes were fixed at the rate of 25. gl. in the 



pound on rent ; since then, many acts have been 

passed respecting them. 
The Tithe Commutation act, passed Aug. 13, 1S36. It 

was amended 1111837, 1840, and 1846. 
A rector is entitled to all the tithes ; a vkor to a 

small part only, frequently to none. 

TITHES IN IRELAND. 

Several acts relating to tithes have been passed in 
1832, 183S, 1839, 1840, and 1841, altering and im- 
proving the tithe system. 



TITHING. Tlie number or company of ten men with their families knit together iu a 
society, all of thera being bound to the king for the peaceable and good behaviour of each of 
their society ; of these companies there was one chief j^erson, who, from his office, was 
called (toothingman) titliingnran ; but now he is nothing but a constable, formerly called the 
lieadborough. Coivel. 

TITLES, ROYAL. Henry IV. had the title of "Grace" and "My liege," 1399. 
Henry VI., "Excellent Grace," 1422. Edward IV., "Most High and Mighty Prince," 
1461. Henry VII. , "Highness," 14S5 ; Henry VIII. the same title, and sometimes 
"Grace," 1509^5^5'. But these two last were absorbed in the title of "Majesty," being 
that with which Francis I. of France addressed Henry at their memorable interview in 1520! 
See Field of the Cloth of Gold. Henry VIII. was the first and last king who was styled 
"Dread Sovereign." James I. coupled to "Majesty" the present "Sacred," or "Most 
Excellent Majesty." "Majesty " was the style of the emperors of Germany ; the first \d\v 
to whom it was given was Louis XI. of France, about 1463. 

TOBACCO, Nicotiana tahacum, received its name from Tabacco, a province of Yucatan 
New Spain ; some say from the island of Tobago, one of the Caribbees ; others from Tobasco 
in the gulf of Florida. It is said to have lieen first observed at St. Domingo, 1492 ; and to 
have been used freely by the Sjianiards in Yucatan in 1520. Tobacco was first brought to 
England in 1565, by sir John Hawkins ; but sir Walter Raleigh and sir Francis Drake are 
also mentioned as having first introduced it li,ere, 15S6. It was manufactured only for 
exportation for some years. 'Stow's Chron. The Pied Bull inn, at Islington, is said to have 
been the first house in England where tobacco was smoked. In 15S4 a proclamation was 
issued against it. The star-chamber ordered the duties to be 6s. lod. per pound, 1614. 
Its cultivation was prohibited in England by Charles II., 1684. Act laying a duty on 
the importation was passed 1684. The cultivation was allowed in Ireland, 1779. The 
tax was increased and put under the excise, 1789. Anderson; Ashe. A''arious statutes 
liave ])assed relative to tobacco. Act to revive the act prohibiting the culture of tobacco in 
Ireland passed 2 Will. IV. Aug. 1S31. Act directing that tobacco groM'n in Ireland be 
purchased iu order to its being destroyed, March 24, 1S32. The quantity consumed iu 



TOB 720 TON 

England in 1791 was nine millions and a half of pounds, and in 1829 about fifteen millions 
of jiounds. We imported in 1850, 35,166,358 Ihs., and 1,557,558 lbs. manufactured 
(cigars and snufi") ; in 1855, 36,820,846 lbs., and 8,946,766 lbs. manufactured; in i860, 
48,936,471 lbs., and 12,475,000 lbs. manufactured ; and in 1864, 60,092,768 lbs., and 
6,522,408 lbs. manufactured. The tobacco duties were modilicd in 1863. 

TOBAGO (West Indies), discovered by Columbus in 1492 ; settled by the Dutch, 1642. 
Taken by the English, 1672 ; retaken, 1674. In 1748, it was declared a neutral island; 
but in 1763 it was ceded to the English. Tobago was taken by the French under De Grasse 
in 1781, and confirmed to them in 1783. Again taken by the English, April 14, 1793, but 
restored at the peace of Amiens, Oct. 6, 1802. The island was once more taken by the 
British under general Grinfield, July i, 1803, and was confirmed to them by the peace of 
Paris, in 18 14. Poprrlation in 1861, 15,410. 

TOISON D'OR. See Golden FUccc. 

TOKEN'S, BANK, silver pieces issued by the Bank of England, of the value of 55., 
Jan. I, 1798. The Spanish dollar had a small profile of George III. stamped on the neck of 
the Spanish Idng. They were raised to the value of 5s. dd. Nov. 14, 181 1. Bank tokens 
were also current in Ireland, where those issued by the bank passed for 6s. and lesser suras 
until 1 81 7. They were called in on the revision of the coinage. 

TOLBIAC (now Zulpich), near the Ehine, where Clovis totally defeated the Allcmanni, 
496. 

TOLEDO (Central Spain), capital of the Visigothic kingdom, 554, subdued by the 
Saracens, 711. Toledo was taken by Alfonso VI. of Castile, 1084. The university was 
founded in 1499. Toledo sword-blades have been famed since the i5tli century. 

TOLENTINO (in the Papal States), where a treaty was made between the pope and the 
French, Feb. 19, 1797. Here Joachim Mnrat having resumed arms against the allies, was 
defeated by the Austrians, May 3, 1815. 

TOLEllxiTION ACT, passed in 1689* to relieve Protestant dissenters from the church 
of England. Their liberties were, however, greatly endangered in the latter days of queen 
Anne, who died on the day that the Schism bill was to become a law, Aug. i, 1 7 14. 

TOLLS were first paid by vessels passing the Stade on the Elbe, 1109. They were first 
demanded by the Danes of vessels passing the Sound, 1341. See Stadc and Sound. Toll- 
bars in England originated in 1267, on the grant of a penny for every waggon that passed 
through a certain manor; and the first regular toll was collected a few years after for mending 
the road in London between St. Giles's and Temple-bar. Gathered for repairing the high- 
ways of Holburn-inn-lane and Martin's-lane (now Aldersgate-street), 1346. Toll-gates or 
turnpikes were set up in 1663. In 1827, 27 turnpikes near London were removed by 
parliament; 81 turnpiki^s and toll-bars ceased on the north of London on July i, 1S64 ; 
and 61 on the south side, ceased on Oct. 31, 1865. 

TONNAGE. See Tunnage. 

TONOMETER, a delicate apparatus for tuning musical instruments, by marking the 
number of vibrations, was invented by H. Scheibler, of Crefeld, about 1834. It received 
little notice till M. Koenig removed some of the difliculties opposed to its successful use, and 
exhibited it at the International Exhibition of 1862. 

TONQUIN, South Asia, part of the kingdom of Anam. Here a French missionary 
bishop, Melehior, was murdered with great barbarity July 27, 1858: the abbe Neron was 
also murdered, Nov. 3, i860. See Anam. 

TONTINES, loans given for life annuities with benefit of survivorship, invented by 
Laurence Tonti, a Neapolitan. They were first set on foot at Paris to reconcile the people to 
cardinal Mazariu's government, by amusing them with the hope of becoming suddenly rich, 
1653. Voltaire. Tonti died in the Bastille after seven years' imprisonment. A Mr. Jennings 
was an original subscriber for a lool. share in a tontine company ; and being the last survivor 
of the shareholders, his share produced him 3000?. per annum. He died, aged 103 years, 
June 19, 1798, worth 2,115,244?. 

* Tlie toleration granted was somewhat limited. It exempted persons who took the now oath of 
allegiance and supremaey and made also a declaration against popery, from the penalties incurred by 
absenting themselves from church and holding unlawful conventicles ; and it alloweil the Quakers to 
substitute an affirmation for an oath, but did not relax the provisions of the Test act {which .ice). The party 
spirit of the times checked the king in his liberal measures. 



TOR 721 TOU 

TORBANEHILL MINERAL. Mr. Gillespie, of Torbanehill, granted a lease of all the 
coal in the estate to Messrs. Russell. In the course of working, tlio lessees extracted a 
combustible mineral of considerable value as a source of coal-gas, and realised a large profit 
in the sale of it as gas-coal. The lessor then denied that the mineral was coal, and disputed 
the right of tlie lessees to work it. At the trial in 1853 there was a great array of scientific 
men and practical gas engineers. The evidence was most contlicting. One side maintained 
the mineral to be coal, the other that it was bituminous schist. The judge set aside the 
scientific evidence, and the jury pronounced it to be coal. The authorities in Pi'ussia 
have since pronounced it not to be coal. Percy. 

TORGAU (K Germany), the site of a battle between Frederic II. of Prussia and the 
Austrians, in which the former obtained a signal victory ; the Austrian general, count Daun, 
a renowned warrior, being wounded, Nov. 3, 1760. He had, in 1757, obtained a great 
victory over the Prussian king. Torgau was taken by the allies in 1814. 

TORIES, a term given to a political party about 1678. See Whig. Dr. Johnson defines 
a Tory as one who adheres to the ancient constitution of the state, and the apostolical 
hierarchy of the Church of England. The Tories long maintained the doctrines of "divine 
hereditary indefeasible right, lineal succession, passive obedience, prerogative," &c. Boling- 
hroke. See Conservatives. For the chief Tory administrations, see Pitt, Perceval, Liverpool, 
Wellington, Peel, and Derby. 

TORONTO, the capital of Canada West, founded in 1794 as York ; it received its present 
name in 1834. 

TORPEDO SHELLS, a name given to explosives placed under ships, an invention 
ascribed to David Bushnell, in 1777. Torpedo shells ignited by electricity were employed 
in the war in the United States, 186 1-5. On Oct. 4, 1865, Messrs. M'Kay & Beardslee tried 
them at Chatham before the duke of Somerset and others. An old vessel, the Terpsichore, 
•was speedily sunk. The preliminary arrangements are considered rather complicated. 
Magneto-electricity was employed. 

TORRES A^'EDRAS (a city of Portugal). Near here Wellington, retreating from the 
French, took up a strong position, called the Lines of Torres Vcclras, Oct. 10, iSio. 

TORTURE was only permitted by the Romans in the examination of slaves. It was 
used early in the Roman Catholic Church against heretics, and was used in England so late 
as 1558, and in Scotland until 1690. The trial by torture was abolished in Portugal, 1776 ; 
in France, by Louis XVI., in 1789 ; and in Sweden, by Gustavus III., 17S6. General 
Picton was convicted of applying the torture to Louisa Calderon, in Trinidad, at his 
trials, Feb. 21, 1806, and June 11, 1808. 

TOULON (S. France), an important military and naval port. It was taken by Charles V., 
in 1536. In 1707 it was bombarded by the allies, both by land and sea, by which almost 
the whole town was reduced to a heap of ruins, and several ships burned ; but the allies 
were at last obliged to raise the siege. It surrendered Aug. 27, 1793, to the British admiral, 
lord Hood, who took possession bolh of the town and shipping, in the name of Louis _ XVI I., 
under a stipulation to assist in restoring the French constitution of 1789. A conflict took 
place between the English and French forces, when the latter were repulsed, Nov. 15, 1793. 
Toulon was retaken by Bonaparte, Dec. 19, when great cruelties were exercised towards such 
of the inhabitants as were supposed to be favourable to the British.— A naval battle oti this 
port was fought Feb. 10, 1744, between the English under Mathews and Lestock, agaiust^the 
fleets of France and Spain : in this engagement the brave captain Cornewall fell. The 
victory was lost by a misunderstanding between the English admirals. Mathews was after- 
wards dismissed for misconduct by the sentence of a court-martial. 

TOULOUSE (S. France), founded about 615 B.C. ; was the capital of the Visigothic 
kings in a.d. 419 ; and was taken by Clovis in 507. A dreadful tribunal was established 
here to extirpate heretics, 1229. The troubadours, or rhetoricians of Toulouse, had their 
origin about 850, and consisted of a fraternity of poets, whose art was extended throughout 
Europe, and gave rise to the Italian and French poetry. See Troubadours. The allied 
British and Spanish army entered this city on April 12, 1814, immediately after the Battle 
OF Toulouse, fought between the British Peninsular army under lord Wellington and the 
French, April 10, "1814. The French were led by marshal Soult, whom the victorious 
British here forced to retreat, after twelve hours' fighting, from seven o'clock in the morning 
until seven at night, the British forcing the French intrenched position before Toulouse. At 



TOU 722 TOW 

tlie battle, neither of the commanders knew that Napoleon had abdicated the throne of 
France. 

TOULOUSE : the county was created out of tlie kingdom of Aquitaine by Charlemagne, 
in 778. It enjoyed great prosperity till the dreadful war of the Albigenses {which see), when 
the coimt Eaymond VI. was expelled, and Simon de Montfort became count. At his death, 
in 1218, Raymond VII. obtained his inheritance. His daughter Jane and her husband, 
Alphonse (brother of Louis IX. of France), dying without issue, the county of Toulouse was 
united to the French monarchy in 1271. 

TOURNAMENTS, or Jousts, were martial sports of the ancient cavaliers. Tournament 
is derived from tlie French word iourncr, " to turn round." Tournaments were frequent 
about 890 ; and were regulated by the emperor Henry I., about 919. The Lateran council 
published an article against their continuance in 1136. One was held in Smithfield so late 
as the 12th century, when the taste for them declined in England. Henry II. of France, in 
a tilt with the count of Montgomery, had his eye struck out, an accident which caused the 
king's death in a few days, June 29, 1559. Tournaments were then abolished in France. — 
A magnificent feast and tournament, under the auspices of Archibald, earl of Eglintoun, 
took pla(?e at Eglintoun castle, Aug. 29, 1839, and the following week : many of the visitors 
(among whom was the present emperor of the French) assumed the characters of ancient 
knights, lady Seymour being the " Queen of Beauty." 

TOURNAY (S. Belgium) was very flourishing till it was ravaged by the barbarians in the 
5tli century. It has sustained many sieges. Taken by the allies in 1709, and ceded to the 
house of Austria by the treaty of Utrecht ; but the Dutch were allowed to place a garrison 
in it, as one of the barrier towms. It was taken by the French under general Labourdonnaye, 
Nov. II, 1792. Battle near Tournay, betwe.en the Austrians and British on one side, and 
the French on the other ; the former victorious. May 8, 1793. 

TOURNIQUET (from tourner, to turn), an instrument for stopping the flow of blood into 
a limb, by tightening the bandage, emjiloyed in amputations, is said to have been invented 
by Morelli at the siege of Besancon, 1674. J. L. Petit, in France, invented the screw 
tourniquet in 17 18. 

TOURS, an ancient city, central France, near M'hich Charles Martel gained a great 
victory over the Saracens, Oct. 10, 732, and from which hfi acrpiired the name of Martel, 
signifying hammer. This victory saved Europe. 

TOWERS. That of Babel, the first of which we read, built in the plains of Shinar 
(Gen. xi.), 2247 B.C. See Babel. The Tower of the Winds at Athens, built 550 B.C. The 
Tower of Pharos (see Pharos). 280 B.C. The round towers in Ireland were the only structures 
of stone found at the arrival of the English, 1169, except some buildings in the maritime 
towns founded by the Danes. These towers are tall hollow pillars, nearly cylindrical, but 
narrowing towards the top, pierced with lateral holes to admit the light, and covered with 
conical roofs. Fifty-six of them still remain, from 50 to 130 feet high. See Pisa. 

TOWER OF London. The tradition that Julius Caesar founded a citadel here is very 
doubtful. A royal palace, consisting of no more than what is now called the White Tower, 
which appears to have been first marked out by William the Conqueror, 1076, was com- 
menced in 1078, and completed by his son, William Rufus, who, in 1098, surrounded it 
•with walls, and a broad deep ditch. Several succeeding princes made additions to it, and 
king Edward III. built the church. In 1638, the White Tower was rebuilt ; and since the 
restoration of king Charles II. it has been thoroughly repaired, and a great number of 
additional buildings made to it. Here are the Armoury, Jewel-office, and various other 
divisions and buildings of peculiar interest ; and here took place many executions of 
illustrious persons, and many murders (king Henry IV., 1471 ; king Edward V. and his 
brother, 1485 ; sir Thomas Overbury, 1613). See England. The armoury and 280,000 
stand of arms, &c., were destroyed by fire, Oct. 30, 1841. The "New Buildings" in the 
Tower were completed in 1850. 

TOWNLEY MARBLES, in the British Museum, were purchased in 1812. 

TOWTON (Yorkshire), where a sanguinary battle was fought, March 29, 1461, between 
the houses of York (Edward IV.) and Lancaster (Henry VI.), to the latter of whom it Avas 
fatal, and on whose side more than 37,000 fell. Edward' issued orders to give no quarter, and 
the most merciless slaughter ensued. Henry wa.s made prisoner, and confined in the 
Tower ; his queen, Margaret, fled to Flanders. 



TOX 723 TRA 

TOXOPHILITES (from toxon, a bow, and philos, a lover), a society established by sir 
Astou Lever in 1781. In 1834 they took grounds in the inner circle of Regent's-park, and 
built the arcliery lodge. They possess a very curious piece of jdate, given by Catherine, 
qiioen of Charles II., to be sliot for by the Fiusbury archers, of whom the Toxophilites are 
the representatives. 

TRACTARIANISM, a terna applied to certain opinions on church matters propounded in 
the "Tracts for the Times," of which ninety numbers were published, 1833-41. The 
principal writers were the revs. Dr. E. Pusey, J. H. Newman, J. Keble, J. Froude, and 
1. AVilliams — all of the university of Oxford. See Puseyisvi. 

TRACTION-ENGINES were used on common roads in London in i860, but afterwards 
restricted. In Aug. 1862 one of Bray's traction-engines conveyed through the city a mass 
of iron, wliich would have required 29 horses. 

TRADE AND PLANTATIONS, Board of. Cromwell seems to have given the first 
notions of a board of trade : in 1655 he appointed his son Richard, with many lords of liis 
council, judges, and gentlemen, and about twenty merchants of London, York, Newcastle, 
Yarmouth, Dover, &c., to meet and consider by what means the trade and navigation of the 
republic might be best promoted. Thomas's Notes of the Rolls. Charles II., on his restora- 
tion, established a council of trade for keeping a control over the whole commerce of the 
nation, 1660 ; he afterwards instituted a board of trade and plantations, which was 
remodelled by William III. This board was abolished in 1782 ; and a new council for the 
affairs of trade on its present plan was appointed, Sept. 2, 1786. 

TRADES' MUSEUM. Its formation was undertaken in 1853, jointly by the commis- 
sioners of the Great Exhibition of 1851, and the Society of Arts. The animal department 
was opened May 17, 1855, when a paper on the mutual relations of trade and manufactures 
was read by professor E. Solly. The contents of this museum were removed to the South 
Kensington Museum, which "was opened June 24, 1857. The French " Conservatoire des 
Arts et JSIdtiers" was established in 1795. 

TRAFALGAR (Cape, S. Spain), olf which a great naval victory was gained by the 
British, under Nelson, against the combined fleets of France and Spain, commanded by 
admiral Villeneuve and two Spanish admirals, Oct. 21, 1805. The enemy's force was 
eighteen French and fifteen Spanish vessels, all of the line ; that of the British, twenty-seven 
ships. After a protracted fight, Villeneuve and the other admirals were taken, and nineteen 
of their ships captured, sunk, or destroyed. Nelson was killed, and admiral Collingwood 
succeeded to the command. Nelson's ship was the Victory ; and his last signal was, 
"England expects every man to do his duty." See Nelson. 

TRAGEDY. See Drama. 

TRAINING SCHOOLS, the first of these useful establishments was founded at Batter- 
sea in 1840, T)y sir J. Kay Shuttleworth, and Mr. E. C. Tufnell ; the latter, who was then 
in the Poor Law Commission, devoting a year's salary towards the expenses. Mr. Mann 
stated in 1855 that there were about 40 of these schools in different parts of the country. 

TRAJAN'S PILLAR (in Rome), erected 114, by his directions, to commemorate his 
victories, and executed by Apollodorus, still exists. It was built in the square called the 
Forum Romanum ; it is 140 feet high, of the Tuscan order. 

TRAM-ROADS, an abbreviation of Outram-roads, derive the name from Mr. Benjamin 
Outram, who, in 1800, made improvements in the system of railways for common vehicles, 
then in use in the north of England. The iron tram-road from Croydon to Wandsworth was 
completed on July 24, 1801. Mr. Outram was father of the late sir James Outram, the 
Indian general. Chambers. 

TRAN(;>UEBAR (East Indies), the Danish settlement here, founded in 1618, was pur- 
chased by the English in 1845. 

TRANSFIGURATION. The change of Christ's appearance on Mount Tabor, in the 
presence of Peter, James, and John, a.d. 32 (Matt. xvii.). The feast of the Transfiguration, 
kept on Aug. 6, was instituteij by pope Calixtus II. in 1455. 

TRANSFUSION OF BLOOD. See Blood. TRANSIT. See Venus. 

TRANSLATION to Heaven. The translation of Enoch to heaven for his faith at the 
age of 365 years, took place 3017 B.C. The jirophet Elijah was translated to heaven in a 
chariot of fire, 896 B.C. — The possibility of translation to tlie abode of eternal life lias been 
maintained by some extravagant enthusiasts. The Irish house of commons expelled Mr. 

3 A 2 



TRA 724 T1!A 

Asgill fiom Lis seat, for liis book asserting the possibility of translation to the other world 
without death, 1703. 

TRANSrORTATION. See Banishment. Judges were given the power of sentencing 
offenders to transportation "into any of his Majesty's dominions in North America," by 
18 Charles II. c. 3 (1666), and by 4 Geo. I. c. 11 (1718). Transportation ceased in 1775, 
but was revived in 1784. The reception of convicts has been successfully refused by the 
Cape of Good Hope (in 1849), and by the Australian colonies (1S64). Transportation, even 
to West Australia, where labour is wanted, is to cease in a few years, through the fierce 
opposition of the eastern colonies. In consequence of the recent difficulty experienced in 
transporting felons, 16 & 17 Vict. c. 99 was passed to provide other punishment, namely 
penal servitude, empowering her majesty to grant pardon to offenders under certain condi- 
tion.s, and licences to others to be at large : such licences being liable to be revoked if 
necessary; and many have been. These licences are termed "tickets of leave." The 
system was much assailed in Oct. and Nov. 1862, on account of many violent crimes being 
traced to tickct-of-lcarers. See Crime. 



John Eyre, esq., a man of fortune, was sentenced 

to transportation for stealing a few quires of 

paper (^/(i//(^)s) ..... Nov. i, 1771 
The Rev. Dr. Halloran, tutor to the earl of 

Chesterfield, was transported for forging a 

frank (lod. postage) . . . Sept. 9, 1818 when an act was passed making the offence 

The first transpoi-tation of felons to Botany Bay punishable by transportation for life. 

■was in May 1787 ; where governor Phillip I 



arrived with about 800 on Jan, 20, 1788 ; con- 
victs were afterwards sent to Van Diemen's 
I,and, Norfolk Island, &c. 
Returning from transportation was punishable 
with death until 5 Will. IV. c. 67, Aug 



TRANSUBSTANTIATION, the doctrine that the bread and wine in the Eucharist are 
changed into the very flesh and blood of Christ by the consecration, was broached in the 
days of Gregory III. (731), and accepted by Amalarius and Radburtus (about 840), but 
rejected by Rabanus Jlaurus, Johannes Scotus Erigena, Berengarius, and others. In the 
Lateran council, held at Rome by Innocent III., the word " transubstantiation " was used to 
express this doctrine, which was decreed to be incontrovertible ; and all who opposed it were 
condemned as heretics. This was confirmed by the Council of Trent, Jan. 18, 1562. John 
Huss, Jerome of Prague, and other martyrs of the reformation, suffered for denying this 
dogma, which is renounced by the Church of England (28th Article), and by all protestant 
dissenters. 

TRANSYLVANIA, an Austrian province, was part of the ancient Dacia {which see). In 
1526, John Zapoly rendered himself independent of the emperor Ferdinand I. by the aid of 
the Turks. His successors ruled with much difficulty till 1699, Mhen the emperor Leopold I. 
finally incorporated Tran.sylvania into the Austrian dominions. The Transylvaniau deputies 
did not take their seat in the Austrian parliament till Oct. 20, 1863, 



PRINCE.S OF TKANSYLVANIA. 



1526-40. John Zapoly. 
1571. John Sigismund. 

,, Stephen Zapoly I. Bathon. 
1581. Christopher Bathori. 
1602. Sigismund Bathori. 
1606. Stephen II. Bottskai. 



1613. Gabriel I. Bathori. 

1629. Gabriel II. Bethlem (Bethlem Gabor). 

1648. George I. Ragotzski. 

1661. George II. Ragotzski. 

1690. Michael I. Abaflfi. 

i6qq. Michael II. Abaffi. 



TRAPPISTS. The first abbey of La Trappe in Normandy was founded, in 1 140, by 
Retrou, count de Perche. The present order of Trappists owes its origin to the learned 
Bouthillier de la Rancd (editor of Anacrron when aged 14), who, from some cause not 
certainly known, renounced the world, and sold all his property, giving the proceeds to the 
abbey of La Trappe, to which he retired in 1662, to live there in great austerity. After 
several efforts he succeeded in reforming the monks, and in establishing a new rule, which 
commands silence, prayer, reading, and manual labour, and which forbids study, wine, fish, 
&c. Ranee was born in 1620, and died in 1700.* 

TRAVELLING in England. In 1707, it took in summer one day, in winter nearly two 
days, to travel from Loudon to Oxford (46 miles). In 1817, the journey was accomplished in 

* A number of these monks, driven from Franco in the revolution of 1790, were received by Mr. Weld, 
of Lulworth, Dorsetshire, who gave them .sonie land to cultivate and a habitation, where they remained 
till 1815. This order was charged with rebellion and conspiracy in France, and sixty-four English and Irish 
Trappists were shipped by the French govei-nment at Paimboiuf, Nov. 19, and were landed from the Ilebc, 
French frigate, .at Cork, Nov. 30, 1S31. They have established themselves at Mount Melleray, county of 
Waterford ; but do not maintain there the extreme rigour of their order. 



TPvK 



725 



TRE 



six or seven hours. By the Great Western Eaihvay express (63 miles) it is done in ig hour. 
In 1828, a gentleman travelled from Newcastle to Loudon (273 miles) inside the best coach 
in 35 hours, at an expense of 61. 159. 3-^. or 6d. per mile (including dinner, &c.). In 1857, 
the cliarge of the Great Northern Railway (275! miles) first class express (6 hrs.) was 50s. grf. 

TREAD-MILL, an invention of the Chinese, to raise water for the irrigation of the 
fields. The complicated tread-mill introduced into the prisons of Great Britain is the 
invention of Mr. (afterwards sir William) Cubitt, of Ipswich. It was erected at Brixton 
gaol, 181 7, and soon afterwards in other large prisons. 

TREASON. See High Treason. Petty Tre.'^.sox (a term abolished in 1828) was a wife's 
murder of her husband ; a servant's murder of his master ; and an ecclesiastical person's 
mxirder of his prelate or other superior — so declared by statute, 1352. 

TREASON-FELONY. By the Crown and Government Security Act, 11 A'ic. c. 12 
(1848), certain treasons heretofore punishable with death were mitigated to felonies, and 
subjected to transportation or imprisonment. The Fenians in Ireland were tried under this 
act. See Trials, 1865. 

TREASURER of England, Lokd High, the third great officer of the crown, a lord by 
virtue of his office, having the custody of the king s treasure, governing the upper court of 
exchequer, and formerly sitting judicially among the barons. The first lord high treasurer in 
England was Odo, earl of Kent in the I'eign of William I. This great trust is now confided 
to a commission, and is vested in five persons, called Lords Commissioners for executing the 
office of Lord High Treasurer, and of these the chancellor of the exchequer is usually one ; 
the first lord being usually the premier. See Adminisfrations, for a succession of these officers. 
The first of this rank iu Ireland was John de St. John, Henry III.J1217 ; the last, W^ilham, 
duke of Devonshire, 1766 ; vice-treasurers were appointed till 17S9 ; then commissioners till 
1816, when the revenues of Great Britain and Ireland were united. The first lord high 
treasurer of Scotland was sir "Walter Ogilvie, appointed by James I. in 1420 ; the last, in 
1641, John, earl of Traquair, when commissioners were appointed. 

TREASURER of the Chajiber, formerly an officer of great consideration, and always 
a member of the privy council. He discharged the bills of all the king's tradesmen, and had 
his office in Cleveland-row, in the vicinity of the roj-al palace. His (luties were transferred 
and the office suppressed at the same time with the offices of master of the great wardrobe 
and cofferer of the household, in 1 782. Bcatson. 

TREATIES. The first formal and written treaty made in England with any foreign 
nation was entered into between Henry III. and the dauphin of France (then in England 
and leagued with the barons), Sept. 11, 1217. The first commercial treaty was with the 
Flemings, i Edw. 1272 ; the second with Portugal and Spain, 1308. Anderson. The chief 
treaties of the principal civilised nations of Europe will be found described in their respective 
places : the following forms an index. See Conventions ; Coalitions ; Leagues, &c. 



Abo, peace of . 

Adrianople . Sept. 14, 

Aix-la-Chapelle 

Aix-la-Chapelle, peace of . . 

Akermann, paace of, Oct. 7, 

Alt Radstadt . . Sept. 14, 

Allahabad (Babar, &c., ceded 
to E. I. Company) 

America, peace with . . . 

Araiens, peace of . 

Antwerp, tnice . . . . 

Armed Neutrality . 

Arras, treaty of . . . . 

Arr.as, ditto .... 

Augsburg, leagne of . . . 

Haden, peace of . . . 

Bagnalo (Venice, Naples, &c.) 

Balta Liman . .1838 and 

Barcelona (France and Spain) 

Barrier treaty 

Barwalde (France <fc Sweden) 

Basel, pc^ce of . . . 

Bassein (Great Britain and 
Mabrattas) . . . . 

Bayonne, treaty of 

Beckascog (Russia and Prus- 
sia) 



1743 
1829 
i663 
1748 
1826 
1706 

1765 
1783 
i3o2 
1609 
1800 

1435 
I4S2 
1686 
I7I4 
1484, 
1849 

1493 
1715 
1631 

1795 

l3o2 



1807 



Aug. 31, iS 



Belgium, treaty of London 
Belgrade, peace of . 
Berlin, peace of . 
Berlin decree . 
Berlin convention 
Beyara 

Breda, peace of 
Bretigny, peace of . . . 
Bucharest, treaty of 
Cambray, league of . . . 
Cambray, peace of . 
Campo t'ormio, treaty of . . 
Carlowitz. peace of 
Carlsbad, congress of . . 
Chateau-Canibresis, peace of 
Chaumont, treaty of 
Chnnar, India . . . . 
Cintia, convention of . 
Closterseven, convention of . 
Coalition, first, agnst. France, 
Coalition, second, ditto . 
Coalition, third ditto . . 

Coalition, fourth ditto . 
Coalition, fifth ditto . . . 
Coalition, sixth ditto . 
Commerce (Great Britain .ind 
Turkey) . . . Nov. 16, 



'839 
1739 
1742 
1806 
i8o3 



667 
1360 



1529 

1797 
1699 
1S19 

1559 
1814 



1757 
1792 

17^ 
1805 
1806 
1809 
1813 

1839 



Commerce (Great Britain and 

the Two Sicilies) . June 25. 1845 
Commerce (Great Britain and 

France) .... 1861 
Concordat (ichick see) . . 1801 
Conflans, treaty of . . . 1465 
Constantinople, peace of . 1712 
Coustantinople, treaty of . . 1833 
Constantinople, treaty of. 

May 8, 1854 
Copenhagen, peace of . . 1660 
Copenhagen (composition for 
Sijund dues) March 14, 1857 

Crecy 1544 

Dresden 1745 

Eliot convention . . Api-il, 1835 
Evora Monte . . May 26, 1834 
Family Compact . . . 1761 
Foiitainebleau, peace of . . 1679 
Fontaineble.-xu, treaty of . 1785 
Fontainebleau, concordat at . 1813 
French commercial treaty, 

Jan. 23, i860 
Friedwald, treaty of . 1551 

Fue-ssen, peace of . . . 1745 
Giistein Convention, Aug. 14, 1865 
Ghent, pacification of . . 1576 



TRE 



726 



TRE 



TREATIES, continued. 



Ghent, peace of (America) . 

Golden Bull .... 

Grand Alliance 

Greece, treaty of London . . 

Hague, treaty of the 

Hague, treaty of the . . . 

Halle, treaty of . . . 

Hamburg, peace of . . . 

Hanover treaty 

Hanover & England, July 22, 

Holland, peace with 

Holy Alliance . . . . 

Hubertsburg, peace of . 

Interim treaty . . . . 

Jay's treaty . . Nov. ig, 

Japan and Great Britain, 

Ang. 26, 

Kaynardji, or Koutschouc- 
Kaynardji (Turks and Rus- 
sians) . . July 21, 

Kiel, treaty of . . . 

Laybach, congress of 

League ..... 

Leipsic, alliance of . . . 

Leoben, peace of . 

Lisbon, peace of . . . 

London, treaty of (Greece) . 

London, convention of 
(Turkey) 

London, treaty between 
France and England, 

April 15, 

Lubeck, peace of . 

Luneville, peace of . . . 

Madrid, treaty of . 

Methuen treaty . . . . 

Milan decree .... 

Milan (Austria and Sardinia), 
Aug. 6, 

Munster, peace of . 

Nankin (see China) . . . 

Nantei--, edict of . . . 

Naumberg, treaty of . . . 

Nice, treaty of . . . 

Nimeguen, peace of . . . 

Noj'on, treaty of . 

Nuremberg, treaty of . . 

Oliva, peace of 

Paris, peace of (see ParU) 

Paris, treaty of . . . . 

Paris, peace of (Sweden) 

Paris, capitulation of . . 



1814 
1356 



1659 
1669 
1610 
1762 

1725 
1834 
1784 
1815 
1763 
154S 
1794 



1774 
1814 
1821 
1576 
1631 
1797 



1840 



1854 
1629 



1526 
1703 



1598 
1554 
1518 
1678 
1516 
1532 
1660 

1763 
1796 
1810 
1814 



Paris, treaty of . . . 1814 

Paris, peace of . . . . 1815 
Paris, treaty of . . .1817 
Paris, treaty of (ends Russian 

war) .... April, 1856 
Paris (settlement of Neuf- 

chatel affair) . May 26, 1857 

Partition, first treaty . . 1698 

Partition, second treaty . 1700 
Passarowitz, peace of . .1718 

Passau, treaty of . . . 1552 
Pekin (peace with Gt. Britain 

and France) . Aug. 24, i860 

Persia, treaty with . . 1857 

Petersburg, St., peace of . . 1762 

Petersburg, St. , treaty of . 1772 

Petersburg, St., treaty of . . 1805 

Petersburg, St., treaty of . 1810 

Peterswald, convention of . 1813 

Pilnitz, convention of . . 1791 

Poland, partition of . . . 1795 

Pragmatic Sanction . . 1439 
Pragmatic Sanction . . .1713 

Prague, peace of . . . 1653 

Presburg, peace of . . 1805 

Public good, le.aguo for the . 1464 

P\'renees, treaty of the . 1659 

Quadruple Alliance . . . 1718 

Radstadt, peace of. . . 1714 

Radstadt, congress of . . 1797 

Rati.sbon, peace of . . . 1630 

Ratisbon, treaty of . . i8o5 

Reichenbach treaties . June, 1813 

Religion, peace of- . . . 1555 

Rhine, Confederation of the . 1806 

Ryswiok, peace of . . . 1697 

St. Germain's, peace of . . 1570 

St. Germain-en-Laye . . 1679 
St. Ildefonzo, alliance of Spain 

with France . . . 1796 

Seville, peace of ... 1792 

Siorod, peace of . . . 161 3 

Sistowa . . Aug. 4, 1791 

Smalcald, league of . . . 1529 

Spain, pacification of (London) 1834 

Stettin, peace of . . . 1570 

Stockholm 1630 

Stockbolm, peace of . . 1719 

Stockholm, treaty of . . 1724 

Stockholm, treaty of . . 1813 
Stockholm, treaty of (Sweden 

and allies) . . Nov. 21, 1856 



Suncion, treaty of . July 15, 1852 
Temeswar, truce of . . . 1664 
Tcschen, peace of . . . 1779 
Teusin, peace of . . . 1595 
Tien-Tsin, China . June 26, 1858 
Tilsit, peace of . , . 1807 
Tolentino, treaty of . . . 1793 
Toplitz, treaty of . . .1813 
Triple Alliance of the Hague, 1668 
Triple Alliance . . . . 1717 
Troppeau, congress of . . 1820 
Troyes, treaty of . . . 1420 
Turin (cession of Savoy and 

Nice) . . . March 24, i860 
Turkmauchay, peace of . 1828 

Ulm, peace of . . . . 1620 
Unkiarskelessi . July 8, 1833 
Utrecht, union of . . . 1579 
Utrecht, peace of . . . 1713 
Valenvay, treaty of . . .1813 
Verona, congress of . . 1822 
Versailles, peace of . . . 1783 
Vienna, treaty of . . -1725 
Vienna, treaty of alliance . . 1731 
Vienna, definitive peace . 1738 
Vienna, peace of . . . 1809 
Vienna, treaty of . March 25, 1815 
Vienna, treaty of . May 31, „ 
Vienna, treaty of . June 9, ,, 
Vienna (.\ustria and Prussia), 

commercial . Feb. 19, 1853 
Vienna, treaty of . Oct. 30, 1864 
Vienna (Au.stria and Great 

Britain, commercial) Dec. 16, 1865 
Villa Franca (/</r/i»i.), July 12, 1859 
Vossem, peace of . . . 1673 
Warsaw, alliance of . . 1683 
Warsaw, treaty of . . . 176S 
Washington, reciprocity treaty 
Ijetween Great Britain and 
the United States, respect- 
ing Newfoundland fisliery, 
commerce, &c. . July 2, 1834 
Westminster, peace of . . 1674 
Westminster (with Holland) 1716 
Westphalia, peace of . . 1648 

Wilna, treaty of . . . 1561 
Wurms, edict of . . . 1521 
Wurtzburg league . . . 1610 
Ziu-ich (Austria, France, and 
Sardinia) . Nov. 10, 1859 



TREBIA, now Trchhia, a river in North Italy, where Hannibal defeated the Roman 
consul Sempronius, b.c. 218; and Suvarrow defeated the French marshal Macdonald and 
compelled him to retreat, June 17-19, i799- 

TREBIZOND, a port of Asia Minor in tlic Black Sea, was colonised by the Greeks, and 
became subject to the kings of Pontus. It enjoyed self-government under the Roman 
empire, ^pd when the Latins took Constantinople in 1204, it became the seat of an empire 
which en|^ured till 1461, when it was comjuered by the Turks under Mahomet I. 



EMPEROKS OF TREBIZOND. 



1204. Alexis I. Comnenus. 

1222. Andronicus L 

1235. John T. 

1238. Manuel I. 

1263. Andrew. 

1266. George I. 

1280. John II. 



I2q8. 


Alexis II. 


1330- 


Andronicus II 


1332- 


Manuel II. 




Ba.sil I. 


1340. 


Irene. 


1341- 


Anna. 



1341-50. Michael. 



1344. John III. 
1350. Alexis III. 
1390. Man\iel III. 
1412. Alexis IV. 
1447. John IV. 
1458-61. David. 



TRECENTO. See Italy, note. 

TRENT (the ancient Tridentum) in tiie Tyrol, belongs to Austria. The council held 
here is reckoned in the Roman Catholic church as the i8th or last general council. Its 



ti;e 



727 



TKI 



decisions are iuijdicitly received as the standard of faith, morals, and discipline in that 
church. It first sat Dec. 13, 1545, and continued (with intcrrui>tions) under pope Paul III., 
Julius III., and Pius IV. to Dec. 4, 1563,* its last sitting (the 25th). A jubilee iu relation 
to this council was celebrated in June, 1863. 

TRfiVES, the Roman Treviri, in Rhenish Prussia, was a prosperous city of the Gauls 
12 B.C. The emperor Gallienus held his court here a.d. 255. Treves was made an electorate 
in the 14th century, and became subject to the archbishop in 1585. The archbishopric is 
said to have been founded before the 7th century and to be the oldest in Germany. After 
various changes, Treves was acquired by Prussia in 1815. In 1844 much excitement was 
occasioned by mii'acles said to have been wrought by a " Holy Coat." 

" TRIA JUNCTA TiV UiYO" (three joined in one), the motto of the knights of the 
military order of tlie Bath, signifying "faith, hope, and charity." See Bath. 

TRIALS. Regulations for conducting trials ^were made by Lothaire and Edric, kings of 
Kent, about 673 to 680. Alfred the Great is said to have begun trial by jury ; but there is 
good evidence of such trials long before his time. In a cause tried at Hawarden, nearly a 
hundred years before the reign of Alfred, we have a list of the twelve jurors ; confirmed too 
by the fact that the descendants of one of them, of the name of Corbyu of the Gate, still 
preserve their name and residence at a spot in the parish yet called the Gate. Phillips. 



REMARKABLE TRIALS. 



King Charles I. : Jan. 20 ; convicted, Jan. 29, 1649 | 
Oates's Popifh Plot : Edward Coleman, con- 
victed, Nov. 27 ; Wm. Ireland and other 

priests Dec. 17, 1678 I 

^— Robt. Green and others, Feb. 10 ; Thos. i 

WTiitbread and other Jesuits, June 13 ; I 

Richard Langhornc, counsellor, June 14 ; 

convicted 1679 ! 

Sir George 'Wakeman, the queen's physician ; I 

acquitted July 13, ,, ! 

Viscount Stafford : convicted Nov. 30-Dec. 7, 16S1 1 
Mi/e House Plot : convicted, lord William Russell, ; 

July 13 ; Algernon Sidney . . Nov. 21, 1683 1 
The Seven Bishops ; acquitted . June 29. i688 j 
Colonel Charteris, for the rape of Ann Bond 

Feb. 25, 1730 
Captain Porteous, f(H' murder. Sec Porteovs, 

July 6, 1736 
Jenny Diver, for felony, e.^ecxited March 18, 1740 
■William Duell, executed for murder at Tyburn, 

but who came to life when about undergoing 

dissection at Surgeons' Hall . Nov. 24, ,, 

Lords Kilmarnock and Bilmei-ino for high 

treason ...... July 28, 1746 

Mary Hamilton, for marrying with her own sex, 

14 wives Oct. 7, ,, 

Lord Lovat, 80 years of ago, for high treason ; 

beheaded March g, 1747 

Freney, the celebrated Irish robber, who sur- 
rendered himself .... July g, I74g 
Amy Hutchinson, burnt at Ely, for the murder 

of her husband .... Nov. 5, 1750 

Aliss Blandy, the murder of her father ; hanged, 

March 3, 1752 
Ann Williams, for the murder of her husband ; 

burnt alive ..... April 11, 1753 
ICugene Aram, for murder at York ; executed, 

Aug. 13, 1759 
Earl Fcrrer.s, for the murder of his steward; 

executed ..... April 16, 1760 
Jfr. MacNaughten, at Strabane, for the murder 

of Miss Knox Dec. 8, 1761 

Ann Bcdingfield, for the murder other husband ; 

burnt alive April 6, 1763 

Mr. Wilkes, aldermnn of London, for an obscene 

poem ("E.ssay on Woman.") . Fob. 21, 1764 
Murderers of captain Glas, his wife, daughter, 

mate, and passengers, on board the ship Earl 

of Sandicich, at sea . . . March 3, 1766 

" At this council was decreed, with anathemas : the canon of scripture (including the apocrypha), and 
the church its sole interpreter : the traditions to be equal with scripture ; the seven sacraments (baptism, 
confirmation, the Lord's supper, penanco, extreme unction, orders, and matnmouy) ; transvibstantiation ; 
purgatory ; indulgences ; celibacy of the clergy ; auricular confession, iic. 



Elizabeth Brownrigg. for the murder of one of 
her female apprentices ; hanged Sept. 12, 

Lord Baltimore, the libertine, and his female 
accomplices, for rape . . March 28, 

Great cause between the families of Hamilton 
and Douglas Feb. 27, 

Great Valencia cause in the house of peers, in 
Ireland March 18, 

Cause of Somerset, the slave ; see Slavery, 

June 22, 

EUzabeth Herring, for the murder of her hus- 
band; hanged, and afterwards burnt at 
Tyburn Sep. 13, 

Messrs. Perreau brothers, bankers, forgery ; 
hanged Jan. 17, 

Duchess of Kingston, for marrying two hus- 
bands ; guilty. Hee Kingston . April 15, 

Dr. Dodd for forging a bond of 4200!.- in the 
name of the earl of Chesterfield ; Feb. 22. 
See Forgery ; executed . . June 27, 

Admiral Keppel, by court martial ; honovirably 
acquitted Feb. 11, 

Mr. Hackman, for the murder of Miss Reay, 
when coming out of the Theatre Royal, 
Covent-garden April 16, 

Lord George Gordon on a charge of high trea- 
son ; acquitted .... Feb. 5, 

Mr. Woodfall, the celebrated printer, for a libel 
on lord Loughborough, aft-erwards lord chan- 
cellor Nov. 10, 

Lord George Gordon, for a Ubel on the queen of 
France ; guilty .... Jan. 28, 

Mr. Warren Hastings : a trial which lasted 
seven years and three months. See Hastings, 
Trial of, commenced . . . Feb. 13, 

T/te Times newspaper, for a libel on the prince 
of Wales ; gviilty .... Feb, 3, 

Renwick Williams, called the Monster, for 
stabbing women in the streets of London. 
See Monster July 8, 

Barrington. the pick-pocket, most extraordi- 
nary^adcpt ; transported . . Sept. 22, 

Thomas Paine, political writer and deist, for 
Uhe^a in the Jiigkts of Man ; guilty Dec. 18, 

Louis XVI. of France. See France . 1792, 

Archibald Hamilton Rowan, for libel ; impri- 
soned and fined .... Jan. 29, 

Mr. Purefoy, for the murder of colonel Roper, 
in a duel ; acquitted . . . Aug. 14, 



1767 
176S 
1769 
1772 



1773 
1776 



1777 
1779 



1781 
1786 



1792 
1793 



TPJ 



728 



TKl 



TRIALS, continued. 

Mr. Robert "Watt and Uownie, at Edinburgh, 

for treason Sept. 3, 1794 

Messrs Hardy, Home Tooke, Tlielwall, and 

Joyce, for higli treason ; acquitted Oct. 29, ,, 
Earl of Abingdon, for his libel on Mr. Serman ; 

guilty Dec. 6, „ 

Major Semple, alias Lisle, for felony Feb. 18, 1795 
Redhead Yorke, at York, libel . . Nov. 27, ,, 
Lord Westmeath v. Bradshaw, for crim. con. ; 

damages, io,ooo.? .... March 4, 1796 
Lord Valentia v. Mr. Gawlcr, for adultery ; 

damages, 2000? June 16, ,, 

Daniel Isaac Eaton, for libels on kingly govern- 
ment ; guilty .... July 8, „ 
Sir Godfrey Webster v. lord Holland, for 

adultery ; damages, 6000/. . . Feb. 27, 1797 
Parker, the mutineer at the Nore, called admi- 
ral Parker. See Mutinies . . June 27, ,, 
Boddington v. Boddington, for crim. con. : 

damages, io,oooi Sept. 5, ,, 

"William Orrat C'arrickfergus, for high treason ; 

executed Oct. 12, 

Mrs. Phepoe, alias Benson, murderess Dec. 9, 1797 
The murderers of colonel St. George and Mr. 

Uniacke, at Cork .... April 15, 1798 
Arthur O'Connor and O'Coigley, at Maidstone, 

for treason ; latter hanged . . May 21, ,, 
Sir Edward Crosbie and others, for high trea- 
son; hanged . ... June i, ,, 
Beauchamp Bagena] Harvey, at Wexford, for 

high treason June 21, ,, 

Two Messrs. Shearos, at Dublin, for high trea- 
son ; executed .... July 12, ,, 
Theobald Woulffe Tone, by court-martial (he 

died on the 1 8th) .... Nov. 10 ,, 
Sir Harry Brown Hayes, for caiTying off Miss 

Pike of Cork April 13, 1800 

Hatfield, for shooting at George III. See Hat- 

.^eld June 26, „ 

Mr. Tighe of Westmeath v. Jones, for crim. con.; 

damages, 10,000/ Dec. 2, „ 

Mutineers at Bantry Baj' ; hanged. See Bantry 

-Bay Jan. 8, 1802 

Charles Hayes, for an obscene libel . Jan. 9, „ 
Governor Wall, for cruelty and murder, twenty 

years before. Sec Gorce . . . Jan. 20, ,, 
Crawley, for the murder of two females in 

Peter's-row, Dublin . . . March 6, „ 
Colonel Despard and his associates, for high 
treason ; hanged on the top of Hor.?emonger- 
lanegaol. Sec Despard . . . Feb. 7, 1S03 
M. Peltier, for libel on Bonaparte, first consul 

of France, in /'.-(/(i^isriff.- guilty . Feb, 21, ,, 

Robert Aslett, cashier at the bank of England, 

for embezzlement and frauds ; the loss to the 

Bank, 320,000/. ; found nnt (luiUi/, on account 

of the invalidity of the bills ' July 18, ,, 

Robert Enimett, at Dublin, for high treason ; 

executed next dny .... Sept. 19, 

Keenan, one of the m\n-derers oflord Kilwarden ; 

lianged Oct 2, 1S03 

Mr. Smith, for the murder of the supposed 

Hammersmith Ghost .... Jan. 13, 1804 
Lockhart and Loudon Gordon, foi- carrying off 

Mrs. Lee March 6, ,, 

Rev. C. Massy v. marquess of Headfort, for 

crim. con. ; damages, 10,000/. . . July 27, ,, 
William Cooper, the Hackney Monster, for 

offences against females . . April 17, 1805 
General Picton, for .applying the torture to 
Louisa Calderon, to extort confession, at 
Trinidad ; tried in the court of King's Bench ; 
guilty, [new trial, same verdict, June 11, 

1S08J Feb. 24, 1806 

Hamilton Rowan, in Dublin; pleaded the 

king's pardon July i, ,, 

Judge Johnson, for a hbel on the earl of Hard- 
■wicke ; guilty .... Xov. 23, „ 



Mr. Patch, for the murder of his partner, ISIr. 

Bligh April 6, 

Lord Melville, impeached by the house of 

commons ; acquitted . . . June 12, 

The Warrington gang, for unnatural offences ; 

executed ...... Avig. 23, 

Palm, the bookseller, by a French military 

commission at Brennau . . Aug. 26, 
Lord Cloncurry v. sir John B. Piers, for crim. 

cnn. ; damages, 20,000/. . . . Feb. 19, 
Holloway and Haggert}', the murderers of Mr. 

Steele ; thirty persons were crushed to death 

at their execution, at the Old Bailey, Feb. 20, 
Sir Home Popham, by court-martial; repri- 
manded ..... March 7, 
Knight V. Dr. Wolcot, alias Peter Pindar, for 

crim. con. ...... June, 27, 

Lieut. Berry, of H.M.S. Hazard; for an un- 
natural offence Oct. 2, 

Lord Elgin v. Ferguson, for crim. con. ; 

damages, 10,000/ Dec. 22, 

Simmons, the murderer of the Boreham family, 

at Hoddesdon March 4, 

Sir ArtLiur Paget, for crim. con. with lady 

Borrington July 14, 

M.ajor Campbell, for killing captain Boyd in a 

duel ; hanged Aug. 4, 

Peter Finnerty and others, for a libel on the 

duke of York .... Nov. 9, 

The Duke of York, by inquiry in the house 

of commons, on chai'ges preferred against 

him by colonel Wardle, from Jan. 26, to 

JMarch 20, 

Wellesloy v. lord Paget, for crim. con. ; damages, 

20,000/. ...... May 12, 

The king r. Valentine Jones, for breach of 

duty as commissary-general . . May 26, 
The earl of Leicester r. Morning Herald, for a 

libel ; damages, 1000/. . . June 29, 

Wright ■!•. colonel Wardle, for Mrs. Mary Ann 

Clarke's furniture .... June i, 
William Cobbctt, for a libel on the German 

legion ; convicted .... July g, 
Hon. captain Lake, for putting Robert Jeffery, 

a British seaman, on shore at Sombrero ; 

dismissed the service. See Sombrero. Feb. 10, 
Mr Perry, for hbels in the Morning Chronicle; 

acquitted Fob 24, 

The Vere-street gang, for unnatural offences ; 

guilty Sept. 20, 

Peter Finnerty, for a libel on lord Castlereagh ; 

judgment Jan. 31, 

The king v. Messrs. John and Leigh Hunt, lor 

libels ; guilty Feb. 22, 

Ensign Hepburn and White, the drummer ; 

both were executed . . . March 7, 
Walter Cox, in Dubhn ; for libels ; he stood in 

the pillory March 12, 

The king v. W. Cobbett, for libels ; convicted, 

June 15, 
Lord Louth, in Dublin ; sentenced to imprison- 
ment and fine, for oppressive conduct as a 

magistrate . ..... June 19, 

The hierkeley cause, before the house of peers, 

concluded June 28, 

Dr. Sheridan, physician, on a charge of sedition ; 

acqiiitted Nov. 21, 

Gale Jones, for seditious and blasphemous 

libels ; convicted .... Nov. 26, 
William Cundell and John Smith, for high 

treason (see High Treason) . . Feb. 6, 
Daniel Isaac Eaton, on a charge of blasphemy ; 

convicted March 6, 

Bellingham, for the murder of Mr. Perceval, 

prime minister May 15, 

The king v. Mr. Lovell, of the Statesman, for 

libel ; guilty Nov. 19, 

Messrs. .John and Leigh Hunt, for libels in the 

Excnniner ; convicted . . " Dec. 9, 



;8o5 



1807 



1809 



TRI 



r29 



T]il 



TRIALS, continued. 

Marquess of Sligo, for concealing a sea-dcsertor, | 

Deo. i6, i8i2 

The murderers of Mr. Horsfall ; at York ; ' 

executed Jan. 7, 1S13 I 

Mr. Hugh Fitzpatrick, for publishing Scully's I 

History of the Penal Laws . . . Feb. 6, „ I 

The divorce cause agtiinstthe duke of Hamilton I 

for adultery . . . . ' April 11, ,, 

Mr. John Slagee, in Dublin, for libels in the 
Evening Post : guilty . . . Jiily 26, ,, 

Nicholson, the murderer of Mr. and Mrs. Bonar ; 
hanged Aug. 21, ,, 

Tuite, murder of Mr. Goulding; executed 

Oct. 7, „ 

The celebrated Mary Ann Clarke, for a libel on 
the right hou. Wm. Vesey Fitzgerald, after- 
wards lord Fitzgerald . . . Feb. 7, 1S14 

Admiral Bradley, at Winchester, for frauds in 
ship letter's Aug. 18, ,, 

Lord Cochrane, Cochrane Johnstone, Bei-cngcr, 
Butt, and othei-s, for frauds in the public 
funds ; convicted. See Slocks . Feb. 22, ,, 

Colonel Queutin, of the loth hu.s.sars, by court- 
martial Nov. 10, ,, 

Sir John Henry Mildmay, b.art., for cj'im. con. 
with the countess of Koseberry : damages, 
iS,oool. ...... Dec. 5, ,, 

George Barnett, for shooting at Miss Kelly, of 
Covent Garden theatre . . . Aj^ril 8, 1816 

Captain Hutchinson, sir Robert Wilson, and 
jlr. Bruce, in Paris, for aiding the escape of 
count Lavalette. See Lavalette . April 24, ,, 

"Captain Grant," the famous Irish robber at 
Maryborough .... Aug. 16, ,, 

Vanghan, a police officer, Mackay, and Browne, 
for conspiracy to induce men to commit felo- 
nies to obtain the reward; convicted, Aug. 21, ,, 

Colonel Stanhope, by court-martial, atCambray, 
in France Sept. 23, ,, 

Cashman, the intrepid seaman, for the Spa- 
ficlds riots, and outrages on Snowhill ; con- 
victed and hanged. See Spafields Jan. 20, 1817 

Count Maubreuil, at Paris, for robbing the 
queen of Westphalia .... May 2, ,, 

Mr. R. G. Butt, for a libel on lord chief-justice 
EUenborough May 23, ,, 

Mr. Wooler, for libels on the government and 
ministers ..... June 6, ,, 

Thistlewood, Dr. Watson, Hooper, and others, 
for treason June 9, ,, 

The murderers of the Lynch family at Wild- 
goose-lodge, Ireland . . . July 19, ,, 

Mr. Roger O'Connor, on a charge of robbing the 
mail; acquitted .... Aug. 5, ,, 

Brandreth, Turner, and others, at Derby, for 
high treason ..... Oct. 15, ,, 

Hone, the book.seller, for parodies ; three trials 
before lord EUenborough : extemporaneous 
and successful defence . Doc. 18, 19, 20, ,, 

Mr. Dick, for the abduction and rajie of Miss 
Crockatt March 21, 181S 

Apjieal of murder case, Ashford, the brother of 
Mary Ashford, against hcrmurderer, Abraham 
Thornton, ^^ee Battle. . . April 16, ,, 

Rev. Dr. O'Halloran, for forging a frank. See 
Traiisportati'in .... Sept. 9, ,, 

Robert Johnston, at Edinburgh ; his dreadful 
execution Dec. 30, ,, 

Sir .Manasseh Loi>cz, for bribery at Grampound. 
See Bribery .... March 18, 18 19 

Mosoly, Woolfe, and other merchants for con- 
spiracy and fraud .... April 20, ,, 

Carlile for the publication of Paine's Age of 
Jieason. .fee Oct. 15, ,, 

John Scanlan, at Limerick, for the murder of 
Ellen Hanly March 14, 1820 

Sir Francis Burdett, at Leicester, for a seditious 
libel ■ March 23, „ 

Henry Hunt, and others, for their conduct at 



the Manchester meeting; convicted. See 

Manchester Reform Mediny . . March 27, 
Sir Charles Wolseley and rev. Mr. Harrison, for 

sedition ; guilty .... April 10, 

Thistlewood, Ings, Brunt, Davidson, and Tidd, 

for conspiracy to murder the king's ministers ; 

commenced. See Cato-stveet . . April 17, 
Louvel, in France, for the murder of the duke 

de Berri June 7, 

Lord Glerawley i'. John Burn, for crim. con. 

June iS, 
Major Cartwright and others, at Warwick, for 

sedition Aug. 3, 

"Little Waddington," for a seditious libel; 

acquitted Sept. 19, 

Lieutenant-colonel French, 6th dragoon guards, 

by court-martial .... Sept. 19, 
Cai-oline, queen of England, before the house of 

lords, for adultery, commenced Aug. 16 ; it 

terminated (see Queen Caroline's Trial) Nov. 10, 
The female murderers of Miss Thompson, in 

Dublin ; hanged ..... May i, 
David Haggart, an extraordinary robber, a:id a 

man of singularly eventful life, at Edinburgh, 

for the murder of a turnkey . . June 9, 
Samuel D. 'Hayward, the favourite man of 

fashion, for burglary .... Oct. 8, 
The murderers of Mrs. Torrance, in Ireland ; 

convicted and hanged . . . Dec. 17, 
Cussen, Leahy, and others, for the abduction 

of Miss Gould .... July 29, 
Barthelemi, in Paris, for the abduction of 

Elizabeth Florence .... Sept. 23, 
Cuthbert v. Browne, singular action for deceit, 

Jan. 28, 
The famous " Bottle Conspirators," in Ireland, 

by ex-qfflcio Feb. 23, 

The extraordinary "earl of Portsmouth's case," 

commenced March iS, 

Probert, Hunt, and Thurtell, murderers of Mr. 

Weare ; Probert turned king's evidence ; 

afterwards hanged for horse -steaUng. See 

Executions. ..... Jan. 5, 

Mr. Henry Fauntleroy, banker of London, for 

forgery ; hanged .... Oct. 30, 
Foote V. Hayne, for breach of promise of 

marriage ; damages, 3000! . . Dec. 22, 
Mr. Henry Savary, a banker's son at Bristol, 

for forgery April 4, 

O'Keefe and Bourke, the murderers of the 

Franks family Aug. 18, 

John Grosset Muirhead, esq., for indecent 

practices Oct. 21, 

The case of Mr. Wellesley Pole, and the Misses 

Long : commeirced .... Nov. 9, 
Captain Bligh v. the hon. Wm. Wellesley Pole, 

for adultery Nov. 25, 

Fisher I'. Stockdale, for a hbel hxHarriette Wilson 

March 20, 
Edward Gibbon Wakefield, and others, for 

abduction of Miss Turner . . March 24, 
Rev. Robert Taylor, for blasphemy ; found 

guilty Oct. 24, 

Richmond Seymour, esq., and Macklin, for an 

unnatural crime . ■ . . March 12, 
Richard Gillam, for the murder of Maria 

Bagster, at Taunton . . . April 8, 
Mr. Montgomery, for forgery : he committed 

suicide in prison on the morning appointed 

for his execution .... July 4, 

Brinklett, for the death of lord Mount Sandford 

by a kick July 16, 

William Corder, for the murder of Maria 

Marten ; executed . . . Aug. 6, 

Joseph Hunton, a qnakcr merchant, for 

forgery; hanged . . . . Oct. 28, 

Burke, at Edinburgh, for the Burking murders ; 

Hare, his accomplice, became approver. See 

Burking Dec. 24, 



1824 



1826 
1827 



TEI 



730 



TRI 



TRIALS, conii7mcd. 

The king v. Baxton, and others, for a fr;mdu- 

lent marriage .... Maroli zi, 1S29 
Jonathan Martin, for setting fire to York- 
minster . . . . '. . March 31, „ 
Stewart and hi.s wife, noted murderers, at 

Glasgow ; hanged . . . July 14, ,, 

Reinbaiier, the Bavarian priest, for his murders 

of women Aug. 4, ,, 

Captain Dickenson, by court-martial, at Ports- 
mouth ; acquitted . . . Aug. 26, ,, 
Mr. Alexander, editor of the Morning Journal, 

for libels on the duke of Wellington ; con- 
victed Feb. 10, 1830 

Clune, &c. at Ennis, for cutting out the 

tongues of the Doyles . . . March 4, ,, 
Jlr. Comyn, for burning his house in the 

county of Clare ; hanged . . March 6, ,, 

Mr. Lambrecht, for the murder of Mr. Clayton, 

in a duel April 2, ,, 

Captain Moir, for the murder of William 

Malcolm; hanged .... July 30, ,, 
Captains Smith and Markham, for killing Mr. 

O'Grady in a duel .... Aug. 24, , , 
Captain Ilelsham, for the murder of lieut. 

Crowther in a duel .... Oct. 8, ,, 
Mr. St. John Long, for the manslaiighter of 

Miss Cashin. See Quaclcx . . Oct. 30, ,, 
Polignac, Peyronnet, and others, ministers of 

France. See France . . . Dec. 21, ,, 
Carlile, for a seditious liV)cl, inciting to a riot ; 

guilty Jan. 10, 1831 

Mr. D. O'Connell, for breach of proclamation ; 

pleaded guilty .... Feb. 12, ,, 
St. John Long, for manslaughter of Mrs. 

Lloyd. See Quacks .... Feb. ig, ,, 
;Mr. Luke Dillon, for the violation of Miss 

Frizell ; convicted. . . . April 14, ,, 
Major Dimdas, for the seduction of Miss 

Adams ; damages, 3000/. . . . May 26, ,, 
Mr. Cobbett, for a seditious libel; the jury 

could not agree .... July 7, ,, 
Rev. Robert Taylor (who obtained the revolting 

distinction of "the Deril'g Chaplain"), for 

reviling tlie Redeemer ; convicted July 6, ,, 
Mr. and Mrs. Deacle r. Mr. Bingham Baring, 

M.P July 14, ,, 

Bird, a boy of 14 years of age, for the murder 

of a child ; hanged. . . . Aug. i, ., 
The gi-eat cau.se, earl of Kingston v. lord 

Lorton ; commenced .... Nov. g ., 
Bishop and Williams, for murder of the Italian 

boy. See Burking .... Dec. 3, ,, 
Earl of Mar, in Scotland, for shooting at Mr. 

Oldham Dec. 17, ,, 

Elizabeth Cooke, for the mvu-der of Mrs. Walsh, 

by "Burking" .... Jan. 6, 1832 
Colonel Brereton, by court-martial, at Bristol. 

See Br lit ol Jan. g, ,, 

The murderers of Mr. Blood, of Applevale, 

county of Clare .... Feb. 28, ., 
William Duggan, at Cork, for the nnu-der of his 

wife and others . . . . March 26, ,, 
Mr. Hodgson (son of the celebrated Miss Aston) 

V. Greene July 26, ,, 

Mayor of Bristol, for neglect of duty in the 

Bristol riots Oct. 26, ., 

Rev. Mr. Irvnig, by his own (the Scots) churcli, 

for heresy March 13, 1833 

Ijord Teynham, and Dolan, a tailor, for 

swindling ; guilty .... May 10, ,, 
Mr. Baring Wall, M.P. ; most houounably 

acquitted May 11, ,, 

Attorney-general v. Shore (lady Hcwley's 

charitj', which is taken from the'Unitarians), 

Dec. 23, ,, 
Captain Wathen, isthhussars, by court-martial, 

at Cork ; honourably acqiiitted ; his colonel, 

lord BrudenoH, cashiered . . Jan. — , 1834 
Proprietors of the True Sun, for libels ; guiltv, 

Feb. 6, ,. 



Mary Ann Burdock, the celebrated nuu-deress, 
at Bristol April 10, 1833 

Sir John de Beau voir, for perjury; acquitted. 

May 2g, ,, 

Fieschi, at Paris, for attempting the life of the 
king, Louis Philippe, by exploding an infernal 
mat-hine. See Fieschi . . . Jan. 30, 1830 

Hon. G. C. Norton v. lord Melbourne, in Court 
of Common Pleas, for crim. con. with the hon. 
Mrs. Norton ; verdict for defendant, June 22, ,. 

Lord de Roos v. Gumming, for defamation, 
charging lord de Roos with cheating at 
cards ; verdict in favour of Mr. Gumming, 

Feb. 10, 1837 

James Greenacre and Sarah Gale, for the murder 
of Hannah Browne ; Greenacre convicted 
and hanged ; Gale transported . April 10, ,, 

Francis Hastings Medhxirst, esq., for killing 
Mr. Joseph Alsop ; guilty . . April 13, 1839 

Bolam, for the murder of Mr. Millie ; verdict, 
manslaughter July 30, ,, 

Rev. Mr. Stephens, at Chester, for inflamma- 
tory language .... Aug. 15, ,. 

John Frost, an ex-magistrate, and others, for 
high treason ; guilty : sentence commuted to 
transportation. See Newport . . Dec. 31, ,, 

Courvoisier, for the murder of lord WilUam 
Russell ; hanged . . . June 18, 20, 1840 

Gould, for the murder of Mr. Templeman ; 
transported June 22, ,, 

Edward Oxford, attempted the life of the 
queen ; adjudged insane, and confined in 
Bethlehem. Hee Ox/'ord . . July g, 10, ,. 

Madame Lafarge, in France, for the murder of 
her husband ; guilty . . . Sept. 2, ,. 

Prince Louis Napoleon, for his descent upon 
France. See France . . . Oct. 6, ,, 

Captain R. A. Reynolds, nth hussars, by court- 
martial ; guilty : the sentence excited great 
popular displeasure against his colonel, lord 
Cardigan Oct. 20, ,. 

Lord Cardigan before the house of peers, 
capitally charged for wounding captain 
Harvey Tucket in a duel ; acquitted, Feb. 16, 1841 

The Wallaces, brothers, merchants, for having 
wilfully caused the destruction of the ship 
Dryad at sea, to defraud the under-writers ; 
transported March 4, ,, 

Josiah Mister, for attempting the life of Mr. 
Mackreth ; guilty .... March 23, ,, 

Bartholomew Mvirray, at Chester, for the 
murder of Mrs. Cook . . . April 5, ,. 

Earl of Waldegrave and captain Duff, for an 
aggravated assault on a police constable ; 
guilty : judgment, six months' imprisonment, 
and fines of 2oof. and 20?. . . May 3, ,. 

JIadame Larfarge again, for robbery of diamonds, 

Aug. 7, ,, 

The great case, Allen Bogle v. Mr. Lawson, 
publisher of the Times newspaper, for an 
alleged libel, in stating the jilaintiff to be 
connected with numerous bank forgers 
throughout Europe in their schemes to 
defraud Messrs. Glyn and Company, 
bankers of London, by means of fictitious 
letters ,of credit : damages, one farthing. 
This exposure, so honourable to the Times, 
led to the Timei Testimonial . . Aug. 16, ,. 

Mr. Mac Leod, at Utica, America, for taking 
part in the destruction of the Caroline, com- 
menced : acquitted after a trial that lasted 
eight days Oct. 4, ,. 

Robert Blakesley, for the murder of Mr. 
Burdon, of Eastcheap; hanged . Oct. 28, ., 

Mr. Beaumont Smith, for the forgery of 
Exchequer bills to an immense amount ; he 
pleaded guilty, and was sentenced to trans- 
portation for life Dec. 4, ,, 

Sophia Darbon z<. Rosser ; breach of pi-omise of 
marriage ; damages 1600I. . . Doc. 8, ,, 



TRI 



731 



TRI 



TRIALS, continued. 

Dr. Webster, for bribery at an election of St. 
Alban's; acquitted . . . March 3, 1S42 

Mr. John Levick and Antonio Mattoi, principal 
and second in the duel in which lieut. Adams 
was killed at JLUta; both acquitted, 

March 10, ,, 

Yivier. courier of the Morniny Herald, at 
Bovilojrne, for conveying the Indian mail 
through France, for that journal, contrary to 
the French regulations . . . April 13, ., 

Daniel Good, for the murder of Jane Jones ; 
tiie memorable Roehampton murder; found 
guilty, and sentenced to be hanged May 13, ,, 

John P'rancis, for attempting to assassinate the 
queen (.see i^'raKCis) . . . June 17, ,, 

Thomas Cooper, for the murder of Daly, the 
policeman ; hanged .... July 4, ,, 

Nicholas Suisse, valet of the late marquess of 
Hertford, at the prosecution of that noble- 
man's executors, charged with enormous 
frauds ; acquitted .... July 6, „ 

M'Gill and others, for the abduction of Miss 
Crellin ; guilty .... Aug. 8, ,, 

Nicholas Suisse again, upon like charges, and 
again acquitted .... Aug. 24, ,, 

Bean, for pointing a pi.^tol at the queen; 18 
months' imprisonment . . . Aug. 25, ,, 

The rioters in the provinces, under a special 
commission, at Stafford . . . Oct. i, „ 

The Cheshire rioters, under a special com- 
mission, before lord Abinger . . Oct. 6, ,, 

The Lancashire I'ioters, also under a special 
commission ..... Oct. 10, ,, 

Alice Lowe, at the prosecution of lord Frank- 
fort ; acquitted .... Oct. 31, ,, 

Mr. Howard, attorney, v. sir William Gosset, 
serjeant-at-arms Dec. 5, ,, 

Mr. t^an, in Dublm, for the robbery of a bank 
parcel ; acquitted .... Jan. 17, 1843 

Rev. W. Bailey., LL.D., for forgery; guilty: 
transportation for life .... Feb. i, ,, 

Mac Naughten, for the murder of Mr. Drimi- 
mond, secretary to sir Robert Peel ; acquitted 
on the ground of insanity . . March 4, ,, 

The Rebeccaites, at Cardiff, imder a special 
commission Oct. 27, ,, 

Samuel Sidney Smith, for forgery ; .sentenced 
to transportation for life . . Nov. 29, ,, 

Edward Dwyer, for the murder of his child at 
Southwark ; guilty .... Dec. i, ,, 

Mr. Holt, of the Age : libel on the duke of 
Brunswick ; guilty .... Jan. 29, 1844 

Lieut. Grant, second to lieut. Miuiro, in his 
duel with col. Fawcett ; acquitted Feb. 14, ,, 

Frascr v. Bagley, for criM. con ; verdict for 
the defendant Feb. 19, ,, 

Lord William Paget v. earl of Cardigan for 
crim. con. ; verdict for defendant iFeb. 26, ,, 

Mary Furley, for the nuirder of her child in an 
agony of despair .... April 16, ,, 



The will-forgers, William Henry Barber (since 
declared innocent*), Joshua Fletcher, 
Geoi-giana Dorey, William Sanders, and 
Susannah, his wife ; all found guilty, April 
15 ; sentenced .... April 22, 

Crouch, for the murder of his wife : found 
guilty. May 8 ; hanged . . May 27, 

Messrs. O'Connell, sen,, O'Connell, jun. , Steele, 
Ray, Barrett, Grey, Duflfy, and rev. Thomas 
Tierney, at Dublin, for political conspiracy : 
the trial commenced Jan. 15, and lasted 
twenty-four days : all the traversers were 
found guilty, Feb. 12. Proceedings on motions 
for a new trial, &c., extended the case into 
Easter term ; and sentence was pronounced 
upon all but the clergyman, on whom judg- 
ment was remitted . . . May 30, 

Augustus Dalmas, for the murder of Sarah 
Macfarlane ; guilty .... June 14, 

Wm. Burton Newenham, for the abduction of 
Miss Wortham ; guilty . . . June 17, 

Bellamy, for the murder of his wife by prussic 
acid ; acquitted .... Aug. 21, 

John Tawell, for the niui'der of Sarah Hart ; 
hanged March 13, 14, 

Thomas Henry Hocker, for the murder of 
James Delarue .... April 11, 

Joseph Connor, for the murder of Mary 
Brothers May 16, 

The Spanish pirates, for the murder of ten 
Englishmen at sea .... July 26, 

Rev. Mr. Wetherell, for cnr,i. con. with Mi-s. 
Cooke, his own daughter . . Aug. 16, 

Capt. Johnson, of the ship Tori/, for the murder 
of several of his crew .... Feb. 5, 

Miss M. A. Smith v. earl Ferrers ; breach of 
promise of marriage . . . Feb. 18, 

Lieut. Hawkej', for the murder of Mr. Seton, 
in a duel ; acquitted . . . July 16, 

Richard Dunn, for perjury and attempted 
fraud on Miss A. Burdett Coutts Feb. 27, 

Mitchell, the Irish confederate ; transported 
for 14 years. See Ireland . . May 26, 

Wm. Smith O'Brien, Meagher," and other 
confederates ; sentenced to death : the sen- 
tence afterwards commuted to transportation 
(pardoned in 1856) .... Oct. 9, 

Blounifield Rush, for the murder of Messrs. 
Jermy, at Norwich ; hanged . March 29, 

Gorham v. the bishop of Exeter ; ecclesiastical 
case ; judgment given in the court of Arches 
against the plaintiff t . - . Aug. 2, 

Manning and his wife, for the murder of 
O'Connor ; guilty : death . . . Oct. 27, 

Walter Watts, lessee of the Olympic theatre, 
for forgery, &c May 10. 

Robert Pate, a retired lieutenant, for an assault 
on the queen July 11, 

The Sloanes, man and wife, for starving their 
servant, Jane Wilbred . . . Feb. 5, 



1844 



1845 



184^. 



1S47 



1848 
iS4'j 



* In 1848 Mr. Barber returned to England with a free pardon, and an acknowledgment of his inno- 
cence by his prosecutors : he was re-admitted to practise as an attorney : and on the 3rd of August, 1859. 
in conformity with the recommendation of a select committee of the house of commons, the sum of 
5000?. was voted him "as a national acknowledgment of the wrong he had suffered from an erroneous 
prosecution." 

t This long-contested case created much sensation at the time. The bishop had refused to institute 
the rev. Mr. Gorham in the living of Brainpton-Speke, in Devonshire, to which he had been presented. 
The cause of the bishop's refusal was allowed want of orthodoxy in the plaintiff, who denied that spiritual 
regeneration was conferred by baptism : the court held that the charge against the plaintiff of holding false 
doctrine was proved, and that the bishop was justified in his refusal. Mr. Gorham appealed to the 
Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, which pronounced its opinion (March 8, 1S50) that "the doctrine 
held by Jlr. (iorham was not contrary or repugnant to the declared doctrine of the Church of England, and 
that Mr. Gorham ought not, by reason of the doctrine held by him, to have been refused admission to the 
vicarage of Brampton-Speke. " This decision led to subsequent proceedings in the three courts of law, succes- 
sively, for a rule to show cause why a prohibition should not issue directed to the judge of the Arche.s 
Court, and to the archbishop of Cantorbiuy, against giving eflect to the judgment of her majesty in council. 
The rule was refused in each court, and in the end Mr. Gorham was instituted into the vicarage in question, 
Aug. 7, 1850. 



TPJ 



732 



TPJ 



TRIALS, continued. 

The Board of Customs v. the London Dock 
Company, on a charge of defrauding the 
revenue of duties; a trial of ii days ended 
in a virtual acquittal . . . Feb. i8, 

Sarah Chesham, for tlie murder of her husband 
by poison : she liad murdered several of her 
children and others ))y the same means ; 
hanged Jlaich 6, 

Thomas Drory, for the murder of Jael Uenny : 
hanged March 7, 

Doyle V. Wright, concerning the personal 
custody of Miss Augusta Talbot, a Roman 
Catholic ward of Cliancery, before the lord 
chancellor ; protracted case . March 22, 

The murderers of the rev. George Edward 
Holiest, of Firmley, Essex ; guilty, March 31, 

Miller r. aid. Salomons, M.P., for voting as a 
member without having taken the required 
oath ; verdict against the defendant, April 19, 

The case "Bishop of London v. the rev. Mr. 
Gladstone :" judgment of the Arches court 
against the defendant . . . Jime 10, 

Achilli V. Newman, for libel ; tried before lord 
chief justice Camiibell in the Queen's Bench : 
verdict for the plaintiff . . . Jan. 31, 

Lord Frankfort, tor scandalous and defamatory 
libels ; guilty ..... Dec. 3, 

Richard Bourke Kirwan, for the murder of his 
wife ; guilty ..... Dec. 10, 

Eliot Bower, for the murder of Mr. Saville 
Morton, at Paris ; acquitted . Dec. 28, 

Henry Horler, for the murder of his wife ; 
hanged at the Old Bailey . . Jan. 15, 

James Barbour, for the murder of Robinson ; 
hanged at Y(jrk .... Jan. 15, 

George Sparkes and James Hitchcock, for the 
murder of William Blackmore at Exeter; 
guilty March ig. 

Five Frenchmen (principal and seconds) for 
the murder of a sixth Frenchman in a duel 
at Egha'm ; verdict, manslaughter, March 21, 

Moore and Walsh, for the murder of John 
Blackburn, at Stafford ; hanged . March 21, 

Saunders, for the murder of Mr. Toler ; hanged 
at Chelmsford . . . . ' March 30, 

The Stackpole family, four in number ; two 
of them females, and wives to the others, for 
the murder of their relative, also a Stackpole ; 
hanged at Ennis .... April 28, 

Case of Holy Cross Hospital, Winchester, de- 
cided against rev. carl of Guildford, Aug. i, 

Smyth V. Smyth, ended in the plaintiff being 
committed on a charge of forging the will on 
which he grounded his claim Aug. 8, g, 10, 

The Braintree case respecting liability to 
church-rates, decided by the hoiise of lords, 
against the rate .... Aug. 12, 

Case of Lumley ■». Gye, respecting Madlle. 
Wagner ; decided .... Feb. 22, 

Mr. Jeremiah Smith, mayor of Rye, convicted 
of perjury March 2, 

Duchess of Manchester's will case . April, 

Mr. Garden for tlie abdiiction of Miss E. 
Arbuthnot, and assault upon John Smith- 
wick ; convicted . . . July 28, 29, 

Mary Anne Brough, for murdering her six 
children ; not guilty (insanity) . Aug. g. 

Case of Pierce Somerset Butler v. viscount 
Mountgarret ; verdict for plaintiff, who thus 
came into a peerage, the defendant being 
proved illegitimate .... Aug. 

Courts-martial on lieutenants Perry and Greer ; 



iSs3 



sentences reversed by lord Hardinge, July 
2g-Aug. 

Courts-martial on sir E. Belcher, captain 
McClure, &c., for abandoning their ships in 
the Arctic regions ; acquittetl . . Oct. 

Emanuel BartheliSmy, for murder of Charles 
CoUard and Mr. Moore (executed) ; Jan. 4, 

Handcock v. Delacour, otherwise De Burgh 
(cruelty of Mrs. Handcock, and charges 
against lord Clanricarde) ; comi^romised . . 

Earl of Sefton v. Hop wood (will set aside), 

April 3-10, 

Luigi Baranelli, for murder of Jo.';eph Latham 
(or Lambert); (executed April 30) . April 12, 

Charles King, a great thief -trainer ; transported, 

Ajjril 13, 

David M. Davidson and Cosmo W. Gordon, for 
frauds and forgeries of securities, (Sic. ; con- 
victed May 24, 

Wm. Austin (governor), for cruelties in Bir- 
mingham gaol ; acqiiitted . . Aug. 3, 

Sir John Dean Paul, William Strahan, and 
Robert M. Bates, bankers, for disposing of 
their customers' securities (to the amount of 
113,625/.) : convicted . . . Oct. 27, 

Joseph Wooler, on charge of poisoning his wife ; 
acquitted Nov. 7, 

Westerton r. Liddell' (on decorations, kc, in 
church in Knightsbridge ; decision again.st 
them) Dec. 5, 

Celestina Sommers, for murder of her children ; 
convicted (but reprieved) . . March 6, 

Wm. Palmer, t for murder of J. P. Cook by 
poison (executed) . . . May 14-27, 

Wm. Dove, for murder of his wife (executed 
Aug. 9) ■ . July 19, 

Ditcher v. archdeacon Denison, respecting the 
doctrine of the eucharist ; defendant deprived, 
and appeal disallowed . . . Oct. 22, 

W.S. Hardwicke and H. Attwell ; convicted of 
forgery ...... Oct. 31, 

Wm. Robson, for frauds of Crystal Palace 
Company (to the amount of about 28,000/.); 
transported for twenty years . Nov. i. 

Earl of Luoan v. Daily Neus for libel ; verdict 
for defendant .... Dec. 3, 

Pearce, Burgess, and Tester. See Gold Robbery 

Jan. 14, 

Leopold Redpath, for forgeries (to the amount 
of 150,000/.) upon Great Northern Railway 
Company ; transported for life . Jan. i6, 

Miss Madeline Smith, on charge of poisoning 

Emile L'Angelier, at Gla.sgow ; not proven, 

June 30 — July 9, 

Thos. Fuller Bacon, { for poisoning his mother, 
convicted July 25, 

James Spollen. on charge of murder of Mr. 
Little, near Dublin ; acquitted . Aug. 7-1 1, 

Jem Saward, a barrister (called the Penman), 
Wm. Andei'son, and others, convicted of 
extensive forgery of bankers' cheques, Mar. 5, 

W, Attwell and others, convicted of stealing the 
countess of EUesmere's jewels (value 15,000/.) 
/rom the top of a cab ' . . Dec. 15, 

Strevens v. Campion, for slander, in charging 
the plaintiff with complicity in the murder 
of his aunt, Mrs. Kell3' ; damages 6c/. Dec. 31, 

The directors of the British Bank, Hiunphry 
Brown, Edw. Esdaile, H. D. Macleod, alder- 
man R. H. Kennedy, W. D. Owen, James 
Stapleton, and Hugh Innes Cameron, for 
fraud (see Banks, p. 68) ; convicted Feb. 13-27, 



1854 



1S56 



1857 



* Decided again by privy council, partly for both parties ; each to pay his own costs ; March 21, 1857. 

t He was executed at Stafford on June 14, in the presence of 50,000 persons. If he had been acquitted 
he would have licon tried for the murder of his wife and brother. The trial in every respect was the most 
remarkable one for many years. 

X He was acquitted on a charge of murdermg two children in May 13, 14, same year. His wife con- 
fessed the mvuder, but appeared to be insane. 



Till 



733 



TRI 



TRIALS, continued. 

Rev. S. Smith and bis wife, for murderous 
assault en John Leech ; convicted, April 6, 7, i 

Edvv. Auchmut}' Glover, M.I\, for false declara- 
tion of qualification of M.P. . April 9, &c. 

Simon ISernard, as accessory to the conspiracy 
against the life of the emperor Napcjleuu; 
acquitted .... April 12-17, 

The earldom of Shrewsbury case ; eai-1 Talbot's/ 
claim allowed .... June i, 

James Seal, for the murder of Sarah Guppy; 
convicted (.and executed) . . July 23, 

The Btrkeley peerage case . . July 23, 

Patieuce Swynfen 0. V. H. Swynfen ; * a vpill 
case ; the will affirmed . . . July 27, 

Lemon Oliver, a stockbroker, convicted of ex- 
tensive frauds .... Nov. 10, 

JIarchmont i'. Marchmont ; a disgraceful divorce 
case, began ..... Nov. 30, 

W. H. Guernsey, for stealing Ionian despatches 
from the Colonial Office ; acquitted, Dec. 15, 

Evans v. Evans and Rose ; divorce case Dec. 

Lieut, col. Dickson r. carl of Wilton, for libel; 
verdict for the iilaintiff . . Feb. 14, i 

Black !'. Elliott, 850 sheep poisoned by a sheep- 
wash sold by defendant ; damages 1400^ 

Feb. 23, 

Wagner, Bateman, and others, a gang of bank 
forgers ; convicted . . . May 13, 

Earl of Shrewsbury v. Hope Scott, and others ; 
the earl gains the Shrewsbury estates, June 3, 

Thellussoii will case decided (see Thellusson) 

June g, 

T. R. Marshall, E. A. Mortimer, and H. S. 
Eicke, convicted of illegal sale of army com- 
missions I. . June 29, 

Thomas Smethvirst,t a surgeon, for the murder 

by poison of Isabella Bankes, whom he had 

married during his wife's lifetime ; convicted 

Aug. 15-19, 

Oakley v. the Moulvie Ooddcen, " ambassador 
of the king of Oude." Verdict for the defen- 
dant, who seems to have fallen among bill- 
shai-jjers ..... Dec. 17, 

David Hughes, an attorney, convicted of gross 
frauds upon his clients . . . Jan. i 

Eugenia Plummer, aged 11 years, convicted of 
perjury against rev. Mr. Hatch May 14, 

Nottidge V. Prince (see Aciapemone) July 25, 

Thomas Hopley, a schoolmaster. Convicted of 
manslaughter of Reginald Cancellor, by 
flogging July 23, 

Mr. Edward Leatham, M.P., convicted of 
bribery at Wakefield . . . July ig, 

Rev. J. BonweU, of Stepney, degraded for im- 
morality ..... Aug. 2g, 

James Mullens, convicted for the murder of Mrs. 
Elmsley ; by endeavouring to inculpate one 
Ems, he led to his own conviction Oct. 25, 

Mi.ss Shedden v. Patrick. (The plaintiff ably 
pleaded her own cause when the case was 



opened ; her object, to prove the legitimacy of 
her father, was not attained) Nov. 9, et seq. 

Hooper v. SVard ; di.sgracefid profligacy of a 
magistrate ; verdict for plaintiff Dec. 19, 20, 

Brook/4'. Brook (see Marrlaye with Wife's Sister). 
The house of lords on appeal decide against 
the validity of such marriages, even when 
celebrated in a foreign country March iS, 

Thelwall v. hon. major Yelverton. The plaintiff 
sued for expenses incurred by defendant's 
wife ; the major denied the validity of his 
marriage with Miss Longworth, having since 
married the widow of jsrofessor Edward 
Forbes, the eminent naturalist. The court 
in Dublin, supported the first marriage, J 
Feb. 21, to March 4, 

Reade v. Lacy ; the dramatising a novel re- 
strained April 17, 

Beamish v- Beamish ; the lords on appeal decide 
that a clergyman cannot perform the cere- 
mony of marriage for himself . Ajiril 22, 

Emperor of Austria I'. Day; verdict for plaintiff. 
The defendant had printed 100 millions florin 
notes on the bank of Hungary, for Louis 
Kossuth. The notes were ordered to be de- 
stroyed within one month, May 6 ; judgment 
affirmed June 12, 

Cardross case. John MacMillan, a free-church 
minister, was expelled for drunkennes.s and 
misconduct, May, 1S58. The Glasgow synod 
and the general assembly of the free church 
affirmed the sentence. He ai>pealed to the 
court of session, which set aside the decree 
(which involved temporalities), asserting that 
the assembly had only sjiiritual authority, 

July, 

W. B. TumbuU v. Bird, secretary of Protestant 
alliance ; libel ; verdict for defendant, July 

8-10, 

J. C. Charlesworth, M.P., convicted of bribery 
at the Wakefield election . . July 20, 

Baron de Vidil ; convicted of wounding his son ; 
the latter refused to give evidence against his 
father Aug. 23, 

Vincent Collucci : convicted of obtaining money 
on false pretences, from Miss F. Johnstone 

Oct. 23, 

John Curran, a Dublin cabman ; convicted of a 
violent assault on Miss JoUy, who heroically 
defended herself .... Oct. 25-30 

Patrick McCaffery ; shot col. Crofton and capt. 
Hanham, at Preston ; convicted . Dec. 13, 

Inquiry into sanity of Wm. Fred. Wyndham (on 
behalf of his relatives), with a view of an- 
nulling an injudicious marriage ; trial lasted 
34 days ; 140 witnesses examined ; verdict, 
sane mind (see iu)ioc»y), Dec. 16, iS5i-Jan. 30, 

[Each party adjudged to pay its own costs, 
March, 1862.] 

Capt. Robertson, by court-martial ; convicted 



iS6q 



* The plaintiff was Patience Swynfen, widow of Henry John Swynfen, son of the testator Samuel 
Swynfen. Her husband died June 15, 1854, and his father on July 16 following, having made a will 
ig days before his death, devising the Swynfen estate (worth above 60,000?.) to his son's wife ; but leavinga 
large" amount of personal estate undisposed of. The defendant, F. H. Swynfen, son of the testator's 
eldest half-brother, claimed the estate as heir-at law on the ground of the testator's insanity. The issue was 
brought to trial in March, 1856 ; but proceedings were stayed by Mrs. Swynfen's counsel, sir F. R. Thesiger, 
entering into an agreement with the opposite counsel, sir Alexander Cockburn, without her consent, and 
in defiance of her instructions. After various proceedings, the Court of Chancery ordered a new trial. 
She gained her cause, m.ainly through the energy of her counsel, Mr. Chas. R. Kennedy, to whom she had 
promised to pay 20,000!. for his extraordinary services. Mrs. Swynfen, however, married a Mr. Broun and 
repudiated Mr. Kennedy's claim. The latter, in an action against her, obtained a verdict iu his favour on 
March 29, 1862, which was, on appeal, finally reversed iu Feb. 1864. Mrs. Swynfen was non-suited in an 
action brought against her counsel (afterwards lord Chelmsford and lord chancellor), in July, 1859, and 
June, i860. 

t He was reprieved on the ground of insufficient evidence ; but was tried and found guilty of bigamy 
Nov. 16, 1859. On Nov. II, 1S62, he proved Mi.ss Bankes's will and obtained her property. ' 

J On appeal, the Scotch court annulled this marriage, July, 1S62, and this judgement was affirmed by 
the Louse of lords, July 28, 1864. 



TRI 



734 



TRI 



TRIALS, contimied. 

of submitting to ungentlemanly conduct from 

his brother officers ; — 30 clays' inquiry ; ended 

5larch 24, 

[The covirt was much blamed by the public and 
the sentence was annulled.] 

Z^Irs. A. C. Vyse, for poisoning her two children, 
acquitted as insane .... July 9, 

Roupell V. Waite ; during the trial, W. Roupell, 
M.P., a witness, confessed himself guilty of 
forging a will, and other frauds Aug. 18, ig, 

Jessie llcLachlan ; convicted for the murder of 
Jessie Maepherson, at Glasgow ; she con- 
fessed to being necessary after the murder, 
which she imputed to Mr. Fleming, a gentle- 
man 80 or 90 years old . . Sejit. 17-20, 
[She was respited, Oct. 27, 1862.] 

Wm. Roupell, M.P., for forgery; convicted on 
his own confession . . . Sept. 24, 

Catherine Wilson ; convicted of poisoning Mrs. 
Soames in 1856 .... Sept. 25-27, 

27 indictments and 24 convictions for savage 
personal outra.cres in the streets of the metro- 
polis dvu-ing the month . . . Nov. 

Wm. Digby Seymour, M. P, , v. Butterworth ; 
libel; verdict for plaintiff, damages 40,'!., Dec. 3, 

Hall V. Semple ; verdict for plaintiff, who had 
been consigned to a lunatic asylum through 
his wife's getting the defendant to sign a 
certificate ot Umacy with culjiable negligence ; 
damages, 150^ ..... Dec lo, 

George Buncher, Wm. Burnett, Richd. Brewer, 
and James Griffiths, for forging bank-notes, 
printed on paper stolen from the paper-mill 
at Laverstoke ; convicted . . Jan. 7-12, ": 

Clare v. The Queen ; petition of right, for in- 
fringement of ajiatent ; verdict for defendant, 

Feb. 2-6, 

Rev. John Campbell v. Spottiswoode (as printer 
of a libel in SaturdaT/ Review); verdict for 
plaintiff Feb. 27, 

Queen on appeal of earl of Cardigan v. col. Cal- 
thorpe for libel, charging the earl with de- 
serting his men at Balaclava, Oct. 25, 1855 : 
verdict for defendant(who, however, admitted 
his error) June 9, 10, 

Attorney-gener.il i: Sillim and others, for 
having built the Ale.ranJra for the Con- 
federates, against the Enlistment Act ; verdict 
for defendants June 25, 

[Decision finally affirmed on appeal to the house 
of lords, April 6, 1864] 

Col. Lothian Dickson v. viscount Combermere, 
earl of Wilton, and gen. Peel, for conspiracy 
to expel him from the army ; verdict for de- 
fendants .... June 27, et scq. 



Morrison (Zadkiel) v. sir Edward Belcher ; libel ; 
verdict, 2o«. damages . . June 29, 1863 

Richard Roupell v. Haws : arising out of 
Roupell forgeries ; no verdict . July 16-24, » 

Woolley V Pole for Sun fire-office : verdict for 
plaintiff, awarding him his claim for 29,000?. 
for his insurance of Campden-house ; burnt 
March 23, 1862 .... Aug. 29, ,, 

George Victor Tov^nley; for murder of Miss 
Goodman, through jealousy; convicted 

Dec. 12, ,, 

[He escaped execution through a certificate of 
insanity, too hastily signed ; and committed 
suicide in prison, Feb. 12. 1865.] 

Lieut.-col. Crawley, by court-martial at Alder- 
shot, for alleged oppression and cruelty to 
serjeant-major John Lilley, in consequence of 
a court-martial at Mhow, in India ; honour- 
ably .acquitted . . . Nov. 17-Dec. 23, ,, 

Franz Mtiller, for murder of Mr. Briggs in a 
railway carriage, July 9 ; convicted, Oct. 27-29, 1864 

Gedney v. Smith ; a supposititious child de- 
tected and depiived of much property, Nov. 10, ,, 

E. K. Kohl, for murder of Theodore Fuhrkop ; 
convicted Jan. n, 12, 1S65 

Qupen V. Wm. Rumble, for infringement of 
Foreign Enlistment Act, in equipping the 
Rappahannock for the Confederate govern- 
ment ; acquitted .... Feb. 4, ,, 

Woodgate v. Ridout (for Moniinr; Pout) for libel 
respecting the great will case of the earl of 
Egremont v. Darell ; verdict for plaintiff, 
loool. ...... Feb. 10, ,, 

Bishop Colenso's appeal to privy council against 
decision of bish»p of Capetown, deposing 
him ; which is annulled . . March 21, ,, 

Roberts, Jeffery, Casely, and others ; for jewel 
robberies in London ; convicted . April 13, ,, 

J. W. Terry and Thos. Burch, for misdemeanour 
in connexion with the Unity bank ; acquitted 

April ,, 

Edw. Wm. Pritchard, M.D., for murder of his 
wife and her mother, by jjoisoning ; guilty, 

July 3-7, ,, 

Trials of Fenians for treason-felony: Thos. 
Clarke Lub^', convicted and sentenced to 20 
years' penal servitude, Nov, 28-Dec. i ; O'Leary 
and others convicted ; O'Donovan Rossa (pre- 
viously convictSd) sentenced to imprisonment 
for life, Dec. 13 ; others convicted at Cork, 

Dec. „ 

Stephen Forwood (or Ernest Southey), for mur- 
derofhis wife and children ; gviiltj', I)ec.2o-2i, ,, 
(See Executions ) 

Other Fenians convicted at Dublin . Jan. 1866 



TRIBUNES OF THE PEOPLE {Tribuni Plclis), magi.strates of Rome, first clio.sen from 
among the commons to represent the people, 493 B.C., at the time the people, after a quarrel 
with the Senators, had retired to Mons Sacer. The first two were C. Licinius and L. 
Albinus ; but their number was soon after rai.sed to five, and 37 years after to ten, which 
number remained fixed. Their office was annual, and as the first had been created on the 
4tli of the ides of December, that day was chosen for the election. In a.d. 1347, Nicolo di 
Eienzi assumed absolute power in Rome as tribune of the people, and reformed many abuses ; 
but committing many extravagances, he lost his popularity and was compelled to abdicate. 
He returned to Rome and was assassinated, Sept. 8, 1354. 

TRICOTEUSES (knitters), a name given to a number of French republican females, who 
zealously attended executions in 1792, knitting at intervals. 

TRIENNIAL PARLIAMENTS. On Feb. 15, 1641, an act was passed pro^ading for 
the meeting of a parliament at least once in three years. It was repealed in 1664. Another 
triennial bill, passed in 1694, was repealed by the Septennial act, 1716. ^ee Parliaments 
and Septennial Parliaments. 

TRIESTE, an Austrian port on the Adriatic, declared a free port in 1750. It was lield 



TRI 735 TRI 

by the French in 1717, 1797, and 1805. Since the establishment of the overland mail to 
India, it has risen to great commercial importance. 

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY. See Ordnance. 

TRIMMER ; a term applied to Charles Montague, earl of Halifax, and others who held 
similar political opinions, midway between those of the extreme AVhigs and Tories, about 
the latter part of the 17th century. He assumed the title as an honour, asserting that it 
could be rightly given to the British constitution and church. Macaulay says tliat Halifax 
was a Trimmer on principle, and not a renegade. He died in 1715. 

TRINCOIMALEE. Reckoned the finest harbour in the East Indies. Trincomalee was 
taken from the Dutch, by the English, in 1782 ; it was retaken by the French the same 
year ; but was restored to the Dutch by the peace of 17S3. It surrendered to the British, 
under colonel Stewart, Aug. 26, 1795, and was confirmed to England by the peace of Amiens, 
in 1802. See Ceylon. Of a series of actions off Trincomalee between sir Edward Hughes 
and the French admiral SufFrein, one was fought Feb. iS, 17S2, the enemy liaving eleven 
ships to nine ; on April 12 following, they had eighteen ships to eleven, and on July 6, same 
year, they had fifteen ships to twelve. In all these conflicts the French were defeated. 

TRINIDxVD, an island in the West Indies, was discovered by Columbus in 149S, and wa.s 
taken from the Spaniards by sir Walter Kaleigli in 1595 ; but the French touk it from the 
English in 1676. Taken by the British, with four sliips of the line, and a military force 
under command of sir Ralph Abercromb}-, to whom the island capitulated, Feb. 21, 1797 ; 
they captured two, and burnt three Spanish ships of war in the harbour. This possession 
Avas confirmed to England by the peace of Amiens in 1802. The instirrection of the negroes 
occurred Jan. 4, 1S32. Population in 1861, 84,438. 

TRINITY AND TiiixiTARiANs. The doctrine of the Trinity is received by nearly all 
Christians. Theophilus, bishop of Antioch, who flourished in the 2nd century, was the 
first who used the term Trinity, to express the three sacred persons in the Godhead. His 
Defence of Christianilii was edited by Gesner, at Zurich, in 1546. Watkins. An order of 
the Trinity was founded, 1198, by John de Matha and Felix do Valois. The Trinity 
fraternity, originally of fifteen persons, was instituted at Rome by St. Philip Neri, in 1548. 
The act to exempt from penalties persons denying the doctrine of the Trinity (such as 
Unitarians and Sw'edenborgians) passed in 1813. 

TRINITY COLLEGES. See Cambridge and Oxford. Trinity College, Dublin, called 
the University : grant of the Augustine monasteiy of All Saints within the stiburbs for 
erecting this college, conferred by cpieen Elizabeth, 1591. First stone laid by Thomas Smith, 
mayor of Dublin, Jan. i, 1593. New charter, 1637. Made a barrack for soldiers, 1689. 
Burns. The principal or west front erected, 1759. Library erected, 1732. 

TRINITY HOUSE, Londox, founded by sir Thomas Spert, 1512, as an "association 
for piloting ships," was incorporated in 15 14, and re-incorporated in 1647 and 1685. The 
present Trinity House was erected in 1795. Trinity Hoixses were founded at Deptford, at 
Hull, and at Newcastle : these three societies were instituted and incorporated by Henry VIII., 
the first in 15 12, the other two in 1537. By their charter they have the power of examining, 
licensing, and regulating pilots, and of erecting beacons and lighthouses, and of placing buoys 
in the channels and rivers ; and their powers and privileges have been greatly augmented by 
succeeding kings. Recent masters : the Prince Consort, died, Dec. 14, 1861 ; lord Palmerston, 
appointed June 16, 1862, died Oct. 18, 1865 ; succeeded by the prince of Wales. 

TRINITY SUNDAY. The festival of the Holy Trinity was instituted by pope Gregory 
IV. in 828, on his ascending the papal chair, and is observed by the Latin and Protestant 
churches on the Sunday next following Pentecost or Whitsuntide, of which, originally, it was 
merely an Octave. The observance of the festival was first enjoined in the council of Aries, 
1260. It was appointed to be held on the present day by pope Jolin XX. in 1334. Trinity 
Sunday, in 1866, May 27 ; in 1867, June 16 ; in 1868, June 7. 

TRIPLE ALLIANCE was ratified between the States-General and England against 
France, for the protection of the Spanish Netherlands ; Sweden afterwards joining the 
league, it was known as the Triple Alliance, Jan. 28, 1668. Another Triple Alliance was 
that between England, Holland, and France against Spain, 171 7. 

TRIPOLITZA, Greece, was stormed by the Greeks, who committed dreadful cruelties, 
Oct. 5, 1821 ; retaken by the Egyptians, 1825 ; given up to the Greeks, 1828. 

TRIREMES, galleys with three banks of oars, are said to have been invented by the 
Corinthians, 784 B.C. 



TRI 



736 



TRU 



TRIUMPHS were granted by the Roman senate to generals of armies after they had won 
great victories. They were received into the city with great magniticence and public accla- 
mations. There were the great, called the Triumph ; and the less, the Ovation. See 
Ovation. 

TRIUMVIRATES, Romaic. The first, 60 B.C., consisted of Julius Csesar, Pompey, and 
Crassus, who formed a coalition to rule the state. Their union lasted ten years, and the civil 
war ensued. The second triumvirate 43 B.C., was formed by Octavius Ctesar, Mark Antony, 
and Lepidus, through whom the Romans totally lost their liberty. Octavius disagreed with 
his colleagues : Lepidus was expelled in 36 ; Antony was subdued in 31, and Octavius made 
himself absolute in Rome. This triumvirate continued for about twelve years. See Rome. 
On March 29, 1849, a triumvirate was appointed at Rome, consisting of Joseph Mazzini, 
Armelliui, and Saffi, which resigned on July i, 1849, when the city was taken by the French. 

TROPPAU, CoNGKESS OF, in Austrian Silesia. The emperors Francis of Austria and 
Alexander of Russia met at Troppau, Oct. 20, 1820. The conference between them and the 
king of Prussia, against Naples, took place Nov. 10 ; and the congress was transferred to 
Laybach, as nearer to Italy, Dec. 17, 1820. See Laybach. 

TROUBADOURS and Trouveres ( from trouhar, trouver, to find or invent), the poets 
of the middle ages (from the eleventh to the fifteenth century). The former flourished in the 
south of France and north of Spain, and used the Langue d'oc (that is oc for oui, yes) ; the 
latter flourished in the north of France, and used the Langue d'o'il (that is oil for oui). The 
Troubadours produced romances, yet excelled chiefly in lyric poetry ; the Trouveres excelled 
in romances, several of which are extant ; as, the £rul cV Angktcrre, and the Rou, by Wace ; 
the romance of the "Rose," by Guillaume de Lorris, and Jean de Meung. The Troubadours 
were usually accompanied by Jongleur.i, who sang their masters' verses, with the accompani- 
ment of the guitar. Histories of these French poets, and specimens of their works, have 
been published in France. These i:)oets, although frequently very licentious, undoubtedly 
tended to promote civilisation during those warlike times. 

TROY (Asia Minor). Its obscure and traditional history is immortalised by Homer. 



Arrival of Scamander in Phrygia Minor. Slair 

B.C. 1546 

Teucer succeeds his father 1502 

Dardanus succeeds Teucer, and builds the city 

of Dardania 1480 

Reign of Erichthonhis 1449 

Reign of Tros, from whom the people are called 

Trojans, and the city Troy .... 1374 
Ilus, son of Troas, reigns, and the city is called 

Ilium 1314 

Reign of Laomedon 1260 

Arrival of Hercules in Phrygia. Hesione de- 
livered from the sea-monster. Blair; Usher 1225 
War of Hercules and Laomedon . . . . 1224 
Reign of Priam or Podarces . . . . , , 

Rape of Helen, by Alexander Paris, son of 
Priam, 20 years before the sacking of Troy. 



Homer's Iliad, booh xxiv. line 964, Pope's e<Ut. 

B.C. 1204 

Commencement of the invasion of the Greeks 
to recover Helen 1193 

Troy taken and burnt in tlie night of the 
nth of June, i.e. 23rd of the month Tliar- 
golion. Parian Marbles. 408 years before 
the first Olj'mpiad. Apollodorus, Hales, and 
Clinton, 1183; others 1184 

iEueas an-ives in Italy. Levglet . . . . 1183 

[Some time after the destruction of Troy, a 
new city was built with the same name, 
about thirty stadia distant from the old site. 
It was favoured by Alexander the Great in 
his Asiatic expedition, but never rose to 
much importance, and in the age of Strabo 
was nearly in ruins. — Priestley.'] 



TROY "WEIGHT. The Romans left their ounce, now our avoirdupois ounce, in Britain. 
The present ounce of this weight was brought from Grand Cairo into Europe, about the time 
of the Crusades, 1095. It was first adopted at Troyes, a city of France, whence the name ; 
and is used to weigh gold, silver, and precious stones. Tlie Troy weight, Scots, was 
established by James VI. (our James I.) in 1618. See Standard. 

TROYES, Central France, where a treaty was concluded between England, France, and 
Burgundy, whereby it was stipulated that Henry V. should marry Catherine, daughter of 
Charles VI. , be appointed regent of France, and after the death of Charles should inherit the 
crown. May 21, 1420. Troyes was taken by the allied armies, Feb. 7 ; retaken by Napoleon, 
Feb. 23 ; and again taken by the allies, March 4, 18 14. 

TRUCE OF GOD {Treuga Dei), a term given to a cessation of the private feuds and 
conflicts so general during the middle ages, all over Europe. The clergy strenuously exerted 
their influence for the purpose. A synod at Roussillon, 1027, decreed that none should 
attack his enemy between Saturday evening (at nones) and Monday morning (at the hour of 
prime). Similar regulations were adopted in England, 1042 (sometimes Friday and Wednes- 
day being chosen for the time). The truce of God was confinned by many councils of the 
church, especially the Lateran Council, in 11 79. 



TRU 737 TUI 

TRUMPET. Some of the Greek historicans ascrilie the invention of the trumpet to the 
Tyrrlicnians, and others to the Egyptians. It was in use in the time of Homer, Lut not at 
the time of tlie Trojan war. First torches, then shells of fish souiuled like trumpets, were 
the signals in primitive wars. Potter. The speaking-trumpet is said to have been used by 
Alexander the Great in 335 B.C. Trumpets were first sounded before the king in the time of 
Offa, king of Mercia, a.d. 790. Speaking-trumpets were improved by Kircher in 1652, 
by Salland, 1654, and philosophically explained by Moreland, 1671. 

TRITIMPET-FLOWER, Bignonia radicans, was brought hither from North America, 
about 1640. The Trumpet Honeysuckle, Lonicera sevipervircns, came from North America 
in 1656. The Bignonia capensis was brought to England, from the Cape, in 1823. The 
Large-flowered Trumpet-flower, or Bignonia grandiflora, was brought from China in 1800. 

TRUSS. A transverse spring truss for ruptures was patented by Robert Brand in 1771, 
and by many other persons since. The National Truss Society, to assist indigent persons, 
was established in 17S6 ; and many similar societies since. 

TUAM (AV. Ireland). St. Jarlath, the son of Loga, who lived about 501, is looked upon 
as the first founder of the cathedral of Tuam, though the abbey is said to have been founded 
in 487. The church was anciently called Tuaim-da-Gualand. In 1151, Edan O'Hoisin was 
the first archbishop, at least the first who had the use of the pall, for some of his predecessors 
are sometimes called bishops of Connauglif, and sometimes archbishops, by Irish historians. 
The see of Mayo was annexed to Tuam in 1559, Tuam is valued in the king's books, by an 
extent returned anno 28 Eliz., at 50/. sterling per annum. Beatson. It ceased to be 
archiepiscopal, conformably with the statute 3 & 4 Will. TV. 1833, and is now a bishopric 
only, to which Killala and Achonry, a joint see, has been added. See Archbishops. 

TUBULAR BRIDGES. The Britannia Tubular Suspension Bridge, then the most 
"wonderful enterprise in engineering in the world, was constructed about a mile southward 
of the Menai Strait Suspension Bridge.* At this spot is a rock called the Britannia rock, 
near the centre of the Menai Strait, the surface of which is about ten feet above low-water 
level, on which is built a tower two hundred feet above high water (commenced building, 
IVIay 1846), and on which rest two lines of tubes or hollow girders strong enough to bear 
their weight and laden trains in addition, the ends resting on the abutments on each shore ; 
each tube being more than a quarter of a mile in length. The height of the tube within is 
thirty feet at the Britannia tower, diminishing to twenty-three feet at the abutments. The 
lifting of these tubes to their places was regarded as the most gigantic operation ever success- 
fully performed, June 27, 1849. The first locomotive passed through, March, 1850. The 
Conway Tubular Bridge (1846-48) is a miniature copy of the Britannia, and therefore requires 
no description. The principal engineers were Mr. Robert Stephenson and Mr. Fairbairn. 
At Chepstow is a railway tubular bridge, erected in 1852. A bridge or viaduct on the 
■tubular principle (called the Albert viaduct) over the river Tamar at Plymouth was ojiened 
liy the prince consort. May 2, 1S59. The most stupendous tubular bridge in the world is 
that over the St. Lawrence, Canada. See Victoria Bridge. 

TUDELA ON THK Ebro (N. Spain). Near here marshal Lannes totally defeated the 
Spaniards, Nov. 23, 1809. 

TUESDAY, in Latin Dies Martis, the day of Mars, the third day of the week, so called 
from Tuisto Tivj, or Tiiesco, a Saxon deity, worshipped on this day. Tuisto is mentioned 
by Tacitus. See Week Days. 

TUILERIES (Paris), the imperial palace of France, commenced by Catherine de Medicis, 
after the plans of Philibert de I'Orme, 1564 ; continued by Henry IV. ; and finished by 
Louis XIV. This palace was stormed by the mob, Aug. 10, 1792; and ransacked in the 
revolutions of 1830 and 1848. 

* The Britannia tubiilar bridge was intended to supply the place of — we may also say supersede— one 
of the finest bridges in the kingdom ; and the railway, of which the tubular bridge forms a part, is in like 
manner a substitute for one of the finest mail-coacli roads ever constructed. The road from London to 
Holyhead has been long regarded as the highway from the British metropolis to Dublin ; and the late Mr. 
Telford was applied to by the government to perfect this route by the London and Holyhead mail-coach 
road, which he did by erecting a beautiful siispension bridge over the river Couway and over the Menai 
.Strait ; commenced in July 1818, and finished in July, 18'25. ^Tien Chester became a centre of railway 
communication a few years since, it was considered that a through route to Holyhead would be more 
conveniently established from that point than from Shrewsbury, which lies in the route of Telford's road. 
Accordingly the Chester and Holyhead Railway was constructed ; and in its course, both the Conway and 
the Menai had to be crossed ; and hence were formed the present tubular bridges. 

3 B 



TUL 738 TUR 

TULIPS came to England from Vienna, 1578. It is recorded in tlie register of Alkmaer, 
in Holland, that iu 1639, 120 tulips, with the offsets, sold for 90,000 florins ; and that one 
called the Viceroy, sold for 4203 guilders ! The States stopped this ruinous traflic. The 
tulip-tree, Liriodendron tuliinferu, was brought to England from America, about 1663. 

TUNBRIDGE WELLS (Kent). The springs were discovered, it is stated, by Dudley, 
lord North, who, in the last stage of consumption, was restored to health by the use of its 
waters, 1606. The wells were visited by the queens of Charles L and II. Tlie place soon 
Lecame fashionable. 

TUNGSTEjSr (also called wolfram and scheelium), a hard whitish brittle metal. From 
tungstate of lead, Scheele in 1781 obtained tungstic acid, whence the brothers De Luyart in 
1786 obtained the metal. In 1859 it was employed in making a new kind of steel. 

TUNIS AND Tripoli (N. Africa). The former stands near where Carthage was built. 
The territories of both formed part of the Carthaginian state, and were entirely destroyed by 
the Romans after the third Punic war, 148 B.C. Tunis was besieged by Louis IX. of France, 
1270. It remained under African kings till taken by Barbarossa, for Solyman the Mag- 
nificent. Barbarossa was expelled by Charles V. ; but the country was recovered by the 
Turks under Selim II. Taken with great slaughter by the emperor Charles V., when 10,000 
Christian .slaves were set at liberty, 1535. The bey of Tunis was first appointed in 1570. 
Tunis was reduced by admiral Blake, on the bej'- refusing to deliver up the British captives, 
1655. In July 1856, the bey agreed to make certain constitutional reforms. The bey died 
Sept. 22, 1859 ; and his successor Sidi Sadok took the oath of fidelity to the constitution. 
An insurrection broke out in April 18, 1864, and the European powers sent ships of war to 
j)rotect their subjects in May. 

TUNNAGE AND Poundage were ancient duties levied on every tun of wine and pound of 
other goods, imported or exjiorted, and were the origin of our " customs." Thej'^ commenced 
in England about 21 Edw. III. 1346. They were granted to the kings of England for life, 
beginning with Edward IV. At the beginning of his reign Charles I. gave great offence by 
levying them on his own authority. They ceased in 1689. 

TUNNELS. The earliest tunnel for internal navigation was executed by M. Riguet, in 
the reign of Louis XIV. at Bezieres in France. The first in England was by Mr. Brindley, 
on the duke of Bridgewater's navigation, near Manchester, about 1760. Project of the 
Gravesend tunnel, 1800— the report upon it, 1801. The Thames Tunnel was projected by 
Mr. Brunei in 1823, and opened for foot passengers, March 25, 1843. See Thames Tunnel. 
In 1857 M. Thomd de Gamond proposed the making a sutmarine tunnel from France to 
England ! Innumerable tunnels have been made for railways. The railway tunnel at 
Liverpool was comjdeted in the middle of 1829, lit up with gas, and exhibited once a week^ 
On the London and Birmingham railway there are eight tunnels (the Primrose-hill, AVatford, 
Kilsby, &c.), their total length being 7336 yards. Smiles. It was computed by Mr. Fowler, 
that there were 80 miles of tunnels in the United Kingdom iu 1865, which cost about 
6,500,000?., at the average of 45Z. a yard. 

TURIN, an ancient Roman city in Piedmont, capital of the Sardinian States, and of the 
kingdom of Italy, till 1864, when it was superseded by Florence. Its importance dates from 
the permanent union of Savoy and Piedmont in 1416. The French besieged this city in 
1706 ; but prince Eugene defeated their army, and compelled them to raise the siege. In 
1798, tlie French republican army took possession of Turin, seized all the strong places and 
arsenals of Piedmont, ami obliged the king and his family to remove to the island of 
Sardinia. In 1799, the French were driven out by the Austrians and Russians ; but shortlv 
afterwards the city and all Piedmont surrendered to the French. In 1814, it was delivered 
up to the allies, who restored it to the king of Sardinia. See Italy, 1864. 

TURKESTAN, Independent Tartary. The original country of the Turks, in Central 
Asia, was reached by Alexander, 331 B.C. The Russians are gradually encroaching on this 
country ; and on Feb. 14, 1865, a new province, named Turkestan, was created by 
decree. 

TURKEY. The Turks were originally a tribe of Tartars ; but by incorporation with the 
peoples they have conquered, they must be regarded as a mixed race. About 760, they 
obtained possession of a part of Armenia, called from them Turcomania. They afterwards 
gradually extended their power ; but in the 13th century, being harassed in their new 



TUR 



739 



TUR 



possessions by other Tartar tribes, tliey returned to Asia Minor. Their dominions, divided 
for some time into petty states, were united under Othman, who assumed the title of sultan, 
and established his einpire at Prusa, in Bithynia, in 1298. The Turkish empire compre- 
hends the almost independent principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, Servia, and 
Montenegro, and the hereditary vice-royalty of Egypt. The population of the empire in 
i860 was estimated at 37,430,000. 



The Oghusian Tartars, the ancestors of the 

present Turks, settle in Asia Minor . . . 1231 
The Turkish empire first formed under Othman 

at Bithyiiia (hence called Ottoman) . . . 129S 
The Turks penetrate into Thrace, and take 

Adrianople 1361 

Amurath I. institutes the Janissaries, a guard 

composed of yovmg Christian slaves, trauied 

as Mahometans 1362 

Bajazet I. overruns the provinces of the 

Eastern empire 1389 et seq. 

He defeats Sigismund of Hungary at Nicopolis, 

Sept. 28, 1396 
He besieges Constantinople ; but is interrupted 

by the approach of Tamerlane (or Timoiu'), 

by whom he is defeated and made prisoner, 

July 28, 1402 
Ladislas of Hungary defeated and slain at 

Varna by Amurath .... Nov. 10, 1444 
Amurath defeats John Hunniades at Kossova . 144S 
The Turks, invading Hungary, are repelled by 

Hunniades 1450 

Constantinople taken by the Turks under 

Mahomet II. which ends the Eastern Roman 

empire 1453 

Greece made subject to the Mahomefcvns. See 

Greece 1458 

The Turks penetrate into Italy, and take 

Otranto, which diffuses terror throughout 

Europe 1480 

Selim I. raised to the throne by the Janissaries ; 

he mui-ders his father, brothers, &c. . . . 1512 
He takes the islands of the Archijielago from 

the Christians 1514 

He overruns Syria 1515 

Adds Egyjjt to his empire 15 16 

Solyman II. takes Belgi'ade 1521 

Rhodes t;iken from the knights of St. John, 

who go to Malta 1522 

Battle of Mohatz (ichich see) 1526 

Solyman II. with 250,000 men, is repulsed before 

Vienna 1529 

Cyprus taken from the Venetians . . . . 1571 
Great battle of Lepanto, which puts an end to 

the fears of Europe from Turkish power. See 

Lepanto Oct. 7, ,, 

Amurath II. ascends the throne; strangles his 

five brothers 1574 

[Dreadful persecutions of the Christians during 

this reign.] 
Treaty of commerce with England . . . 1579 
The Turks driven out of Persia by the famous 

Shah Abbas . . '. 1585 

Bloody reign of Mahomet III 1595 

Reign of Achmet 1. 1603 

Great fire in Constantinople .... i6o5 
Reign of Amurath IV. who strangles his father 

and four brothers 1624 

War with the Cossacks, who take Azof . . 1637 
The Turks defeat the Persians and take the 

city of Bagdad 1639 

The island of Candia, or Crete, taken after a 

25 years' siege . . .... 1669 

Vienna besieged by Mahomet IV. but relieved 

by John of Poland 1683 

"Mahomet IV. deposed by Solyman . . . 1687 

I'cacc of Carlovitz 1699 

.Mustapha III. deposed 1703 

The Morea retaken by the Turks . . . . 1715 
The Turks defeated at Potcrwaradein . . 1716 
They lose Belgrade ; and their power declines . 1717 
Peace of Erivan (with Persia) . . . . 1732 



Belgrade taken from Austria ; and Russia 
relinquishes Azof ...... 1739 

The Turks defeated at Kars 1745 

Great sea-fight in the channel of Scio ; the 
•English and Russian fleets defeat the Turkish 1770 
The Crimea falls to Russia .... Jan. 1784 
Disastrous war with Russia and Austria, the 
Turks lose more than 200,000 men . . 1787-91 

Cession of Oczacow 1791 

Insurrection of Mamelukes at Cairo . . . 1803 
War against Russia and England . . . 1807 
Passage and repassage of the Dardanelles 
effected by the British fleet, but with great 
loss. See Dardanelkf . . . Feb. 19, ,, 
Murder of Hali Aga .... May 25, ,, 
The sultan Selim is deposed, and Mustapha IV. 

called to the throne . . . May 29, ,, 
The Janissaries massacre the newly disciplined 

trooi^s 1808 

The Russians defeated at Silistria . . . . 1809 
Treaty of Bucharest (w/tic/j see) . . May 28, 1812 
A caravan consisting of 2000 souls, returning 
from Mecca, destroyed by a pestilential wind 
in the deserts of Arabia ; 20 saved Aug. 9, ,, 
Subjugation of the Wahabees (which see) . 1818-9 
Ali Pacha of Janina, in Greece, declares himself 

independent 1820 

Insurrectiou of Moldavia and Wallachia, 

March 6, 1821 
The Greek patriarch put to death at Con- 
stantinople April 23, „ 

[For the events in connection with the inde- 

dejiendence of Greece, see Greece.] 
Horrible massacre at Scio ; the most dreadful 

in modern history (see note to Greece) April 23, 1822 
Sea-fight near Mitylene . . , Oct. 6, 1824 
New JIahometan army organised . May 29, 1826 
Insurrection of the Janissaries at Constanti- 
nople, June 14 ; they are suispressed and 

massacred June 16, ,, 

Fire at Constantinople ; 6000 houses reduced to 

ashes Aug. 30, ,, 

Battle of Navarino ; the Turkish fleet destroyed 
by the fleets of England, France, and Russia. 
See Navarino ..... Oct. 20, 1S27 
Banishment of 132 French, 120 English, and 

85 Russian settlers from the empire Jan. 5, 1828 
War with Russia .... April 26, „ 
The czar Nicholas takes the field . May 20, ,, 
Capitulation of Brahilow . , June 19, „ 
Surrender of Anapa .... June 23, „ 
The eminences of Shumla taken by the 

Russians ..... July 20, ,, 
The czar arrives before Varna . . Aug. 5, ,, 
Battle of Akhalzic .... Aug. 24, ,, 
Fortress of Bajazet taken . . . Sejit. 9, ,, 
The sultan proQeeds to the camp with the 

sacred standard .... Sept. 26, ,. 
Dardanelles blockaded . . . Oct. i, „ 
Surrender of Varna .... Oct. 15, ,, 
Russians retreat from Shumla . . Oct. 16, „ 
Surrender of the castle of the Morea to the 

French Oct. 30, ,, 

Siege of SiUstria raised by the Russians, 

Nov. 10, ,, 
Victory of the Russians at Kulertscha, near 

Shumla June 11, 1829 

Battle near Erzeroum .... July 2, ,, 
Adrianoj^le is entered by the Russians, Aug. 20 ; 

armistice agreed on . . . Aug. 29, „ 
Treaty of peace .... Sept. 14, ,, 
Fire at Constantinople; extinguished by the 

3 B 2 



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740 



TUR 



TURKEY, continued. 

seamen and marines of II. M.S. Blonde, 

Jan. 22, 1830 
The Porte acknowledges the independence of 

Greece April 25, ,, 

Treaty with America .... May 7, ,, 
St. Jean d'Acre taken by Ibrahim Pacha, son of 

Mehemet Ali July 2, 1832 

He defeats the army of the sultan at Konieh 

with great loss .... Dec. 21, ,, 
Ibrahim Pacha marches within eighty leagues 
of Constantinople, and the sultan has recourse 
to the aid of Russia .... Jan. 18^3 
The Russians enter Constantinople . April 3, „ 
Treaty with Russia, offensive and defensive, 

July 8, „ 
Office of grand vizier abolished . March 30, 1838 
Treaty of commerce with England, concluded 

by lord Ponsonby, ratified . . Aug. 16, ,, 
[For the events of 1839 and 1840 in relation to 

SjTia, sec Syria.] 
Christians iidmitted to office in Turkey June, 1849 
The Turkish government refuses to surrender 
the Hungarian and Polish refugees on the 
joint demand of Russia and Austria, Sept. 16, ,, 
[The Porte (countenanced by England) firmly 

resists this demand.] 
Russia suspends intercourse with the Porte, 

Nov. 12, ,, 
The British fleet, under Sir W. Parker, anchors 

in Besica bay .... Nov. 13, ,, 

Diplomatic relations between Russia and the 
Porte resumed, the latter sending the refugees 

to Konieh Jan. 1850 

Turkish Croatia in a state of rebellion . Jan. 1851 
Treaty with France respecting the Holy Places 

(which see) Feb. 13, 1852 

Prince Menschikoff repairs to Constantinople 
as Russian negotiator, Feb. 28 ; his peremp- 
tory demands rejected . . April ig, 1853 
Reschid Pacha becomes foreign minister ; the 
ultimatum being rejected, Menschikoff quits 
Constantinople ..... May 21, ,, 
Hatti-sherif issued, confirming the rights of 

the Greek Christians . . June 6, ,, 

Russian manifesto against Turkey . June 26, „ 
Russian army crosses the Pruth . July 2, ,, 
Grand national council — war to be declared if 

the principalities are not evacuated Sept. 26, ,, 
War declared against Russia . . Oct. 5, ,, 
[See Russo-Tio-k-ifh U'ar.] 

Insurrection in Epirus and Albania, favoured 
by the Greek government at Athens — Hel- 
lenic empire proclaimed . . Jan 27, 1854 
Volunteers from Athens join insurgents, 

March 14, ,, 
Rupture between Greece and Turkey, March 28, ,, 
[Several conflicts ensue with varied suc- 
cess.] 
Osman Pacha storms Pota, the central point of 

the insurrection .... April 25, ,, 
English and French governments, after many 
remonstrances, send troops, which airive at 
the Pirajus ; tlie king of Greece submits, and 
promises strict neutrality : the preek volun- 
teers are recalled . . . . May 25, 26, ,, 
Abdi Pacha and Fuad Effendi take the in- 
trenched camp at Kolampaka, and the insur- 
rection shortly .after ceases . . June 18, „ 
Reschid Pacha, having retired (June 3), re- 
sumes his office .... July i, ,, 
Convention between Turkey and Austria, 

June 14, ,, 

The Russians retire from the principalities, 

which are thereupon occupied by the Aus- 

trians . . . Sept. 1854 tiU March, 1857 

Misunderstanding among the allied powers 

respecting Moldavian elections, which are 

annulled July, ,, 

Death of Reschid Pacha . . . Jan. 7, 1858 



Lord Stratford de Redclitfe, many years English 
ambassador at Con.«tantinople, returned to 
England, Jan. ; he is succeeded by sir H. 
Lytton Bulwer : accredited . . July 12, 1858 
Indecisive conflicts in Montenegro between the 
natives and the Turks . . . July, ,, 

Massacre of Christians at Jeddo (which see), 

July 25, „ 
Turkish financial reforms begun . . Aug. ,, 
The first Turkish railway opened (from Aden to 
Smyrna) ...... Sept. 19, ,, 

Base coinage called in ; a fictitious Turkish 
coinage begun at Birmingham, and is sup- 
pressed ....... Oct. ,, 

The allied powers determine the Montenegrine 
boundaries Nov. 8, ,, 

Prince Alexander Cousa elected hospodar of 
both Moldavia and Wallachia Feb. 5 and 7, 1859 

[The Porte at first objects, but afterwards 
accedes to the double election.] 

Electric telegraph completed between Aden 
and Suez May, ,, 

Great fire at Constantinople ; 1000 houses de- 
stroyed Sept. 10-14, >> 

Great conspiracy against the sultan detected, 
Sept. 17 ; his brother implicated ; several 
persons condemned to die are reprieved, 

Sept. and Oct. ,, 

Great agitation for financial reform . Oct. ,, 

Alleged ill treatment of Christians in Turkey ; 
proposed intervention of the great powers. 
May 5 ; the Turkish government promise 
investigation and redress ; all the powers 
satisfied except Russia . . . May 30, i860 

War between the Druses and Maronites in 
Lebanon ; massacres. See Druses. June, ,, 

Massacre of Christians at Damascus. See 
DaMa.<'Cus a.ud. Si/ria . . . Julyg-ii, „ 

Convention on behalf of the Great Powers at 
Paris ; armed intervention of the French 
agreed to Aug. 2, ,, 

Inundations at Galatz; loss about 175,000?., 

Feb. 24, 1861 

Christians revolt in the Herzegovina, aided by 
the Montenegrins .... March ,, 

Great need of financial reform ; the Britisli 
ambassador, sirH. Lytton, proposes a scheme, 

April, ,, 

Discussion respecting the French occupation of 
Syria ; it ceases ..... June 5, ,, 

Death of the sultan, Abdul-Medjid ; accession 
of Abdul-Aziz, his brother . . June 25, 1861 

Economical feforms begun ; Fuad Pacha made 
isresident of the coimcil .... July ,, 

The late sultan's jewels sold in London Aug. ,, 

New order of knighthood (Nishan Osmanieh) 
to include civil as well as military persons, 

Sept. „ 

Imperial guard re-organised . . . Oct. ,, 

Fuad Pacha made grand vizier . Nov. 22, ,, 

He puts forth a budget ; treaties of commerce 
with Sweden, Spain, i&c. . . March, 1862 

A Turkish loan (8,000,000?.) taken up in London 

May, „ 

Secularisation of the property of the mosques, 
(value about 3,000,000?,) said to be deter- 
mined on ..... . Oct. „ 

Insurgents in the Herzegovina submit ; peace 
I made with Montenegro . . Sept. 23, ,, 
I Dispute with Servia (which see) settled Oct. 7, ,, 

Ministerial crisis through the sultan's attempt 
at reaction ; Fuad Pacha and others resign, 
but resmne office. . . . Jan. 7, 1863 

A new bank established . . Jan. 28, ,, 

Fuad Pacha becomes seraskier . Feb. 12, ,, 

Exhibition of the produce of the empire, 
opened in March ; closed . . July 26, ,, 

The sultan visits Egypt . . . April 7-17, ,, 

Fuad Pacha made grand vizier . June i, ,, 



TUR 



Jil 



TVS 



TURKEY, continued. 

Great immigration of the Caucasian tribes, 

April, 1864 
Financial reforms ; conversion and verification 
of the Turkish debt .... Aug. 1865 



Chi)lera rages at Constantinoiile, nearly 50,000 
deaths, Aug. and Sept. ; great fire there, 
about 2500 buildings (mosques, dwellings. &c. ) 
destroyed, and cholera sub.-sides . iiept. 6, 18 



TUPavISH EMPERORS. 



1326. 
1360. 

1389. 

1402. 

1 4 10. 

1413- 
1421. 
1451. 



1512. 
1520. 



1566. 
1574- 



1603. 
1617. 



Othman, Osman, or Ottoman, who assumed 

the title of Grand Seignior 
Orchan, son of Othman. 
Amurath or JIurad I. : stabbed by a soldier, 

of which wound he died. 
Bajazot I., his son : defeated by Tamerlane, 

.and died imprisoned. 
Solyman I., son of Bajazet : dethi-oued by his 

bi-other and successor, 
Musa-Chelebi ; strangled. 
Mahomet I., also son of Bajazet. 
Amurath II., succeeded by his son, 
Mahomet It., by whom Constantinople was 

taken in 1453. 
Bajazet II., deposed by his son, 
Sehm I., who succeeded him. 
Solyman II. the Magnificent, son of the pre- 
ceding. 
Selim II., son of the last. 
Amurath III., his son: on his accession he 

caused his five brothers to be murdered, 

and their mother, in grief, stabbed herself. 
Mahomet lit, son ot Amurath : commenced 

his reign by strangling all his brothers, and 

drowning all his father's wives. 
Ahmed or Achmet, his son : succeeded by his 

brother, 
Mustapha I. ; deposed by the Janissaries, and 

imprisoned ; succeeded by his nephew. 



1618. Osman II. : strangled by the Janissaries, and 
his uncle restored. 

1622. Mustapha I. again : again deposed, sent to the 

Seven Towers, and strangled. 

1623. Amurath IV. : succeeded by his brother, 
1640. Ibrahim : strangled by the Janissaries. 

1648. Mahomet IV., son of Ibrahim : deposed, and 

died in prison. 
1687. Solyman III., his brother. 
1691. Ahmed or Achmet II. : succeeded by his 

nephew, 
1695. Mustapha II., eldest son of Mahomet IV. : 

deposed ; succeeded by his brother, 
1703. Ahmed or Achmet III. : deposed, and died in 

prison in 1736. 
1730. Mahmud I., or Mahomet V., succeeded his 

uncle, the preceding sultan. 
1754. Osman III., brother of Mahmud. 
1757. Mustapha III., brother of Osman. 
1774. Abdul-Ahmed. 
1789. Selim III. : deposed by the Janissaries, and 

his nephew raised to the throne. 

1807. Mustapha IV. : deposed, and, with the late 

sultim Selim, murdered. 

1808. Mahmud II., or Mahomet VI. : succeeded by 

his son, 
1839. Abdul-Medjid, July 2 (born April 23, 1823) ; 

died June 25, 1861. 
i86i. Abdul-Aziz, June 25 (born Feb. 9, 1830), the 

PRESENT sultan of Turkey. 



TURKEY TRADE, most lucrative at the time and loug afterwards, commenced in the 
year 1550. The Turkey or Levant Company of London was instituted by charter of 
Elizabeth, in 1579. 

TURKEYS AND Guinea Fowls. First brought to England, 1523, and to France in 
1570. Turkeys are natives of America, and were consequently unknown to the ancients. 
Mr. Pennant has established this fact by various particulars in the history of these birds ; 
evincing that they are natives neither of Europe, Asia, nor Africa ; a circumstance since 
placed beyond controversy, by the researches of Mr. Beckmann. 

TURKOMANS. See White Sheep. 

TURNER'S LEGACIES. Joseph JL W. Turner, one of the greatest of landscape 
jwinters, was born in April 1775, and died Dec. 19, 1851. He bequeathed to the nation all 
the pictures and drawings collected by him and deposited at his residence, 47, Queen Anne- 
street, London, on condition that a suitable gallery be erected for them within ten years ; 
and directed his funded property to be expended in founding an asylum at Twickenham for 
decayed artists. The will was disputed by his relatives, but a compromise was made. The 
oil-paintings (loo in number) and the drawings (1400) were obtained by tlie nation, and the 
engravings and some other property were transferred to the next of kin. The drawings were 
cleaned and mounted under the careful superintendence of Mr. Ruskin, and the pictures 
were sent to Marlborough House for exhibition. In 1861, the pictures were removed front 
the South Kensington Museum to the National Gallery. 

TURNING. See Lathe. In our dockyards, blocks and other materials for our ships of 
war are now produced by an almost instantaneous process, from rough pieces of oak, by the 
machinery of Mr. (afterwards sir JMark Isanibard) Brunei (who died in 1849). 

TURNPIKES. See Tails. 

TURPENTINE TREE, PiMacia Tcrebinthinus, came from Barbary, before 1656. Spirits 
of turpentine were first applied, with success, to the rot in sheeji ; one-third of the spirit 
diluted with two-thirds water, 1772. Annual Register. 

TUSCAN ORDER of Architecture, a debased Doric, invented in Tuscany, and used 
in the erection of coarse and rude buildings, in which strength is principally intended, 
without regard to ornament or beauty. Wolion. 



TUS 



'42 



TYL 



TUSCANY, formerly a grand-duchy in Central Italy, the northern part of the ancient 
Etruria (which see). It formed part of the Lombard kingdom ; at the conquest of which by 
Charlenuigne, it was made a marcijiisate for Boniface about 812 or 828. His descendant, the 
great countess Matilda, lienueathed the southern part of her domains to the pope. In the 
northern part (then called Tuscia), the cities, Florence, Pisa, Sienna, Lucca, &n., gradually 
became flourishing republics. Florence became the chiei^ imder the govei'nment of the INIedici 
family (see Florence). The duchy in that family began in 1531 ; and the grand-duchy in 
1569. After the extinction of the Medicis in 1737, Tuscany was given by the treaty of 
Yienna (1738) to Francis, duke of Lorraine (husband of Maria Theresa of Austria in 1736), 
who had ceded his hereditary states to France. Population in i860, 1,826,830. 



The French enter Florence . . March 28, 
The f,'rand-duke is dispossessed, and his do- 
minions given to Louis duke of Parma (of 
the royal house of Spain), with the title of 

king of Etruria 

Tuscany incorporated with the French empire 
The grand-duchy given to Eliza, sister of Napo- 
leon 

Ferdinand III. restored 

Liucca united to Tuscany 

Leopold IL grants a free constitution . Feb. 
Insurrection at Florence ; republic proclaimed ; 
the duke flies .... Feb. 11, 
He is restored by the Austrians . July, 
Prosecution of the Madiai * . . . May, 
The Tuscan army demand alliance with the 
Sardinians ; the grand-diike refuses, and 
departs to Bologna ; the king of Sardinia is 
pi-oclaimed dictator, and a provisional govern- 
ment formed, April 27 ; the king assumes the 
command of the army, but declines the dic- 
tatorship Ajjril 30, 

The Sardinian commissary Buoncompagni in- 



1814 
1847 



1849 
1850 
1852 



vested with the powers of govemment, 

May II, 

Prince Napoleon arrives at Leghoni, addresses 

the Tuscans and erects his standard, May 23, 

The grand-duke Leopold II. abdicates in favour 

of his son Ferdinand . . . July 21, 

The Tuscan constituent assembly meets, 

Aug. II, 
It declares against recalling the house of Lor- 
raine, and votes for annexation to Sardinia, 

Sept. 
Prince Eugene of Savoy-C'arignan elected 
governor-general of central Italy ; he de- 
clines ; but recommends Buoncompagni, 
Nov. ; who is accepted by the Tuscans, 

Dec. 8, 

Annex.ation to Sardinia voted by universal 

suffr.age, March 11, 12; decreed March 22, 

Prince Eugene of Savoy- Carignan appointed 

governor March 26, 

Florence made the capital of Italy, by decree 
jiublished ...... Dec. 11, 

(See Italy.) 



1859 



SOVEREIGNS OF TUSCANY. 



1569. 
IS74- 
1587- 
l6og. 
1621. 
1670. 

1723- 
1737- 

1765, 
1790. 



ORAND-DUKES. 

Cosmo I. , Medici. 

Francis I. 

Ferdinand I. 

Cosmo II. 

Ferdinand II. 

Cosmo III. (visited England, and wrote an 

accovmt of his travels.) 
John Gaston (last of the Medici). 
Francis II. (duke oi Lorraine) became emperor 

of Germany in 1745. 
Leopold I. (emperor in 1790.) 
Ferdinand III. (secrmd son of Leopold I.) ; 

expelled by the French in 1800. 



KINGS OF ETRIRIA. 

1 801. Louis I., duke of Parma. 
1803. Louis II. 

GRAND-DUCHESS. 

180S-14. Eliza Bonaparte (married to Bacciochi, made 
prince of Lucca). 

GRAND-DUKES. 

1814. Fei-dinand III. restored. 

1824. Leopold II., June 18 (bom Oct. 3, 1797 ; abdi- 
cated, July 21, 1859). 
1859. Ferdinand IV., July 21 (born June 10, 1835). 



TWELFTH-DAY, the church festival called the Epiphany, or manifestation of Christ to 
the Gentiles, Jan. 6. See Epiphany. 

TYBURN (W. London), at the west end of Oxford-road (now street) the place in London 
for the execution of malefactors till 1783. Pennant (who died 1798) remembered Oxford- 
.street as "a deep, hollow road, and full of sloughs, with here and there a ragged house, the 
lurking-place of cut-throats." 

TYLER'S INSURRECTION arose in opposition to the poll-tax levied in 1379. One of 
the collectors acting with indecent rudeness to Wat Tyler's daughter, the father struck him 
dead. His neighbours took arms to defend him, and in a short time almost the whole of the 
population of the southern and eastern counties were in a state of insurrection, extorting 
freedom from their lords, and plundering. On June 12, 13S1, they gathered upon Black- 
heath to the niunber of 100,000 men. The king, Richard il., invited Tyler to a park}', 
which took place on the 15th at Smithfield, where the latter addressed the king in a somewhat 

* Mxich interest and sympathy were excited in England and other Protestant countries of Europe, 1 )y 
the imprisonment at Florence of the Madiai (husbimd and wife), who had embraced the English reformed 
religion, and read the Bible in due conformity with the teaching of their new faith. For tbi.s "crime " 
they were scp.arately incarcerated in loathsome dungeons, and subjected to all the rigours of the Romi.sh 
ecclesiastical law, May, 1852. A Protestant deput.ation from England, headed by the carls of Shaftesbury 
and Roden, proceeded to Florence in Oct. 1852, with the view to their release from confiTiement ; but the 
grand duke refused to receive them. The Madiai were set at liberty, by the interposition of the British 
govei-nmcnt, in March, 1853. An annuity of 100/. was provided for them by subscription. 



TYP 743 UMB 

menacing luiiiuur, now and again lifting up his Sword. On tins the mayor, ^V'alwovth, 
stunned Tyler with a blow of lii.s mace, and one of the king's knights dispatched him. 
llicliard temporised with the multitude by promising a charter, and thus led them out of the 
city, wlien sir R. Knollys and a band of kniglit-; attacked and dispersed tlicm with much 
slaughter. The insurrection in Norfolk and Suffolk was subdued by the bishop of Norwich, 
aTid 1500 of the rebels were executed. 

TYPE-COMrOSING MACHINES. See undev Prinlmg. 

TYRANT. In early Greek history, the tenn was applied to any man who governed with 
irresponsible power. Solon objected to the term, and chose the name Archon (ruler), 
594 B.C. The earliest tyrants were those at Sicyon, beginning with Clisthenes, in the 7th 
century B.C. Tyranny declined in Greece about 490 B.C., and revived after the close of the 
Peloponnesian war, 404 B.C. See Thirty Tijrants. 

TYRE (Phicnicia). Thisgreat city was first built by Agenor. Another city was built 
1257 (about 2267, Hales) B.C. It was besieged by the Assyrians, 719 B.C., and they retired 
from before it, after a siege of upwards of five years, 713 B.C. Taken by Nebuchadnezzar, 
572 B.C., and the city demolished, when the Tyrians removed to an opposite island, and 
built a new and magnificent city. It was taken by Alexander with much difficulty, after a 
siege of seven months, Aug. 20, 332 B.C. He joined the island to the continent by a mole. 
Straho. It was taken by tlie allied fleet in 1841 a.d. 

TYRE, Er.\ of, began on Oct. 19, 125 B.C., with the month of Hypcrbcret;eus. The 
months were the same as those used in the Grecian era, and the year is similar to the Julian 
year. To reduce this era to ours, subtract 124; and if the given year be less than 125, 
deduct it from 125, and tlie remainder will be the year before Christ. 

TYROL, the eastern part of ancient Rhetia, now a province of the Austrian empire, was 
ceded to the house of Hapsburg in 1359, by Margaret, the heiress of the last count Tyrol. 
The province became an appanage of the younger (or Tyrol) branch of the imperial house, 
which came to the throne in the person of Maximilian II., in 1618. Tlie French conquered 
the Tyrol in 1805, and united it to Bavaria; but in 1809 an insurrection broke out, headed by 
Andrew Hofer, an innkeeper, who drove the Bavarians out of the Tyrol, thoroughly defeated 
some French detachments, but laid down his arms at tlie treaty of Vienna. He was 
subsequently accused of corresponding with the Austrians, captured and sent to Mantua, 
and there shot by order of the French government (to its great disgrace) Feb. 20, 1810. 
The Austrian emperor ennobled his family in 1819, ami erected his statue in Inspruck in 
1834. The Tyrolese riilemeu were very eltective in the Italian war in 1859. 



U. 

UBIQUITARIANS, a small German sect, originated by Brentius about 1560, who 
asserted that the body of Christ was present everywhere {ublque). 

UKRAINE (a frontier), a vast fertile plain in Russia, ceded to the Cossacks by Poland 
in 1672, and obtained by Russia in 1682. The country was divided, Poland having the west 
side of the Dnieper, and Russia tlie east. The whole country was assigned to Russia by the 
treaty of jiartitiou in 1795. 

ULM, in Wurtemberg, S. Germany, where a pea.ce was signed, July 3, 1620, by which 
Frederick V. lost Bohemia (having been driven from it previously). Ulm was taken by the 
French in 1796. After a battle between the French and Austrians, in which the latter, 
under general Alack, were defeated with dreadful loss by marshal Nej', Ulm surrendered with 
28,000 men, the flower of the Austrian army, Oct. 17-20, 1805. 

ULPIIILAS'S BIBLE. See Bible. 

UMBRELLA, described in early dictionaries as "a ])ortable pent-house to carry in a 
person's hand to .screen him from violent rain or heat." Umbrellas are very ancient, as they 
appear in tlic carvings at Persepolis. Niebuhr, who visited the southern part of Arabia, 
informs us that he saw a great prince of that country returning from a mosque, preceded by 
some hundreds of soldiers, and that he and each of the princes of his numerous family caused 
a large uml)rella to be"carried by his .side. The old chinaware in our jumtrics and cuidjoards 
shows the Chinese shaded by an umbrella. It is said tliat the first ]ierson who used an 
umbrella in the streets of Loudon was the benevolent Jonas Hauway, who died in 1786.* 

* For a long while it was not ii.su:il fur men to carry tliem without being branded as c.Teminatc. At 



UNO 744 UNI 

UNCTION, Extreme. Slc Anointiag. 

UNIFORMITY, Act of (2 & 3 Edward VI.), Jan. 15, 1549, ordained that the order of 
divme worship, drawn np by Crannier and others, ''with the aid of the Holy Gho.st, " sliould 
be the only one used after May 20. The penalties for refusing to use it were fine and impi-i- 
.sonment. This act was re-enacted by Elizabeth in 1559. The statute known as the act of 
Uniformity, 14 Charles II. c. 4, was passed in 1662. It enjoined uniformity in matters of 
religion and obliged all clergy to subscribe to the thirty-nine articles, and use the same form 
of worship, and same book of common prayer. Its enforcement on Aug. 24, 1662, termed 
I5lack Bartholomew's day, caused upwards of 2000 ministers to quit the church of England, 
and laid the loundatiou of the dissenting interest. The day was commemorated by dissenter.y 
in 1862. •' 

UNIFORMS. Military uniforms were first used in France, "in a regular manner, "by 
Louis XIV. 1668. In England the uniform was soon afterwards adopted in the military 
service, but with little analogy to the modern dress. Ashe. See under Navy. 

UNION OF C.VLMATi, 1397 ; of Utrecht, 1579. 

UNION of the crowns and kingdoms of England and Scotland l)y the accession of 
James VI. of Scotland as James I. of England, March 24, 1603. The legislative union of 
the t\yo kingdoms was attempted, but failed in 1604 and 1670; in the reign of Anne, 
commissioners were appointed, the articles discussed, and, notwithstanding a great opposi- 
tion made by the Tories, every article in the union was approved by a great majority, first 
in the house of commons, and afterwards by the peers, July 22, 1706 ; was ratified by the 
bcottish parliament, Jan. 16, 1707, and became a law. May i, same year. 

UNION of Gkeat Britain and Ireland, proposed in the Irish parliament, Jan. 22, 
1799. Rejected by the commons of Ireland, Jan. 24, the votes being 105 for, to 106 against 
the union. The English house of commons on the same question divided, 140, 141 and 
149 for the union ; against it, 15, 25, and 28, respectively. Lord Castlereagh detailed hi.'^ 
plan of the union, in the Irish house of lords, founded on the resolutions of the British 
parliament thereon, Feb. 5, 1800. Votes of the commons agreeing to it, 161 against 115 
leb 17 ; and again, 152 against 108, Feb. 21. The houses of lords and commons wait on the 
lord lieutenant with the articles of union, March 27. The act pa.ssed in the British parlia- 
ment, July 2, 1800. The imperial united standard was first displayed at the Tower of 
London and upon Bedford Tower, Dublin Castle, in consequence of the act of legislative 
union becoming an operative law, Jan. i, 1801. For attempts to dis.solve the union, see 
Ile2)cal. ' 

_ UNION JACK. The original flag of England was the banner of St. George, i.e., white 
witli a red cross, which, April 12, 1606 (three years after James I. ascended the throne), 
was incorporated with the banner of Scotland, i.e„ blue with a white diagonal cross. Tlifs 
combination obtained the name of " Union Jack," in allusion to the union with Scotland, 
and the word Jack may be considered a corruption of the word "Jacques," or James. This 
arrangement continued until the union with Ireland, Jan. i, 1801, when the banner of St. 
Patrick, i.e., white, with a diagonal red cross, was thus amalgamated with it, and forms the 
present Union flag. 

UNION CHARGEABILITY ACT, providing for the better distribution of the charge 
for relieving the poor in unions, was pa.s.sed in June, 1865. One object of the act is the 
improvement of the dwellings of agricultural labourers. 

UNION RELIEF ACT was jmssed in 1862, to enable boards of guardians of certain 
unions to obtain temporary aid to meet the extraordinary expenditure for relief occasioned 
by the distress in the cotton manufacturing districts. Tliis act was continued by one passed 
in 1863. '■ 

first, a single umbrella seems to have been kept at a coffee-house for extraordinary occasions— lent as a 
coach or chair m a heavy shower, but not commonly carried by the walkers. The Fenwle TatUr advertises ■ 
The young gentleman belonging to the Custom-house who, in fear of rain, borrowed the umbrella from 
mik-s.'<Cotfee-house, shall the ne.vt time be welcome to the maid's paflens." As late as 1778, one John 
Macdonald, a footman, who wrote his own life, informs us that he had " a fine silk umbrella, which he 
brought from Spam ; but he could not with ai.y comfort to himself use it, the pe-ople calling out ' French- 
man ! why don't you get a coach ?'" The hackney-coachmen and chairmen, with true e.'prit de corps, were 
clamorous agamst their portentous rival. The footman, in 1778, gives us some farther information ;— " At 
this time there were no umbrellas worn m London, except in noblemen's and gentlemen's houses, where 
there was a large one hung In the hall to hohl over a lady if it rained, between the door and her carriage " 
Xhis man s .sister was compelled to quit his arm one day from the abuse he drew down upon himself and 
his umbrella. But, he adds, that "he persisted for three months, till they took no further notice of this 
novelty. 1< oreigners began to use theirs, and then the EngUsh. Now it is become a great trade in 
London. ' — New Monthly Magazine. 



UNI 



745 



UNI 



UNION IIKPEAL ASSOCIATION, Iuki.anu. Sco Repeal of the Union. 

UNIT, a gold coin, value 20s., issued by James I. in 1604. 

UNITARIANS, • began witli Servetus, a learned man, wlio printed a tract in disj)arage- 
ment of the doctrine of the Trinity. In 1553, proceeding to Naples tlirongh Geneva, C'alviii 
induced the magistrates to arrest him on a charge of blasphemy and lieresy. Servetus, 
refusing to retract his o])inions, was condemiuHl to the flames, wbicli s(Miteneo was carried 
into execution, May 27, 1553. Servetus is nundjered among those anatomists wlio mnde llie 
nearest ajijjroach to Ibc doctrine of tlu; circidation of tiic bhwd, i)eforc Harvey establislied 
that doctrine. Tlie Unitarians were numerous in Transylvania in tbe I7tli century ; thc^y 
came to Knglaiid about 1700, and many of the origiiuil English jiresbyterian cliurclies 
became (Jnitarians about 1730. They were not included in tlie Toleration act till 1813. 
There were 229 congregations in England in 1851. The Unitarian marriage bill was passed, 
June 1827. In Dec;. 1833, by a decision of the vice-clian(;ellors tlie Unitarians (as such) 
lost the possession of lady Hewley's charity ; the decision was aflirmed ou appeal in 1842. 

UNITED IKISIIMEN, a political society which met secretly, was formed in 1795 to 
counteract the effect of the Orange clubs. 

UNITED KINGDOM. England and "Wales were united in 1283; Scotland to l)(ith in 
1707 ; and the British realm was named the United Kingdom on the union with Ireland, 
Jan. I, 1801. See Union. The Unitki) Kingdom Ai-lfance, for tiic total suppression of 
licjuor traHic, was founded June i, 1853. 

UNITED PROVINCES (Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Kriesland, (Jnuiingen, Ovcryss(dI, 
and Guclderland), the deputies of which met at Utrecht, Jan. 23, 1579, and signed a treaty 
for their mutual defence. See Holland. 

UNITED STATES of AMERICA were so styled by the congress of tlic revolted 
British provinces, Sejjt. 9, 1776. Their Hag was declared to l)e thirteen stripes, alternately 
red and white, and thirteen stars in a blue field, corres|ionding with the then nuuiber of 
states of the union, t June 20, 1777. 'i'ln; government of the United States is a pure 
democracy. Eacli of the states has a .separate and indej)endent legislature for the adminis- 
tration of its local affairs, but all arc ruled in matters of imperial jtolicy by two houses of 
legislature, the senate and the liouse of rei)resentatives, to which delegates are sent from the 
different members of the confederacy. The yiresident of the United States is elected every 
fourth year by the free voice of the j)eoplc. The election of AVtraham Lincoln as president 
on Nov. 4, i860, was followed by the secession of eleven slaveholding states, and led to the 
great civil war, 1861-5. See Confederates. 



Act of the British parliament, irnpoHing new 

and heavy duties on imported inercliaiidiHo, 

March :i, 1764 
Obnoxious stamp act passed . March 22, 1765 
First American congruss hold at Now York, 

.June ; the stamp aot resisted . Nov. i, ,, 
St.-imp act repealed ...... \-i(/i 

Jiritish act, levying duties on tea, p.'xpcr, 

painted glass, &c. . . . June 14, 1767 

Gen. Oates sent to iJoston ..... 1768 
840 chests of tea destroyed liy (lie populace at 

Uoston, and 17 chests at New York . Nov. 
I'dHton P(jrt IJill .... March 2t|, 
Doimtics from the Htates meet at Pliiladelphia, 

Sept. 5; Ocdaration of Ritjhts issued, Nov. 4, 
First action between the Uritisli and Americans, 

at Lexington Ajjril 19, 

Act of iierpctual union botwoen the States, 

May 20, 



1773 
1774 



'775 



George Washington .appointed commander-in- 
chief, May; liattio of Jiunkcr's hill, .(uno 16, 1775 
Ameriea declared "free, sovei'eign, and inde- 
pendent" July 4, 

General Howe takes Long Island. Aug. 27 ; 

New York, Hcpt. 15; victor at White I'Lains, 

Oct. 29; at Khodo Island . . . Dec. 8, 

The Hessians suiiender to Washington, iJec. 25, 

La Fayette and other French oflieers join tlie 

Americans ....... 

Washington defeated at Mr.andy wine Hejit. it, 
Lord C'ornwallis takes l'hiladel])liia . Scjit. „ 
liurgoyno victor at Gonnantown, Oct. 3 ; is 
surrounded, and capitulates at Saratoga, 

Oct. 17, „ 
A federal government adopted by con^i'css, 

Nov. 15, ,, 
The States recognised by Franco . l''el) 6, 177S 
Tho king's troops quit l'hiladul|il)i.i, . .June, ,, 



1776 



'777 



• Their tenets arc different, but somewhat similar to those of the Arians and .Socinians, irhich »ec.. The 
Unitarians believe in and worship one only self-existent (jod, in oj)position to those who wc^irslilji the. 
Trinity in unity. They consider Christ to h.ave been a mere man ; and do not admit the need of an atone- 
ment, or the complete inspiration of the Scriptures. 

t The following thirteen «tati-s formed the union ,at the decliiration of independence in 1776 ; the 
it.alicH indicate the then slaveholding states ; those with a * prefixed teceiUd from the feder.d government 
in i860 and 1861, and rejoined it in 1865 : — 



New Hampshire. 
Mass-ochusetts. 
Rhode Island. 
Connecticut. 



New Y'ork. 
New .Jersey. 
I'ennsylvania. 



Delaware. 
Afari/i'tnd. 
• ViryiiiM. 



* North Carolina. 
'South Cu,roliau. 
'Georgia. 



UNI 



74G 



UNI 



UNITED STATES of AMEEICA, contin. 
Comwallis defeats Gates at Camden, Aug. i6, 1780 
Major Andre hanged as a spy* . . Oct 2 
American Academy of Arts and Sciences at " 
• Boston founded .... 
The federal government accepted by all the " 

states, March i ; congress assembles, March 2 17S1 
Cornwallis defeats Green at Guildford, March 

16 ; Arnold defeats the Americans at Eutaw, 
6 , ^ , Sept. s' ,, 

b\irrender of lord Comwallis and his whole 

army of 7000 men to generals Washington 

and Kochambeau, at Yorktown . Oct zg 
Arrival of sir Guy Carleton to treat for peace " 

May 5 ; provisional articles signed at Paris by 

commissioners • • . . Nov. 30, 1782 
Definitive treaty of peace signed at Paris, 

Sept. 3, 1783: ratified by congress . Jan. 4' 
Samuel Seabury consecrated bishop of the 

episcopal church in America 
John Adams, first American ambassador's first " 

mterview with the king of England June 2 178.; 
The cotton plant introduced into Georgia See 

^""o" 17S6 



1784 



ucdy. 

New constitution signed by a convention of 

„,States Sept. 17, 

The same ratified .... May 23, 
The quakers of Philadelphia emancipate their 

.^ slaves Jan. i, 

Ivew government organised . . March 4, 
Washington declared the first president, 

April 6, 
Present departments, of state estabhshed, 

July 27, 
Death of Benjamin Franklin . April 17, 

Bank instituted; capital, 10,000,000 dollars, 
z-i-t ^ June 7, 

City of Washington chosen the capital of the 

States July 8, 

Eli Whitney's invention of the cotton-gin gives 

an immense impetus to the growth of 

American cotton 

Re-election of general Washington as president, 

March 4, 1793 ; resigns . . . Sept. 17, 
Washington dies amid universal sorrow, Dec. 14, 
The seat of government removed to Washington 



1787 
1788 

1789 

1790 
1 791 
1792 

1793 

1796 
1799 



The following have been added :— 

Vermont (from New York) 1701 

^Toijjejjjff (from North Carolina) . . ' . ' 1796 

A'(;n/»t% (from Virginia) 1792 

Columbia district (under the immediate govern- 
ment of congress) contains Washington, the 

seat of government 1 790-1 

Ohio (created) 1802 

■*Xouisiana (bought from France in 1803) ' . '. 1812 

Indiana (created) 18,6 

*il/jssissi/)j:)! (from Georgia) . . . . ! 1S17 

Illinois (created) ' '. 1818 

^Alabama (from Georgia). . . . ' . .' i8ig 
Maine (from Massachusetts) . . . .1820 
JWwoitri (from Louisiana) . . . . ". 1821 

Michigan jS^,, 

^Arkansas ......... 18-^6 

"Florida (ceded by Spain, 1S20); made a state .' 1845 

* Seceded from the Union 



Iowa 

Wisconsin 

* Texas . . 

California 

Minnesota {tamtory, 1S49); state 
Oregon (territory, 1850) ; state 
A'nHsas (territory, 1854); state . 
New Mexico (territory) , 
Utah (ten-itory) . 
Washington (territory) . 
Nebraska (territory) . 
Nevada (ten-itory) . 
Colorado (territory) 
Dakota (territory) . 
Arizona (territoiy) 
Idaho (territory) 
West Virginia (from Virginia) 
in 1861, submitted, 1865. 



1846 
1848 
184s 
1850 
1857 
1859 
1 861 
i8'^o 



1863 



1776 



POPULATION. See Slavery in America 
Slaves. Total. I Slaves. Total. 

■ 2,614,300 1810. . 1,191,364 . 7,239903 
896,849 . 5,309,756 I 1S30 . . 2,009,050 . 12,858,670 



1850. 



Slaves. Total. 

3.204,313 . 23,191,918 

3,952,801 . 31,429,891 



.,, JS/SJ?„T.r.s'„i/°;st"3's.;s &^s -s.- f.a"i .s: s=r ""■ '" - 



lievenne.— Total receipts, July i, 1854, to Juno 30 1855 
ditto July I, 1858, to June 30, 1859 

ditto July I, 1862, to .Tune 30, 186? 

i;x2)enditure.—J\i)y j, 18=4, to June 30 1855 
ditto July I, 1858, to June 30, 1859 

ditto July I, 1862, to June 30, 1863 



. 65,003.930 dollars. 

• 53-405.07I dollars. 
888,082,128 dollars. 

• 56,365,393 dollars. 
. 66,346,226 dollars. 

714,709,996 doUai-s. 



Aemy.— That which achieved independence was disbanded at tbp pnri nf +>.o wo,, t o 

In 1855, Army, 11,658. Militia, 1,873,558. Fleet, 72 vessels ('2200 eimsl 

In i860, the United States Militia were 3,070,987 The Fleet confis?pLf . ^»ce w f u 1 • ., n • 
Oct. 1862, of 256 vessels of war. J."7o>907- i^e !< leet consisted of 92 vessels (of all kinds) ; m 

Federal Army, July 29, i86r, estimated at 660 071 In T>or rSfi, np^vW t . ■, 

186s, about 1,500,000, at the end of the war, when th^/rkuction began at once^ '°°°'°°° '^'''- ^° ^^''''^' 



return'^ln^l^'^S^^k^Sf jftlJ^-ISS^-^^Jl^S^S^S S^ '"^ ^TV'^ ^'^ 
and interred in Westminster abbey. Impa.tiaUudges^rti'f^ tL^^S/of'^^^^^^^^ '°' ^^^'' 



f 



UNI 



UNITED STATES of AMERICA, continued 
Discussion between Eng-land and America re- 
specting the rights of neutrals . . . 1807 
American ports closed to the British, July ; 
trade .suspended .... Dec. 9, ,, 

Slave trade abolished . . ... 1S08 

War with Great Britain (Kcw England States 

opjioscd to it, threatened to secede) June 18, 1812 
Action between the American shiiJ Conslitution, 
and the British frigate Gaerriere, an uneqvial 
contest ...... Aug. ig, ,, 

Fort Ui?troit taken .... Aug. 21 ,, 

The British slooji Frolic taken by the American 

sloop Wcup Oct. 18, ,, 

The ship United States of 54 guns, great calibre 
(commodore Decatur), captures the British 
frigate Maceilnnian .... Oct. 25 .,, 
Battle of Frenchtown . . . Jan. 22, 1813 
The Hornet captures the British sloop of war. 

Peacock Feb. 25 ,, 

Fort Erie and Fort George abandoned by the 

British May 27, ,, 

The American frigate Clcmpeake captured by 

the Shannon frigate, captain Broke June i, ,, 
At Burlington Heights Americans defeated 

Jime 6, ,, 
H. M. sloop Pelican takes the ."sloop Argus, Aug. 14 ,, 
Buffalo town bin-nt by the British . . Dec. 9 ,, 
Amei-iean frigate Essex taken by the Phcehe and 
Cherub . . . . . . March 29, 1S14 

The British defeat the Americans in a severe 

conflict July 2, ,, 

[Several engagements with various success 

followed.] 
The British defeat the Americans at BLidens- 

burg Aug. 14, ,, 

Alexandria capitulates to the British Aug 17, ,, 
The city of Washington is taken by the British, 

and the public edifices burnt . Aug 24, „ 
The British sloop of war Avon sunk by the 

American sloop Wasp . . . Sept. 8, „ 
Tlie British squadron on Lake Champlain cap- 
tured Sept. II ,, 

Attack on Baltimore by the British ; general 

Ross killed Sept. 12, ,, 

Treaty of peace with Great Britain, signed at 
Ghent ...... Dec. 24 ,, 

The British ship Endymion capture? the Presi- 
dent Jan. 15, 1815 

The Ghent treaty ratified . . Feb. 17, ,, 
Centre foundation of the capitol of Washington 

laid Aug. 24, 1818 

The "Missouri Compromise" of Henry Clay, 

regarding slavei-y, passed . . . Feb. 1820 
Spain cedes Horida to the United States, Oct. 24, 1820 
The States acknowledge the indei>endence of 

South America Mai'ch 8, 1S22 

Treaty with Columbia .... Oct. 3, 1S24 
Death of the two ex-presidents, Adams and 
Jefferson, on the 50th anniversary of the inde- 
pendence of the American States . July 4, 1826 
Convention with Gre.it Britain concei-ning in- 
demnities Nov. 13, ,, 

American Tariff Bill imposing heavy duties on 

British goods .... May 13, 1828 
General Jackson, president . . Feb. 16, 1829 
Treaty Ijetweeu tlie United States and the Otto- 
man Porte May 7, 1830 

Ports re-opened to British commerce Oct. 5, ,, 
Now Tariff laws .... July 14, 1832 

Commercial panic , 

Gi'cat tire at Xew York, 647 houses and many 
public ecUfices burnt ; loss estimated at 
20,000,000 dollars. See New York. Nov. 15, 1835 

National debt paid off 1836 

In the Canadi.an insurrection, many Americans 

assist the insurgents . . Oct. to Dec. 1837 
The American steamboat Carnline is attacked 
and burnt by the British, near Schlosscr, to 
the east of the Niagara, on the territory of 
the United States . . . Dec. 29, „ 



UNI 



Proclamation of the president against American 
citizens aiding the Canadians . Jan. j, 1838 

The Great Western steam-ship fir.st arrives at 
New York June 17, „ 

American bankssuspend cash payments, Oct. 14, 1839 

Affair of Mr. MacLeod, charged with aiding in 
the destruction of the Caroline; true bill 
found against him for murder and arson 

Feb. 6, 1S41 

The United States bank again suspends pay- 
ment Feb. 7, 

Mr. Fox, British minister, demands the release 
of Mr. MacLeod .... Mai-ch 12, 

The case of MacLeod is removed to the supreme 
court at New York .... May 6, 

A party of British volunteei'S from Canada 
carry off col. Grogan .... Sept. 9, 

Resignation of all the United States ministers, 
with the exception of Mr. Webster Sept. 11, 

President's proclamation against lawless at- 
tempts of American citizens to invade British 
possessions, and to suppress secret lodges, 
clubs, and associations . . . Sept. 25, 

Grogan is given up to the Americans Oct. 4 

Trial of MacLeod commences at Utica, Oct. 4 ; 
acquitted Oct. 12 

Colossal statue of Washington placed in the 
capitol at Washington . . . Dec. i. 

Affair of the Creole, which leads to a dispute 
with England Dec. 

[This vessel, an American, was on her voyage 
to New Orleans with a cargo of slaves : they 
mutinied, murdered the owner, wounded the 
captain, and compelled the crew to take the 
ship to Nassau, New Providence, where the 
governor, considering them as passengers, 
allowed them, against the protest of the 
American consul, to go at liberty. ] 

Announcement of lord Ashburton's mission to 
the United States .... Jan. i, 1842 

Arrest of Hogan, implicated in 'the Caroline 
afKiir Feb. 2, „ 

Lord Ashburton arrives at New York April i, „ 

Washington treaty, defining the boundaries 
between the United States and the British 
American possessions, and for suppressing 
the slave trade, and giving up fugitive 
criminals ; signed at Washington, by lord 
Ashburton and Mr. Webster . Aug. 9, ., 

The tariff bill is passed . . . Aug. 10, ,, 

Lord Ashburton leaves the United States, 
Sept. s ; arrives in England . Sept. 23, ,, 

Death of Dr. Channing . . . Oet. 2, ,, 

War declared against the United States by 
Mexico, on account of the proposed annex- 
ation of Texas .... June 4, 1S45 

[Several actions are fought between the belli- 
gerents, adverse to Mexico.] 

Resolution of the senate and house of rei^re- 
sentatives for terminating the joint occu- • 
pancy of Oregon .... April 20, 1846 

Annexation of New Mexico to the United 
States, after a protracted war . . Aug. 23, „ 

Treaty fixing the north-west boundai-y of the 
U. S. at the 49th parallel of latitude, and 
giving the British possession of Vancouver's 
island, the free navigation of the Columbia 
river, (Src, signed . . . . Jime 12, ,, 

The Mexicans defeated by general Taylor, at 
Bueno Vista .... Feb. 22, 23, 1847 

Vci'a Cruz taken by storm, March 29 ; the 
Mexicans everywhere worsted. Great battle 
of Sierra Gorda ; the Mexicans signally de- 
feated by gen. Scott . . . April 18 ,, 

Treaty between Mexico and the United States, 
ratified ... . . May 19, 1848 

Riot at the theatre. New York, occasioned by 
the disp>ite between Mr. Forrest and Mr. 
Macready May 10, 1849 



uxr 



7iS 



UNI 



UNITED STATES of AMERICA, continued. 



Proclamation of the president against the 

marauding expedition to Cuba* . Aug. ii, i84( 
Tlie Freucli ambassador dismissed from Wash- 
ington Sept. 14, ,, 

Treaty with England for a transit way across 

Panama 1851 

Death of Mr. Calhoun . . . March 31, 

Destructive fire in Philadelphia . July 9, ,'' 

California admitted a member of the states', 

Aug. 15, „ 

Fugitive slave bill passed 

President Fillmore issues asecond proclamation 

against the promoters of a second expedition 

1 to Cuba, and the ship C'teopatra, freighted 

with military stores destined for that island, 

is seized April 25, 185] 

Census of the United States taken ; the popu- 
lation ascertained to amount to 23.347,884, in 
the whole union .... June 16, ,, 
Death of Henry Clay, the American minister, 

aged 75 June 29, ,, 

Failure of the second expedition against Cuba 
by Lopez and his followers ; they are all 
defeated and taken ; 51 are shot by the Cuban 
authorities, Lopez is garotted, and the rest 
are sent prisoners to Spain, where, after some 
negotiation, they are mercifully set at liberty. 

See Cuba Aug.— Sept. ,, 

Death of J. F. Cooper, the American novelist, 

iSept. 17, ,, 
The president issues a proclamation against the 
sympathisers with the revolutionary move- 
ment in Mexico .... Oct. 22, , 
Part of the capitol of Wa.shington, and the 
whole of the library of the United States con- 
gress, destroyed by fire . . . Dec. 24, ,, 
M. Kossuth, the Hungarian chief, arrives at 
Washington, on the invitation of the United 
States legislature .... Dec. 30, 
Publication of "Uncle Tom's Cabin," by Mrs. 

Stowe Miirch 20, 1852 

The dispute with England relating to the Fish- 
eries occurs about this time ; Mr. Webster's 
note upon the subject . . . July 14, ,, 
Lone Star Society (see Lone Star) . . Aug. ,' 
The United States ship Crescent City boarded at 
Havannah, and not allowed to land her mails 

or passengers Oct 3, „ 

Death of the eminent statesman Daniel Webster, 

in his 70th year Oct. 24, „ 

Expedition to Japan 

Address to the women of America on .slavery, 
adopted by the duchess of Sutherland and 
other ladies (signed afterwaids by 576,000 
Englishwomen) .... Nov. 26, ,, 
Affair of Koszta at Smyrna (see Koszta) June 21, 1853 
Crystal palace opens at New York . July 14, ,, 
Duel between M. Soule (American minister at 
Madrid) and M. Turgot . . . Dec. 18, 
Great fire at New \ov^— Great ReimhUc clipper 

destroyed Dec. 26, ,, 

Astor Library, New York, opened for the 

pubhc Jan. 9, 1854 

Wm. Walker proclaims the republic of Sonora 
divided into two states— Sonora and Lower 

California Jan. 18, ,, 

American steamer Blacl: Warrior seized at Cuba 

Feb. 28, „ 
The Spanish government remitted the fine, but 

considered the seizure legal . . April, ,, 
Commercial treaty concluded between Japan 



and United States by commodore Peny (sent 
there for the purjiose) . . March 23, 
Captain Hollins in American sloop Ci/aw, bom- 
bards San Juan de Nicaragua . July 13, 
Reciprocity treaty between Great Bi-itain and 
United States (respecting Newfoundland 
fishery, international trade, &c.) ratified, 

Aug. 2, 

Negotiation for the annexation of the Sandwich 

Islands . . .... Oct. 

Dieadful election liots in Kansas, March and 

April, 

Indian war: they are defeated April 25, 29, 

Disjiute with British government on enlistment 

(see h'oreiyii Legion) .... July, 

Gen. Harney gains a victory over the Sio\i.x 

Indians Sept. 3, 

Senator Charles Sumner savagely assaulted by 

senator Preston Brooks in the senate-house 

for speaking against slavery . . May 2, 

Mr. Crampton, the British envoy, dismissed. 

May 28, 
John C. Fremont nominated the "Republican" 
candidate for the presidency . . June 17, 
Battle in Kansas ; the slavers (under capt. Reid) 
defeat Brown and the Abolitionists Aug. 30, 
James Buchanan elected president Nov. 4, 

The Resolute presented to queen Victoria (see 

Franklin) Dec. 12, 

Lord Napier appointed British envoy to United 
States (Jan. 16); warmly received March 18, 
Central American question settled . March, 
Judgment given in the " Dred Scott" case in 
the supreme cotu-t. He was claimed as a 
slave in a free state : '2 judges declared for his 
freedom, 5 against it, which causes great dis- 
satisfaction throughout the free states March, 
Disorganised state of Utah ; troops march to 
support new governor . May and June, 
Riots in Washington against Irish electors, 

June I, 
And in New York on account of changes in the 
police arrangements . . . June, 

Insurrection in Kansas quelled . . July, 
Commercial panic in New York . . Aug. 
Outrage at Staaten Island ; quarantine house 

burnt Sept. 7, 

Dispute respecting right of search, settled May, i 

Tranquillity restored in Utah . . June, 

Great rejoicing at the completion of the Atlantic 

telegraph (see Submarine Telegra^jh) Aug. 

Lieut. Jlofiat seizes the American slave ship 

Echo and takes her to Charleston . Sept. 

Death of W. H. Prescutt, the historian, Jan. 28, 

Dnniel Sickles, a government official, kiUing 

Philp Barton Key, for adultery with his wife, 

is acquitted of murder amid much applause, 

Feb. 26, 

The American commodore Tatnall assists the 

Engli.sh at the Chinese engagement on the 

river Peiho, saying, "Blood is thicker than 

water " June 25, 

Gen. Ward, the United States envoy, goes to 

Pekin, but does not see the emperor . July, 

Gen. Harney sends troops to San. Juan Island, 

near Vancouver's Island, "to protect the 

American settlers ; " moderation of the 

Britith, who have a naval force at hand ; 

Governor Douglas also sends troops, July 27, 

Insurrection at Harper's Ferry t . Oct. 16, 

Gen. Harney superseded by gen. Scott at San 



1854 



1S56 



859 



* This expedition, notwithstandnig, under a Spanish adventurer, named Lopez, landed 600 men at 
Cuba. After a short but obstinate struggle they tc ok the town of Cardenas ; and shortly aftei-wards had a 
land engagement with f ome Spanish soldiers, in which many of them were killed or taken prisoners ■ the 
others then embarked with Lopez in the Creole steamer, and thus escaped from a Spanish war steamer, the 
Pizarro, May, 1850. The tecond expedition of Lopez, in Aug. 1S51, was, however, fatal to him and his 
followers, as above related. 

t John Brown, caUed captain Brown and old Brown, was a prominent leader in the violent conflicts in 



UNI 



749 



UNI 



UNITED STATES of AMERICA, continued. 



Jvian, who makes conciliatory overtures ; 
accepted by fjovernor Douglas . Nov. 1859 

Peath of Washington Irving . . Nov. 26, ,, 

Great agitation in the congress, Nov. 1859 ; no 
.speaker elected till .... Feb. i, i860 

President I?uehanan protests against a proposed 
inquiry into liis acts . . . March 28, ,, 

The national republican convention meet at 
Chicago ; Abraham Lincoln chosen as candi- 
date for the presidency . . . May 16, ,, 

Japanese embassy received by the president at 
Wa.shington May 17, ,, 

Fresh disputes at San Juan, through general 
Harney, v?ho is recalled . . . May, ,, 

William Goodrich (Peter Parley) dies May, ,, 

The national democratic convention meet at 
Baltimore ; a large number of delegates 
secede ; the I'emainder nominate Stephen 
Douglas a.s president ; the seceders nominate 
John Breckinridge .... June 18, ,, 

The Grfci-t EaHtrii arrives at New York, June 23, ,, 

The prince of Wales arrives at Detroit in the 
United States, Sept. 20 ; visits Wa.shington, 
Oct. 3 ; Philadelphia, Oct. 9 ; New York, 
Oct. II ; Boston, Oct. 17 ; embarks at Port- 
land Oct. 20, ,, 

Abraham Lincoln, the republican candidate, 
elected president* (see Southern Confederacy) 

Nov. 6, ,, 

Intense excitement at Charleston, South Caro- 
lina, and in otlier southern states . Nov. ,, 

South Caroliiit recedes from the union, Dec. 20, ,, 

Major Anderson, of United States army, occu- 
pies Fort Sumter in Carolina . . Dec. 26, ,, 

Delegates from South Carolina not received by 
the president ..... Dec. 30, ,, 

Vacillating policy of president Buchanan ; the 
secretaries Cass, Cobb, Floyd, and Thomj^son 
resign .... Dec. i860 — Jan. 1861 

New York and other northern states protest 
against the secession ; a general fast pro- 
claimed ; observed on . . . Jan. 4, ,, 

Vicksburg, Mississippi, fortified . Jan. 12, ,, 

Kansas admitted a state . . . Jan. 21, „ 

Secession (by convention) of Mississippi, Jan. 8 ; 
Alabama, Florida, Jan, 11 ; Georgia, Jan. 19; 
Louisiana, Jan. 26; Texas (by legislature), 

Feb. I, „ 

Jefferson Davis, elected by the six seceding 
states, is inaugurated president of the "south- 
ern confederacy," at Montgomery, Alabama, 

Feb. 18, ,, 

New (Morrill) tariff bill passed (nearly prohibits 

commerce with England) . . March 2, ,, 

President Davis prepares for war (100,000 men 

to be raised) March, , , 

Lincoln, inaugurated president at Washington, 
says, " the central idea of secession is the 
essence of anarchy " . . March 4, ,, 

Southern commissioners not received by the 

president at Washington . . March 12, „ 
Gen. Winfield Soft, in a letter to president 
Lincoln, sets before him four courses : either, 
I., to surrender to slavery half the territory 
acquired or to be acquired ; II., to blockade all 



revolted ports ; I IT., to say to seceding states, 
" Wayward sisters, go in peace ! " or IV , to 
conquer the south, whicU would require 
300,000 and afterwards a resident army [the 
letter became public in Oct. 1862] March, i 

Great excitement at the operation of the new 
Morrill tariff, which begins . . April i. 
The war begins: Major Anderson refu.scs to 
surrender Fort Sumter, Charleston, when 
summoned, April 11 ; it is fciken by the seces- 
sionists, after a bloodless conflict April 13, 
President Lincoln summons the congress to 
meet on July 4 ; issues a proclamation calling 
on the states to furnish a contingent of 
75,000 men, (fcc. .... April 15. 

Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, and 
other states zealously respond, with vigorous 
preparations for war ; Kentucky, North Caro- 
lina, Virginia, Tennessee, and Missouri, de- 
cidedly refuse, asserting the proposed coer- 
cion to be wicked, illegal, and iinconstitii- 

tional April, 

The mob in Baltimore, Maryland, attack some 
Massachusetts regiments on their way to 
Wasliington ; several persons killed in the 

conflict April 19, 

President Davis issues letters of marqvie, April 
1 7 ; president Lincoln proclaims the blockade 
of the ports of seceding states . April 19, 
U. S. Arsenal at Harper's Ferry, Virginia, fired 
by command, and 15,000 stand of arms de- 
stroyed, April 18; 9 ships of war and naval 
stores in the navy yard, Norfolk, Va., burnt 
to prevent them falling into the hands of the 
southern confederates, who occuj)y the place, 
April 21, 
Virginia (except West Virginia) secedes by ordi- 
nance (the 8th state) . . . April 25, 
Lincoln calls for 42,034 volunteers for three 
years. May 3, and informs foreign powers of 
his intention to maintain the union by war. 

May 4, 
The confederates under Beauregard and John- 
ston, in Virginia, threaten Washington, de- 
fended by the federals imder generals Winfield 
Scott and George McClcllan . . May, 
The British queen commands her subjects to be 
neutral in the ensuing war . . May 13, 
The federals enter Virginia ; Beauregard calls on 
the Virginians to rise and expel them, June i. 
Formal secession of Arkansas, May 6 ; North 
Carolina, May 20; Tennessee (9th, loth, and 

nth) June 8, 

Several British vessels seized while endeavoiir- 

ing to break the blockade ; the southern 

privateer Savannah captured . . June, 

NeutraUty announced by the French emperor, 

June 10, 
Fast-day in confederate states . . June 13, 
Missouri. \—Ge\i. Lyon raises a federal army, 
and defeats the state troops, June 17 ; the 
federals siiccessful at Carthage, July 5 ; Fi-e- 
mont takes command in W. Missouri, July 
26 ; federals victorious at Athens, Aug. 5 ; at 
Wilson's Creek (gen. Lyon killed), Aug. 10; 



Kansas, during the agitation respecting the question of its becoming a slave state. He was a monomaniac 
on the slavery question, and contended that all means for annihilating slavery were justifiable. He 
gathered together a band of desperate characters, who so much annoyed Missoviri and other slave states, 
that a reward was offered for his head. He had arranged for the succes.sful issue of the insun-ection above 
mentioned, so far as to devise a provisional government and a new constitution. On Oct. 16, he and his 
band, aided by a mob. seized the arsenal at Harper's Ferry, a town on the borders of Virginia and Baltimore, 
stopped the railway trains, and cut the telegraph wires ; a conflict with the military ensued, when many 
of the instirgcnts were killed. Brown was captured, tried, and executed on Dec. 2 ; and several of his 
companions were exectited in March, i860. These events caused a temporary panic in the Southern States, 
and much excitement in Boston and other northern towns. 

* 303 electoi-s are appointed to vote for a president : 152 to be a m.ajority. The numbers were, for 
A. Lincoln, 180 ; John C. Breckinridge, 72 ; John Bell, 39; Stephen A. Douglas, 12. 

f Very many skirmishes took place, with various results. 



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UNITED STATES of AMERICA, contimml 
rremont proclaims martial law, and freedom 
to slaves or rebels, Aug. 31 ; Lexington sur- 
renders to confederates, Sept. 20 ; Fremont 
blamed, retires ; succeeded by Hunter, 

Nov. 2, 1 861 

Virginia.* — Federals defeated at Big Bethell, 

June 10 ; occupy Harper's Ferry, evacuated 

by the confederates, June 16 ; col. PegTini 

and 600 confederates surrender at Beverley, 

July 13. ,, 
McClellan defeats confederates at Bich Moun- 
tain, July II ; Paterson permits the junction 
of the confederates under Johnston and 
Beauregard near Manassas, July 15 ; who are 
repulsed at Blackburn's ford, near C'entre- 

ville July 18, ., 

Battle of Bull Run (which see) or Manassas, 

Virginia ; the federals, seized with panic, flee 

in utter disorder .... July 21, ,, 

Meeting of U. S. Congress, July 4 ; a loan of 

250 milUon dollars authorised . July 17, 

Meeting of confederate congress at Richmond, 

Virginia Jnly 20, 

Passport system introduced into the northern 
states, and the liberty of the press greatly 

restricted Aug. 

The charges in the Morrill tariff greatly raised ; 

the confederates prohibit exportation of 

cotton except by southern ports . . Aug. 

Federal gen. Butler takes Fort Hatteras, N. 

Carolina (700 prisoners and 1000 stand of 

arms) Aug. 29, 

Fast-day in federal states . . . Sept. 26, 
Garibaldi declines command in the federal 

army Sept. 

Battle of Ball's Bluff; federals defeated and 

gen. Bilker killed, near Leesburg, Virginia ; 

hundreds drowned .... Oct. 21, 

The federals and confederates enter Kentucky ; 

the governor protests; many skirmishes^ 

Sept. — Dec. 

Resignation of lieut. -gen. Scott, Oct. 31 ; George 

McClellan made commander-in-chief of the 

federal army Nov. i, 

The federal general Sherman takes Port Royal 
fo7"ts, S. Carolina . . . Nov. 7, 8, 

Capt. Wilkes, offederal war steamer San Jacinto, 
boards the Royal British mail packet Trent, 
and carries off Messrs. Mason and Slidell, 
confederate commissioners, and their secre- 
taries, Nov. 8, and conveys them to Boston, 

Nov. 19, 

Great rejoicings in the northern states at the 

capture of Mason and Slidell . . Nov. 

McClellan reviews 70,000 men . . Nov. 20, 

Capt. Pegram, of confedei-ate stesmer Nashville, 

bvuTis the federal ship Harvey Sirch, Nov. ig, 

and brings the crew on to Southampton, 

Nov. 21, 

A secession ordinance passed by a party in 

Missouri, Nov. 2 ; the same in Kentucky, 

Nov. 30, 

Dissensions increase between the repiiblicans 

(abolitionists) and the democrats in New 

York, &c Nov. 

Jefferson Davis elected president of confederate 

states for six years . . . Nov. 30, 

President Lincoln states that the federal armies 

comprise 660,971 men . . . Dec. 2, 



Meeting of congress, which votes thanks to 
capt. Wilkes, Dec. 2 ; the foreign envoys at 
Washington protest against his act Dec. 3, 

The federals commence sinking hulks filled 
with stones to block up Charleston harbour, 
S. Carolina [it created much indignation in 
England] Dec 21, 

Banks at New York, &c., suspend cash pay- 
ments Dec. -,o, 

A firm despatch from the British government 
arrives, Dec. 18, 1861 ; Mason, &c. surren- 
dered, sail for Europe . . . Jan. i, 

Phelps' fruitless expedition to Ship I.sland] 
Mississippi Sound . . Dec. 3, 1S61— Jan. 

Confederate gen. Zollicoffer defeated and slain 
at Mill Springs or Somerset, Kentucky, 

Jan. 1 9, 

Tennessee.— The federals take Fort Henry, Feb. 
6; Fort Donnelson, with 15,000 prisoners, 
Feb. 16 ; and Nashville . • . Peb 23 

Confederates defeated at Pea Ridge, Arkansas', 

,-, - , , . March 6, 7, 

Confederate iron-plated ship Merrrmac destroys 
federal vessels Cumhtrlund and Congress in 
Hampton roads, March 8 ; is repulsed hy 
federal iron-elad floating battery Monitor, ; 

■»! ^, 1, , , . March 9. 

McCleUan and his army (100,000) cross the 
Potomac and find the confederate camp at 
Bull Run evacuated . . . March 10, 

McClellan resigns general command, and as- 
sumes that of the army of the Potomac 
only; Fremont that of the Mountain depart- 
ment ; and HaUcck that of the Mississippi, 

T, ■ 1 . ,. . March 11, 

Burnsides expedition sails, Jan. n ; takes 
Roanoke, N. CaroUna, Peb. 7, 8; Newbern, 

/-, i -rrr., ,^ . Mai'Ch 14, 

Capt. ^Vil.son (British) boldly rescues his vessel 
Ernily St. Pierre, a merchantman,! from the 
federals March 21 

Confederates defeated at Winchester, March 23' 

General Burnside occupies Beaufort and Fort 
Macon April i 

Slavery abolished in district 'of Columbia 

McClellan advances into Virginia, with the view 
of taking Richmond ; he besieges Yorktown, 
held by 30,000 confederates . April 1; 

Correspondents of English newspapers ex- 
cluded irom federal army Aprils 

Great battles of Shiloh or Pittsburg Landing! 
near Corinth, Tennessee ; confedlratcs vic- 
torious, but lose their able gen. Albert John- 
stone ... ° April 6 

Treaty between Great Britain and the United 
States for the suppression of the slave trade. 

Federals take Port Pulaska, on the Sa4nnih, 
April 1 1 ; and New Orleans . . April 26-28 
Yorktown evacuated by confederates May 5 , 
Theheward-Lyons treaty between Great Bri- 
tain and the United States, for suppression 
of the slave trade, signed April 7 ; ratified 

Confederates repulsed at Williamsburg,' May s'; ' 
their naval depot at Norfolk, Virginia, sur- 
renders. May 10; they burn ths Merkmac, 

May II, , 



♦ Very many skii-mishes took place, with various results. 

t She" was sailing from Calcutta to New Brunswick, and while attempting to inquire whether a blockade 
existed, was captured off Charleston bar by a federal ship of war. Her captain, William Wilson, and his 
cook and steward, were permitted to remain on board on her voyage to Philadelphia. On March i, 1862 
Wilson with his two associates succeeded, by stratagem and courage, in recovering the command of the 
vessel, overcoming two U. S. officers and 13 sailors, and brought her into Liverpool. The owners of the 
ship gave him 2000 guineas, and the Liverpool merchants presented him with a magnificent testimonial of 
their admiration of his gallantry. The British government refused to restore the vessel when claimed by 
the Americans. 



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UNITED STATES of AMERICA, continued. 



Commodore Farragut with a flotilla ascends the 

Jlississippi Jfay, 1862 

Little Rock, Arkansas, taken by federals, May, ,, 
McClellan takes Hanover court-honse, May 27, „ 
Skirmishes iu Virginia ; success varying, Slaj", ,, 
Severe liattles of Fair Oaks, before Richmuiid 

(indecisive) . . . May 31, June i, ,, 
Beauregard and the confederates retreat from 
Corinth, Tennessee, May 30; pursued by 
Halleck and the federals . . . June, ,, 
Memphis, on the Jlississippi, taken June 6, ,, 
Federals defeated near Charleston June 16, ,, 
Federal forces under Fremont, Banks, and 
JIcDovyell, placed under Pope; Fremont re- 
signs June 27, ,, 

Federals suffer through several severe engage- 
ments in Virginia . . . June 25-30, „ 
General Butler excites great indignation by his 

military rigour at New Oi'leans. May & June „ 
United Status debt estimated at 100,000,000?., 

June, ,, 
Seven days' conflict on the Chickahoniiny 
before Richmond ; the confederate gen. Lee 
compels McClellan to abandon the siege and 
retreat 17 miles, taking up"'a position at Har- 
rison's Landing, on James's river, June 26 

— July I, ,, 
The tariff still further raised . . July, ,, 
Many conflicts in Kentucky, Missouri, and 
Tennessee, through confederate guerilla par- 
ties June and July, ,, 

Lincoln visits and enco\jrages the ai-my of 
McClellan, and calls for 300,000 volunteers, 

July, „ 

Lincoln's assent to a bill confiscating the pro- 
perty and emancipating the slaves of all rebels 
in ai-ms after 60 days . . . July 17, „ 

Halleck suj>ersedes llcClellan as commander-in- 
chief July 26, ,, 

Slow volunteering ; many emigi-ations to Canada 
and Euroi^e ; habeas corpus suspended ; the 
president ordains a draft if the volunteers are 
not ready by Aug. 15 . . . July, ,, 

Public debt of United States estimated at 
1,222,000,000 dollars .... July i, ,, 

Pope takes command of army in Virginia, 

July 14, ,, 

Lincoln's proclamation of confiscation of i>ro- 
perty of rebels .... Jiily 26, ,, 

The federals take Baton Rouge, Louisiana, but 
soon after retire from it . . . Aug. 5, ,, 

Pope's troops ravage Virginia ; Banks, his 
subordinate, defeated at Cedar Mountain by 
gen. Thomas Jefferson " Stonewall "* Jackson 

Aug. 9, „ 

McClellan retreats from Harrison's Landing 
(said to have lost 70,000 men, killed, wounded, 
prisoners, and deserters) . . Aug. 16, ,, 

The federals surprised, and Pope loses his 
baggage Aug. 25, ,, 

Jackson turns the flank of Pope's army, and 
attacks him at Groveton, Aug. 29 ; and when 
reinforced by Lee, defeats him and McDowell 
at Bidl Run, Aug. 30 : Pope retreats to Centre- 
ville Sept. i ,, 

The remains of Pope's army flee behind the 
lines of Washington, Sept. 2; he is removed 
to the north-west to act against the Indian 
insurrection Sept. 3 ,, 

McDowell superseded ; charged with treachery, 
he claims a trial Sept. ,, 

McClellan appointed commander-in-chief, saves 
Washington, and marches against the con- 



federates 'Under Lee, who have crossed the 
Potomac and entered Maryland Sept. 5, 6, 1862 

Severe conflicts at South Mountain Gap (or 
Middletown), Sept. 14-16; confederates, after 
a great fight near Antietam Creek and SLarps- 
burg road, retreat .... Sept. 17, ,, 

Harper's Feny surrendered to Jackson, Sept. 
15 : he crosses Potomac and joins Lee's army 

Sept. 17 „ 

Federal cause declining in the west ; they 
lose Lexington, Aug. ; and MunsfordviUe 

Sept. 17, ,, 

Thanksgiving-day in southern states, Sept. 18, ,, 

Rosencrans defeats the confederates at luka, 

Sept. 19, ,, 

Confederates re-enter Virginia laden with stores 

Sept. 22, „ 

Lincoln proclaims freedom to the slaves in the 
confederate states, on Jan. i, 1863, if the 
states have not returned to the union, 

Sept. 22, ,, 

Secret convention of 16 governors of states at 
Altoona, Pennsylvania, approve Lincoln's 
policy Sept. 24, ,, 

Draught of 40,000 men ordered in New York 
state by Oct. 15 ... . Sept. ,, 

Lincoln suspends habeas corpus writ, and 
authorises severe measures against disloj-al 
pei-sons Sept. 25-27, ,, 

Desiderate but indecisive conflicts near Corinth, 
Tennessee, Oct. 3-5 ; and at Perrysville, Ken- 
tucky Oct. 8, ,, 

Confederate gen. Stuart crosses Upper Potomac, 
and enters Pennsylvania ; enters Chambers- 
burg and other places, carrying off horses, 
ammunition, &,c. ; rides round the federal 
army, and re tui-ns to his camp Oct. 10, 13, ,, 

Gold at 29 premium at New York . . Oct. ,,j 

Great Democratic meeting at New York, con- 
demning the president's policy . Oct. 12, „ 

At New Orleans Butler compels all persons who 
refuse to take the oath of allegiance to send 
in their names and register their property to 
the provost mar.shal . . . Oct. 12, ,, 

McClellan's head-quarters at Harper's Ferry, 

Oct. 17, „ 

Raid of confederate gen. Morgan in Kentucky ; 
he caiTies off 80 federal waggons of ammuni- 
tion, (fee Oct. 18 ,, 

Ten confederate prisoners at Palmyra shot by 
order of ,gen. McNeil in consequence of the 
disappearance of Abraham Allsman Oct. i8, ,, 

M. Drouyn de Lhiiys, on behalf of the French 
go\'ernment, proposes joint mediation in the 
American conflict to Great Britain and Russia, 
Oct. 30 ; declined by Gortschakoff, Nov. 8 ; by 
earl Russell Nov. 13, ,, 

The confederate steamer Alabama, capt. Sem- 
mes, captures many U. S. vessels, and excites 
much alarm at New York . . Oct. -Dec. „ 

Elections for next congress ; great majority for 
the demoei'at (opposition) candidates in New 
Y'ork and several other states . Nov. 4, ,, 

McClellan, while advancing towards Richmond, 
is superseded by gen. Burnside, who ad- 
vances towards Richmond ... . Nov. 7, ,, 

President Davis threatens reprisals if gen. 
McNeil is not surrendered (see Oct. 18) 

Nov. 17, ,, 

Burnside summons Fredericksburg to suiTen- 
der ; confederate gen. Lee with about 80,000 
men near Nov. 22, „ 

100,000 federal soldiers on the sick list Nov. ,, 



* According to some accounts he obtained the name by promising Beauregard, at the battle jof Bull 
Run, that his brigade should stand like a "stone wall;" others say that Beauregard gave the name 
himself. 



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752 



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UNITED STATES of AMERICA, continued. 



Great honour shown to McClellan ; he is pro- 
posed as the next president . . Nov. 

The federal g-overnment orders release of dis- 
affected persons in prisons . . Nov. 25, 

Annual session of U. S. congress ; the presi- 
dent recommends compensated emancipation 
of all slaves in the loyal states befoi-e the 
year igoo Dec. 1, 

Battle of Fredericksburg (which see) ; Burn- 
side crosses the Rappahannock, Dec. 10 ; 
bombards Fredericksburg, Dec. 11 ; a series 
of desperate attacks on the confederates ; he 
is totally defeated, Dec. 13 ; and recrosses the 
river . . . . . . . Dec. 15 

Engagements in Tennessee with varying results 

Dec. 

Discovery of frauds on the U. S. army financial 
accounts ; public dissatisfaction with the 
government ; secretaries Chase and Seward 
resign, but resume office . . . Dec. 

B/ittles near Murfreesboro', or Stone River, be- 
tween Rosencrans and the federals and Brax- 
ton Bragg and the confederates : begin Dec. 
29 ; severe but indecisive, Dec. 31 ; battle 
continued, Jan. i ; Bragg defeated, retreats, 

Jan. 2, 

t" There have been about 2000 battles and 
skii-mishes since the commencement of the 
war." — American Almanai-k.'\ 

President Lincoln proclaims the freedom of 
slaves in the rebel states, except in parts 
held by the U. S. army . . . Jan. 2, 

Gen. Burnside superseded by gen. Joseph 
Hooker in command of army of the Potomac 

Jan. 26 

The French government's offer of mediation, 
Jan. 9 ; declined .... Feb. 6, 

The George Grlsicold, a vessel containing pro- 
visions and other relief for the distressed 
cotton workers in Lancashire, arrives, Feb. 9 

A conscription biU (for men between 18 and 45) 
passed Feb. 25 

The congress authorises the suspension of the 
habeas corpus act, March 3 ; and establishes 
a National Academy of Sciences at Washing- 
ton March 4, 

Confederate loan for 3,ooo,oooJ. well taken up 
in Europe March, 

Charleston, South Carolina, attacked by moni- 
tors and g\inboats; the Keokuk, a monitor, 
sunk April 7, 

Battle of Chancellorsville (which see) ; the 
federals under Hooker cross the Rappahan- 
nock, April 28 ; defeated (gen. Stonewall 
Jackson is mortally wounded). May 2-4 ; 
Hooker recrosses the Rapi^ahannock May 5, 

Stonewall Jackson dies . . . May 9, 

Grant's successful campaign in Tennessee : 
he defeats the confederates under Joseph 
Johnston at Jackson, May 14 : and under 
Pemberton at Champion Hills, May 16 ; and 
invests Vicksburg. Mississippi, which is 
strongly fortified. May 18 ; a dreadful assault 
on it repelled May 22, 

Great peace meeting at Norfolk . June 5, 

Confederate invasion under Lee : invade Mary- 
land and Pennsylvania, and take various 
towns .... June 14, et seq. 

The federal gen. Hooker superseded by George 
H. Meade Inne 27, 

Meade advances against Lee ; great battle of 
Gettysburg, indecisive ; but the confederates 
evacuate Pennsylvania and Maryland 

July 1-3, 

Vicksburg bombarded, July 3 ; surrendered by 
Pemberton to Grant and Porter . July 4, 

Port Hudson, a confederate fortress on the 
Mississippi, surrenders . . . July 8, 

Fierce riots at New York against the conscrii^- 



tion ; many negroes murdered, and much 
property destroyed . . . July 13-16, 18 

The Sioux defeated, Aug. 7 ; gen. Pope reports 
that the Indian war is ended . . Aug. , 

New York riotei's tried and convicted. Aug. 12 ; 
conscription going on peaceably . Aug. 21, , 

Siege of Charleston ; defended by Beauregard — 
attacks with varied success, July ; Fort 
Sumter bombarded and destroyed (and so- 
called Greek fire employed) ; attacks on the 
ruins repulsed . . . Aug. 21, 22, ,, 

Knoxville occupied by Burnside . Sept. 10, ,, 

A Russian squadron warmly received at New 
York Sept. and Oct. ,, 

Battle of Chickamauga, Tennessee ; Rosencrans 
defeated by Bragg . . . Sept. 20, 

Mason, the confederate commissioner in 
England, protests against the mode of his 
reception, and quits . . . Sept. 22, ,, 

Rosencrans' command of the federal army in 
Tennessee superseded by Grant and Thomas, 
and Sherman Oct. 19, „ 

The steam rams El Tousson and El Monassir, 
built by Mr. Laird at Birkenhead, and sus- 
pected to be for the confederates, are placed 
under charge of a government vessel in the 
Mersey ...... Oct. 31, ,, 

Lincoln calls for 300,000 volunteers . Oct. 17, ,, 

British consuls dismissed from the southern 
states Oct. ,, 

Meade captures a part of Lee's army on the N. 
side of the Rappahannock . . . Nov. 7. , . 

The chief justices Lowrie, Woodward, and 
Thompson declare that the Conscrii^tion Act 
is unconstitutional . . . Nov. 12, ,. 

Longstreet defeats Burnside, and compels him 
to retire into Knoxville . . Nov. 14-17, ,, 

Sherman and Thomas defeat Bragg at Chatta- 
nooga Nov. 23, ,, 

"Longstreet's attack on Knoxville, defended by 
Burnside, fails, and he retreats into Virginia, 

Nov. 29 and Dec. i, ,, 

The confederate general Bragg superseded by 
Hardee Dec. 2, ,. 

Lincoln's message to congress warlike ; he 
proffers amnesty to all except heads of 
governments, &c., Dec. 4; Davis's message: 
firm, but acknowledging reverses . Dec. 7, ,, 

Gen. Joseph Johnston takes command of the 
confederate army in Georgia . . Dec. 27, ,, 

President Lincoln orders a draft of 500,000 men 
in 3 years Feb. 1, iS 

Federal exj^edition into Florida ; defeated at 
Olustee Feb. 20, ,, 

Failure of attack of Kilpatrick and Dahlgron on 
Richmond . . . Feb. 27 — March i, ,, 

Ulysses Grant made commander-in-chief, suc- 
ceeding Halleck .... March 2 ,, 

Confederate raids into the Western states 

March, ,, 

Sherman's expedition against Mobile, March 2 ; 
defeated by Kirby-Smith . . Api-il 5, ,, 

James E. Stuart, the celebrated confederate 
cavalry officer, killed . . . May 11, ,, 

Campaign in Virginia; the army of the Poto- 
mac crosses the Rapidan ; advance of Lee 
(now supported by Longstreet) May 2 ; severe 
battle in the ' ' Wilderness " (near Chancellors- 
ville) ; indecisive, May 5, 6 ; battle of Spott- 
sylvania ; the federals remain on the field ; 
much carnage .... May 11, 12, „ 

Sherman (in Georgia) beats the confederates at 
Resacca, May 14, and at Dallas . May, ,, 

Fugitive slave act repealed by the bouse of 
representatives .... June 13, ,, 

After a succession of attacks on both sides. 
Grant compels Lee to retire gradually, and 
by a flank movement marches to the other 
side of Richmond, and faces Petersburg, 
June 15 ; wl-ere, having taken the first 



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UNITED STATES of AMERICA, continued. 



intrcncbiiients after desperate assaults, ho 

is repulsed with considerable loss June i8, 1864 

The confederate steamer Alabama (capt. 
Semmes) attacked and sunk by the U.S. cor- 
vette Kiavsarge (capt. Winslow) near Cher- 
bourg, France .... June ig, ,, 

Tjce invades JIarj'land, July i ; defeats Wallace 
near Monocracy river, July 9 ; threatens 
Baltimore and Washington, and retreats, 

July 12, 13, ,, 

Sherman's 3 battles at Atlanta (Georgia), July 20, 
22; victoryrcmains with the federals, July 28, ,, 

Confederates again invade Maryland and Penn- 
sylvania, and destroy Chambersburg, July3o, ,, 

Grant orders the explosion of a mine at Peters- 
burg, whereby 250 confederates are killed ; 
but the assault following is rejiulsed with 
great slaughter .... July 30, ,, 

Mr. Chase, secretary to the U.S. treasui-y, re- 
signs ; succeeded by Mr. Fessenden . Julj-, ,, 

The Tallahassee confederate steamer (built in 
London) destroys many U.S. merchantmen, 

July, A>ig. ,, 

Severe conflicts in the Shenandoah valley ; the 
federals victors ..... Aug. ,, 

The confederate flotilla near Mobile destroyed 
by Farragut, Aug. ; Fort Gaines taken, 

Aug 8, ,, 

McClellan nomiiiated for the presidency by the 
" Democratic " Chicago convention Sept. i, ,, 

Sherman occupies Atlanta ; the confederate 
genei-al Hood retires . . . .Sept. i, ,, 

Sherman orders the dej^opulation of Atlanta, 

Sept. 7, ,, 

McClellan declares for maintaining the union ; 
the democratic party divided . . Sept. 13, ,, 

Sheridan (federal) defeats Early at Winchester, 
in the Shenandoah valley, but with very 
great loss Sept. ig, ,, 

Longstreet replaces Early in the command of 
the confederates .... Oct. ,, 

Longstreet defeats the federals at Cedar Creek ; 
Sheridan arrives, rallies his troops, and de- 
feats the confederates . . . Oct. 19, ,, 

St. Alban's raid. — Between 20 and 30 armed 
men enter St. Alban's, Vermont; rob the 
bank, and carry off horses and stores ; fire on 
and kill several persons, and flee to Canada, 
Oct. 19; where 13 of them are arrested, 

Oct. 21, 

Lincoln re-elected president ; McClellan re- 
signs his command in U.S. army ]Srov. 8, 

Sherman destroys Atlanta, and begins his 
march through Georgia to Savannah, Nov. 13, 

Hood's attack on Thomas (federal) repulsed 
vrith severe loss .... Nov. 30, 

Lincoln's message to congress considered 
"bold" Dec. 6, 

The St. Alban's raiders discharged by Judge 
Coursol ; General Dix issues an intemperate 
order for reprisals (disannulled by the presi- 
dent) Dec. 14, 

Hood defeated by Thomas (federal) near Nash- 
ville Dec. 15, 16, 

Sherman storms fort M'Allister, Doc. 13 ; 
enters Savannah .... Dee. 21, 

Wilmington bombarded ; the attack of gene- 
ral Butler and admiral Porter roisulsed, 
Dec. 24, 25, 

The St. Alban's raiders recai^turcd and com- 
mitted for trial . . . Dec. 27, et seq. 

The federal congress abolishes slavery in the 
United States Feb. i, 1865 

Fruitless meeting of President 'Lincoln and 
secretaiy Seward with the confederate secre- 
tary Stcjihcns, and 2 commissioners, to treat 
for peace at Fort Mcniroe . . Feb. 3, ,, 

The Canadian ffovernment surrenders Barley, a 
raider, to the federals .... Feb. 3, ,, 

Lee takes the general command of the con- 



federate armies ; he recommends enlistment 
of negroes Feb. 18, 

Wilmington captured by Schofield ; Charleston 
evacuated by the confederates ; retreat of 
Beauregard Feb. 22, 

The confederate congress decree the arming of 
the slaves ..... Feb. 22 

A new stringent tariff comes into operation) 

mi April I, 

Three days' sanguinary conflict at Petersburg ; 
at first favourable to the confederates, JIarch 
31 ; Sheridan turns Lee's front, at Five-forks, 
April I ; and Lee retreats . . . April 2, 

Richmond and Petersburg evacuated by the 
confederates and occupied by Grant, April 2, 

Sheridan overtakes and defeats Lee at Farm- 
ville, April 6 ; Lee surrenders with the army 
of Northern Virginia, to Grant, at Appomatox 
courthouse April 9, 

Mobile evacuated by the confederates, April 12, 

The Union flag replaced at Fort Sumter, 
Charleston April 14, 

President Lincoln shot in the head at Ford s 
Theatre, Washington, about 11' o'clock, p.m., 
April 14, by Wilkes Booth, who escapes ; Sir. 
Seward, the foreign secretary, and his son, 
wounded in his own house by an assassin 
about the same time ; Lincoln dies at 7. 30 
a.m. ; Andrew Johnson, vice-president, 
sworn in as president . . . April 15, 

The convention between Sherman and Johnston 
(favourable to confederates), April 18 : dis- 
avowed by the government, April 21 ; John- 
ston surrenders on same terms as Lee, 
April 25, 

Wilkes Booth shot, and his accomplice Harrold 
captured in a farmhouse . . April 26, 

The confederate general Dick Taylor Cnear 
Mobile) surrenders .... Slay 4, 

President Jefferson Davis captured at Irwins- 
ville, Georgia (and consigned to prison), 

May 10, 

The confederate general Kirby-Smith, in Texasj 
surrenders ; end of the war . . May 26, 

President Johnson proclaims a conditional 
amnesty May 26, 

President Johnson proclaims the opening of the 
southern ports. May 22 : and an amnesty 
with certain exemptions . . May 29, 

Solemn fast observed for death of president 
Lincoln June i, 

The armies on both sides rapidly disbanding ; 
fierce riots at New York between the whites 
and negi'oes June, 

Galveston, Texas, the last sea-port held by the 
south, surrendered by Kirby-Stnith June 5, 

The British and French governments rescind 
their recognition of the confederates as 
belligerents . . . . . June 2, 6, 

President Johnson, uniting with the demo- 
crats and acting leniently towards the south ; 
reorganisation of the state governments, 

June, 

Close of the long trial of the conspirators, 
.Tune 29 ; execution of Payne, Atzerott, 
Harrold or Herold, and Mrs. Suratt, July 7, 

All southern prisoners of war to be released on 
parole on taking oath of allegiance July 29, 

Federal debt declared 2,757,253,275 dollars, 

July 31, 

The confederate privateer Shenandoah (capt.iin 
Waddell) captures and destroys many federal 
vessels (about 30) . • . . . Aug. 

Pacific policy of pi-esident Johnson ; he declares 
himself opposed to centralisation and in 
favour of state rights ; and is bitterly op- 
posed by the radicals .■ . . . Sept. 

Correspondence between earl Russell and Mr. 
Adams (U.S. minister, London) respecting 
the Alabama, confederate privateer ; proposal 

3 c 



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UNITED STATES of AMERICA, continued. 



of a commission to whom claims for repara- 
tion shall be referred . April 7— Sept. 18, 1 8Cs 

3Iuch j)iiblic discussion respecting equal negro 
suffrage July — Oct. ,, 

The national debt stated to be 6oo,ooo,cpooi. Oct. ,, 

General Robert Lee becomes president of 
Washington College, Virginia . Oct. 2, ,, 

Several southern states pass ordinances an- 
nulling secession, abolishing slavery, and 
renouncing confederate debt. Sept. Oct. Nov. „ 

National thanksgiving for the ppace Nov. 2, ,, 

Capt. Waddell arrives at Liverpool, Nov. 6 ; 
surrenders the Shenandoah to the British 
government, stating that he had not heard of 
the end of tlie war till Aug. 2 ; he and his 
crew paroled, Nov. 8 ; the vessel given up to 
the American corsul . . . Nov. g, ,, 

Capt. Wirz, after along military trial, executed 
for cruelty to the federal prisoners at Ander- 
sonsviUcj Nov. 10, ,, 

A Negro convention at Charleston, appeals for 
justice and generosity . . . Nov. 25, ,, 

Ex-president Buchanan publishes his justifica- 
tion Nov. ,, 

Habeas corpus act restored in northern states, 

Dec. I, „ 

Close of correspondence between the British 



and U. S. goveraments respecting depreda- 
tions of Alabama, Shenandoah, <bc. The earl 
of Clarendon maintains that "no armed 
vessel departed during the war from a British 
port, to cruise against the commerce of the 
United States " Dec. 2, 1865 

President Johnson's message conciliatory and 
firm (he requires from the southern states : 
repeal of their act of secession, abolition of 
slavery, and' repudiation of confederate debt), 

Dec. 4, „ 

The radical party, opposed to the president, 
and to clemency to the south, predominate 
in the congress, and move violent resolutions 
against restoration of southern states to the 
union . . . . . . . Dec. „ 

Estimated federal debt, 600,000,000?. ; re 
venue, 80,000,000?. .... Dec. ,, 

85 memliers for the southern states excluded 
from ' congress ; the conservative party 
support the president in his endeavours to 
reconstruct tlie union ; the radicals violently 
oppose his policy, requiring the south to 
undergo [previnusly a severe probation ; the 
president has restored state government to 
all the southern states except Texas and 
Florida Deo. 29, ,, 



PRESIDENT.? OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



17S9. General George Wa-shington, first president. 

Elected April 6. 
1793. General Washington again; assumed office, 

March 4. 
1797. John Adams. March 4. 
1801 & 1S05. Thomas Jefferson. March 4. 
1809 <fe 1813. James Madison. March 4. 
1817 <& 1821. James Monroe. March 4. 
1825. John Quincey Adams. March 4. 
1829 & 1833. General Andrew Jackson. March 4. 
1837. Martin Van Buren. March 4. 
1841. General William Henry Harrison. March 4. 

Died April 4, succeeded by 



1841. John Tyler (formerly vice-president). 
1845. James Knox Polk. Jlai-ch 4. 

1849. General Xachary Taylor. Jlarch 4. Died July 

9, 1850, succeeded by the vice-president, 

1850. Millard Fillmore. 

1853. Genei-al Fr.anklin Pierce. March 4. 

1857. James Buchanan. March 4. 

iS5i & 1865. Abraham Lincoln. March 4. Assassi- 
nated April 14, succeeded by the vice-presi- 
dent, 

1865. Andrew Johnson. April 15. 



UNIVERSALISTS, who boHeve in the final salvation of all men, have existed in rarions 
countries and ages. Dr. Tillotson appears from some of his sermons to have adopted the 
opinion of this universal salvation. Johnson. Certain it is, about 1691, he. entertained a 
design for forming a new book of homilies ; and a sermon which he preached before the queen 
(Mary) against the absolute eternity of hell torments, involved this doctrine. Universalists 
are numerous in America. 

UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE, one of the six points of the charter (sec Chartists), was 
adopted by the French in the election of their president in 185 1, and of their emperor in 
1852, and by the Italian States in voting for annexation to Sardinia in i860. 

UNIVERSITIES. The mo-st ancient in Europe are those of Oxford, Cambridge, Paris, 
Salamanca, and Bologna. In old Aberdeen was a monastery, in which youths were 
instructed in theology, the canon law, and the school ])hiloso])hy, at least 200 j-ears before 
the University and King's College were founded. The following dates are generally those 
given by Bouillet. 

Aberdeen founded . . . 1494 

Abo, Finland . ... 1640 

Andrew's, St., Scotland . 1411 

Angers, chiefly law . . . 1364 

Anjou, 1349; enlarged . . ,, 

Athens 1836 

Basle, Switzerland . . 1460 

Berlin 1810 

Berne 1S34 

Besan?on, Burgundy . . 1676 

Bologna, Italy . . . 433 

Bonn i8i8 

Bourdeaus .... 1472 

Bourges 1465 

Bruges, French Flanders , 1665 



Brus-sels 1S34 

Caen, Normandy, 1436 ; re- 
vived 1803 

Cambridge, began about 630; 

revived . . . .915 
Cambridge, New England, 

projected .... 1630 
Cologne, in Germany, re- 
founded . . . .1385 
Compostella, Spain . . .1517 
Coimhra, Portugal . . . 1279 
Copenhagen . . . . 1476 
Cordova, Spain . . . 968 

Corfu 1823 

Cracow, Poland, 700; revived 1364 



Dijon, France . . . . 1722 
Dillingen, Swabia . . . 1565 
Dole, Bui-gunriy . . . 1422 

Dorpat 1632 

Douay, French Flanders . . 1568 
Dresden, Saxony . . . 1694 
Drumcondra (Catholic), Ire 

land 

Dublin (see Trinih/ Coller/c) . 
Edinburgh, founded by 

James VI 

Erfurt, Thiu'ingia ; enlarged 1390 
Erlangen .... 1743 
Evora, Portugal . . . 1533 

Florence, Italy, enlaigcd . 1439 



1S62 
1591: 

15S2 



UNI 



USH 



UNIVERSITIES, conliimcd. 



Frankfort-on-the-Odcr . . 

Francker .... 

Fribourg, Germiiny . . . 

Geneva 

Glasgow 

Gottiugcn .... 

Granada, Spain . . . . 

Gripswald .... 

Groningen, Friesland . . 

Halle, Saxony 

Heidelberg . . . . 

Helmstadt .... 

Ingoldstadt, Bavaria . . 

Jena, or Sala, Thuringia 

Kiel, Holstciu .... 

King's College, London (■!«/iicA 
see) 

Konigsberg, Prussia 

Leipsic, Saxony . . . 

Leyden, Holland . 

Liege 

Lima, in Peru 

Lisbon, 1290 ; removed to 
Coimbra 

London University {xrhicU see) 

Louvaine, Flanders, 926 ; en- 
larged 

Lyons, France . . . . 

Marburg 



1506 
1585 
1460 
1368 
1450 
1735 
1537 
1547 
1614 
1694 
1386 
1575 
1573 
1558 
1665 

1S29 

1544 
1409 

1575 
1816 
1614 



1426 



Mechlin, Flanders 
Mentz 
Jlontpellier 
Moscow, 1754 ; again 
Munich 



Munster 

Nancy 

Nantes . . , . . 

Naples 

I Orange 

j Orleans, France . . . 
; Oxford (see Oxford) . 1 

Paderborn 

I Padua, Italy .... 

Palenza, 1209; removed to 
Salamanca .... 

Palermo 

Paris, 792 ; renovated . 

Parma 

Pau 

Pa via, 1360 ; enlarged . . 

Perpignan . . . . 

Perugia, Italy . . . . 

Petersburg, St., 1747 ; again 

Pisa, 1343 J enlarged . . 

Poitiers 

Prague 

Queen's University (Ireland). 

Rheima, 1145; enlarged . . 



1440 
1477 



1826 
1491 
1769 
1460 
1224 
1365 
130S 
!o2(V) 
1592 
122S 

1249 
1394 
1200 
1482 
1722 
1599 
1349 
1307 
1S19 
1552 
1431 
1348 
1S50 
154S 



Rome 124s 

Rostock, Mecklenburg . . 1419 
Salamanca . . . .1239 

Salerno 1233 

Salzburg 1623 

Saragossa, Aragon . . . 1474 
Seville ..... 1504 
Sienna . . ... 1380 



Siguenza, Spain 

Sorbonne, France 

Strasbourg 

Stutgardt . 

Toledo, Spain . 

Toulouse 

Treves, Germany . 

Tubingen, Wirtemberg 

Turin . . . . 

Upsal, Sweden . 

Utrecht, Holland . 

Valence, Dauphino 

Valencia . 

Valladolid . 

Venice . 

Vienna 

Wittenburg . 

Wurtsburg . 

Wilna 

Zurich 



1517 
1253 
153S 
177s 
1499 
1229 
1473 
1477 
1 40s 
1476 
1636 
1454 
i2og 
1346 
1592 
1365 
1502 
1403 
1803 
1832 



UNIVERSITY BOAT-RACE. The contest between the universities of Oxford and 
Cambridge on the river Thames began in 1S29, and has been annual since 1S56. In 1S64, 
after 20 contests, the opposing parties were equal ; but on April 8, 1865, Oxford won for the 
fifth time in succession. 

UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, London. See London University and Oxford. 

UNIVERSITY ELECTIONS. See Dodson's Act. 

UNKNOWN TONGUES. See Irvingites, note. 

URANIUM, a brittle grey metal, discovered by Klaproth in 1789, in the mineral 
pitch-blende. It has lately been employed in the manufacture of glass for certain philoso- 
phical purposes. 

URANUS, a planet with six satellites, was discovered by William Herschel, March 13, 
1781, iirst called Georgiuni Sidus, after George III. ; next Herschel ; and finally Uranus. 
It is about twice as distant from the sun as the planet Saturn. The anniversary of its first 
revolution (in 84 years 7 days) since its discovery, was celebrated on March 20, 1865. Its 
perturbations led to the discovery of Neptune in 1846. 

URICONIUM. See Wroxeicr. 

URIM AND Thummim, Light and Perfection'. (Exodus xxviii. 30.) It is conjectured 
that these words are in some way connected with the breastplate worn by the high priest 
when he entered into the holy place, with the view of obtaining an answer from God 
(1420 B.C.). 

URSULINE NUNS (so called from St. Ursula), founded originally by St. Angela, of 
Brescia, in 1537. Several communities existed in England, and some still exist in Ireland. 

URUGUAY, a republic in South America, declared its independence, Aug. 25, 1825 ; 
recognised, Oct. 4, 1828. The president of the executive, G. A. Pereyra, elected in 1856, 
was succeeded in i860 by B. P. BeiTO. A civil war broke out in consequence of the invasion 
of the ex-president, general Florcs, June 26, 1863. On March i, 1864, the vice-president 
Aguirre became president, who refused (in June) to modify his ministry according to 
the desire of general Flores, who marched towards the capital in June. In Eeb. 1865, Flores 
became provisional president. Population in 1865, about 350,000. 

USHANT, an island near Brest, N. W. France, near which two naval battles were fought 
between tlie British and French ilcets. 



(i.) On July 27, 1778, after an indecisive action of I 
three hours, the latter, under cover of the night, 
withdrew into the harbour of Brest. Admii-al j 



Kcppel commanded the English fleet ; the count 
d'Orvilliers the French. The failure of a com- 
plete victory was attributed to adm. .'=ir Hugh 
3 c 2 



USH 756 VAG 



While the two fleets were engaged in this action, 
a lai-ge fleet of merchantmen, on the safety of 
which the French nation depended for its means 
of prosecuting the war, got safely into Brest 
harbour, which gave occasion to the enemy to 
claim the laurels of the day, notwithstanding 
their loss in ships, and in killed and wounded, 
which was very great. 



USHANT, continued. 

Palliser's non-compliance with the admiral's sig- 
nals. Palliser preferred articles of accusation 
against his commander, who was tried and 
acquitted, and the charge against him declared 
to be " malicious and ill-founded." 
(2.) Lord Howe signally defeated the French fleet, 
taking six ships of the line, and sinking one of 
large force, and several others, June 1, 1794. 

USURY was forbidden by parliament,^i34i. Until the 15th century, no Christians 
were allowed to receive interest of money, and Jews were the only usurers, and therefore 
often banished and persecuted (see Jcus). By the 37th of Henry Vlll. the rate of interest 
was fixed at 10 per cent. 1545. This statute was repealed by Edward VI. but re-enacted 
13th Eliz. 1570. See 7?ito'£!s< for later legislation. 

UTAH, a western territory of North America, was organised Sept. 9, 1850. The capital, 
Great Salt Lake city, is the chief seat .of the Mormonitcs {ivhich see). 

UTRECHT (the Roman Trajedumad Rhemim), was the seat of an independent bishopric ; 
founded about 695. The last prelate, Henry of Bavaria, weary of his turbulent subjects, 
sold his temporal government to the emperor Cliarles V. in 1528. The union of the Seven 
United Provinces began here (see United Provinces), 1579. The celebrated treaty of Utrecht, 
which terminated the wars of queen Anne, was signed by the ministers of Great Britain and 
France, and all the other allies, except the ministers of the empire, April 11, 1713. This 
treaty secured the Protestant succession in England, the separation of the French and Spanish 
crowns, the destruction of Dunkirk, the enlargement of the British colonies and plantations 
in America, and a full satisfaction for the claims of the allies. Utrecht surrendered to 
the Prussians, May 9, 1787 ; was possessed by the French, Jan. 18, 1795, and restored at 
the peace. 

V. 

VACCINATION" (from Variola Vaccina, the cow-pox), discovered by Dr. Edward Jenner. 
He was born in 1749, and educated for the medical profession, partially under John Hunter. 
Having heard that milkmaids who have had the cow-pox never take the small-pox, he, about 
1780, conceived the idea of vaccination, which was then ridiculed by eminent physiologists. 
He made the first experiment by transferring to a healthy cliild, in May 14, 1796, the 
pus from the pustule of a milkmaid who had caught the cow-pox from the cows. He 
announced his success in a memoir published, 1798, and vaccination became general in 1799, 
having been inti'oduced Jan. 21 in that year. Dr. Jenner received 10,000?. from parliament 
for the discovery, June 2, 1802, and 20,000?. in 1807. The fir.st national institution for the 
promotion of vaccination, called the Royal Jennerian Institution, was founded Jan. 19, 1803. 
The emperor Napoleon valued this service of Dr. Jenner to mankind so highly, that he 
liberated Dr. Wiclcham, when a prisoner of war, at Jenner's request, and subsequently whole 
families of English ; making it a point to refuse him nothing that he asked. Vaccination, 
although much opposed on moral and religious grounds, was practised throughout all Europe 
previou.sly to 1816. Dr. Jenner died in 1823.* The Vaccination Act, 3 & 4 Vict, passed 
July 23, 1840. Vaccination was made compulsory in England in 1853, and in Ireland and 
Scotland in 1863. See SmaJl-pox and Inoculation. An important blue-book, entitled 
"Papers on the History and Practice of Vaccination," edited by Mr. John Simon, was 
published by the Board of Health in 1857. 

VADIMONIAN LAKE ; here, the Romans totally defeated the Etruscan.?, 283 B.C. 

VAGRANTS. By law, after being whipped, a vagrant was to take an oath to return to 
the place where he was born, or had last dwelt for three years, 1530. A vagrant a second 
time convicted, to lose the upper part of the gristle of his right ear, 1535 ; and a third time 
convicted, death. A vagabond to be marked with a V, and be a slave for two years, 1327. 
Vagrants were ptmished by whipping, gaoling, boring the cars, and death for a second 
offence, 1572. The milder .statutes were those of 17 Geo. II. ; 32, 35, and 59 Geo. III. 
The present Vagrant Act was passed in 1824. 

* Dr. Jenner died suddenly in 1823. A statue subscribed for by all nations, was erected to his memory 
in Trafalgar- square, April 30, 1858, in the presence of the prince consort. It was removed to Kensington 
in 1862. Another statue was erected by the French at Boulogne, and inaugurated Sept. 11, 1865. 



VAL 757 VAN 

VALENCAY, a chateau near Cliatcauroux, Central France, where Napoleon I. imprisoned 
Ferdinand of Spain from iSoS to 1813. His kingdom was restored to Ferdinand by a treaty 
signed Dec. 8, 1813. 

VALENCIA (E. Spain), the Valcntia Edctanorum of the Romans. Its university was 
founded, it is said, in the I3tli century, and was revived in the 15th. Valencia was taken 
by the earl of Peterborough in 1705, but submitted to the Bourbons after the unfortunate 
battle of Almanza, in 1707. — It resisted the attempts made on it by marshal Moncey, but 
was taken from tlie Spaniards with a garrison of more than 16,000 men, and immense stores, 
by the French under Suchet, Jan. 9, 1S12. 

VALENCIENNES (N. France). Tliis city (founded about 399 B.C.) was besieged from 
May 23 to July 26, 1793, wlien the French garrison surrendered to the allies under the duke 
of York. It was retaken, together with Conde, by the French, Aug. 27-30, 1794; on 
capitulation, the garrison and 1 100 emigrants were made prisoners, with immense stores. 

VALENTINE'S DAY (Feb. 14'). Valentine is said to have been a bishop, who suHered 
martyrdom under Claudius II. at Home ; others say under Aurelian, in 271. 618,000 letters 
passed througli the post-ollice on Feb. 14, 1S56. The origin of the ancient custom of 
'* choosing a valentine " has been much controverted. See Post. 

VALENTINIANS, fcdlowers of Valentine, a priest, who, on being disappointed of a 
bishopric, forsook the Christian faith, declaring there were thirty gods and goddesses, fifteen 
of each sex, which he called /Eones, or Ages. He taught in the 2nd century, and published 
a gospel and psalms : his followers added other errors. 

VALMY (N. E. France). Here the French, commanded by Kellerman, defeated the 
Prussians, commanded by the duke of Brunswick, Sept. 20, 1792. The victory was of 
immense moral advantage to the Republicans. 

VALOIS, House of. See France, 1328. 

VALTELINE (Switzerland), now part of Austrian Italy. Here took place a general 
massacre of the Protestants by the Roman Catholics, who revolted against tlie government, 
July 20, 1620. It began at Tirano, extended to all the district, and lasted three days. 

VALVASOR. Tiie first dignity beneath a peer, was anciently that of vidames, 
viccdomini. or xcilvasors. Valvasors are mentioned by our ancient lawyers as viri magna 
dignitatis, 'and sir Edward Coke speaks highly of them. Now, the first personal dignity 
after the nobility is a knight of the order of St. George or of the Garter. Blackstonc. 

VANADIUM (from Vanadis, the Scandinavian Venus), a metal discovered by Sefstrom, 
in 1830, combined with iron ore. A similar metal, discovered in lead ore by Del Rio m 
1801, and named Erythronium, was proved by Wohler to be Vanadium. 

A^ANCOUVER'S ISLAND, North Pacific ocean, near tlie main land. Settlements were 
made here by the English in 1781, which were seized by the Spaniards in 1789, but 
restored By a treaty between the British government and that of the United States 111 
1846 this island was secured to the former. It has become of much greater importance 
since the discovery of gold in the neighbouring main land in 1858, and the consequent 
establishment of the colony of British Columbia {which sec). Victoria, the capital, was 
founded in 1857. 

VANCOUVER'S A'OYAGE. Captain Vancouver served as a midshipman under captain 
Cook and was appointed to command during a voyage of discovery, to ascertain the existence 
of any navic^able communication between the North Pacific and North Atlantic oceans. He 
sailed in 1790, and returned Sept. 24, 1795. He compiled an account of this voyage of 
survey of the north-west coast of America, and died in 1798. 



their 



VANDALS, a Germanic race, attacked the Roman empire in the 3rd century, and began 
uieir ravaf'es in Germany and Gaul, 406-414 ; their kingdom in Spain was founded in 411 ; 
under Genseric they invaded and conquered the Roman territories in Africa, and took 
Carthage, Oct. 24, 439. They were subdued by Belisarius in 534. They were driven out 
by the Saracen Moors. 

VANDAL KINGS IN AFRICA. 

429. Genseric (see iUck\uibnrg). I 484- Gundamund. I 5=3- ^ilderic. 

477. nunneric. 1 495- Thonsmund. | 531- Gclimer. 



VAN 75S VEG 

VAN DIEMEN'S LAND was discovered by Tasman in 1633. Hence a part is called 
Tasmania. It was visited by Furneaux in 1773 ; by captain Cook in 1777 ; and was deemed 
the south extremity of New Holland (now Australia) until 1799, when Flinders explored 
Bass's Straits, and proved Van Diemeu's Land to be an island. A British settlement was 
established on the south-east part, within the mouth of the Dcrwent, in 1804, and named 
Hobart Town, or Hobarton, now the seat of government. This island was made a convict 
colony of Great Britain, whither many of our remarkable transports have been sent. 
Governor, col. Thos. Gore Browne (1862). Population in 1857, 81,492 ; in 1859, 84,080, 

VARENNES, a town in N. E. France, is celebrated by the arrest of Louis XVL, his 
queen, sister, and two children. They fled from the Tuileries on June 21, and were 
taken here on the 22nd, 1791, and conducted back to Paris, mainly through Drouet the post- 
master at an intermediate town, who recognised the king. 

VAPtNA, a fortified town and seaport in Bulgaria, European Turkey. A great battle 
was fought near this place, Nov. 10, 1444, between the Turks under Amurath IL and the 
Hungarians under their king, Ladislaus, and Jolin Hunniades. The latter were defeated 
with great slaughter : the king was killed, and Hunniades made prisoner. The Christians 
had previously broken a recent truce. — The emperor Nicholas of Russia arrived before Varna, 
the head-quarters of his army, then besieging the place, Aug. 5, 1828. The Turkish 
garrison made a vigorous attack on the besiegers, Aug. 7 ; and another on the 2 1st, but were 
repulsed. Varna surrendered, after a sanguinary conflict, to the Russian arms, Oct. 11, 
1828. It was restored at the peace in 1829 ; its fortifications were dismantled, but have 
since been restored. — The allied armies disembarked at Varna, May 29, 1854, and remained 
there till they sailed for the Crimea, Sept. 3 following. "While at Varna they suffered 
severely from cholera. 

VASSY (N.E. France). The massacre of the Protestants at this place by the duke of 
Guise on March I, 1562, led to the civil wars which desolated France to the end of the 
century. 

VASSALAGE. See Feudal Laws and Slavery. 

VATICAN HILL (Rome) became the scat of the papal government about 800. The 
pope's palace is said to contain 7000 rooms, rich in works of art, ancient and modern. The 
library, founded by pope Nicholas V., 1448, is exceedingly rich in printed books and 
MSS. — Pistolesi's description of the Vatican, with numerous plates, was published 1S29-38. 
— The phrase "Thunders of the Vatican " was first used by Voltaire, 1748. — The ancient 
Vatican Codex of the Old and New Testament in- Greek was published at Rome in 1857. 

VAUDOIS. See Waldeiiscs. 

VAUXHALL BRIDGE, constructed of iron under the direction of Mr. Walker, at an 
expense of about 150,000?. (to be defrayed by a toll). The first stone M'as laid May 9, 181 1, 
by prince Charles, eldest son of the duke of Brunswick ; and the bridge was opened on 
June 4, 1 816. 

VAUXHALL GARDENS, London, were so denominated from the manor of Vauxhall, or 
Faukeshall ; but the tradition, that this house or any other adjacent was the property of Guy 
Fawkes, is erroneous. The premises were the property of Jane Vaux in 1615, and the 
mansion-house was then called Stockden's. From her it passed through various hands, till 
it became the property of Mr. Tj^ers in 1752. There is no certain account of the time when 
these premises were first opened for the entertainment of the public : but the Spring Gardens 
at Vauxhall are mentioned in the Spectator as a place of gr-eat resort (171 1). Some writers 
of accoimts of London suppose 1730 to be the first year of the opening of Vaxixliall Gardens, 
which succeeded Ranelagh Gardens. The greatest season of Vairxhall was in 1823, when 
133,279 persons visited the gardens, and the receipts were 29,590?. The greatest number 
of persons in one night w^as Aug. 2, 1833, when 20,137 persons paid for admission. The 
number on the then sujyposcd last night, Sept. 5, 1S39, was 1089 persons. Vauxhall was 
sold by auction, Sept. 9, 1841, for 20,200?. The last performances at Vauxliall took place 
on July 25, 1859. The ground has been sold for buildhig purposes. 

VEDAS, the sacred books of the Hindoos, in Sanskrit, were probably written about 
1000 E.G. Veda means knowledge. These books comprise hymns, prayers, and liturgical 
formula. The edition by professor Max Miiller, printed under the patronage of the East 
India Company, appeared in 1S49-62. 

VEGETABLES for the table were brought from Flanders, about 1520. See Gardening. 



VEG 



759 



YEN 



yEGETAKIAN" SOCIETY, whose members restrict themselves to a vegetable diet, held 
their fifteenth anniversary in London, on Sept. 4, 1862. 

VEHJIIC TKIBUXAL {VeJwigericIde or FeJimgerichie), secret tribunals established in 
Wcstplialia to maintain religion and the public peace, had their origin in the time of 
Charlemagne, and rose to importance about 1182, when Westphalia became subject to the 
archbishop of Cologne. Persons of the most exalted rank were subjected to their decisions, 
being frequently seized, tried, and executed. The emperors endeavoured to suppress them, 
but did not succeed till the i6th century. Sir "VV. Scott has described them in "Anne of 
Geierstein." A remnant of this tribunal was abolished by Jerome Bonaparte, king of 
West])halia, in iSii, 

YEII, an independent Latin city near Rome. Between the Eomans and Ycientes 
frequent wars occurred, till Veil was utterly destroyed, 388, B.C. The Koman family, the 
Fabii, who had seceded from Home for political reasons, were surprised and destroyed at the 
river Cremera, by the Ycientes, 477 B.C. A siege of Yeii by the Eomaus lasted from 405 to 
396 B.C. 

YELLORE (3.E. India), became the residence of the family of the dethroned sultan of 
Mysore, and was strongly garrisoned by English troops. The revolt of the Sepoys, in 
whicli the family of the late Tippoo took an active part, took place July 10, 1806. The 
insurgents were subdued by colonel Gillespie, and mostly put to the sword : 800 Sepoys 
were killed. 

YELOCI PEDES, vehicles of German construction, first appeared in England in April, 
1818, and obtained the name from being impelled by the feet with great celerity, the mover 
of the vehicle sitting astride upon it as upon a rocking-horse. 

YENDEE. See La Vendee. 

YENEZUELA, the seat of a South American republic. When the Spaniards landed 
here in 1499, they observed some huts built upon piles, in an Indian village named Cora, in 
order to raise them above the stagnated water that covered the plain ; and this induced them 
to give it the name of Yenezuela, or Little Yenice. Tins state in July, 18 14, declared in 
congressional assembly the sovereignty of its peojile, whicli was recognised in 1818. It 
formed part of the republic of Columbia till 183 1, when it separated from the federal union, 
and declared itself sole and independent. General D. T. Monagas was elected in 1855 
president, and continued so till March, 1858, when a revolution broke out, and Don Jose 
Castro became president, wdio also was compelled to resign in Aug. 1859 ; and Dr. Pedro 
Gual assumed the government. A new constitution was promulgated in Dec. 1858. General 
Jose Paez was elected president, Sept. 8, 1861. He resigned on June 17, 1863, and Juan 
E. Falcon succeeded him, June 17. General Febres Cordero protested and setup a rival 
government at Porto-Cabello, which broke up in October following. Marshal J. E. Falcon, 
was sworn as president, June 8, 1S65. The population in 1859 was about one million and 
a half. See Columbia. 

VENI, VIDI, r/6Y,— "I came, I saw, I conquered." See Zc^a. 

YENICE (IST. Italy). The Yeneti inhabited its site when it was made a kingdom by the 
Gauls, who concjuered it about 356 B.C. Marcellus reconquered it for the Roman republic, 
and slew the Gaulish king, 221 B.C. Popidation of the city of Yenice in 1857, 118,172, 



Venice, founded by families from Aquileia and 
Padua fieeiiig from Attila, about . a.d. 

Fir.st doge (or duko) chosen, Anafcsto Paululio, 

Hisbopiic founded 

The Rialto made the seat of government . . 

Venice becomes independent of the eastern 
empire, and acquires the maritime cities of 
Dalmatia and Istria 997 

Its navy .and commerce increases . . looo-iioo 

Bank of Venice established .... 

Crete purchased 

The Venetians defeat the Genoese near Negro- 
pont 

War with Genoa. 1293 ; the Venetian fleet is 
destroyed, and peace concluded . . . 

The doge Andi-ea Dandolo defeats Louis of 
Hungary at Zai-a 

Venice helps in the Latin conquest of Constan- 
tinople, .and obtahis power in the East, 1204 ; 
severe contc.-rt with Genoa. ... 13 



452 
697 
733 
811 



IIS7 
1205 

1263 



1346 



The doge Marino Falioro is accused of con- 
spiracy and belieaded 

The Venetians lose Istria and Dalmatia 
War with the Genoese, who defeat the Vene- 
tians at Pola, and advance against Venice, 
which is vigorously defended . . . . 
The Genoese fleet is captured at Chiozza . 

And peace concluded 

Venice takes an active part in the Italian war, 1425^54 
The city suffers from the plague ; . . 1447 

War with the Tiu-ks ; Venice loses many of its 

eastern possessions 1461-77 

The Venetians take Athens, 1466 ; and Cyprus 1475 
Venice helps to overcome Charles VIII. of 



I3S5 
1358 



1377 
1380 



France 



1495 



Injured by the discovery of America (1492), and 
the passage to the Indies .... 1497 

The Venetians excite the Turks against the 
emperor Charles V. • iS^A- 

And are nearly ruined by the league of Cambray 150S 



^EN 760 |VER 

VENICE, continued. 

'^^^^^^':''^^^^^^^'^- ^"x I Tl^-^^le of Ven-e annexed to ihe k.^gdon: 

De.structive fire at Venice ." ai? v -^ 7 ^^? ^'"^",*T "I P^^^^urg . . . i8c6 

TI.Ki.Ito bHd.e and tL Pia.a di Ban M..co ^"^ j ^I^Jc^^J^S^^^;:^^ ''^^'^^^^^^^^f Xt 
^-^J^i^''-' °^'^-^- conten,pt..ons„ ^^ , "^Z^^^^^^ II^^^^^^^ ^ 

''rdSnihTDLSes'''"^'^^^ '''* '^^°'^''^'"= ^7\^ consequence of the Italian war in fssl'tbe ^'^^ 
The Turks take Cand a ' " " " ' ]%' \ P^^ntry has heen much disorgamsed,%nd 
Venice recovers part of the Morea' . ' ' x68. ^ ' iTfo x T ^'''°"' en^igrated in 

[\enice has had 122 doges: Anafesto 697 to 
Luigi Manin, 1797.] 



treaty of Campo Formio, gives part of its 
territory to Austria, and annexes- the rest to 
the Cisalpine republic . 



VENTILATOES were invented by tlie rev. Jh: Hales, and descriljcd to the Eoyal Society 

Mr Cw^l',1 ^"\ '^^\' '"^^ '^"' ^'^^^lif °^- ^'' '^'' '''' «f' ^1"^^« ^^-'^ ann Juiced by 
v..;? ' . ^«^'""\^"-' ««nie year. The marquess of Chabanne^s ]dan for M-armin- and 

ventilating theatres and houses for audiences was applied to those of London in iSiq "Se 

^^ as published in ib^b. A commission on warming and ventilation issued a report in 1859. 

in /TSJx^W^?^^T (speaking from the belly). The phenomena are evidently described 
mJsaia/ixxix 4. Among eminent ventriloquists were baron Mengen and M. St Gille 
about 1772 (whose experiments were examined by a commission of the French academv/- 
Thomas King (about 1716) ; Charles Matthews (1824) ; and M. Alexandre (1822). ^^^ 

rA.y^^y^' .■""■ *'■''"''* °7^i" ^^'^ '''" °" ^^°^- 24, 1639, ^vas first ascertained by Horrox in 
S.t' cS mnri"";"r^ Maskelyne observed her -tmnsit at St. Helena, Ji?ne 6; 176 
Ve us June^ -60"' T ;^T'^V '^'' ^f ^f.^"''. to Otaheite, to observe a transit of 

Asia. °" ^' '^^4. m^y l^e observed in Eastern Europe and in 

th.Ti?^'^ CRUZ (Mexico\ built about 1600 ; was taken by the Americans in 1S47 and bv 
the allies m 1861 during the intervention. ^'' ^ 

VERMONT a Northern State in North America, was settled by the French 1724-^r • 
and ceded to Gi-eat Britam n 1763; and freed from the authority of New YoJlf ai d 
admitted as a state of the Union in 1791. •'^ > 

VERNEUIL(N.W France), the site of a battle fought Aug. 17, 1424, between the 
Bui-gundians and English under the regent duke of Bedfordfand tlie Fi5nch, assis ed Iw e 
Scots commanded by the count de Narbonne, the earls of Douglas and Buchai &c ^T le 
French at first wei-c successful; but some Lombard auxiliaries, who had taken the Enih 
camp commenced pillaging. Two thousand English archers Jame then fresh to the at ack 
and the French and Scots were totally defeated, and their leaders killed. ' 

VERNON GALLERY The inadequate manner in which modern British art was renre- 
sented in the National Gallery was somewhat remedied in 1847 by the munificent resent to 

riV' "p -t"! ^' t ; ^°t/'* ^ "'"°"| '^ " '?^^''''''' °f '57 pictures, all but two b nfby fi st? 
rate British artiss. They were first exhibited at Mr. Vernon's house in Pall Mali next in 

?Sfi^T" tl 'if'' 1 't' ^^'T'^ ^9•'^"^'■^'' "iterwards at Marlborough House and 'are now 
(865) at the South Kensington Museum. In 1857, Mr. John Sheepshanks followed M, 
Vernon's example. See Sheepshanks' Donations. oneepsnauks lollowed Mi. 

1 -iT^^^T^.^ ^^- -^^c^^'^ Tr^' ^°""/^"^ ^y ^^^« ^^"^« 0^- Etruscans. The amphitheatre wis 
built by Ti us, A.r.. 82. Verona has been the site of many conflicts. On Sept 27 480 
Theodoric defeated Odoacer Icing of Italy. About 1259 Mlstino della Scala was elected 
podestk; and his descendants (the Scahgeri) ruled, till subdued by the Visconti dukes of 
Milan. Verona was conquered by the Venetians, 1405, and held bj' them witl some inter 
missions till 1 .s cap 11 re by the French general Massena, June 19, 1796. Near to it cSes 
Albert of Sardinia defeated the Austrians, Mav a iSzi8 Vprnr,o JT,.). „f + V ^r^"'^^ 
Austrian fortresses termcd.the Quadrangl^, orVJ.'aSteraT aM "err life rpeTS^fs 
Joseph, on July 12, 1859, in an order of the day announced to his army that he must Si 
.upport""" "^f-vourable to his policy, and thanked his people ^and army for ?idr 



VER 761 YIC 

VEKSAILLES, Palace of (near Paris). In the reign of Lonis XIII. Versailles -was 
only a small village, in a foicst thirty miles in circuit ; ancl here this prince Luilt a hunting- 
seat, ahout 1632. Louis XIV. between 1661 and 1687 enlarged it into a niagnilicent palace, 
whicli became the usual residence of the kings of France. Here was held the military- 
festival of the royal guards, Oct. i, 17S9, which was immediately followed (on the 5tli and 
6th) by the attack of tlie mob, who massacred the guards and brought the king back to- 
Paris. It was afterwards the residence of Louis-Philippe, and is still a royal palace. The 
liistorical gallery was opened in 1837. By the treaty of peace between Great Britain and 
British North America, signed at Paris, the latter power was admitted to be a sovereign and 
independent state, Sept. 3, 1783. On the same day a treaty was signed at Versailles 
between Great Britain, France, and Spain, by which Pondicherry and Carical, with other 
possessions in Bengal, were restored to France, and Triucomalee restored to the Dutch. 

VEPiSE. See Poetry. Snrrey's translation of part of VirgiVs ^neid into hla7iTc verse, is- 
the first English composition of the kind, omitting tragedy, extant in the English language 
(published in 1547). The verse previously used in our grave compositions was the stanza of 
eight lines, the ottava rima, (as adopted with the addition of one line by Spenser (in his 
Fac'V!/ Queen), who probably borrowed it from Ariosto and Tasso. Boccaccio introduced it 
into Italy in his Teseicle, having copied it from the old French cJumsons. Trissino is said ta 
have been the first introducer of blank verse among the moderns, about 1508. Vossiiis. 

VESPEES. See Skilian Vespers. In the house of the French ambassador at Black- 
friars, in London, a Jesuit was preaching to upwards of three hundred persons in an upper 
room, the floor of which gave way with the weight, when the whole congregation was 
precipitated to the street, and the preacher and more than a hundred of his auditory, chiefly 
persons of rank, were killed. This catastrophe, termed the Fatal Vc.tjjers, occurred Oct. 26, 
1623. Siino. 

VESTA. The jilanct Vesta (the ninth) was discovered by Dr. Olbers, of Bremen, on 
March 29, 1S07. She appears like a star of the sixth magnitude. 

VESTALS were priestesses of Vesta, who took care of the perpetual fire consecrated to 
her worship. The mother of Eomulus was a vestal. Numa, in 710 B.C. appointed four, and 
Tarquin added two. After the expulsion of the Tarquins, the high-priest was entrusted 
with the care of them. Minutia was buried alive for breaking her virgin vow, 337 B.C. ; 
Sextalia, 274 B.C. ; and Cornelia Maximiliana, A.D. 92. 

VESUVIUS. By an eruption of Mount Vesuvius, the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum 
(vjJiich see) were overwhelmed a.d. 79, and more than 250,000 persons perished, among them 
Pliny the naturalist. Kumerous otlier disastrous eruptions have occurred. In 163 1 the 
town of Torre del Greco, with 4000 persons, and a great part of the surrounding countrj^, 
were destroyed. One of the most dreadful eruptions ever known took place suddenly, 
Nov. 24, 1759. The violent burst in 1767 was the 34tli from the time of Titus. One in 
1794 was most destructive : the lava flowed over 5000 acres of rich vineyards and cultivated 
land, and the town of Torre del Greco was a second time burned ; the top of the mountaiir 
fell in, and the crater is now nearly two miles in circumference. Eruptions in May 1855, 
May and June 1858, and June 1S59, caused great destruction, and in the spring and summer 
of i860. A series of violent eruptions causing much damage occurred in Dec. 1861, and in. 
Feb. 1865. Torre del Greco was again destroyed in 1861. 

VETERINARY COLLEGE, London, was established at Camden-town, 1791 ; and 
Albert Veterinary College was opened in 1865. 

VICE, The. An instiumcnt of which Archytas of Tarentum, disciple of Pythagoras, is 
said to have been the inventor, along with the pulley and other implements, 420 B.C. 

VICE-CHANCELLOR or ENGLAND, an eqinty judge, appointed by parliament, first 
took his seat. May 5, 1S13. A new court was erected about 1816, contiguous to Lincoln's- 
inn-hall. Two additional vice-chancellors were appointed under act 5 Vict. Oct. 1841. 
The ofiice of vice-chancellor ()/' Evgland ceased in August, 1850, and a third vice-chancellor 
was appointed in 1851, when two more equity judges, styled lords justices, were appointed. 

vice-cuancellobs or England. 

1813. Sir Thomas Plumer, April 13. I i?27. Sir Anthony Hart, Jlay 4. 

i8i8. Sir John Leach, Jan. 13. | 1827-50. Sir Lancelot Shadwell, Nov. i, the last. 

VICKSBURG. &CQ United Slates, 1S63. 



VIC 



7G2 



YIC 



VICTORIA, fonnovly Port Phillip (Australia), situated between New South AVales and 
Soiitli Australia, the most successful colony in that region. In 1798, Bass, in his wliale-boat 
expedition, visited Western Port, one of its harbours ; and, in 1802, Flinders sailed into 
Port Phillip Bay. 



Colonel Collins lands witli a party of convicts 
with the intention of founding a settlement 
at Port Phillip, but afterwards removed to 
Van Diemen's Land 1S04 

Messrs. Hume and Hovell, two stock-owners 
from New South Wales, explore part of the 
country, but do not discover its great advan- 
tages 1824 

Mr. Henty imports some sheep from Van 
Diemen's Land 1834 

Mr. John Batman enters between the heads of 
Port Phillip, and purchases a large tract of 
land from the aborigines for a few gewg.aws 
and blanlvcts. He shortly after, with fifteen 
associates from Hobarton, took possession of 
600,000 acres in the i^resent Geelong countiw. 

May, 1835 

The Launceston Associates and 5Ir. John Pascoe 
Fawkener ascend the Yarra-Yarra (or ever- 
flowing) river, and encamp on the site of 
Melbourne ,, 

The colonists (450 in number) jsossess 140,000, 
sheep, 2500 cattle, and 150 horses ; sir R. 
Bourke, governor of New South Wales, visits 
the colony, determines the sites of towns, 
and causes the land to be sui-veyed and re- 
sold, setting aside many contending claims ; 
he appoints captain Lonsdale chief-magis- 
trate. Sec Melbourne 1837 

The colony named Victoria .... 1839 

Its prosperity brings great numbers to it, and 
induces much speculation and consequent 
embaiTassmeiit and insolvency . . . 1841-2 

Mr. C. J. Latrobe appointed heutenaut-goveraor 
under sir G. Gipps 1S39 

The province declared independent of New 
South Wales ; a reward of 200?. offered for 



the discovery of gold in Victoria, which was 
soon after found near Melbourne, and was 
profitably worked .... Aug. 

7000 persons were at Ballarat, Oct. ; 10,000 
round Mount Alexander . . Nov. 

From Sept. 30 to Dec. 31, 1851, 30,311 ounces of 
gold were obtained from Ballarat ; and from 
Oct. 29 to Dec, 31, 94,524 ounces^fi'om Mount 
Alexander — total 124,835 ounces. 

The production was still verj^ great . 

Iminense immigi-ation to Melbourne. See Mel- 
hourne 

A I'cprosentative constitution granted 

Sir Henry Barkly appointed governor . . . 

The ijarliament was opened . . Nov. 26, 

Four administrations had been formed in 1857- 

Exhibition of the products of the colony opened 
by the governor Oct. i. 

Sir Charles Darling appointed governor. May : 
arrives Sept. 10, 

Great opposition to reception of convicts in any 
part of Australia; a ship containing them 
sent back Oct. 

Important land act passed . . March 22, 

The assembly passes the new government tariff, 
Jan., which is rejected by the legislative 
council ; the governor raises money for the 
public service irregularly . . . July, 

The crisis still continues ; appeal to the queen 
proposed Oct. 

Parliament prorogued . . * . Deo. 

Population of the colony in 1836,224; in 1841, 
11,738; in 1846, 32,879; in 1851, 77,345; 
Dec. 31, 1852, about 200,000; in March 1S57 
there were 258,116 males and 145,403 females ; 
in all 403,519. In 1S59, in all 517,366 ; in 1861, 
540,322. 



1852 
1855 
1856 
1857 
i860 

1 861 



1865 



VICTORIA. See Ilong Kong and Vancouver's Island. 

VICTORIA CROSS, a new order of merit, instituted to reward the gallantry of persons 
of all ranks in the army and navy, Feb. 5, 1856. It is a Maltese cross made of Russian 1 
cannon from Sebastopol. The queen conferred the honour on 62 persons (of both services) | 
on Friday, June 26, 1857 ; and on many of the Indian army, Aug. 2, 1858. 

VICTORIA PARK (E. London), was originated by an act passed in 1841, which enabled 
her majesty's commissioners of woods and forests to purchase certain lands for a royal park, 
with the sum of 72,000?. raised by the same act, by the sale of York-house to the duke of 
Sutherland. The act described the land to be .=0 purchased, containing 290 acres, situate 
in the parishes of St. John, Hackney ; St. Llatthew, Bethnal-grecn ; and St. Mary, 
Stratford-le-bow, at the east end of London. The park was completed, and opened to the 
public in 1845. 

VICTORIA RAILWAY-BRIDGE, on the tubular principle, over the St. Lawrence, 
Montreal, erected by Mr. James Hodges, under the .superintendence of Mr. Robert Stephen- 
.son and Mr. A. M. Ross, engineers, was completed and formally opened, Aug. 25, i860. It 
forms part of the Grand Trunk railway, which connects Canada and the seaboard states of 
North America. The length is about sixty yards less than two English miles, and about 7| 
times lonri-er than Waterloo bridge, and ten times longer than new Chelsea bridge ; the 
heioht sixty feet between the summer level of the river and the under surface of the central 
tub°. It is supported by 24 piers. The cost was 1,700,000?. On Jan. 5, 1855, while 
constructing, the bridge was carried away by floatujg ice, but the stonework remained 
firm. 

VICTORIA, Steam-Packet. Injured on the Thames on her first voyage by explosion 
of the boiler, April 1837. Sailed from Hull, for St. Petersburg, on Nov. i, 1852, and 
haviuT encountered a dreadful gale of wind, in which she damaged her machinery and 
ricfo'iu"- was obliged to return to Hull, where her injuries were repaired, and whence she 



YIC 



763 



YIE 



again sailed on the 7th of same montli. She had scarcelj' put to sea wlien another storm 
arose, more violent than the lirst, whereby she was a second time severely crippled, and in 
that slate, the tempest continuing to rage with unabated fury, she neared the Wingo Beacon, 
off Gottcnburg, on the rocks round which she struck, and was instantly wrecked. JMany 
of the crew and passengers were drowned ; the remainder with difficulty saved their lives, 
Nov. S-9, 1852. She was a splendid ship, and her disastrous fate excited the deepest 
sorrow in England, Gottenburg, and St. Petersburg. The storm in which this vessel was 
lost, was perhajis the most terrible of the many that made the winter of 1852-3 memorable. 

VICTORIA EEGIA, the magnificent water-lily, brought to this country from Guiana by 
sir Robert Schomburgk, in 1838, and named after the queen. Fine specimens are at the 
Botanic Gardens at Kew, Regent's Park, &c. It was grown in the open air in 1855, by 
Messrs. Weeks, of Chelsea. 

VICTORY, Man-of-War, of 100 guns, the finest first-rate ship in the navy of England, 
was lost in a violent tempest near the race of Alderney, and its admiral sir John Balchen, 
and 100 gentlemen's sons, and the whole crew, consisting of 1000 men, perished, October 8, 
1744. — The Victory, the Hag-ship of Nelson at the battle of Trafalgar, Oct. 21, 1S05, is kept 
in fine preservation at Portsmouth. 



VICTUALLERS, an ancient trade in England. 
founded 1437 ; their hall rebuilt in 1823. 



The Vintners' company of London was 



None shall sell loss than one full quart of the 
best beer or ale for id. and two quarts of the 

smaller sort for id 1603 

The power of licensing public - houses was 
granted to sir Charles Mompesson and sir 

Francis Mitchel 1621 

The number in England then was about 13.000. ,, 
In Great Britain about 76,000 public-houses . 1790 
England, 59,335 ; Scotland 15,081 ; Ireland, 

14,080 ; total, 88,496 in 1850 

Public-houses allowed to be opened on Sundays 
;_ from the hour of half -past twelve till half-past 



two in the day-time and from sis till ten in 

the evening 1848 and 1S54 

The prescribed time enlarged .- . , . 1855 
127,352 licences were issued for the sale of beer, 
cider, and perry in the United Kingdom, pro- 
ducing a revenue of 304, 688^ ; and 93,936 
licences for the sale of spirits : revenue, 

560, 557^ 1S5S 

Licensed Victuallers' School established . . 1803 
Licensed Victuallers' Asylum established, 

Feb 22, 1827 



VICTUALLING OFFICE (London), managed the victualling of the royal navy; was 
instituted December, 1663. The number of commissioners was five, afterwards seven, and 
then reduced to six. The various departments on Tower-hill, St. Katherine's, and Rother- 
hithe, were removed to Deptford in Aug., 1785, and the office to Somerset-house, 1783. In 
1832, tlie office of commissioners was abolished, and the victualling office made one of five 
departments under the lords of the admiralty. 

VIENNA (the Roman Vindehona), was capital of the margraviate of Austria, 984; capital 
of the German empire, 1278 ; and since 1806 the capital of the Austrian dominions only. 
Population in 1857, 476,222 ; in 1865, about 560,000. See Austria. 



Vienna made an imperial city in . . .1136 

■Walled and enlarged with the ransom paid for 

Richard I. of England, 4o,ooo( 1194 

Besieged lay the Turks under Solyman the Mag- 
nificent, with an army of 300,000 men ; but he 
was forced to raise the siege with the loss of 

70,000 of his best troops 1529 

Besieged July— Sept. 1683 

The siege raised by John Sobieski, king of 
Poland, who totally defeats the Turkish army 

of 100,000 Sept. 12, ,, 

Vicuna taken by the French under prince Murat, 

Nov. 14, 1805 

Ev.acuatcd Jar>- 12, 1806 

Again captured by the French . May 13, 1809 
Kcstorcd on the conclusion of peace Oct. 14, ,, 



Congress of sovereigns at Vienna . Nov. 1814 

The revolt in Hungary induces an insurrection 
in Vienna ..... March 13, 1848 

The emperor retires. May 17 ; but returns, 

, Aug. „ 

A second insurrection : count Latour, the war 
minister, is murdered .... Oct. 6, ,, 

The emperor again takes flight . Oct. 7, ,, 

Vienna is bombarded by Windischgriitz and 
Jellachich, Oct 28 ; its capitulation Oct. 30, ,, 

Conferences respecting the Russo-Turkish war 
held at Vienna * 1S53-5 

The fortifications demolished, and the city en- 
larged and beautified 1857-8 

The imperial parliament (Rcichsrath) assembles 
here May 31, 1S60 



* A conference of the four great powers, England, Fr.anco, Austria, and Prussia, was held July 24, 
■when a note was agreed on and transmitted for acceptance to St. Petersljurg and Constantinople, July 31. 
This note was accei'tcd by the czar, Aug. 10, but the sultan required modifications, which were rejected by 
Russia, Sept. 7. The sultan's note (Dec. 31) contained four points :— i. The promptest possible evacuation of 
the principalities. 2. Revision of the treaties. 3. Mainten.anceofreligiousprivilegcsto the communities of all 
confessions. 4. A definite settlement of the convention i ospecting the holy places. It was approved by the 
four powers, and the conferences closed on Jan. I'o, 1S54.— A new contcrence of plenipotentiaries from 



VIE 



7C4 



VIN 



VIENNA, continued. 

TREATIES OF VIENNA. 

The treaty between the emperor of Germany and 
the king of Spain, by which they ctaifirmcd to 
each other such parts of the Spanish dominions 
as they were respectively possessed of; and by a 
private treaty the emperor engaged to employ a 
force to procure the restoration of Gibraltar to 
Sjiain, and to use means for placing the Pretender 
on the throne of Great Britain. Spain guaranteed 
the Praginatio Sanction. April 30, 1725. 

Treaty of alliance between the emperor of Germany, 
Charles VI., George II., king of Great Britain, and 
the states of Holland, by which the Pragmatic 
Sanction was guaranteed, and the disputes as to 
the Spanish succession terminated. (Spain acceded 
to the treaty on the 22nd of July.) Signed 
March 16, 1731. 

Treaty of Peace between the emperor Charles VI. of 
Germany and the king of France, Louis XV., by 
which the latter power agreed to guarantee the 
Pragmatic Sanction, and Lorraine was ceded to 
Franco. Signed Nov. 18, 173S. See Pragmatic 
Sanction. 

Treaty between Napoleon I. of France and Francis 
(II. of Germany) I. of Austria, by which Austria' 



ceded to France the Tyrol, Dalmatia, and other 
territories, which were shortly afterwards declared 
to be united to France under the title of the 
lUyrian Provinces, and engaged to adhere to the 
prohibitory system adopted towards England bj' 
France and Russia. Oct. 14, 1809. 

Treaty between Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and 
Prussia, confirming the principles on which they 
had acted by the treaty of Chaumont, March i, 
1814. Signed March 23, 1815. 

Treaty between the king of the Netherlands on the 
one part, and Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and 
Prussia on the other, agreeing to the enlargement 
of the Dutch territories, and vesting the sove- 
reignty in the house of Orange. May 31, 1815. 

Treaty by which Denmark ceded Swedish Pomerania, 
and Rugen to Prussia, in exchange for Lauenburg. 
June 4, 181 5. 

Commercial treaty for twelve years between Austria 
and Prus.sia. Signed at Vienna, Feb. 19, 1853. 

Treaty for the maintenance of Turkey signed by the 
representatives of Great Britain, France, Austria, 
and Russia, signed April 9, 1854. 

Treaty between Austria and Prussia, and Denmark, by 
which Denmark ceded the duchies, Oct. 30, 1864. 



VIGO (N.-W. Spain) was attacked and burned by tlie English in 1589. Sir George Rooke, 
with the combined Eno;li.sh and Dutch fleets, attacked tlie Frencli fleet and tlie Spanish 
galleons in the port of Vigo, ■vvhen several men of war and galleons were taken, and many 
destroj^cd, and abundance of plate and other valuable effects fell into the hands of the 
conquerors, Oct. 12, 1702. Vigo Avas taken by lord Cobham in 17 19, but relinquished after 
raising contributions. It was again taken by the British, March 27, 1809. 

VILLA FRANCA (in Portugal), here the British cavalry, under sir Stapleton Cotton, 
defeated the French cavalry of marshal Soult (April 10, 1812) and freed Estremadura. — 
Villa Fiianca, a small port on the Mediterranean, near Genoa, was bought for a steam- 
packet station by a Russian com]iany, about Aug. 1858, which caused some political excite- 
ment. — At Villa Fjjanca, in Lombard}'^, the emperors of France and Austria met on 
July II, 1859 (after the battle of Solferino), and on July 12 signed the preliminaries of 
peace, the basis of the treaty of Zurich {luhick sec). 

VILLAIN. See Slavery in England. 

VIMEIRA (in Portugal), where the British under sir Arthur Wellesley defeated the 
French and Spanish forces under mar.shal Junot, duke of Abrantes, Aug. 21, 1808. The 
attack made with great bravery, was gallantly repulsed ; it was repeated by Kellerman at 
the head of tlie French reserve, which was also repulsed ; and the French being charged 
with the bayonet, withdrew on all points in confusion, leaving many prisoners. 

VINCENT, Cafe St. (S.-W. Portugal). Admiral Rooke, with twenty men-of-war, and 
the Turke}"- fleet under his convoy, was attacked by admiral Tuurvillo, with a force vastly 
superior to his own, off Cape St. Vincent, when twelve English and Dutch men-of-war, and 
eighty merchantmen, were taken or destroyed by the French, June 16, 1693. Near here 
admiral Rodney destroyed several Sjianish ships, Jan. 16, 1780. (See Hodneij's Victories.) 
The celebrated battle was fought Feb. 14, 1797, between the Spanish and British fleets off 
the Cape. The latter commanded by admiral sir John Jervis, who took (after a well-fought 
battle) four line-of-battle ships, and considerably damaged the rest of the Spanish fleet, 
Feb. 14, 1797. Two of the captured ships were of 100 guns each, and the other two each of 
74. From this Cape the earl had his title. 

VINCENT'S, St. (West Indies), long a neutral island; but at the peace of 1763, the 
French agreed that the right to it should be vested in the English. The latter soon after 
engaged in a war against the Caribs, on the windward side of the island, who were obliged to 



Great Britain (loi'd John Russell), France (M. Drouyn de I'Huys), Austria (count Buoll, Turkey (Arif 
Efifendi), and Russia (count Gortschakoff), took place March, 1854. Two points, the protectorate of the 
principalities and the free navigation of the Danube, were agreed to ; but the proposals of the i:)Owers as to 
the reduction of the Russian power in the Black Sea were rejected hy the czar, and the conference closed, 
June 5, 1S55. The Engli-sh and French envoys' assent to the Austrian propositions was not approved of by 
their governments, and they both resigned their otficial positions. 



VIN 7Go YIR 

consent to a peace, by which they ceded a hxrge tract of land to the British crown. In 1779 
the Caribs greatly contributed to the reduction of this island by the French, who, however, 
restored it in 1783. In 1795 the French landed some troops, and again instigated the 
Caribs to an insurrection, which was not subdued for several months. The great eruption of 
the Scouffrier mountain, after the lapse of nearly a century, occurred in 181 2. Po}iulatiou 
in 1861, 31,755. 

VINCENT DE PAUL, St., Chakitable Society, founded in 1833, in France, by 
twelve young men. It extends its extremely beneficial operations even into Britain. Its 
power excited the jealousy of the French government, which suppressed its central committee 
at Paris, in Oct, 1S61. 

VINE.* The vine was planted by Noah 2347, B.C. Gen. ix. 20. A colony of vine- 
dressers from Phocea, in Ionia, settled at Marseilles, and instructed the South Gauls in 
tillage, vine-dressing, and commerce, about 600 B.C. Some think the vines are the abori- 
gines of Languedoc, Provence, and Sicily, and that they grew spontaneously on the 
Mediterranean shores of Italy, France, and Spain. The vine was carried into Champagne, 
and part of Germany, by the emperor Probus, about a.d. 279. The vine and sugar-cane were 
2:>lanted in Madeira in 1420. The vine was planted in England in 1552 ; and in the gardens 
of Hampton-court-palace is air old and celebrated vine, said to surjiass any known vine iu 
Europe. See Graiyes and Wine. The Tokay vines were planted iu 1350. 

VINEGAR. Known nearly as early as wine. The ancients had several kinds of vinegar, 
which they used for drink. The Roman soldiers were accustomed to take it in their 
inarches. The Bible represents Boaz, a rich citizen of Bethlehem, as providing vinegar for 
liis reapers (13 12 B.C.), a custom still j)revalent in Spain and Italy. 

VINEGAR-HILL (near Enniscorthy, in Wexford, S.-E. Ireland). Here a sanguinary 
conflict took place between the British troops, commanded by Lake, and the Irish insurgent 
forces, June 21, 1798. The rebels suff'ered a severe defeat, though they claimed the victory 
from their having killed so many of the king's troops. 

VINTNERS. See riduallcrs. 

VIOL AND Violin. The lyre of the Greeks became our harp, and the viol of the middle 
ages became the violin. The violin is mentioned as early as 1200, in the legendary life of 
St. Christopher. It was introduced into England, some saj^, by Charles II. Straduarius 
(or Stradivarius) of Cremona was a renowned violin-maker (1700 to 1722). 

VIRGIN MARY. The Assumption of the Virgin is a festival in the Greek and Latin 
churches, in honour of the miraculous ascent of Mary into Heaven, according to tlieir belief, 
Aug. 15, A.D. 45. The Presentation of the Virgin is a feast celebrated Nov. 21, said to have 
been instituted among the Greeks in the nth century; its institution in the West is 
ascribed to pope Gregory XI. 1372. f See Annunciation and ConceiMon, Immaculate. 

VIRGINIA. .See Rome, 449 B.C. 

VIRGINIA, the first British settlement in North America, was discovered by John 
Cabot in 1497, and was taken possession of and named by Raleigh, after the virgin-queen 
Elizabeth, July 13, 15S4. Vain attempts were made to settle it in 1585. Two expeditious 
were formed by patent in 1606, and others in 1610. In 1626, it reverted to the crown ; and 
a more permanent colony was established soon afterwards. George Washington was delegate 
for Virginia in the congress of 1774. Eastern Virginia seceded from the Union, April 25, 
1861, but Western Virginia declared for the Union, Feb. 13, and elected a governor, 
Feb. 20, 1 86 1. Virginia was the chief seat of the war. See United States and Richmond. 

* Vine Disease. In the spring of 1845, Mr. E. Tucker, of Marijate, observed a fungus (since named 
O'idiuni Tdcfcfri) on grapes in the bot-bousos of Mr. Slater, of Margate. It is a whitish mildew, and totally 
destroys the fruit. The spores of this o'iUum were found in the vineries at Versailles in 1847. The disease 
soon reached the trellised vines, and in 1850 many lost all their produce. In 1852, it spread over France, 
Italy, Spain, Syria, and in Zante and Cephalnnia attacked the currants, reducing the crop to one-twelfth of 
the usual amount. Tbrougli its ravages, the wine manufacture in .Madeira ceased for several years. 
Many attempts have been made to arrest the progress of the disease, but witliout much effect. Sulphur 
dust is the most efficacious remeily. The disease bad much abated in France, Portugal, and Madeira (1863). 
In 1862 Califomian vines were introduced into the two latter. 

+ "The Indian incarnate god Chrishna, the Hindoos beheve, had a virgin-mother of the royal race, 
and was sought to be destroyed in his infancy, about 900 years b.c. It appears that he passed his life in 
working miracles and preaching, and was so humble as to wash his friends' feet : at length dying, but rising 
from the dead, he ascended into heaven in the presence of a multitude. The Cingalese relate neai-ly the 
same things of their Buddha." Sir William Jones. 



YIS 7QG VOL 

VISCONTI, the name of a noble Italian family, which ruled in Milan from 12S7 to 1447 ; 
the heiress of the family was married to Fraucesca Sforza, afterwards duke of Milan. 

VISCOUNT ( Vice Comes), anciently the name of an office under an earl, who being 
oftentimes required at court, was his deputy, to look after the affairs of the county. The 
first viscount in England created by 'patent was John, lord Beaumont, whom Henry VI. 
created viscount Beaumont, giving him precedence above all barons, Feb. 10, .1440. 
Ashmole. This title, however,"is of older date in Ireland and France. John Barry, lord 
Barry, was made viscount Buttevant, in Ireland, 9 Rich. II. 1385. Bcatson. 

VISIER, Grand, an officer of the Ottoman Porte, first appointed about 1326. The 
office was abolished in 1838. 

VISIGOTHS, separated fi-om the Ostragoths about 330. See Goths. The emperor 
A'^alens, about 369, admitted them into the Roman territories upon the condition of their 
serving when wanted in the Roman armies ; and Theodosius the Great permitted them to 
form distinct corps commanded by their own officers. In 400, under Alaric, they invaded 
Italy, and in 410 took Rome. They founded their kingdom of Toulouse, 414 ; conquered 
the Alani, and extended theirVule into Spain, 414 ; expelled the Romans in 468 ; and finally 
Avere tliemselves conquered by the Saracens under Muza, in 711, when their last king Roderic, 
was defeated and slain. See Spain for a list of the A^isigothic kings. Their rule in France 
ended with their defeat by Clovis at Vougle, in 507, 

VITTORIA (K Spain), the site of a brilliant victory obtained by "Wellington over the 
French army commanded by Joseph Bonaparte, king of Spain, and marshal Jourdan, 
June 21, 1813. The hostile armies were nearly equal, from 70,000 to 75,000 each. After a 
long and fearful battle, the French Avere driven, towards evening, through tlie town of 
Vittoria, and in their retreat were thrown into irretrievable confusion. Th6 British loss was 
twenty-two officers and 479 men killed ; 167 officers and 2640 men wounded. Marshal 
Jourdan lost 151 pieces of cannon, 451 waggons of ammunition, all his baggage, provisions, 
cattle, and treasure, with his baton as a marshal of France. Continuing the pm'suit on the 
25th, Wellington took Jourdan's only remaining gun. 

VIVARIUM. See Aquavivarium. 

VIVISECTION", physiological experiments upon living animals, having much increased, 
the Societies for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals in Dresden and Paris in 1859 requested 
the opinion of a committee of eminent scientific men on the merits of the knowledge thus 
acquired. Their judgment was not unanimous. The London Society took up the question 
in i860 ; and printed a pamphlet by Mr. G. Macilwain against vivisection. In Aug. 1862 
an international conference to discuss the question was held at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham.* 

VOLCANOES. In difterent parts of the earth there are above 200 volcanoes which 
have been active in modern times. See Mna, Vesuvius, and Iceland. In Mexico a plain 
was filled up into a mountain more than a thousand feet in height by the burning lava from 
a volcano, in 1759. A volcano in the isle of Ferro broke out Sept. 13, 1777, which threw 
out an immense quantity of red water, that discoloured the ^sea for several leagues. A new 
volcano appeared in one of the Azore islands. May i, 1808. 

yOLSCI, an ancient Latin people, frequently at war with the Romans. From their 
capital, Corioli, Cains Martins (who defeated them about 490 B.C.) derived his name 
Coriolanus. The story of his banishment by his ungrateful countrymen ; of his revenge 
on them by bringing the Volsci to the gates of Rome, yet afterwards sparing the city at the 
entreaties _ of his mother, Volumnia (487 B.C.), is considered by many as a poetical legend. 
The Volsci were finally subdued and incorporated into the Roman peojile about 338 B.C. 

VOLTxilC PILE, OR Battery, was constructed in consequence of the discoveries of 
Galvani (see Galvanism in article Electricity). The principle was discovered by Alessandro 
Volta, of Como (born 1745), for thirty years professor of natural philosophy at Pavia, and 
announced by him to the Royal Society of London in 1793. The battery was first set up in 
iSoo. Volta was made an Italian count and senator by Napoleon Bonaparte, and was 
otherwise greatly honoured. While young he invented the electrophorus, electric pistol, and 
hydrogen lamp. He died in 1826, aged 81. The form of the Voltaic battery has been 
greatly improved by the researches of modern philosophers. The nitric acid battery of 
Mr. W. R. Grove was constructed in 1839 ; the carbon battery of Professor Robert Bunsen 
in 1842. The former is very much used in this country ; that of Bunsen on the continent. 

•11 L^i^" Cliarles Bell's opinion of vivisection was, that it either obscured the subject it was meant to 
Illustrate, or misled men into practical ei-rors of the most serious character. 



VOL 



7G7 



VOL 



VOLTURNO, a river ia S. Italy, near Capua, near to which Garibahli and his followers 
held a strong position. This was furious^ly assailed by the royal troops on Oct. i, i860, who 
were finally repulsed after a desperate struggle, the fiercest in which Garibaldi had yet been 
engaged. He was aided greatly by a band of Piedmontese from Naples. On Oct. 2 general 
Bixio completed the victory by capturing 2500 fresh Neapolitan troops and dispersing others. 

VOLUNTARY CONTRIBUTIONS. Public contributions for the support of the British 
government against the policy and designs of France amounted to two millions and a half 
sterling in 1798. About 200,0007. were transmitted to England from India in 1799. Sir 
Eobcrt Peel, of Bury, among other contributions of equal amount, subscribed io,oooZ. 
Annual Register. See Patriotic Fund. In 1862 nearly a million pounds were subscribed in 
the British empire for the relief of the Lancashire cotton spinners. See Cotton. 

VOLUNTEERS. This species of force was formed in England in consequence of the 
threatened invasion of revolutionary France, March 1794. Besides our largo army, and 
85,000 men voted for the sea, we subsidised 40,000 Germans, raised our militia to 100,000 
men, and armed the citizens as volunteers. Between the years 1798 and 1S04, when this 
force was of greatest amount, it numbered 410,000, of which 70,000 were Irish.* On 
Oct. 26, 1803, king George III. reviewed in Hyde Park 12,401 London volunteers, and on 
Oct. 28, 14,676 more. The English volunteers were, according to official accounts, 341,600 
on Jan. i, 1804. ^&e Naval Volunteers. In May, 1859, in consequence of the prevalence of 
the fear of a French invasion, the formation of volunteer corps of riflemen commenced under 
the auspices of the government, and by the end of the year many thousands were enrolled in 
all parts of the kingdom. 



[The first Middlesex; volunteers were formed in 
1803 as the duke of Cumberland's sharp- 
shooters. They retained their organisation 
as a rifle club, when other volunteers were 
disbanded. In 1835 they were permitted by 
the duchess of Kent to take the name of the 
Royal Victoria Rifle Club.] 

Nat ional Volunteeer Association for promoting the 
practice of Rifle-shooting, was established in 
London, under the ixxtronage of the qiieeu 
and prince consort, Jtr. Sidney (afterwarJs 
lord) Herbert, secretary at war, i^residcnt, 
and the earl of Derby and other noblemen 
vice-presidents. (Annual subscription one 
guinea, or acompositionforlifeof tenguincas.) 

Nov. 16, 

2300 Volunteer ofF-cers presented to the queen ; 
a dinner followed, with the duke of Cam- 
bridge in the chair : and a ball . March 7, 

The queen reviews about 18,450 volunteers in 
Hyde-park. June 23, 

[Mr. Tower, of Wealdhall, Essex, aged 80, was 
present as a pi-ivate ; he had been present as 
an officer in a volunteer review in 1803.] 

First meeting of the National Association for 

rifle shooting held at Wimbledon ; captain 

Edwd. Ross obtained the queen's prize of 

250^. and the gold medal of the association, 

July 2-7, 

[M. Thorel, a Swiss, obtained a prisie. | 

Successful sham-fight at Bromley, Kent, 

July 14, 

Above 20,000 volunteers reviewed by the queen 
at Edinburgh Aug. 7, 

Above 10,000 Lancashire volunteei-s reviewed 
by tlie earl of Derby at Knowsley . Sept. i. 

Lord Herbert .stated that the association had a 
capital of 3000/. and an annual income of 1 500/. 

Feb. 16, 



1B59 
1 060 



Volunteers in Britain estimated at about 160,000 

May, 

Second meeting at Wimbledon ; Jlr. Jopling 
gains the queen's prize and the association 
medal July 4-10, 

Review of 11,504 vohmtcers at Wimbledon, 
July 13 ; of 9000 at Warwick . . July 24, 

Registered number of volunteers 162,681, 

April I, 

20,000 volunteers reviewed by lord Clyde at 
Brighton April 21, 

Third meeting at Wimbledon ; Mr. Pixley gains 
the queen's jirize, &c. . . July 1-14, 

A commission recommends that an annual grant 
of either 20s., 30.?., or 34s. be given to each 
volunteer according to circumstances . Oct. 

Fourth meeting at Wimbledon, Jul3'' 7, &c. ; 
queen's prize, &o., won by sergeant Roberts 
of the 12th Shropshire rifle volunteers, 

July 14, 

An act to amend and consolidate the acts 
relating to the volunteer force of Great 
Britain was passed . . . July 21, 

22,000 volunteers reviewed by the prince of 
Wales in Hyde-park (great improvement 
noticed) May 28, 

Fifth meeting at Wimbledon, July 11, &c. ; the 
queen's prize, &c., won by private John 
Wj'att of the London rifle brigade July 23, 

Volunteers estimated at 165,000 in 1S64. 

Reviews and sham fights on Easter Mondays, 
near Brighton, April 5, 1863 ; near Guildford, 
Maixh 28, 1864; near Brighton . April 17, 

Sixth meeting at Wimbledon, began July n; 
the queen's prize was won by private Sharman 
of the 4th West York Rifle Vohmtcers, July 
18 : the meeting ended with a review by the 
duke of Cambridge . • . July 22, 



1S63 



1865 



* The first regiment of Irish volunteers was formed at Dublin, under command of the duke of Leinster, 
Oct. 12, 1779. They armed generally to the amount of 20,000 men, and received the unanimous thanks of 
the houses of lords and coinmons in Ireland, for their patriotism and spirit, for coming forward and 
defending their country. At the period when the force appeared, Irish affairs bore a serious aspect ; 
mauufacfures had decreased, and foreign trade had been hurt by a prohibition of the export of salted 
provisions and butter. No notice of the complaints of the people had been taken in the English parliament, 
when, owing to the alarm of an invasion, ministers allowed the nation to arm, and an immense force was 
soon raised.°The Irish took this occasion to demand a free trade, and government saw there was no trifling 
with a country with arms in its hands. The Irish parliament unanimously addressed the king for a free 
trade, and it was granted, 1779. 



vos 



763 



WAG 



VOSSEM, Peace of, between the elector of Brandenburg and Louis XIV. of France ; 
die latter engaged not to assist the Dutch against the elector ; signed June 6, 1673. 

VOUGLE, or Vouille, S.-W. France (near Foitiers), where Alaric II. king of the 
Visigoths, was defeated and slain by Clovis, king of France, 507. Clovis immediately after 
subdued the whole country from the Loire to the Pyrenees, and thus his kingdom became 
firmly established. A peace followed between the Franks and Visigoths, who had been 
•settled above one hundred years in that pari of Gaul called Septimania. Clovis soon after- 
wards made Paris the capital of his kingdom. Henault. 

VOYAGES. By order of Pharaoh-necho, of Egypt, some Phcenician inlots sailed from 
Egypt down tlie Arabian Gulf, round what is now called the Cape of Good Hope, entered the 
Mediterranean by the Straits of Gibraltar, coasted along the north of Africa, and at length 
arrived in Egypt, after a navigation of about three years, 604 E.c. — Herodotus. The first 
voyage round the world was made by a ship, part of a Spanish squadron which had been 
luider the command of Magellan (who was killed at the Philippine Islands in a skirmish) in 
1519-20. See Circumnavigators and North-Wcst Passage. 

VULGATE (from Yulgatus, published) a term applied to the Latin version of the 
Scriptures, which is authorised by the council of Trent (1546), and which is attributed to 
St. Jerome, about 384. The older version, called the Italic, is said to have been made in 
the beginning of the 2iid century. Critical editions of the Vulgate were printed by order of 
pope Sixtus Y. in 1590, and of pope Clement V. in 1592 and 1593. (The former was 
suppressed as imperfect.) The Latin Bible called the Meutz Bible was printed in 1460. 



W. 



WADHAM COLLEGE, OxFor.D. Founded by Nicholas Wadham, esq. and Dorothy, 
his M'ife, in 1613. In this college, in the chambers of Dr. Wilkins (over the gateway), the 
Ro3'al Society frequently met prior to 1658. 

WAGER OF BATTLE. See Aijpeal 

WAGES IN ENGLAND. The wages of sundry workmen were first fixed by act of 
parliament 25 Edw. III. 1350. Haymakers had but one penny a day. Master carpenters, 
masons, tilers, and other coverers of houses, had not more than 3f^. per day (about ^d. of 
our money) ; and their servants i ^el. Vincr's Statutes. 



By the 23rd Hen. VI. the wages of a bailiff of 
husbandry was 23s. ^d. per annum, and 
clothing of the price of $s. with meat and 
drink ; chief hind, carter, or shepherd, 20s , 
clothing, 4s. ; common servant of husbandry, 
15s., clothing, ^od. ; -woman-servant, los., 
clothing 4s. 14 

By the nth Hen. VII. a like rate of wages with 
a little advance : as, for instance, a free 



mason, master carpenter, rough mason, 
bricklayer, master tiler, plumber, glazier, 
carver or joiner, was allowed from Easter to 
Michaelmas to take 6d. a day without meat 
and drink ; or, with meat and drink, 4d. : 
from Michaelmas to Easter, to abate id. A 
master having under him six men was allowed 
id. a day extra 



149s 



WAGES OF IIARYEST-MEN IN ENGLAND AT DIFFERENT PERIODS 



Tear. 
In 1350 . 
In 1460 
In 156S . 
In 1632 
In 1688 . 



s. d. 

per diem o i 



Tear. 
In 1716 . 
In 1740 
In 1760 . 
In 1788 
In 1794 . 



per diem 



Year. 
In 1800 
In 
In 
In 1857 



1811 



s. d. 

. per 'diem 2 o 



WAGGONS were rare in the last century. Tliey, with carts, &c., not excepting those 
used in agriculture, were taxed in 1783. The carriers' waggons are now nearly superseded 
by the railways. 

WAGHORN'S NEW OVERLAND ROUTE to INDIA. Lieut. Waghorn devoted a 
large portion of his life to connect India witli England. On Oct. 31, 1845, he arrived in 
London, by a new route, with the Bombay mail of the ist of that month. His despatches , 
reached Suez on the 19th, and Alexandria on the 20th, whence he proceeded by steamboat || 
to a place twelve miles nearer London than Trieste. He hurried through Austria, Baden, "I 
Bavaria, Prussia, and Belgium, and reached Loudon at half-past four on the morning of the 



WAG 769 WAL 

first-mentioned day. The authorities of the different countries through which he passed 
eagerly facilitated his movements. The ordinary express, via Marseilles, reached London 
Nov. 2 following.* Mr. "Waghorn subsequently addressed a letter to TAc Tmcs newspaper, 
in which he stated that in a couple of years he would bring the Bombay mail to Loudon in 
21 days. He died January 8, 1S50. 

WAGRAM, a village near Vienna, the site of a battle fought July 5-6, 1809, between 
the Austrian and French armies, in which the latter was completely victorious. The 
slaughter on both sides was dreadful : 20,000 Austrians were taken by the French, and the 
defeated army retired to Moravia. An armistice was signed on the 12th ; and on Oct. 24, 
by a treaty of peace, Austria ceded all her sea-coast to France ; the kingdoms of Saxony and 
Bavaria were enlarged at her expense ; part of Poland in Galicia was ceded to Russia ; and 
Joseph Bonaparte was recognised as king of Spain. 

WAHABEES, or Wahabites, a warlike Mahometan reforming sect, considering them- 
selves the only true followers of tlie prophet, arose in Arabia about 1750, under the rule of 
Abd-el-Wahab. His grandson, Saoud, in 1801, defeated an expedition headed by the caliph 
of Bagdad. In 1803 this sect seized Mecca and Medina, and continued their conquests, 
although their chief was assassinated in the midst of his victories. His son, Abdallah, long 
resisted Mahommed Ali, pacha of Egypt, but in 1818 he was defeated and taken prisoner by 
Ibrahim Pacha, who sent liim to Constantinople, where he was put to death. The sect now 
flourishing is well described by Mr. W. Gitlord Palgrave in his Journey and Residence in 
Arabia in 1862-3, published in 1865. 

WAITS, the night minstrels wlio perform shortly before Christmas. The name was 
given to tlie musicians attached to the king's court. We find that a company of waits was 
established at Exeter in 1400 to " pipe the watch." The waits in London and Westminster 
were long officially recognised by the corporation. 

WAKEFIELD (W. Yorkshire), the site of a battle between Margaret, the queen of 
Henry VI., and the duke of York, in which the latter was slain, and 3000 Yorkists fell 
upon the field, Dec. 31, 1460. The death of the duke, who aspired to the crown, seemed to 
fix the good fortune of Margaret ; but the earl of Warwick espoused the cause of the duke's 
son, the earl of March, afterwards Edward IV., and the civil war was continued. An art and 
industrial exhibition was opened at Wakefield, Aug. 30, 1865. 

WALBROOK CHURCH (London), reputed the masterpiece of sir Christopher Wren, 
completed in 1679. There was a church here in 1135, and anew church was erected in 1429. 

WALC KEREN EXPEDITION. This unfortunate expedition of the British to the 
island of Walcheren at the mouth of the Scheldt in Holland in 1809 consisted of 35 ships 
of the line, and 200 smaller vessels, principally transports, and 40,000 land forces, the 
latter under the command of the earl of Chatham, and the fleet under sir Richard Strachan. 
For a long time the destination of this expedition remained secret ; but before July 28, 
1809, when it set sail, the French journals had announced that Walcheren was the point of 
attack. Perhaps a more powerful and better appointed armament had never previously left 
the British ports, or ever more completely disap]iointed public expectation. Flushing was 
invested iu August; a dreadful bombardment followed, and the place was taken Aug. 15; 
but no suggestion on the part of the naval commander, nor urging on the part of tlie officers, 
could induce the earl to vigorous action, until the period of probable success was gone, and 
necessity obliged him to return with as many of the troops as disease and an unhealthy 
climate had spared. The place was evacuated, Dec. 23, 1809. The house of commons 
instituted an inquiry, and lord Chatham resigned his post of master-general of the ordnance, 
to prevent greater disgrace; but the policy of ministers in planning the expedition was, 
nevertheless, approved. The following epigram appeared at the time : — 

" Lord Chatham, with his sword undra^vn, Stood waiting for sir Richard Strachan ; 
Sir Richard, longing to be at 'em, Stood waiting for the earl of Chatham." 

WALDECK, a German principality, established in 1682. The reigning family claim 
descent from the Saxon hero, Witikiiid, who flourished about 772. The reigning prince, 
George Victor (born Jan. 14, 1831), succeeded his father, George, on May 15, 1845. 
Population, in Dec. 1861, 58,604. 

* The Overlnnd Mail, which h.ad left Bombay on Dec. i, 1845, .arrived early en the 30th in London, by 
way of Marseilles and Paris. This speedy arrival was owing to the great exertions made by the French 
government to show that the route through France was shorter and better. 

3 D 



WAL 



'\VAL 



AVALDENSES, a sect (also called Valdenses and Vaudois) iiilialjiting the Cottian Alps, 
derives its name, according to some authors, from Peter de Waldo, of Lyons (1170). They 
had a translation of the Bible, and allied themselves to the Albigenses, and were much vilified 
and persecuted, which led to the establishment of the Holy Office or Inquisition. Pope 
Innocent III. commissioned some monks to preach against the heresies of the Waldenses in 
ISTarbonne and Provence ; but the French bishops were at first jealous of this mission, armed 
as it was with great power, and the feudal chiefs refused to obey the orders of the legates, 1203-4. 
One of the monks, the first inquisitor, Peter Chateauneuf, having been assassinated, the 
aspiring pontiff called on all the neighbouring powers to march into the heretical district. 
All obstinate heretics were placed at the disposal of Simon de Montfort, commander of this 
crusade, and the whole I'ace of the "Waldenses and Albigenses were ordered to be pursued 
■with fire and sword. See Albigenses. They settled in the valleys of Piedmont about I375» 
but were frequently dreadfully persecuted, especially in the 17th century, when Charles I. of 
England interceded for them (1627-9), ^^'^^ Oliver Cromwell (1655-6), obtained them .some 
degree of toleration. They were permitted to have a church at Turin, Dec. 1853. 

WALES, called by the Eomans, Britannia Secimda. After the Roman emperor Hono- 
rius quitted Britain, Vortigern was elected king of South Britain. Ho invited over the 
Saxons, to defend his country against the Picts and Scots ; but the Saxons perfidiously sent 
for reinforcement.s, consisting of Saxons, Danes, and Angles, by which they made them- 
selves masters of South Britain. Many of the Britons retired to Wales, and defended 
themselves against the Saxons, in their inaccessible mountains, about 447. In this state 
Wales remained unconquered till Henry If. subdued South Wales in 1157 ; and in 1282 
Edward I. entirely reduced the whole country, putting an end to its independence by the 
death of Llewelyn, the last prince.* Tlie Welsh, however, were not entirely reconciled 
to this revolution, till the queen gave birth to a son at Caernarvon in 1284, whom Edward 
st3'led prince of Wales, which title the heir to the crown of Great Britain has borne almost 
ever since. Wales was united and incorporated with England by act of parliament, 1536. 
See Britain. 



443 



447-448 
517 



The supreme atithority in Britnnnia Secunda 
intrusted to Suetonius Paulinus . . . 

Conquests by Julius Frontinus .... 

Tlie Silures totally defeated 

The Roman, Julius Agricola, commands in 
Britain 

Bran ab Llyr, sumamed the Blessed, dies about 

Reigu of C'aswallon 

The ancient Britons defeat the Saxons 

The renowned Arthur elected king . 

Dy\'nwal Moelmud, a great monarch, comes 
from Armorica, and becomes king of the 
Cymry, about 

Beign of Roderic the Great .... 

He unites the petty states of Wales into one 
principality ; his death 

Division of Wales — into north, south, and cen- 
tral (or Powj's-land) 

The Welsh princes submit to Alfred . . . 

The Danes land in Anglesey .... 

Laws enacted by Howel Dha, prince of all 
Wales, about 

He acknowledges the supremacy of Athelstan . 

Civil wars at his death, about .... 

Great battle between the sons of Howel Dha 
and the sons of Edwal Voel; the latter 
victorious . . ^_ 

Edgar invades Wales 963 

Danes again invade Wales, and lay Anglesey 
waste ......... 

Devastations committed by Edwin, the son of 
Eineon 990 

The country reduced by Aedan, prince of North 

Wales 1000 

Aedan, the usurper, slain in battle by Llewelyn 1015 
Rhun, the fierce Scot, defeated near Caennar- 
then 1020 



877 



900 



952 



980 



The joint Irish and Scots forces defeated with 
great slaughter ...... 

Jchtyn, lord of Glamorgan, rebelling, is de- 
feated and sl.ain 

Part of Wales laid waste by the forces of Harold 

Rhys overthrown and slain .... 

William I. claims feudal authority over W.alcs . 

Rhys ab Owain slain 

Ravaging invasion of the earl of Chester . . 

Invasion of the Irish and Scots .... 

William I. invades Wales ... . . 

Battle of Ijlechryd 

[In this conflict the sons of Bleddyn ab Cynvyn 
were slain by Rhys ab Tewdwr, the reigning 
prince ] 

Rhys ab Tewdwr slain 

The Welsh destroy many Norman castles . . 

The formidable insurrection of Payne Tuber- 
viUe 

Invasion of the English under the carls of 
Chester and Shrewsbury 

The settlement in Wales of a colony of Flemings 

Violent .seizure of Nest, wife of Gerald de 
Windsor, by Owain, son of Cadwgan ab 
Bleddyn 

[This outrage entailed dreadful retribution on 
Cadwgan's family.] 

Cardigan conquered tiy Strongbow 

Cadwgan assassinated 

Gruffydd ab Rhys Lays claim to the sovereignty 

Another body of Flemings settle in Pembroke- 
shire ......... 

[The posterity of these settlers are still dis- 
tinguished from the ancient British popula- 
tion by their language, manners, and 
customs] 
Henry I. erects castles in Wales . . . . 



1055 
1056 
1070 
1074 
1079 
1080 
1081 
1087 



1087 
1092 



1096 
1 106 



* The statute of Wales, enacted at Rhuddlan, March 19, 1284, alleges that — "Divine Providence has 
now removed all obstacles and transferred wholly and entirely to the king's dominion the Land of Wales 
and its inhabitants, heretofore subject unto him in feudal right." The ancient laws were to he preserved 
m civil causes ; but the law of inheritance was to be changed, and the English criminal law to be put in 
force. Annals of England. 



WAL 



771 



WAL 



WALES, continued. 

Revolt of Owen Gwynned on the death of 

Henry I. ; part of South Wales laid waste . 1135 
The Welsh ravage the borders . . . .1136 
Strongbow, earl of Pembroke, invested with 

the powers of a connt palatine in Pembroke . 1138 
Henry II. invades Wales, which he subse- 
quently subdues, after a stout resistance by 

Owen Gwynned 1157 

ConfedeiMcy of the princes of Wales for the 

recovery of their Inst rights and independence 1164 
Prince Madoc said to have emigi-ated to America, 

about I I 69 

Anglesey devastated 1173 

The crusades preached in Wales by Baldwin, 
archbishop of Canterbury . . . . . 11S8 

Powys castle besieged ligi 

The earl of Chester makes an inroad into North 

Wales 1210 

King John invades Wales, laying waste a great 
part of the principalities .... 1211^12 

Revolt of the Flemings ..... 1220 

Llewelyn, prince of North Wales, commits 
great ravages . . . . . . . ,, 

Death of Maelgwy ap Rhys .... 1230 

I'owys castle taken by Llewcljm ap lorwcrth's 

forces " 1233 

William, carl of Pembroke, slain . . . 1234 
Prince David ravages the marshes, (fee. . . . 1244 

Invasion of Henry III. 1245 

Anglesey again devastated . . . . . ,, 
Jjlewelyn ap Griffith, the last prince . . . 1246 
Convention of the Welsh nobility against the 

English 1258 

Hay and Brecknock castles taken by prince 

Edward 1265 

Peace with the English 1267 

Edward I. summons Llewelyn to Westminster ; 
on his refusal to come, deposes him ; and 

invades Wales 1277 

Edward encamps a powerful army on Saltney 

marsh ,, 

The sons of Grufydd treacherously drowned in 
the river Dee, by the earl Warrenne and 

Roger Mortimer 1281 

Ha warden castle taken by surprise by Llewelyn 
and his brother David ; they destroy Flint 

and Rhuddlan castles 12S2 

Great battle between Llewelyn ap Grufydd, 
the last prince, and the English : Llewelyn 
slain, after the battle, by De Eranctan, 

Dec. II, ,, 
Wales finally subdued by Edward I., after a 
severe contest . . . . . . . ,, 

Prince David surrenders, and is executed as a 

traitor 1283 

The first English prince of Wales, son of Ed- 
ward, born at Caernarvon castle (see Princes of 

Wales, p. 772) April 25, 1284 

The insurrection of Llewelyn ap Madoc ; 

checked, 1294; suppressed .... 1316 
Great rebellion of Owaiu Glyndwr, or Owen 



Glcndowcr (grandson of the last prince, 
Llewelyn), commences ..... 1400 
Radnor and other places taken by Owain 
Glyndwr ........ 1401 

He besieges Caernarvon 1402 

And seizes Harlech castle ..... 1404 
Hai-loch castle retaken by the English forces . 1408 

Owain Glyndwi- dies 1415 

Margaret of Anjou, queen of Henry YL, takes 
refuge in Harlech castle ..... 1459 

Town of Denbigh burnt ...... 1460 

The earl of Richmond, afterwai-ds Henry VII., 
lands in Pembroke, and is aided by the 

Welsh Aug. 1485 

Palatine jurisdiction in Wales abohshed by 

Henry VIII 1535 

Monmouth made an English county by the 
same king ........,, 

The counties of Brecknock, Denbigh, and 

Radnor formed ,, 

Act for "laws and jiistice to be admini-stcred 
in W^ales in same form as in England," 

27 Henry VIII • . . ,, 

Wales incorporated into England by parliament, 1536 
Divided into twelve counties . . . . 1543 

Dr. Fcrrars, bishop of St. David's, bm-nt at the 
stake for heresy ...... 1555 

Lewis Owain, a baron of the excheqvier, at- 
tacked and murdered while on his assize tour ,, 
The bible and prayer-book ordered to be trans- 
lated into Welsh, and divine service to be 
performed in that language .... 1563 

First congregation of dissenters assembled in 
Wales ; Vavasour Powel apprehended while 

preaching 1620 

Beaumaris castle gan-isoned for king Charles I. 1642 
Powys castle taken by sir Thomas Myddelton, 

Oct. 1644 
Dr. Laud, formerly bishop of St. David's, be- 
headed on Tower-hill . . . Jan 10, 1645 
Surrender of Hawarden castle to the parlia- 
ment general Mytton . . . . • >, 
Charles 1. takes refuge in Denbigh . . . ,, 
Rhuddlan castle surrenders . . . . ,, 
Harlech castle surrenders to Cromwell's army 

under Mytton 1647 

Battle of St. Pagan's ; the Welsh to'ally de- 
feated by col. Horton, Cromwell's lieutenant, 

May 8, 1648 
Beaumaris castle siuTonders to Cromwell . . ,, 
Pembroke castle taken ; colonel Poyer shot,* 

April 25, 1649 
The French land in Pembrokeshire, and are 

made prisoners Feb. 1797 

Rebecca or " Becca" riots broke out against 
toll-gates, Feb. ; an old woman, a toll -keeper, 
was murdered Sept. 10 ; many persons were 
tried and punished .... Oct. 1843 
Subscriptions begun for establishing a imi- 
versity in Wales Dec. 1863 



SOVEREIGNS OF WALES. 



^140. Djwn'wal Moelmud, king of the Cymry. 

688. Idwallo. 

720. Rhodri, or Roderic. 



755. Conan. 

818. Meryyn. 

843. Roderic, surnamed the Great. 



• At the commencement of the civil war, Pembroke castle was the only Welsh fortress in the pos- 
session of the parliament, and it was entrusted to the command of col. Langharnc. In 1647, he, and 
colonels Powel and Poyer, embraced the cause of the king, and made Pembroke their head quarters ; 
after the defeat at St Pagan's, retired to the castle, followed by an army led by Cromwell. They 
capitulated, after having endured great sufferings from want of water. Langh.nrne, Powel, and Poyer 
were tried by a court-marti.al, and condemned to death ; hut Cromwell having been induced to spare the 
lives of two of them, it was ordered that they should draw lots for the favour, and throe papers were 
folded up, on two of which were written the words, " Life given by God ; " the third was Iclt blank. 
The latter was drawn by colonel Poyer, who was shot accordingly on the above mentioned day. Pennant. 

3 I) 2 



WAL 



772 



WAL 



WALES, continued. 

PRINCES OF NORTH WALES. 

877. Anarawd. 

913. Edwal Voel. 

939- Howel Dha the Good, prince of all Wales. 

948. Jevaf, or Jevav, and lago. 

972. Howel ap Jevaf. 

984. Cadwallon ap Jevaf. 

9S5. Meredith ap Owen ap Howel Dha. 

992. Edwal ap Meyric aji Edwal Voel. 
998. Aedan, a usurper. 

1015. Llewelyn ap Sitsyllt. 
1021. lago ap Edwal ap Meyric. 
1038. Griffith ap Llewelyn .ap Sitsyllt. 
1061. Bleddyn and Rygwallon. 
1073. Trahaern ap Caradoc. 
1079. Griffith ap Conan. 
1137. Owain Gwynedd. 
1169. David ap Owain Gwynedd. 
1 194. Llewelyn the Great. 
1240. David ap Llewelyn. 

1246. Llewelyn ap Griffith, last prince of the blood : 
Blain after battle, in 1282. 

PRINCES OF SOUTH WALES. 

877. Cadeth or Cadell. 

907. Howel Dha the good. 

948. Owain ap Howel Dha, his son. 

987. Meredith ap Owain. 

993. Llewelyn ap Sitsyllt. 

1021. Rytherch ap .Jestyn, a ustirper, 

1031. Hywel and Meredydd. 

1042. Rhydderch and Rhys, the sons of the usurper. 

1061. Meredydd ap Owain ap Edwyn. 

1073. Rhys ap Owain, and Rhydderch ap Caradoc. 

1077. Rhys ap TewdwrMawr. 

1092. Cadwgan ap Bleddyn. 

1 1 15. Griffith ap Rhys. 

1137. Rhys ap Grufydd, or Griffith. 

1196. Gnifydd ap Rhys. 

1202. Rhys ap Grufydd. 

1222. Owain ap Grufydd. 

1235. Meredith ap Owain ; he died in 1267. 



PRINCES AND LORDS OF POWYS-LAND. 

^77. Mervyn. 

900. Cadeth ; also prince of South Wales. 

927. Howel Dha the Good. 

985. Meredydd ap Owain. 



1061. Bleddyn ap CjTivyn. 
1073. Meredydd ap Bleddyn. 
1087. Cadwgan ap Bleddyn. 
1 1 32. Madoc ap Meredydd. 
1160. Griffith ap Meredydd. 



1256. Gwenwinwin, or Gwenwjiiwyn. 
,, Owain ap Grufydd. 

ENGLISH PRINCES OF WALES.* 

1301. Edward Plantagenet (afterwards king Ed- 
ward H.), son of Edward L,bom in Caer- 
narvon Castle on the 25th April, 1284. It 
is asserted that immediatelv after his birth 
he was presented by his father to the Welsh 
chieftains as their future sovereign, the king 
holding up the royal infant in his arms, and 
saying, in the Welsh langu.age, " Eick biin" 
literally in English, " This is yoiir man," 
but signifying " This is your countryman 
and king. " See however " Jch I)ien." 

1343. Edward the Black Prince. 

1376. Richard, bis son (.afterwards Richard II.) 

1399. Henry (aftei'wards Henry V.), son of Henry IV. 

1454. Edward, son of Henry VI. ; slain at Tewkes- 
bury, May 4, 1471. 

1471. Edward (aftei-wards Edward V.), eon of Ed- 
ward IV. 

1483. Edward, son of Richard III. ; died in 1484. 

1489. Arthur, son of Henry VII. ; died in 1502. 

1503. Henry his brother (afterwards Henry VIII). 

1537. Edwai-d, his son (afterwards Edward VI.) was 
duke of Cornwall, and not prince of Wales. 

1610. Henry Frederic, son of James I. ; died Nov. 6, 
1612. 

1616. Charles, his brother (afterwards Charles I.). 

1630. Charles, his son (afterwards Charles II.), never 
created prince of Wales. 

1714. George Augustus (afterwards George II.). 

1729 Frederic Lewis, his son ; died March 20, 1751. 

1751. George, his son (afterwards George III.). 

1762. George, his son (afterwards George IV.). 

1 841. Albert-Edward, son of queen Victoria. 

Travelled on the continent, and studied at 

Oxford and Edinburgh in 1859. 
Visited Canada, with the dignity of a viceroy, 

and the United St ites, 1S60. 
Entered the university of Cambridge in Jan ; 
attended the camp at Dublin, July to Sept. ; 
opened New Middle Temple Library, Oct. 31 ; 
1 861. 
Ordered to be prayed for as Albert-Edward, 
in.stead of Allaert, Jan. 8 ; visited 'the con- 
tinent, Syria, and Egypt, March — June ; 
Germany and Italy, Aug — Dec. 1862. 
Admitted to the house of peers, Feb. 5 ; a privy 

councillor, Dec. 8, 1863 
Married to piincess Alexandra of Denmark, 

March 10, 1863. 
Visited Denmark and Sweden, Sept. — Oct. 

1864. 
Issue: Albert - Victor, born Jan. 1864; 
George-Frederick, bom June 3, 1865. 



WALHALLA (the Hall of Glory), a temple near Ratisbon, erected by Louis, king of 
Bavaria, to receive the statues and memorials of the great men of Germany, commenced 
Oct. 18, 1830, and inaugurated Oct. 18, 1842. The name is derived from the fabled 
meeting-place of Scandinavian heroes after death. 

WALKING. See Pcdestrianism. 

WALLACHL4. See Dannhian Principalities. On Dec. 23, 1861, the union of 
Wallachia and Moldavia, under the name of Roumania, was proclaimed at Jassy and 
Bucharest. 



* W.ALES, Princess op. This title was held, some authors .say, during the early period of her life by 
the princess Mary of England, eldest daughter of Henry VIII., and afterwards queen Mary I. She was 
created, they state, by her father princess of Wales, in order to conciliate the Welsh people and keep alive 
the name and was, they add, the first and only princess of Wales in her own right ; a rank she enjoyed 
until the birth of a son to Henry, who was afterwards Edward VI., born in 1337. This is however denied 
by Banks. 



WAL 



773 



WAK 



WALLIS'S VOYAGE. Captain AVallis sailed from England on liis voyage round the 
world, July 26, 1766 ; and returned to England, May 19, 1768. 

WALLOONS, a people who fled to England from the persecution of the cruel duke of 
Alva, the governor of the Low Countries for Philip IL of Spain, 1566. A church was given 
to them by queen Elizabeth. 

WALLS. See Roman Walls. 

WALNUT-TREE has long existed in England.* The black walnut-tree {Jtujlans nigra) 
was brought to these countries from North America before 1629. 

WALPOLE'S ADMINISTPiATIONS. Mr. Walpole (afterwards sir Pvobert, and earl of 
Orford), was born in 1676 ; became secretary-at-war in 1708 ; was expelled the house of 
commons on a charge of misappropriating the public money, 171 1 ; committed to the Tower, 
Jan. 17, 1712 ; became first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exehecpxer in 171 5. 
He resigned, on a disunion of the cabinet, in 171 7, bringing in the sinking-fund bill on the 
day of his resignation. On the earl of Sunderland retiring in 1721, he resumed his office 
and held it till 1742. He died March 18, 1745. 



SECOND WALPOLE ADMINISTRATION (1721). I 

Sir Robert Walptile, first lord of the treasury. 
Thomas, lord Parker, created earl of Macclesfield, I 

lord cliancellor. 
Henry lord Carleton (succeeded by William, duke of 

Devonshire), lord president. 
Evelyn, diike of Kingston (succeeded by lord Trevor), 

X>ircy seal. 
James, earl of Berkeley, /«J lord of the admiralty. 



Charles (viscount Townshend), and John, lord 
Carteret (the latter succeeded by the duke of 

. Newcastle), secretaries of state. 

Duke of Marlborough (succeeded by the earl of 
Cadogajj), ordnance. 

George Treby (succeeded by Henry Pelham), secrc- 
tary-at-war. 

Viscount Torrington, kc. 



WALTZ, the poj^ular German national dance, was introduced into England by barou 
Neuman and others in 1813. Jiaikcs. 

AYANDSWORTH, near London. Here was opened Wandsworth meeting-house, the 
first jilace of worship for dissenters in England, Nov. 20, 1572. In Garrett-lane, near this 
I)lace, a mock election of a mayor of Garratt was formerly held, after every general election 
of parliament, to which Foote's dramatic piece. The Mayor of Garratt (1763), gave no small 
celebrity. 

WAR, called by Erasmus "the malady of i)rinces." Osymandyas of Egypt, the first 
wai'like king ; he passed into Asia, and conquered Bactria, 2100 B.C. Usher. He is sup- 
posed bj' some to be the Osiris of the priests. It is computed that, to the present time, 
no less than 6,860,000,000 of men have perished in the field of battle. See Battles. 



FOREIGN WARS OF GREAT BRITAIN SINCE THE CONQUEST. 



War with 




Peace. 


Tro)' with 




Peace. 


Wa) 


• icith 




Peace. 


Scotland 


106S . 


. 1 002 


France 


1422 


■ 1471 


Spain . 




. 1624 . 


. 1629 


France . 


1116 


. 1118 


France . 


1492 


same year. 


France . 




. 1627 


. 1629 


Scotland 


1138 . 


• 1 139 


France 


1512 


• 1514 


Holland 




• 1651 . 


• 1654 


France . 


1 161 


. . 1186 


France 


1522 


• • 1527 


Spain 




• 1655 


. 1660 


France 


. 1194 . 


• 1 195 


Scotland 


1522 


• 1542 


France 




. 1666 . 


.1668 


France . 


1 201 


. . 1216 


Scotland . 


1542 


. . 1546 


Denmark 




. 1666 


. 166S 


France 


1224 . 


• 1234 


Scotland . 


1547 


• 1550 


Holland 




. 1666 . 


. 1 668 


France . 


1294 


. . 1299 


France . 


1549 


• ■ 1550 


Algiers . 




. 1669 


. 1671 


Scotland 


1296 . 


• 1323 


France 


1557 


• 1559 


Holland 




. 1672 . 


• 1674 


Scotland . 


1327 


. . 1328 


Scotland . 


1557 


. . 1560 


France 




. 1689 


• 1697 


France. 


• 1339 • 


. 1360 


France 


1562 


■ 1564 


Peace of 


Rysw 


ck, Sept. 


20, 1697 


France . 


1368 


. 1420 


Spain 


1588 


. . 1604 











GREAT MODERN WARS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 

War of the Succession, commenced May 4, 1702. I War with France, March 31, 1744. Closed also on 

Peace' of Utrecht, March 13, 1713. April 30, 1748. 

War with Spain, Dec. 16, 1718. Peace concluded, | War; the Seven Years' War, June 9, 1756. Peace of 

1 72 1. I Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. 

War; Spanii-h War, Oct. 23, 1739. Peace of Aix-la- War with Spain, Jan. 4, 1762. General peace, Feb. 

Chapelle, Aijril 30, 1748. I 10, 1763. 



* NearWelwyn, in Hertfordshire, there was the largest walnut-tree on record ; it was felled in 1627, and 
from it were cut nineteen loads of planks; and as much was sold to a gunsmith in London as cost 10/. 
carriage ; besides which there were thirty loads of roots and branches. Wben standing it covered 76 
poles of ground ; a space equal to 2299 square yards, statute measure. 



WAR 



774 



WAR 



WAR, continued. 

War with the United States of North America, July 
14, 1774. Peace of Paris, Nov. 30, 1782. 

War with France, Feb. 6, 1778. Peace of Paris, Jan. 
20, 1783. 



War agaimt Bonaparte, April 29, 1803. Finally closed 

June 18, 1815. 
War with America, June 18, 1812. Peace of Ghent, ^ 

Dec. 24, 1814. 
War with Russia, March 27, 1854. Peace of Paris, 

Mai'ch 31, 1856. 
For the wars with India, China, and Persia, see 

those countries respectively. 



War with Spain, April 17, 1780. Closed same time 

Jan. 20, 1783. 
War with Holland, Dec. 21, 1780. Peace signed, 

Sept. 2, 1783. 
War of the Rivolution, Feb. i, 1793. Peace of Amiens, 

March 27, 1802. 

WAR AFFAIRS. On account of the war with Russia, the duke of Newcastle, previou.s]y 
colonial secretary, was appointed a secretary for war atfairs, and a cabinet minister, June 9, 
1854. See Secretaries. 

WARBECK'S INSURRECTION. Perkiu Warbeck, the son of a Florentine Jew, to 
whom Edward IV. liad stood godfather, was persuaded by Margaret, duchess of Burgundy, 
sister to Richard III., to personate her nephew, Richard, Edward V.'s brother, which he did 
first in Ireland, where he landed, 1492. The imposture was discovered by Henry VII. 1493- 
Some writers consider that Warbeck was not an impostor. 



Made an attempt to land at Kent, with 600 men, 
when 150 were taken prisoners, and executed, 

1495- 
Kecommended by the king of France to James IV. 

of Scotland, who gave him his kinswoman, lord 

Huntley's daughter, in marriage, the .same year. 

James IV. invaded England in his favour, 1496. 
Left Scotland, and went to Bodmin, in Cornwall, 



where 3000 joined him, and he took the title of 

Richard IV., 1497. 
Taken prisoner by Henry VII., 1498. 
Set in the stocks at Westminster and Cheapside, and 

sent to the Tower, 1499. 
Plotted with the earl of Warwick to escape out of 

the Tower, by murdering the lieutenant, for 

which he was hanged at Tyburn, Nov. 28, 1499. 



WARDIAN CASES. In 1829, Mr. N. B. AVard observed a small fern and grass growing 
in a closed glass battle, in which he had placed a chrysalis covered with moist earth. From 
this circumstance he was led to construct his well-known closely glazed cases, which afford 
to plants light, heat, and moisture, and exclude deleterious gases, smoke, &c. They arc 
particularly adapted for ferns. In 1833 they were first employed for the transmission of 
plants to Sydney, &c., with great success ; and professor Faraday lectured on the subject in 
1838. 

WARDMOTES, meetings of the citizens of London in their wards, where they elect 
annually their common councilmen. The practice is said to have begun in 1386. They had 
previously assembled in Guildhall. 

WARRANTS, GENERAL, do not specify the name of the accused. They were declared 
to be illegal and unconstitutional by lord chief justice Pratt, Dec. 6, 1763, in relation to the 
seizure and conrmittal of Mr. Wilkes to the Tower for a libel on tlie king. After the 
decision of the court of common pleas in favour of Wilkes, he brought an action against lord 
Halifax, then secretary of state, and recovered 4000Z. damages. Wilkes laid his damages at 
20,oooZ., Nov. 10, 1769. 

WARRIOR. See under Navy of England. 

WARSAW, the metropolis of Poland. The diet was transferred to this city from 
Cracow in 1566, and it became the seat of government in 16S9. Population in 1859, 162,777. 
See Poland, 186 1-5, for recent events. 



Alliance of Warsaw, between Austria and 
Poland, against Turkey, in i:)ursuance of 
which John Sobieski assisted in raising the 
siege of Vienna (on the i8th of September 
following), signed .... March 31, 1683 

Warsaw surrenders to Charles XII. . . . 1703 

Treaty of Warsaw, between Russia and Poland, 

Feb. 24, 1768 

The Russian garrison placed here in 1794; 
expelled by the citizens with the loss of 2000 
killed and 500 wounded, and 36 pieces of 
cannon Ai^ril 17, 1794 

The Poles defeated by the Russians at Maciejo- 
vice Oct. 4, „ 

The king of Prussia besieges Warsaw, July ; 
compelled to raise the siege, Sept. ; it is 
taken by the Russians . . . Nov. ,, 

Suwariow, the Russian general, after tlio siege 
and destruction of Warsaw, cruelly butchered 



30,000 Poles, of all ages and conditions, in 
cold blood Nov. 4, 

Warsaw constituted a duchy and annexed to 
the house of Saxony .... Aug. 

The duchy overrun by the Russians ; Warsaw 
made the i-esidence of a Russian viceroy 

The last Polish revolution commences at War- 
saw . . . . ... . Nov. 29, 

Battle of Grochow, near Warsaw, in which the 
Russians were defeated, and forced to retreat 
with the loss of 7000 men . . . Feb. 25, 

Battle of Warsaw, when, after two days' hard 
fighting, the city capitulated, and was taken 
possession of by the Russians ; and great part 
of the Pohsh army retired towards Plock and 
Modlin Sept. 6-8, 

The czar meets the emperor of Austria and the 
regent of Prussia ; no result . Oct. 20-25, 



1831 



WAS 775 WiVT 

WASHINGTON (in Columbia district, partly in Virginia and Maryland, on the bank of 
the Potomac, N.-E. of Virginia), the capital of the United States, founded in 1791, and made 
the seat of government in 1800. The house of representatives was opened for the first time, 
May 30, 1808. Washington was taken in the late war by the British forces under general 
Ross, when all its superb national structures were consumed by a general conflagration, the 
troops not spaiing even the national library, Aug. 24, 18 14. General Ross was soon after- 
wards killed by some American riflemen, in a desperate engagement at Baltimore, Sept. 12, 
following. — Part of the capitol and the whole of the library of the United States' congress 
were destroyed by fire, Dec. 24, 185 1. The prince of Wales was entertained by the president 
here in Sept. i860. See United States. AVashington was fortified in April, 1 861, against the 
Confederates. 

WASIUM (named from the royal house of Wasa or Vasa), a supposed new metal, dis- 
covered by F. Bahr, of Stockholm, in 1682. In Nov., 1863 Nickles declared it to be a com- 
pound of didymium, yttrium, and terbium. 

WASTE LANDS. The inclosure of waste lands and commons, in order to promote 
agriculture, first began in England about the year 1547, and gave rise to Ket's rebellion, 
1549. Inclosures were again promoted by the authority of parliament, 1785. The waste 
lands in England were estimated in 1794 to amount to 14 millions of acres, of which there 
were taken into cultivation, 2,837,476 acres before June, 1801. In 1841, there were about 
6,700,000 acres of waste land, of which more than half was thought to be capable of 
improvement. See Agriculture. 

WATCH OF London, at night, appointed 1253, proclaimed the hour with a bell before 
the introduction of public clocks. Hardie. The old watch was discontinued, and a new 
police (on duty day and night) commenced, Sept. 29, 1829. See Police. 

WATCHES are said to have been first invented at Nuremberg, 1477, although it is 
affirmed that Robert, king of Scotland, had a Avatch about 13 10. 



Watches first used in astronomical observations j ghens by the Dytcb. Dr. Derbam, in his 

by Purbacb i5or. j Artificial Clock-maker, says that Dr. Hooke 

Authors assert that the emperor Charles V. was j was the inventor ; and he appears certainly 

the iirst who had anything that might be 
called a watch, though sonre call it a small 
table-clock 1530 

Watches first brought to England from Ger- 
many in 1577 

A watch which belonged to queen Elizabeth is 
preserved in the library of the Royal Institu- 
tion, London. 

Spring pocket-watches (watches properly so- 
called) have had their invention ascribed to 
Dr. Hooke by the English, and to M. Huy- 



to have jiroduced what is called the pendu- 
lum watch about 1658 ; manifest, among 
other evidences, from an inscrijation on one 
of the double-balance watches presented to 
Charles II., "Rob. Hooke, inven. 1658; T. 
Torapion fecit, 1675." 
Repeating watches invented by Barlowe . . 1676 
Harrison's first time-piece produced . . . 1735 
Watches and clocks were taxed in . . . 1797 
The tax was repealed in 1798. See Clocks. 



WATER. Thales of Miletus, fjunder of the Ionic sect, considered water to be the 
original principle of everything, about 594 B.C. Stanley. In the Roman church, water was 
first mixed with the sacramental wine, A.D. 122. Lenglet. Cavendish and AVatt, in 1781, 
demonstrated that water is composed of 8 parts of oxygen and i part of hydrogen. In 
freezing, water contracts till it is reduced to 42° or 40° Fahr. ; it then begins to expand till 
it becomes ice at 32°. — AVater was first conveyed to London by leaden pipes, 21 Hen. HI. 
1237. Stoxv. It took nearly fifty years to complete it ; the whole being finished, and 
Cheapside conduit erected, only in 1285. The New River water was brought to London 
from Amwell in Hertfordshire, at an immense expense, by sir Hugh Myddelton, in 16 13. 
The city wa.s supplied with its water by conveyances of wooden pipes in the streets and small 
leaden ones to the houses, and tbe New River Company was incorporated, 1620. So late 
as queen Anne's time there were water-carriers at Aldgate pump. London is now supplied 
by eight companies :— The New River, East London, Chelsea, Grand Jimction, Sonthwark 
and Vauxhall, Kent, Lambeth, and AVest Middlesex. The water-works at Chelsea were 
completed, and the company incorporated, 1722. London-bridge ancient water- works were 
destroyed by fire, Oct. 29, 1779. An act to supply the metropolis with water, 15 & 16 A^ict. 
c. 84, was passed July i, 1852. The supply is now considered to be much improved in 
quality and quantity. In Jan. 1857, a company was formed to carry out Dr. Normandy's 
patent for converting salt water into fresh. See Artesian Wells. 

WATER-CLOCKS. See Clods. 

AVATER-COLOUR PAINTING was gradually raised from the hard dry style of the last 



WAT 776 WAT 

century, to its present brilliancy, bj* the efforts of Nicholson, Coplej', Fielding, Varley, the 
great Turner, Pyne, Catterniole, Trout, &c., within the present century. The exhibition 
was founded in 1805. 

WATER-GLASS, a name given to a liijuid mixture of sand (silex) and one of the alkalies 
(potash or soda). Glauber {De Lithiase) mentions a similar mixture in 1644. Dr. Von 
Fuchs, the modern inventor, gave an account of his jirocess in 1825 ; and Mr. Frederick 
Ransom of Ipswich, ignorant of Yon Fuchs' discovery, })atented a mode of preparing water- 
glass in 1845, which he has since greatly improved upon. In 1857, M. Kuhlmann of Lille 
published a pamphlet setting forth the advantageous employment of water-glass in hardening 
porous stone and in stereochromy {which see). It has been applied to the exterior of many 
buildings in France and England. The memoirs of Von Fuchs and Kuhiuiann were 
translated and printed in England in 1859 by direction of the prince consort. 

WATER-MILLS, used for grinding corn, are said to have been invented by Belisarius, 
the general of Justinian, while besieged in Rome by the Goths, 555. The ancients parched 
their corn, and pounded it in mortars. Afterwards mills were invented, which were turned 
by men and beasts with great labour ; yet Pliny mentions wheels turned by water. 

WATER TOFANA. See Poisoning. 

WATERFORD (S. Ireland), built 879, was totally destroyed by fire in 981. Rebuilt and 
considerably enlarged by Strongbow in 11 71, and still further in the reign of Henry VII., 
who granted considerable privileges to the citizens. Richard II. landed and was crowned 
here in 1399 ; in 1690, James II. embarked from hence for France, after the battle of the 
Boyne ; and William III. resided here twice, and confirmed its privileges. Memorable 
storm here, April 18, 1792. The cathedral of Waterford, dedicated to the blessed Trinity, 
was first built by the Ostmen, and by Malchus, the first bishop of Waterford, after his 
return from England from his consecration, 1096. This see was united with that of Lisraore 
in 1363. It was valued in the king's books, by an extent returned 29 Henry VIII., at 
72Z. 8s. id. Irish per annum. By stat. 3 & 4 Will. IV. the see of Waterford and Lismore 
was united by the Irish C'hui>ch Temporalities act with the see of (Jashel and Emly, Aug. 14, 
1833. The interior of the cathedral, organ, &c., were destroyed by fire, Oct. 25, 1815. 

WATERLOO, in Belgium, the site of the great battle on the i8th of June, 1815, between 
the French army, of 71,947 men and 246 guns, under Napoleon, and the allies, commanded 
by the duke of Wellington ; the latter, with 67,661 men and 156 guns, resisted the various 
attacks of the enemy from nine in the morning until five in the afternoon. About that time, 
16,000 Prussians reached the field of battle; and by seven, the force under Blucher amounted 
to above 50,000 men, with 104 guns. Wellington then moved forward his whole army. A 
total rout ensued, and the carnage was immense. Of the British (23,991), 93 officers and 
1916 men were killed and missing, and 363 officers and 4560 men wounded : total 6932 ; and 
the total loss of the allied army amounted to 4206 killed, 14,539 wounded, and 4231 missing, 
making 22,976 hors de combat. Napoleon, quitting the wreck of his flying arm}'^, returned 
to Paris ; and finding it impossible to raise another, abdicated the throne of France. 
P. Nicholas.* 

WATERLOO BRIDGE, London. A bri.lge over this part of the Thames was repeatedly 
suggested during the last century, but no actual preparations to carry it into effect were made 
till 1806, when Mr. G. Dodd procured an act of parliament, and gave the present site, plan, 
and dimensions of the bridge ; but, in consequence of some disagreement with the com- 
mittee, he was superseded by Mr. Rennie, who completed this noble structure. It was 
commenced Oct. 11, 181 1, and finished June 18, 1817, on the anniversary of the battle of 
Waterloo, when the prince regent, the duke of Wellington, and other distinguished 
personages, were present at the opening. Its length within the abutments is 1242 feet : its 
width within the balustrades is 42 feet ; and the span of each arch, of which there are nine, 
is 120 feet.t 

• It is an historical fact, that the British forces have been twice signally successful over those of 
France on the same ground — Waterloo ; and that by the side of the very chapel of Waterloo, which was 
remarked for being uninjured by shot or shell on the memorable iSth of June, 1815, did Marlborough cut 
off a large division of the French forces opposed to him on the 17th of August, 1705. It is no less a fact, 
that the conquerors of each of those days, on the same field, are the only commanders in the British 
service whose military career brought them to the summit of the peerage— to dukedoms. 

t On Oct. 9, 1857, two youths, named Kilsby, found on one of the abutments of the bridge a carpet 
bag, containing human bones and flesh, which had been cut up, salted, and boiled, and some foreign 
clothes. After much investigation no clue could be found respecting the name of the individual, and the 
remains were interred in Woking cemetery. 



WAT 777 WEE 

WATERSPOUT. Two waterspouts fell on the Glatz inountaius in Germany, and caused 
dreadful devastation to Hautenbach and many other villages ; many persons perished, 
July 13, 1827. A waterspout at Glanflesk, near Killarney, in Ireland, ]iassed over a farm of 
Mr. John Macarthy, destroying farm-houses and other buildings ; seventeen persons perished, 
Aug. 4, 1 83 1. The estimated length of one seen near Calcutta, Sept. 27, 1855, was 1000 
feet. It lasted ten minutes, and was absorbed upwards. One seen on Sept. 24, 1856, 
burst into heavy rain. 

WATLING STREET. See Roman Roads. 

WAVE PRINCIPLE (in accordance with which the curves of the hull of a ship should 
be adapted to the curves of a wave of tlie sea) formed the subject of experiments begun by 
Mr. John Scott Russell in 1832, with the view of increasing the speed of ships. Colonel 
Beaufoy is said to have sp)ent 30,000?. in researches upon this matter. It was also taken up 
by the British Association, who have published reports of the investigations. The principle 
has been adopted by naval architects. 

WAVERLEY NOVELS. The publication of the series began with " Waverley ; or, 
'Tis Sixty Years Since," in 1814, and closed with "Tales of my Landlord," fourth series, in 
1831. The authorship was acknowledged by sir Walter Scott, at a dinner, Feb. 23, 1827. 

WAWZ, or Wawer (Poland). The Poles under Skrzynecki attacked the Russians at 
Wawz, and after two days' hard fighting, all the Russians' positions were carried by .storm, 
and they compelled to retreat with the loss of 12,000 men and 2000 prisoners, March 31, 
1 83 1. The loss of the Poles was small; but their triumph was followed by defeat and 
ruin. 

WAX came into use for candles in the 12th century ; and wax candles were esteemed a 
luxury in 1300, being but little used. In C!hiua, candles of vegetable wax have been in use 
for centuries. See Candleberry. The wax tree, Ligustrum lucidum, was brought from 
China before 1794.— Sealing-wax was not brought into use in England, until about 1556. 
Its use has been almost superseded by the introduction of adhesive envelopes, about 1844. 

WE. Sovereigns generally use we for /, which style began with king John, 1 199. Coke. 
The German emperors and French kings used the plural about 1200. 

WEATHER. See Meteorology. 

WEAVING appears to have been practised in China more than a thousand years before 
it was known in Europe or Asia. The Egyptians ascribed the art to Isis ; the Greeks to 
]\Iinerva ; and the Peruvians to the wife of Manco Capac. Our Saviour's vest, or coat, had 
not any seam, being woven from the top throughout, in one whole piece. The print of a 
frame for weaving such a vest may be seen in Calmefs Dictionary under the word Vestments. 
Two weavers from Brabant settled at York, where they manufactured woollens, which, says 
king Edward, " may prove of great benefit to us and our subjects," 133 1. Flemish dyers, 
cloth drapers, linen-makers, silk-throwsters, &c., settled at Canterbury, Norwich, Colchester, 
Southampton, and other places, on account of the duke of Alva's persecution, 1567. See 
Loom and Electric Loom. 

WEDGWOOD WARE, pottery and porcelain, produced by Mr. Josiah Wedgwood of 
Staffordshire, in 1762. His potteries, termed Etruria, were founded in 1771. Previously to 
1763, much earthenware was imported from France and Holland. 

WEDNESDAY, the fourth day of the week, so called from the Saxon idol Woden or 
Odin, worshipped on this day. " Woden was the reputed author of magic and tlie inventor 
of all the arts, and was thought to answer to the Mercury of the Greeks and Ramans." 
Butler. 

AVBEDON INQUIRY (Northamptonshire). Commissioners were appointed to in(|uire 
into the accounts of Mr. Elliot, superintendent of the great military clothing establishment, 
at this place in July, 1858, and commenced sitting in September. Many of the statements, 
afterwards disputed, caused much dissatisfaction. 

WEEK. The space of seven days, suppo.sed to be first used among the Jews, who 
observed the sabbath every seventh day. They had three sorts of weeks, the first the 
common one of seven days, the second of years, which was seven years, tlic third of seven 



WEI 



778 



WEL 



times seven years, at the end of which was the jubilee, 
derived from the Saxon : — 



All the present English names are 



Latin. 
Dies Solis, 
Dies Lunje, 
Dies Martis, 
Dies Mercuiii, 
Dies Jovis, 
Dies Veneris, 
Dies Saturni, 



Day of the Sun, 
Day of the Moon, 
Day of Mars, 
Day of Mercury, 
Day of Jupiter, 
Daj' of Venus, 
Day of Saturn, 



English. 


Saxon. 


Sunday, 


Sun's day. 


Monday, 


Moon's day. 


Tuesday, 


Tiw's day. 


Wednesdaj', 


Woden's day. 


Thursday, 


Thor's day. 


Friday, 


Friga's day. 


Satiirday, 


Saterne's day 



"WEIGHTS AND Measures. These and the stamping of gold and silver money, were 
invented by Pheidon, tyrant of Argos, 895, B.C. et seq. Arundelian Marbles. Weights 
were orginally taken from grains of wheat, the lowest being still called a grain. Chalmers. 



The standard measure was originally kept at Win- 
chester by the law of king Edgar, 972. 

Standards of weights and meas\u-es were provided 
for the whole kingdom of England by the sheriffs of 
London, 9 Rich. I. : 197. 

A public weighing-machine was set up in London, 
,-ind all commodities ordered to be weighed by the 
city-oflBcer, called the weigh-master, who was to do 
justice between buyer and seller, stat. 3 Edw. II. 
{Stow) 1309. 

Edward III. ordered that there should be "one 
weight, measure and yard," throughout the king- 
dom, 1353. 

First statute, directing the use of avoirdupois 
weight, of 24 Hen. VIII. 1532. 



Weights and measures ordered to be examined by 
the justices at quai-ter-sessions, 35 Geo. III. 1794. 

Again regulated, iSoo. 

Statute for establishing a uniformity of weights 
and measures, 1824, took place throughout the 
United Kingdom, Jan. i, 1826. 

New acts relating thereto passed in 1834, 1833, 
1855, and lastly in 1859. 

16 &, 17 Vict. c. 29, regulates the weights to be 
used in the sale of bullion, and adopts the use of 
the Troy ounce, 1853. 

A committee of the house of commons recom- 
mended that the decimal system should be lega- 
lised, but not made compulsory until sanctioned by 
general approval, 1862. 

See Standard ; and Metrical System. 



WEIMAR (termed the Athens of Germany), capital of the grand-dnchy of Saxe Weimar, 
is celebrated as having been the residence of the German classic writers, Schiller, Goethe, 
Herder, and Wieland : the grand-dukes having been eminent patrons of literature. The 
city became important in the 15th century, and suffered in the German wars. 

AVELLINGTOlSr ADMINISTRATION, succeeded that of Viscount Goderich, Jan. 1828, 
and resigned Nov. 16, 1830. 



Duke of Wellington^ Jij-s£ lord 0/ the treasury. 

Mr. Henry Goulburn, chancMov of the exchequer. 

Earl Bathurst, 'president of the council. 

Lord Ellenborough, privy seal. 

Mr. (afterwards sir) Robert Pocl, earl Dudley, and 

Mr. Wm. Huskisson, home, foreign, and colonial 

secretaries. 
Viscount Melville, board of control. 
Mr. Charles Grant, board of trade. 
Lord Palrnerston, secretary-at war. 
Mr. Herries, master of the mint. 
Earl of Aberdeen, duchy of Lancaster. 



Lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor. 

Mr. Huskisson, earl Dudley, viscount Palmerston, 

and Mr. Grant quitted the ministry, and various 

changes followed in May and June same year. 
The earl of Aberdeen and sir George Mun-ay became, 

respectively, /b)-fi(7)i and coloniid sccntaries. 
Sir Henry Hardinge, secretary-at-war. 
Mr. Vesey Fitzgerald (afterwards lord Fitzgei'ald). 

India board. 
Lord Lowther, ^rs< commissioner of land revenues, <fec., 

May and June, 1828. 
Mr. Arbuthnot, Mr. Vesey Fitzgerald, &c. 



WELLINGTON COLLEGE, Sandhurst, was erected by subscription in memory of the 
great duke of Wellington. It was instituted for the support and education of the orphan 
children of soldiers. The first stone was laid by the queen on June 2, 1856 ; and the 
building was opened by her majesty on June 29, 1859. Out of the 159,000?. subscribed, 
55,000/. were expended on the building and the rest invested for the maintenance of the 
institution. 

WELLINGTONIA GIGANTEA, the largest tree in the world, a native of California, 
was discovered by Mr. Lobb in 1853, and first described by Dr. John Lindley. When full 
grown it is about 450 feet high, and 116 feet in circumference. 

AVELLING TON'S VICTORIES, &c. For details, .see separate articles. 



Aithur Wellcslcy was born, according to some 
authorities in March ; to others May i, 1769 

Appointed to command in the Mahratta war in 
India ; takes Poonah and Ahmednuggur, 
Avig. 12 ; and gains his first victory at Assaye, 
Sept. 23 ; dcfeat.s Seindiah at Argaum, Nov. ; 
and at Gawalghur . . . Dec. 13, 1S03 



Becomes secretary for Ireland .... 1807 
Takes the command in Portugal, defeats Junot 

at Vimeira Aug. 21, 1808 

Defeats Victor at Talavera, July 28 ; created 

viscount Wellington . . . Sept. 4, 1809 
Repulses Massena at Busaco, Sept. 27 ; and 

occupies the hncs at Torres Vedras Oct. 10, i8ic 



WEL 



779 



WES 



AVELLINGTON'S VICTORIES, continued. 

Defeats Massena at Fuentes d'Onore, May 5 ; 
takes Almeida May 10, 1811 

Storms Ciudad Rodrigo, Jan. ig ; and Badajos, 
April 6 ; defeats Marmont at Salamanca, 
July 22; enters Madrid . . . Aug. 12, 1812 

Defeats Joseph Bonaparte and Jourdan at 
Vittoria, June 21 ; storms St. Sebastian, 
Aug. 31 ; enters France . . . Oct. 8, 1813 

Defeats Soult at Orthez, Feb. 27 ; and at Tou- 
louse . April 10, 1814 

Created duke of Wellington, with an annuity ef 
13,000?. and a grant of 300,000/. . . May, 1S14 

Command.s the army in the Netherlands ; re- 
jiulses an attack of Ney at Quatre Bras, 
June 16 ; defeats Napoleon at Waterloo, 
June 18 ; invests Paris . , . July 3, 1S15 

Commands the army of occupation in France, 

1815 till Nov. 1818 

His assassination attempted by CautiUon, vrho 
escajjes ...... Feb. 10, ,, 

Appointed master-general of the ordnance . . 1819 

The Wellington shield and supporting columns 



designed by Stothard, commemorating all 
the above mentioned victories, presented to 
the duke by the merchants and bankers of 
London. (It was manufactured by Green 
and Wai-d, and cost 11,000/.) . . Teb. 16, 

The duke appointed commander-in-chief, Jan. 
22 ; resigns April 30, 

Becomes first minister .... Jan. 

Aids in carrying the CathoUc Emancipation bill, 

April, 

Asserts that no reform in parliament is needed, 
Nov. 2; resigns . . . ■ . Nov. i6, 

Transacts all the bu.siness of the country after 
the resignation of lord Melbourne, till the 
arrival of sir R. Peel from Italy, Nov. ; and 
becomes foreign secretary under sir R. Peel, 
Dec. 1834; resigns .... April, 

Dies at Walmer castle . . . Sept. 14, 

His body removed to Chelsea hospital, where 
it lay in state Nov. 10, 

Removed to the Horse Guards . Nov. 17, 

Public fimeral at St. Paul's cathedral* Nov. i8, 



1835 



WELLS BISHOPRIC (in Somerset). The cathedral church was bnilt l)y Iiia, kinj? of 
the West Saxons, 704, and by him dedicated to St. Andrew. Several other of the West 
Saxon kings endowed it, and it was erected into a bishopric in 909, during the reign of king- 
Edward the Elder. The present church was begun by Robert, the i8th bishop of this see, 
and completed by his immediate successor. The first bishop of Wells was iEthelm or 
Adelmus (afterwards bishop of Canterbury). Eeatson. The see was united with Bath 
{ivhich see) in 1088. 

WENDS, a branch of tlie Slavonic family which spread over Germany in the 6th 
century, and settled especially in the north-eastern parts. 

WESLEYAN METHODISTS, a large Christian sect founded by John Wesley (born 1703, 
died 1791) and his brother Charles, Avho in 1727 with a few other students formed themselves 
into a small society for the purpose of mutual edification in religious exercises. On account 
of their strictness of life they were called Methodists, in 1729 (as living according to the 
methods laid down in the Bible). John Wesley went to Georgia in America, in 1735, with 
a view of converting the Indians. On his return to England, in 1738, he commenced 
itinerant preaching, and gathered many followers. On finding the churches shut against 
him, he built spacious meeting-houses in London, Bristol, and other places. For some time 
he was united with George Whitefield ; but differences arising on account of the doctrine of 
election, which Wesley rejected, they separated in 1741. (See Whitefield.) Wesley was 
almost continually engaged in travelling through tlie United Kingdom. His society was 
well organised, and he preserved his infiuence over it to the last. " His genius for govern- 
ment was not inferior to that of Richelieu." Macaulay. In 1851 there were 428 circuits in 
Great Britain, with between 13,000 and 14,000 local or lay preachers, and about 920 
itinerant preachers, and 6579 chapels, t The 117th annual conference met in London on 
July 26, i860. 

* A multitude of all ranks, estimated at a million and a half of persons, were congregated in the line 
of route, a distance of three miles, to witness and share in the imposing spectacle. The military consisted 
of the household regiments of horse and foot guards, the 2nd battalion of the Rifles, a battalion of 
the Royal Marines, the 33rd regiment, the 17th Lancers, and the iSth Light Dragoons, with the regiment 
of Scots Greys. There were besides, a body of Chelsea pensioners, and men of different arms of the East 
India Company. The body was placed, early in the morning of the i8th, by means of machinery, upon a 
lofty and sumptuous funeral car (which science had contributed to complete), drawn by twelve horses 
richly caparisoned, and the coffin was thus seen by the whole of the crowd. The procession moved about 
seven o'clock, and it was throe o'clock before the body was lowered into the vault beside the remains of 
Nelson, under the dome of St. Paul's Cathedral. In 1857 a number of models for the tomb were exhibited 
in Westminster Hall ; none was chosen. The stone sarcophagus, completed in 1858, cost iioo?. 

t The (ktiiftrence, the highest Wesleyan court, is composed of 100 ministers, who meet aniuially. It 
was instituted by John Wesley in 1784. At the centenary of the existence of Methodism, 216,000/. were 
collected, to be expended in the objects of the society. Out of the original connection have seceded : — 

Chapels in 1851. 



New Connection (in 1 796) 

Primitive Jlethodists (i8io) . 

Bible Christians, or Bryanitcs (1815) 



Chapels in 1831. 
Wesleyan Methodist Association (1834) . . 329 
Wesleyan Methodist Reformers (1849). . 2000 



The last arose out of the publication of " Fly Sheets," advocating reform in the body. The suspected 
authors and their friends were expelled. By those disruptions the main body is thought to have lost 
100,000 members. -This sect in America numbered about a mUhon in 1844, when a division took place on 
the slavery question. ♦ 



AVES 780 AVES 

WESSEX. See Britain. 

WEST INDIES, islands discovered by Columbus, St. Salvador being the first land he 
made in the New World, and first seen by him in the night between the nth and 12th Oct. 
1492. The. largest are Cuba, Hayti (or St. Domingo), Jamaica, Porto Rico, Trinidad, and 
(iuadaloupe. See the Islands respcctivelij . 

WEST SAXONS. See Wessex in Britain. 

WESTERN AUSTRALIA, formerly Swan Rivef. Settlement, which was projected 
by colonel Peel in 1828. Regulations issued from the colonial office, and captain Stirling, 
appointed lieutenant governor, Jan. 17, 1829, arrived at the aj)pointed site in August fol- 
lowing. The three towns of Perth, Freemantle, and Guildford were founded same year. In 
Mai'ch 1830, fifty ships, with 2000 emigrants, with property amounting to 1,000,000^., had 
arrived before hardly any dwellings had been erected or land surveyed. The more energetic 
settlers left for home or the neighbouring colonies, and the colony languished for twenty 
years for want of suitable inhabitants — the first settlers, from their previous habits and rank 
in life, proving unable for the rough work of colonisation. In 1848, the colonists requested 
that convicts might be sent out to them, and in 1849 a band arrived, who were kindly 
received and well treated. The best results ensued. By 1853, 2000 had arrived, and the 
inhabitants of Perth had requested that 1000 should be sent out annually. The reception 
of convicts is to cease in after years, in consequence of the energetic opposition of the other 
Australian colonies (1865). — The settlement at King George's Sound was founded in 1826 by 
the government of New South Wales. It was used as a military station for four years. In 
1830, the home government ordered the settlement to be transferred to S\\^u River. Since 
the establishment of steam coramiinication, the little town of Albany here, employed as a 
coaling station, has become a thriving sea-port. It possesses an excellent harbour, used by 
whalers. A journal called the Freemantle Gazette was published here in March 1831. 
Population of West Australia in 1859, 14,837 ; Dec. 1861, 15,555. Governor, John Stephen 
Hampton, appointed 1861. , 

WESTERN CHURCH (called also the Lattx or Roman) broke off communion with 
the Greek or Eastern Church, 653. (See Greek Church.) The history of the Western 
Church is mainly comprised in that of the Popes and of the several European kingdoms. 
(See Popes.) This church was disturbed by the Arian heresy about 345 and 500 ; and by 
the Pelagian about 409 ; by the introduction of image-worship about 600 ; by the injunction 
of the celibacy of the clergy and the rise of the monastic orders about 649 ; by the contests 
between the emperors and the popes respecting ecclesiastical investitures between 1073 and 
1 173 ; ^y tlie I'ise and progress of the Reformation in the 15th and i6tli centuries ; by 
the contests between the Jesuits and Jansenists in the 17th and i8th centuries ; and by 
the progress of modern philosophy and rationalism in the 19th. See Roman Catholies. 

AVESTERN EMPIRE. The Roman empire was first divided into Eastern and AVestern 
by Diocletian in a.d. 296 ; but was reunited under Constans in 340. It was again divided 
into Eastern and AVestern by Valeutinian and Valens, of whom the former had the AVesteru 
])ortion, or Rome, properly so called, 364. See Eastern Eminre, Italy and Roine. 

RULERS or THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 



364. Valeutinian, son of Gratian, takes the Western, 
and his brother Valens the Eastern empiie. 

367. Gratian, a youth, son of Valentinian, made a 
coUeagrue in the govemmeut by his father. 

375. Valentinian II., another son, also very young, 
is, on the death of his father, associated with 
his brother in the emiiire. Gratian is assassi- 
nated by his general, Andr^gathius, in 383. 
Valentinian murdered by one of his officers, 
Arbogastcs, in 392. 

392. Eugenius, a usurper, assumes the imperial 
dignity : he and Arbo^fastcs are defeated by 
Thcodosius the Great, who becomes sole 
emperor. 
[Andragathius throws himself into the sea, and 
Arbogastcs dies by his own hand.] 

395. Honorius, son of Thcodosius, reigns, on his 
father's death, in the West, and his brother 
Arcadius in the East. Honorius dies in 423. 
[Usurpation of John, the Notary, who is de- 
feated and slain near Ravenna,] 

425, Valentinian III., son of the empress Plaeidia, 



daughter of Thcodosius the Great : murdered 

at the instance of his successor, 
455. Maximvis : he marries Eudoxia, widow of 

Valentinian, who, to avenge the death of her 

first husband and the guilt of her second, 

invites the African Vandals into Italy, .and 

Rome is sacked. Maximus stoned to death. 
455. Marcus Mfecilius Avitus : forced to resign, and 

dies in his flight towards the Alps. 
457. Julius Valerius Majorianus : murdered at the 

instance of his minister, Ricimer, who r.aises 
461. Libius Severus to the throne, but holds the 

supreme power. Severus is poisoned by 

Ricimer. 
465. [Interregnum. Ricimer retains the authority, 

without assuming the title of emperor. J 
467. Anthemius, chosen by the joint .sufifragcs of the 

senate and army : murdered by Ricimer, 

who dies soon after. 
472. Flavius-Anicius Olybrius : slain by the Goths 

soon after his accession. 
47?- Glycerius ; forced to abdicate by his successor. 



d 



WES 



781 



WES 



WESTERN EMPIRE, continued. 

474. Julivis Nepos : deposed by his general, Orestes, 

and retires to Salona;. 

475. Eomulus (called AiigiistuUis, or Little 

Augiistus), son of Orestes. Orestes is slain, 
and the emperor deposed by 



476. Odoacer, king of the Ileruli : takes Rome, 
assumes the style of king of Italy, and com- 
pletes the fall of the Western empire. 
See Italy, Rome, and Germany. 



WESTMIlSrSTER. A city so called on account of its western situation in respect to 
St. Paul's cathedral, or from there beinjr formerly a monastery named East Minster, on the 
hill now called Great Tnwer-hill. This city joins London at Tem]de-bar. Formerly 
Westminster was called Thorney, or_Thorne3- Island : and in ancient times Canute had a 
palace here, M'hich was burnt in 1263. Westminster and London were one mile asunder so 
late as 1603, when the houses were thatched, and there were mud walls in the Strand. It 
is said that the great number of Scotsmen who came over after the accession of James I. 
occasioned the building of Westminster, and united it with London. HoiccFs LondinoiMlis. 
See Palace of Wcstiiiiiistcr and Parliament. 

WESTMINSTER AP>P>EY. The miraculous stories concerning this pile of buildings 
were questioned by sir Christopher Wren, who was employed to survey the present edifice, 
and who, upon close examination, found nothing to countenance the belief that it was 
erected on the ruins of a pagan temple. Historians have fixed the era of the first abbey in 
the 6th century, and ascribed to Sebert the honour of erecting it. 



The church becoming niinou.? was splendidly 
rebuilt by Edward the Confessor (1055-65) 
and filled with monks from Exeter. (Pope 
Nicholas II. constituted it the jilaoe for the 
inauguration of the kings of England ) De- 
dicated Dec. 28, 1065 

The church once more built in a magnificent 
and beautiful style by Henry III. about . 1220 

In the reigns of Edward II. Edward III. and 
Richard II. the great cloisters, abbot's house, 
and the principal monastic buildings, were 
erected. 

The western parts of the nave and aisles re- 
built between .... 1340 and 1483 

The west front and the great window were 
built by the rival pi'inces Richard III. and 
Henry VII. ; and it was the latter monarch 
who commenced the beautiful chapel which 



boars his name, the first stone of which was 
laid ...... Jan. 24, 1502-3 

The abbey dissolved and made a bishopric, 
1541 ; finally made a collegiate church by 
Elizabeth 1560 

Made a barrack for .soldiers, July 1643. Mcr- 
curius Rusticus. 

The great west window and the western towers 
reb\iilt in the reigns of George I. and II. 1714-60 

The choir injured by fire . . . July 9, 1803 

Mr. Wyatt commenced restoring the dilapidated 
parts at an expense of 42, ooo(. in . . . 1809 

A fire, without any serious injury April 27, 1829 

The evening services for the working cla.sses, 
when a sermon was preached by the dean, 
Dr. Trench, commenced on . . Jan. 3, 1858 

The Sooth anniversary of the foundation cele- 
brated Dec. 28, 1865 



WESTMINSTER Bishopric and Deanery. At the dissolution of monasteries, West- 
minster abbey was valued at 3977?. per annum ; king Henry VIII. in 1539, erected it into 
a deanery ; and in 1541 he erected it into a bishopric, and appointed John Thirleby prelate. 
But he, having wasted the patrimony allotted by the king for the support of the see, was 
translated to Norwich in 1550, and with him ended the bishopric of Westminster ; Middle- 
sex was the diocese, being restored to London. The dean continued to preside until the 
accession of Mary, who restored the abbot ; but Elizabeth displaced the abbot, and erected 
the abbey into a collegiate church of a dean and twelve prebendaries, as it still continues. 
On the revival of the order of the Bath, in 1725, the dean of Westminster was appointed 
dean of that order, which honour has been continued. Dr. Nicholas Wiseman was created 
archbishop of Westminster by the pope Pius IX. in Sept. 30, 1850. See Papal Aggression. 

WESTMINSTER BRIDGES. The old bridge was accounted one of the most beautiful 
bridges in the world. It was begun (after a design of M. Labelye), Sept. 13, 1738 ; the 
first stone was laid Jan. 29, 1738-9 ; and it was opened for passengers Nov. 17, 1750 ; cost 
426,6507. It was built of Portland stone, and crosses the river where the breadth is 1223 
feet. Owing to the sinking of several of its piers, most of the balustrade on both sides 
was removed, to relieve the structure of its weight. — By 16 & 17 Vict. c. 46 (Aug. 4, 1853), 
the estates of its commissioners were transferred to her majesty's commissioners of works, 
who were empowered to remove the then existing bridge, and build a new pridge (near the 
old one), which was shortly after begun. The contract required the completion of the works 
by June i, 1857. The driving of the first elm pile commenced on July 3, and the driving 
of the iron piles and plates in September. The works were suspended for a time, in con- 
squence of the failure of Messrs. Mare the contractors. The government eventually 
undertook the building, which they entrusted to Mr. Thomas Page, the engineer. One 
half of the new bridge was opened for use early in i860 ; the whole on May 24, 1862. 



WES 782 WHE 

WESTMINSTER Confession of Faith and Catechisms were drawn* up by the 
" Assembly of Divines," (partly consisting of laymen) who sat b}'^ anthority of parliament in 
Henry VII. 's chapel, Westminster, from 1643 to 1647. These have ever since been the 
doctrinal standards of Scotch Presbyterians. 

WESTMINSTER HALL, London. One of the most venerable remains of Enalish 
architecture, first built liy William Rufus in 1097, for a banqueting-hall ; and here in 1099, 
on his return from Normandy, " he kept his feast of AVhitsuntide very royally." The hall 
became ruinous before the reign of llichard II. who repaired it in 1397, raised the walls, 
altered the windows, and added a new roof, as well as a stately porch and other buildings. 
In 1236, Henry III. on New-year's day caused 6000 poor persons to lie entertained in this 
liall, and in the other rooms of his palace, as a celebration of queen Eleanor's coronation ; 
and here Richard II. held his Christmas festival in 1397, when the number of the guests 
each day the | feast lasted was 10,000. Siotv. The courts of law were established here hj 
king John. Idem. Westminster hall was stated to be the largest room in Europe unsup- 
ported by pillars : it is 270 feet in length, 74 feet broad. The hall underwent a general 
repair in 1802. Concurrently with the erection of the palace of Westminster, many 
improvements and alterations have lately been made in this magnificent hall. The Volun- 
teer Rifle corps were drilled in the liall in the winter of 1859. 

WESTMINSTER PALACE. See under PcUace of Westminster and Parliament. 

WESTMINSTER SCHOOL, Londctn, was founded by queen Elizabeth in 1560, for the 
education of forty boys, denominated the Queen's scholars, who are prepared for the 
universit}'. It is situated within the walls of the abbej', and is separated into two schools 
or divisions, comprising seven forms or classes. Besides the scholars on the foundation, 
many of the nobility and gentry send their sons to Westminster for instruction. A proposal 
in i860 to remove the school was disapproved of in 1861. 

WESTMORELAND. This county and Cumberland were granted as a fief to IMalcolm of 
Scotland by Edward the Elder in 945 ; and resumed by Henry III. in 1237. Neville, earl 
of Westmoreland, revolted against Elizabeth in 1569, and was attainted in 1570. 

WESTPHALIA (Germany). This duchy belonged in former times to the dukes of 
Saxony, and afterwards became .subject to the archbishop of Cologne. On the secularisation 
of 1802, it was made over to Hesse Darmstadt ; and in X814, was ceded for an equivalent 
to Prussia. The kingdom of Westphalia, one of the temporarj' kingdoms of Bonajiarte, 
composed of conquests from Prussia, Hcsse-Cassel, Planover, and the smaller states to the 
west of Elbe, was created Dec. i, 1807, and Jerome Bonaparte ajipointed king. Hanover 
was annexed to it, March i, 1810. The kingdom of AVestphalia was abolished in 1813, and 
the countries restoi'ed to their former rulers. 

WESTPHALIA, or Munstee, Peace of, signed at Munster and at Osnaburg, between 
France, the emperor, and Sweden ; Spain continuing th& war against France. By this peace 
the principle of a balance of power in Europe was first recognised ; Alsace given to France, 
and part of Pomerania and some other districts to Sweden ; the Elector Palatine restored to 
the Lower Palatinate ; the religious and political rights of the German States established ; 
and the independence of the Swiss Confederation recognised by Germany, Oct. 24, 1648. 

WHALE-FISHERY, it is said, was first carried on bj"- the Norwegians so earl}'^ as 837. 
Lenglet. Whales were killed at Newfoundland and Iceland for their oil only till 1578 ; tlie 
use of their fins and bones was not yet known, consequently (a writer quaintly adds) no 
stays were worn by the ladies. The English whale-fishing commenced at Spitzbergen in 
1598 ; but the Dutch had been previously fishing there. The fishery was much promoted 
by an act of parliament passed in 1749. From 1800 to 2000 whales have been killed 
annually on the coast of Greenland, &c. The quantity of whale-oil imported in 1814 was 
33,567 tuns. The quantity in 1826, when gas-light became general, was reduced to 25,000 
tuns ; so that the consumption of oil had become, on this account, greatly diminished. In 
1840 the quantity was about 22,000 tuns ; in 1850, 21,360 tuns ; in 1861, 19,176 tuns ; in 
1864, 14,701 tuns. 

WHEAT. The Chinese ascribe to their emperor, Ching-Noung, who succeeded Fohi, the 
art of husbandry, and method of making bread from w-heat, about 20CX) j-ears before the 
Christian era. Wheat was introduced into Britain in the 6th century, by Coll ap Coll 
Frewi. Roberts. The first wheat imported into England of which we have a note was in 
1347. Various statutes have regulated the sales of wheat, and restrained its importation, 
thereby to encourage its being raised at home. Imported into the United Kingdom in 1854, 
2,656,455 qrs. of wheat, and 6,329,038 cwts. of flour; in 1861, 6,912,815 qrs of wheat, and 



WHE 783 WHI 

6,152,938 cwts. of flour; in 1864, 23,196,714 cwts. of wheat, and 4,975,935 CAvts. of flonr. 
See Corn Laws and Bread. In 1862 attention was drawn to the probable utility of con- 
sidering the pedigree of \yheat. 

WHEEIy, Breaking on the. A bai-harous mode of death, of great antiqnit}^, ordered 
by Francis I. for robbers, 15 15. Seo Ravaillac, &c. 

WHEEL-WOEK. See Sjunning, Looms, Automatons. 

WHIGS. In the reign of Charles II. the name Whig was a term of reproach given by 
the court jiai'ty to their antagonists for holding the principles of the "whigs, " or fanatical 
covenanters in Scotland ; and the name Torij was given to the court partj^ comparing 
them to the Tories, or Popish robbers in Ireland. Balrr. This distinction arose out of the 
discovery of the Meal-tub plot (icldch see) in 1678. Upon bringing up the JMeal plot before 
parliament, two parties were formed : the ones who doubted the plot styled those who 
believed in it, Whigs ; these styled their adversaries Tories. In time these names, given as 
marks of opprobrium, became honoured distinctions. Hume. The Whigs brought about 
the revohition of 1688-9, and established the Protestant succession. They were instru- 
mental in obtaining the abolition of the slave trade and slavery, the repeal of the Test 
and Corporation act, Catholic emancipation, parliamentary and municipal reform, and the 
repeal of the Corn laws. The Whig Club was established jjy Charles James Fox ; one of its 
original members was the great Francis, duke of Bedford, who died in 1802. For the 
principal Whig ministries, see Godolphin, Halifax, Waljwle, Sockinghavi, GrenviUe, Grey, 
Melbourne, Russell, Palmerston. 

WHISKY, the distilled spirit produced from malt and other corn in Scotland and 
Ireland, of which about eight millions of gallons have been distilled annually in the former, 
and upwards of nine millions of gallons in the latter. The duty upon this article has 
produced an annual revenue of about three millions. The distillation of whisky in these 
countries is referred to the i6th century ; but some authors state it to have been earlier. 
See Distillation. In 1855 the duties 011 spirits distilled in Scotland and Ireland were 
equalised with those distilled in England. 

WHITE-BAIT DINNER, when the cabinet ministers meet at the end of each session, i.s 
said to have begun at the end of the last century, through sir Robert Preston and sir George 
Rose inviting Mr. Pitt and his colleagues to dine at Dagenham, and afterwards at Greenwich. 
Another account dates the origin in 172 1. , 

WHITEROYS, a body of ruffians in Ireland, so called on account of their wearing linen 
frocks over their coats. They committed dreadful outrages in 1761, but were supju'essed 
by a military force and their ringleaders executed in 1762. They rose into insurrection again 
and were suppressed 1786-7. Whiteboys have appeared at various times since, committing 
the most frightful crimes. The insurrection act was passed on their account in 1822. 

WHITEFIELD, Geouge, the founder of the " Calvinistic Methodists,'''' was the son of an 
innkeeper at Gloucester, where he received his first education. He was admitted a servitor 
at Oxford in 1732, and became a companion of the Wesleys there, and aided them iir estab- 
lishing Methodism. He parted from them in 1741, on account of their rejection of the 
doctrine of election. He was the most eloquent preacher of his day. His first sermon was 
preached in 1736 ; and he commenced field preaching in 1739. He is said to have delivered 
18,000 sermons during his career of 34 years. His followers are termed "the coimtess of 
Huntingdon's Connection," from his having become her chaplain in 1748. Thei'e were 109 
chapels of this connection in 185 1 ; but many of his followers have joined the Independents. 
He was born in 1714, and died in 1770. See TabcrnaeU. 

WHITE FRIARS. See Carmelites. 

WHITE HATS, a party in the Low Countries formed about 1377, against Louis, count 
of Flanders. The struggle lasted till 1384, when it was settled by Philip, duke of Bur- 
gundy. 

WHITE SHEEP, a name given to the Turcomans who conquered Persia about 1468 ; 
and persecuted the Shiites, but were expelled by Ismail, ivho founded the Sophi dynasty in 
1501. 

WHITEHALL (London), built by Hubert de Burgh, earl of Kent, before the middle of 
the 13th century. It afterwards devolved, by bequest, to the Black Friars of Holbnrn, who 
sold it to the archbishop of York, whence it received the name of York-place, and continued 
to be the town residence of the archbishops till purchased by Henry VIII. of cardinal 



WHI 784 WJG 

Wolsey, in 1530. At this period it became the residence of the court. Queen Elizabeth, 
who died at Kichmond, in 1603, was brought from tlience to Whitehall, by water, in a 
grand procession. It was on this occasion, Camden informs us, that the following quaint 
panegyric on her majesty was written : 

" The queen was brought by water to Whitehall, At every stroke the oars did tears let fall. 
More clung about the barge : fish under water Wept out their eyes of pearl, and swam blind after, 
I think the bargemen might, with easier thighs, Have rowed her thither in her people's eyes ; 
For howsoe'er thus much my thoughts have scann'd, She had come by water, had she come by laml." 

In 1697, Whitehall was destroj'ed by an accidental fire, except the banqueting-house, 
which had been added to the palace of Whitehall by James I., according to a design of 
Inigo Jone.s, in 1619. In the front of Whitehall, Charles I. was beheaded, Jan. 30, 1649. 
George I. converted the hall into a chajiel 1723-4. The exterior of this edifice underwent 
repair between 1829 and 1833. 

WHITE HOUSE (Washington), built of freestone, gives name to the United States 
government, as St. James's palace does to that of Great Britain. 

WHITE PLAINS (N. America), where a battle was fought Oct. 28, 1776, between the 
revolted Americans and the British forces under sir William Howe. It terminated in the 
defeat of the Americans, who suffered considerable loss in killed, wounded, and pi'isoners. 

WHITE TOWER, the keep or citadel in the Tower of London, a large square, irregular 
building, erected in 1070, by Gandulph, bishop of Rochester. It measures 116 feet by 96, 
and is 92 feet in height ; the walls, which are 11 feet thick, having a winding staircase con- 
tinued along two of the sides, like that in Dover castle. It contains the sea armoury, and 
the volunteer armoury — the latter for 30,000 men. Within this tower is the ancient chapel 
of St. John, originally used by the English monarchs. The turret at the N. E. angle, the 
highest of the four by which the White Tower is surmounted, was used for astronomical 
purposes by Flamsteed previously to the erection of the Royal Observatory at Greenwich. 

WHITSUNTIDE. The festival appointed to commemorate the descent of the Holy 
Ghost upon the apostles ; the newly-baptized persons or catechumens, used to wear white 
garments on Whitsunday. This feast is moveable, being always exactly seven weeks after 
Easter. Rogation week {vihich see) is the week before Whitsunday. Whitsunday in 1866, 
May 20 ; in 1867, June 9 ; in 1868, May 31. 

WHITTINGTON'S CHARITIES. Sir Richard Whittington, a citizen and mercer of 
London, served the office of lord mayor three times, the last time in 1419. Many stories con- 
nected with his name are destitute of truth. His munificent charities are little known and 
seldom praised. He founded his college, dedicated to the Holy Ghost and the Virgin Mary, 
in 1424 ; and his almshouses in 1429 ; the latter stand on Highgate-hill, near the supposed 
site of the famous stone which commemorated the legend of his return to London, after 
leaving it in despair, the church liells chiming him back by the jiromise of his future 
greatness. 

WICKLIFFITES, the followers of John Wieklifte (born 1324), a professor of divinity in 
the university of Oxford and rector of Lutterworth in Leicestershire. He was the father of 
the Reformation of the English church from popery, being among the first who opposed the 
authority of the pope, transubstantiation, the celibacy of the clergy, &c. Wieklifte was 
protected by John of Gaunt, Edward's son and Richard's uncle, yet virulently persecuted 
by the church, and rescued from martyrdom by a paralytic attack, which caused his death, 
December 31, 1384, in his 60th year. The council of Constance, in 1428, decreed his bones 
to be disinterred and burnt, which was done by the bishop of Lincoln, and his dust was 
cast into the river Swift. Wicklifle's English version of the Bible was commenced in 1380 : 
an edition of it was printed at Oxford in 1850. 

WIDOWS. The Jewish law required a man's brother to marry his widow (1490 B.C.). For 
the burning of widows in India, see Suttees. Among the numerous associations in London 
for the relief of widows, are, one for the widows of musicians, instituted in 1738 ; one for 
widows of naval men, founded in 1739; one for widows of medical men, 1788; a law 
.society, for widows of professional gentlemen, 1817 ; and a society for artists' widows, 1827. 
Widowers were taxed in England as follows ; a duke, 12?. los. ; lower peers, smaller 
sums ; a common person, is. 7 Will. III. 1695. 

WIG. See Peruke. 



WIG 785 WIL 

WIGAN (Lancashire). In the civil war the king's troops coninuuidod by the earl of 
Derby, were defeated and driven out of the town in 1643 by the parliamentary forces under 
sir John Smeaton. The earl was again defeated by colonel Ashton, who razed the fortifica- 
tions of Wigan to the gi-ound, same year ; and once more by a greatly snperior force com- 
manded by colonel Lilburnc, 1651. In this last engagement, sir Thomas Tildersley, an 
ardent royalist, was slain ; a pillar was erected to his memory in 1679. 

"WIGHT, Isle of, the Koman Vccta or Vectis, was conquered by Vespasian in the reign 
of Claudius. It was conquered by the Saxons under Cerdic about 530 ; in 787 by the 
Danes ; and in looi, when they held it for several years. It was taken by the French, 
July 13, 1377, and has several times suffered from invasions by that people. In the year 
1442, Henry VI. alienated the isle of Wight to Henry de Beauchamp, first premier earl of 
England and then duke of Warwick, with a precedency of all other dukes but Norfolk, and 
lastly crowned him king of the Isle of Wight, with his own hands ; but this earl dying 
without heirs male, his regal title died with him, and the lordship of the isle returned to the 
crown. Charles I., after his flight from Hampton-court, was a prisoner in Carisbrook castle, 
in 1647. In the time of Cliarles II. timber was so plentiful, that it is said a squirrel 
might have travelled on the tops of the trees for many leagues together ; but it is now 
much reduced, through supplying the dockj'ards for the British navy. The f[ueen has a 
marine I'esidence here called Osborne-house. 

WILKES' NUMBER, 45, from the 45th number of the North Briton, published by Mr. 
Wilkes, an alderman of London. He commenced a paper M-arfare against the earl of Bute 
and his administration, and in this number, printed April 23, 1763, made so free a use of 
royalt}' itself that a general warrant was issued against him by the earl of Halifax, then 
secretary of state, and he was committed to the Tower, April 30. His warfare not only 
deprived him of liberty, but exposed him to two duels ; yet he obtained 4000Z. damages and 
full costs of suit for the illegal seizure of his papers. He \yas afterwards condemned for 
libel; but was, however, elected a fifth time for Middlesex in Oct. 1774, and served the 
office of lord mayor. He was elected chamberlain of London in 1779, and died in 1797. 
See North Briton, and also Warrants, General. 

WILLS AND Testaments are of very high antiquity. See Genesis xlviii. Solon intro- 
duced them at Athens, 578 B.C. There are many regulations respecting wills in the Koran. 
Trebatius Testa, the civilian, was the first person who introduced codicils to wills at Rome, 
31 B.C. The power of bequeathing lands by the last will and testament of the owner was 
confirmed to English subjects i Henry I. iioo ; but with great restrictions and limitations 
respecting the feudal system, which were taken ofl' by the statute of 32 Henry VIII. 1541. 
Blackstone's Commentaries. The first will of a sovereign on record is stated (but in 
error) to be that of Richard 11. 1399 ; Edward the Confessor made a will, 1066. Various 
laws have regulated the wills and testaments of British subjects. All previous statutes 
were repealed by i Vict. c. 26, 1837, and the laws with relation to wills thereby amended.* 
The present Probate Court {which sec) was established in 1857. An office for the reception 
of the wills of living persons was opened in Jan. 1861. See Thellusson's Will, 

extracts from the last will of napoleon I., EJirEROR OF FRANCE. t 

[lie died May 5, 1821, eleven days after he had signed these documents. The original in French occupies 
about twenty-six pages in Peignot's " Testamens Remarquables, " 1829.] 

"This day, April 24, 1821, at Longwood, in the ' the services he has performed for me are those of a 
Island of St. Helena. This is my testament, or act j friend. I desire that he may marry a widow, sister, 
of my last will : or daughter of an officer or .soldier of my old guard. 

" I leave to the comte de Montholon 2,000,000 ! To St. Denis, 100,000 francs. To Novarre, 100,000 
francs, as a proof of my satisfaction for the atten- , francs. To Pijeron, 100,000 francs. To Archam- 
tions he has paid to me for these six years, and to baud, 50,000 francs. To Cuvier, 50,000 francs. To 
indemnify him for the losses which my residence Chandelle, idem. 

in St. Helena has occasioned him. I leave to the "To the Abb^ Vigiiali, 100,000 francs. I desire 
comte Bertrand 500,000 francs. 1 leave to JIar- that he may build his house near Ponte Novo de 
chand, my first valet-de-chambre, 400,000 francs ; Rossmo. To the comte Las Casas, 100,000 francs. 



* By this act the testator must be above 21, not a lunatic or idiot, not deaf and dumb, not drunk at 
the time of signing, not an outlawed or unpardoned felon. All kinds of property may be devised. The 
will must be written legibly and intelligibly, and signed by the testator, or by his dhection, in the pre- 
sence of two or more witnesses, who also must sign. A married woman may bequeath only her pin- 
money or separate maintenance, without the consent of her husband. 

t These documents, dated from April 15-24, which had been deposited since 1821 in England, have 
been, at the request of the French government, given up to the authorities at Paris, to be deposited 
among the archives of that capital. .. . 

8 % 



WIL 



786 



WIN 



WILLS, continued. 

To comte Lavalette, 100,000 francs. To the surgeon 
in chief, LaiTey, 100,000 francs. He i.s the most 
virtuous man I have known. To general Brayer, 
100,000 francs. 

"To general Lcfevi-c Desnouettcs, 100,000 francs. 
To general Drouet, 100,000 francs. Tm general Caui- 
bronne, 100,000 francs. To the children of general 
Muton Diivernais, 100,000 francs. To the children 
of the brave Labedoyere, 100,000 francs. To the 
children of general Girard, killed at Ligny, 100,000 
francs. To the children of general Chartrand, 
100,000 francs. To the childi-en of the virtuous 
general Travost, 100,000 francs. To general Lalle- 
mand, the elder, 100,000 fr.ancs. To general Clausel, 
100,000 francs. To Costa Bastilica, also 100,000 
francs. To the baron de MenevaUe, 100,000 francs. 
To Arnault, author of Marb's, 100,000 francs. 

" To colonel Marbot, 100,000 francs : I request him 
to continue to write for the defence and glory of the 
French armies, and to confound the calumniators 



and the apostates. To the Baron Bignon, 100,000 
francs : I request him to write the history of French 
Diplomacy from 1792 to 1815. To Poggi de Talaro, 
100,000 francs. To the surgeon Emmery, 100,000 
francs. 

' ' These sums shall be taken from the six millions 
which I deposited on leaving Paris in 1815, and from 
the interest at the rate of 5 per cent, since July 1815 ; 
the account of which shall be adjusted with the 
bankers by the comits Montholon and Bertrand, and 
by Marchand. 

"These legacies, in case of death, shall be paid to 
the widows and children, and in their default, shall 
revert to the capital. I institute the counts Mon- 
tholon, Bertrand, and Marchand my testamentary 
executors. This present testament, written en- 
tirely by my own hand, is signed and sealed with 
my arms. 

" NAPOLEON. 

"April 24, 1821, Longwood." 



The following are part of the eight Codicils to the preceding will of the emperor :— 



" On the liquidation of my civil list of Italy — such 
as money, jewels, plate, linen, coffers, caskets of 
which the viceroy is the depositary, and which 
belong to me, I dispose of two millions, which I 
leave to my most faithful servants. I hope that 
without their showing any cause, my son Eugene 
Napoleon wiU discharge them faithfully. He cannot 
forget the forty millions which I have given him 
in Italy, or by the right (parage) of his mother's 
inheritance. 

" From the funds remitted in gold to the empress 
Mai'ia Louisa, my very dear and well-beloved spouse, 
at Orleans, in 1814, there remain diie to me two 
millions, which I dispose of by the present codicil, 
in order to reeomiDcnse my most faithful servants, 
whom I beside recommend to the ijrotection of my 
dear Maria Louisa. I leave 200,000 francs to count 
Montholon, 100,000 francs of which he sh.allpay into 
the chest of the treasurer (Las C'asas) for the same 
purpose as the above, to be employed according to 
my depositions in legacies of conscience. 

" 10,000 francs to the sub-otKcer Cantillon, who 
has undergone a prosecution, being accvisod of a 
desire to assassinate lord Wellington, of which he 



has been declared innocent. CantiUou had as much 
right to assassinate that oligarch, as the latter had 
to send me to perish on the rock of St. Helena, &c., 
&c., &c. 

LETTER TO M. LAFITTE. 

" Monsieur L.^fitte, — I remitted to you in 1815, 
at the moment of my departure from Paris, a svmi 
of nearly six millions, for which you gave me a 
double receipt. 1 have cancelled one of these 
receipts, and I have charged comte de Montholon to 
present to you the other receipt, in order that yoii 
may, after my death, deliver to him the said sum 
with interest at the rate of five per cent., from the 
ist of July, 1815, deducting the payments with 
which you have been charged in virtue of my 
order. I have also remitted to you a box containing 
my medallion. I beg you wiU deliver it to comte 
Montholon. 

" This letter having no other object, I pray God, 
Jfonsieur Lafitte, that He may have you in His hol\- 
and worthy keeping. 

"NAPOLEON. 

"Longwood, in the island of St. Helena, April 25, 



WILMINGTON ADMINISTRATION. Feb. 1742. 



E.irl of Wilmington, first lord of the treasury. 

Lord Hardwicke, lord chance ilur. 

Earl of Harrington, 'president of the cov.ncil. 

Earl Gower, lord privy seal. 

Mr. Sandys, chancellor of the exchequer. 

Lord Carteret and the duke of Newcastle, secretaries 

of state. 
Earl of Winchilsea, first lord of the adniiralti/. 



Duke of Argyll, commander of the forces and masUr 
general of the ordnance. 

Mr. Henry Pelham, paymaster of the forces. 

With several of the household lords. 
[On lord Wilmington's death, July 26, 1743, Mr. 
Pelham became prime minister .; and in Nov. 
1744, he formed the "Broad-bottom" administra- 
tion. See Pelham.] 



WINCHESTER (Hamp.shire), a most ancient city, whose erection may reasonably bo 
ascribed to the Celtic Briton.s, though the alleged date of its foundation, 892 B.C. i.s 
manifestly unworthy of attention. It became the capital of the West Saxon kingdom under 
Cerdic, 530 a.d. ; was the residence of Alfred 879-901 ; and under the rule of Egbert, was 
the metropolis of England. In the reign of William I. , though Winchester was still a royal 
residence, London began to rival it, and acquire the pre-eminence ; and the destruction of 
religious houses by Henry VIII. almost ruined it. Several kings resided at Winchester, 
and many parliaments were held there. Memorials of its ancient superiority exist in thj 
national denomination of measures of quantity, as Winchester ell, Winchester bushel, &c., 
the use of which has but recently been replaced by imperial measures. The bishopric is of 
great antiquity. The cathedral church was first founded and endowed by KingQ, or 
Kenegilsus, the first Christian king of the West Saxons. The church first built becomin'-- 
rumous, the present fabric was begun by AValkin, the 34th bishop, 1073 ; but not finisheil 
till the tmie of William of Wyl^eham, who founded the college about 1373. The church 
was first dedicated to St. Amphibalus, then to St. Peter, and afterwards to St. Swithin, once 



WIN 



787 



WIN 



bisliop liere. St. Birine was the first bishop of the West Saxons, 635. The see is valued i« 
tJie king s books at 2,793?. 4«- 2f?. aumially. Present income, 10,500?, 



lySr. Browiilow North, died July 12, 1S20. 
1820. George Pretymaa Tomline, died 1827 



RECENT BISHOPS OF WINCHESTER 
Prelates of tlio Order of tlie Garter. 
[1827 



Charles Richard Sumner (peesbnt bishop. 
1865). 



wln-'il^nT?^^?;^? ^CTS (to facilitate the winding up the affairs of joint-stock companies 
wluch aie unable to meet their engagements) were passed in 1848, 1857, and 1862. 

_ WINDMILLS are of great antiquity, and some writers state them to be of Roman 
invention ; but certainly we are indebted for the windmill to the Saracens. Thev are said 
to have been originally introduced into Europe by the kiiights of St. John, who took the 
hint Irom what they had seen in the crusades. Baker. Windmills were first known in 
bpam France, and Germany, in 1299. Anderson. Wind saw-miUs were invented by a 
Dutchman, m 1633, when one was erected near the Strand, in London. 

WINDOWS. See Glass. There were windows in Pompeii, a.d. 79, as is evident from 
Its ruins. It is certain that windows of some kind were glazed so early as the 3rd century, 
It not before, though the fashion was not introduced until it was done by Bennet 6^V 
\\ mdows of glass were used in private houses, but the glass was imported, 1 1 77. Anderson. 
In Lnglanc, m 185 1, about 6000 houses had fifty windows and upwards in each; about 
275,000 Had ten windows and upwards ; and 725,000 had seven windows, or less than seven. 

Window-tax first enacted in order to defray the Reduced 182, 

expense of and deficiency in the re-coinage of The revenue derived from windows was in 1 840 

Tiw,+-,^;„„ „■ a'-o-^,' "^ ■ : . • -^^95 ahout a million and a-quarter sterling: and 
The tax mcreased Feb. 5, 1746-7 ; agam in 1778 ; in 1850 (to April 5), 1,832,684?. 

and again on the commutation-tax for tea, The tax repealed by act 14 & 15 Vict. c. 36 
mv„ i.,^ „„ . . ■, . „ *-''^*- ^' ^784 (which act imposed a duty upon inhabited 
The tax agam mcreased m . 1797, 1802, and 1808 houses in lieu thereof) . . July 24, 1851 

..-^..yi^I^SOI^ CASTLE (Berkshire),* a residence of the British sovereigns, begun by 
William the Conqueror, and enlarged by Henry I. about mo. Edward III., who was born 
here, caused the old building, with the exception of three towers at the west end, to be 
taken down, and re-erected the whole castle, under the direction of William of Wykeham, 
1356, and built St. George's chapel. He assessed every county in England to send him 
workmen. James I. of Scotland was imprisoned here 1406-23. Several additions were 
made by Henry VIII. Elizabeth made the grand north terrace ; and Charles II. repaired 
and beautified it, 1680. Camden; Mortimer. The chapel was repaired and opened, Oct. 
1790. The castle was repaired and enlarged, 1824-8 ; and George IV. took possession of it, 
Dec. 8, 1828. Our sovereigns have here entertained many royal personages : as the 
emperor and empress of the Frencli, in April 1855. A serious fire occurred at the castle, in 
the prince of Wales's tower, owing to some defect in the heating apparatus, March 19, 1853. 

WINE. "Noah planted a vineyard, and drank of the mne," 2347 b.c. {Gen. ix. 20). 
See Vine. Ching-Noung, emperor of China, is said to have made rice wine, 1998 B.C. The 
art of making wine is said to have been brought from India by Bacchus. Christ changed 
water into wine at the marriage in Cana of Galilee, A. p. 30. John ii. 3, 10. Wine was sokl 
in England by apothecaries as a cordial in 1300, and so continued for some time after,' 
although there is mention of " wine for the king" so early as 1249. In 1400, the price was 
twelve shillings the pipe. A hundred and fifty butts and pipes condemned, for being 
adulterated, to be staved and emptied into the channels of the streets, by Eainwell, mayor 
of London, 1427. Stoivs Chron. The first importation of claret wine into Ireland was on 
June 17, 1490. The first act for licensing sellers of wine in England passed April 25, 1661. 
Wiue duties to be 2s. gd. per gallon on Cape wine, and 5s. 6d. on all other wines, 1831. In 



* Windsor Forest, situated to the south and west of the town of "Windsor, was formerly 120 miles in 
circumference ; in 1607, it was 77^ miles round, but it has since been reduced in its bounds to about ^6 
miles. It was surveyed in 1789, and found to contain 59,600 acres. Virginia Water and the plantatioiis 
about it were taken out of the forest. The marshes were drained and the trees planted for William, dul-: e 
of Cumberland, about 1746; and much was done by George IV., who often resided at the lodge. On the 
south side is Windsor Great Park, which was fourteen miles in circumference, but it has been much. 
enlarged by the Inclosure act; it contains about 3,800 acres. The Little Park, on the north and east sif'es 
of the castle, contains about 500 acres. The gardens are elegant, and have been considerably improved by 
tbo addition of the house and gardens of the duko of St. Alban's, purchased by the crown. 

3 E 2 



^Y\: 



7SS 



AVIT 



1S56, the customs dxities on wines produced 2,073, 694^.; "i 1858, 1,721,742?.; in 1859 
1,982,302?.; in 1863, 1,212,971?. By the French treaty of commerce about i860, the duty 
on wines was much reduced. Wine licences are granted to refreshment houses by an act 
passed in 1S60. 

IMPOrwTATrON" OF WINE OF ALL KINDS INTO THE TNITED KINGDOM. 



1854 10,875,855 gaUons. 

1857 10,336,485 „ 

1859 8,195,513 „ 

i86i 11,052,436 ,, 

1864 15,451,622 ,, 



1800 3,307,460 gallons. 

1815 4,306,528 ,, 

1830 6,879,558 

1839 9,909,056 ,, 

1845 8,469,776 „ 

1850 ....... 9,304,312 ,, I 

WINTER. See Frosts. 

WIRE. The invention of drawing wire * is ascribed to Rodolph of Nuremberg, a,bout 
1410. Mills for this purpose were first set up at Nuremberg in 1563. The first wire-mill in 
England was erected at Mortlake in 1663. Mortimer. 

WIRTEMRERG. See Wicrtembcrcj. 

WISCONSIN, a N. W. state of N. America, was organised as a territory in 1836 ; and 
received into the Union, May 29, 1848. 

WITCHCRAFT. The punishment of witchcraft was commanded in the Jewish law 
[Exodus xxii. 18) 149 1 B.C., " Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live." Saul, after banishing 
or condemning witchcraft, incurred the wrath of God by consulting the witch of Endor, 
1056 B.C. (i Sa7n. xxviii.) Bishop Hutchinson's important historical "Essay on Witch- 
craft" was published in 1718. The church of Rome .subjected persons suspected of the 
crime to the most cruel torments ; and pope Innocent VIII. issued a bull against witchcraft 
in 1484. Thousands of victims, often innocent, were burned alive, while others were killed 
l)y the tests applied. 



Joan of Arc was burnt at Rheims as a witch. May 
30, 1431. 

About five hundred witches were burnt in Geneva, 
in three months, 1515. 

One thousand were burnt in the diocese of Como in 
a year, about 1524. 

An incredible number in France, about 1520, when 
one sorcerer confessed to having 1200 associates. 

Nine hundred were burnt in Lorraine between 1580 
and 1595. 

One hundred and fifty-seven were burnt at Wurtz- 
burg between 1627 and 1629, old and young, 
clerical, learned, and ignorant. 

At Lindheim, thirty were burnt in four years, out 
of a population of 600 ; and more than 100,000 
perished, mostly by the flames, in Germany. 

Grandier, the parish priest at Loudon, was burnt on 
a charge of having bewitched a whole convent of 
nuns, 1634. 

In Brotagne, twenty poor women were put to death 
as witches, 1654. 

Disturbances commenced on chai-ges of witchcraft in 
America, at Massachusetts, 1648-9 ; and persecu- 
tions raged dreadfully in Pennsylvania in 1683. 

At Salem, in New England, nineteen persons were 
hanged (by the Puritans) for witchcraft, eight 
more were condemned, and fifty confessed them- 
selves to be witches and were pardoned, 1692. 

Mai-ia Renata was burnt at Wurtzburg in 1749. 

At Ivalisk, in Poland, nine old women were charged 



with having bewitched and rendered unfruitful 
the lands belonging to that palatinate, and were 
burnt, Jan. 17, 1775. 
Five women were condemned to death by the 
Brahmins, at Patna, for sorcery, 'and executed, 
Dec. 15, 1802, 

WITCHCR.\FT IN ENGLAND. 

Severe laws were in force against them in these 
countries in former times, by which death was the 
punishment, and thousands of persons suffered 
both by the public executioner and the hands of 
the people. 

A statute was enacted declaring all witchcraft and 
sorcery to be felony without benefit of clergy, 
33 Hen. VIII. 1541. Again, 5 Eliz. 1562, and 
I. James, 1603. 

The 73rd canon of the church prohibits the clergy 
from casting out devils, 1603. 

Barrington estimates the judicial murders for witch- 
craft in England in 200 years at 30,000. 

Matthew Hopkins, the '■witch-finder," cavtses the 
judicial murder of about 100 persons in Essex, 
Norfolk, and Suffolk, 1645-7. 

Sir Matthew Hale burnt two persons for witchcraft 
in 1664. 

Northamptonshire and Huntingdon preserved the 
superstition about witchcraft later than any other 
counties. 



* The astonishing ductility which is one of the distinguishing qualities of gold, is no way more con- 
spicuous than in gilt wire. A cj'linder of 48 ounces of silver, covered with a coat of gold weighing only 
one ounce, is usually drawn into a wire, two yards of which only weigh one grain ; so that 98 yards <jf the 
wire weigh no more than 49 grains, and one single gr.ain of gold covers the whole 98 yards ; and the 
thousandth part of a grain is above one-eighth of an inch long. Halley. Eight grains of gold, covering a 
cylinder of .silver, are commonly drawn into a wire 13,000 feet long ; yet so perfectly does it cover tha 
.s*lver, that even a microscope does not discover any appearance of the silver underneath; BoyU. 



WITCHCRAFT, continued 

'^i^^::^^^. P--- ^-»* ^^ «^- Osyth. I ^,um.. The kin, published Ms I,..o„o.o.. iu 
Two i-rctended witches were executed at North Th^' f '""^J^' '597- "^onoLoyie m 

, =£■ - •-«' '"• »""'. «vea-AS; I S tL".S;;".SS,1 S"SXJ.S;'K, 

i>33, to consul, .„ the proper n,e»„; To T'l^ui:.BZt%el!.t:li^°°- ''°'' '" ''°'"'°"' 

victoVZcl^f 55du;;;:!tV«rKi!;S": ™ S', '"""™, e° ''■™='' "■-<>- ^--^ 

«-ere .,.fen.e<l after „ desperate e„«;i^\°S.!"XS£r30»t"°Xv-";4 Slf """" 

tl.e part, ngsrievej. LoMlelo o ° if raS STo'' ,v?;,;'"' '""' fr '"1 '='"'™» '» 
question ,vl,idi may tmj to degrade h°Le f Dec o ?8^ ' "T '" ""'^f'' '° •■"'™"- 
examrnatioi. of wil.icssos passed i? «eo III i,,, A„l i ^,, '*'"' ""=' "^''ns *» the 
c.xa.„..ti„„ of „,t.r,.se. irpou inL^g.Z>'IlUt:lZ.:T^i•:rlT ^[^^^ % Ts" ""^ 

therZ„o?,lSj:,Z,,e.fL*L?™-rS^^^^^ 

"IC^'trr"""""'^ ..teres;r;.;t;rso''i7opeV« S'S!. '" ""■ '-'^ »- 
lUVLS rOISON, or Watke Top-ako. See Po,»„My. 

WOLVES ivere once very luiinerolts in En<'lanil T?io:,. I,..] 
tribute, particularly 300 yeai4v from Wale, In Em,„ i,-,i,„ V ?* V"" Jum-mded as a 
sard to he totally destroyed. L„" E S'd i Se,l S ',n',t',l«tj f""} '','P *'".' '«« ' 
wolves m scveial counties of England 1280 I,tS ,. r ?/°.'' "'« tlestruction of 

tphesus. 4. T],e walls Ii.kI haugi u^^rd e. of the pi?v nf r i^'i^^^' ^'"'P^'^ °f ^'^''^> at 
image of the sua at Rhodes, called the Co oLis 6 TW L^.t ^ T" i^/ ^^^° ^'-^^^ '^'■''^^^,1 
< ]y.npus. 7. The pharos or watch-towe 1 ,Ut by P o „ ^S iH.M^f ^^ ^f.*"*^ «f ^ntov 
hQd sc2)aratc articles. ' -^ ^ "^yiemy i iiiiadelphus, king of Egypt. 

WOOD-CUTS. See Engraving on Wood. 

of ^iS^^ S^-f^!^' t^!T^i:V;'''f'^ ""f ^'r'^'^ --^ -"-^1 'T virtue 
letter.^ raised Inch a sTiri^arSko tfS^ ^fT ^'-''^^ ^^ ^^^'^ ^'"^^ '^' 

J., halfpence .ere asiyed n. ^^'iyT^:^::^:^!^^^^ tj^^^t^ 

fi^^^^^.'if^'Sjrs:^ -r' f -"^ ^"- ^^^eiy to 

down at Whitehall in 1839 ; md in Oxford-street the St;.„H '™r^"A P^^^^nient was laid 
soon taken up as inefficient. ' * '' ^*''^"^'' ''^"^ ^^her streets. It was 

WOODSTOCK (Oxfordshire). In A^oodstock now RI„,.l • 1 • • 

royal palace, in which king Ethelred h Id a mriiarnt 2 aK^^^^^ "T'^'^^y «^°°d a 
Boeuus ac Consolationo Pkiioso^ki., 88S. HeJry L^^£ ^'J^X^] an?herrS::| 



woo 



790 



WOO 



f;^™? ESreuiS's If- e'.!j;,,. ii/' rs^^zTrt' ^'"°"" ^°\? "*«•"■" ■- 

confiuecl by her sister Marv icc , A^ll. i' i^^ ' • ""^.^'^^ ^'''^ P™cess Elizabeth was 
for the duke of MarlboroS wa ^^r.^t/lT f ""''°"' ^'''^^ ""^ *'^^ ^^P^"«<= of «^e "'-^tio". 
Blenheim, in 1704 At Sat time pvp.A "^ *« ^^"ime'norate the victory he obtained a 
elins were plante°f on its site! ^ '"'' '^ *''' '''''''''^ ''^^'' '^'' ''''^"'^'^> ^^^<^ two 

Grealttin'^r not ^nJy'u,!™:? trjL*" fV'^ f ^^"^^^^ ^^^^--^^^^^^^ *^- ^-^ «f 
universe; and even in the tW« .f +1 p °^ ^i"'"'' ^'"* accounted the finest in the 
establish^IatWrcLsteiforthenseof tl '"''"' '" manufacture of woollen cloths was 

Thp"f^,°'' exported wool were levied by Edw. I. 
The exportation prohibited . j- "» . 1. 

btaplesof wool established in Ireland, atDubl 

EdVni''^""''' ^°''^' ^""^ Drogiieda, x8 
^ wErr^""^ PeAnittedtobesentto Spain' 

Stmo ''"""' imu-cd our manufactm-e. 

^"^o^::^^^^'^ of'the -export of^^ 

'^'ilorVu'i'/m ^ nf°"T -^f^E^glij^ ^ool.' and'the im^ '" 
hibited ? " ^°°^ "'*° England pro- 

The export forbidden by act passed ' . ' . .' 



1275 
1337 



1467 
1.521 



1696 
1718 



BiU to prevent the running of wool from Ire- 
land to Prance ... 
^'ifff'^"*'^ on wool imported' from Ireland taken 
Wool-combers' act, 35 Geo. III. 
The non-exportation law was repealed, l 

ueo. IV. ... ^ J o 

In 1851 wc imported 83,3u'g75 lb. of wool and 

alpaca; m 1856, 116,211,392 lb.; in 1859, 

133.284,634 lb. ; in 1861, 147,172,841 lb. ; in 

1864,206,473,6451b. 
We imported from Australia, in 1842 

12,979,856 lb.; in 1856, 56,052,139 lb.; in 

?«59. 53,700,542 lb. ; in 1861, 68,506,222 lb. • 

m 1064, 99,037,459 lb. 



1738 

1739 
1794 

1824 



ju,rs™.,jrf^ui:^""-e'ft ^;£r" '■' """" "^ ~— '■' "'" «- °' 



^ wno?w'^Tr^°'H'^'*^" *° wear garments Of 
woollen and linen together . b c 

*°i/,??c'?'®'\?f cloth-worker.s (from the Netherl 
Sra«- "' England by Edward III. 

^Cmndm ^^^^^^'^^^ '^^''® fii-stmadc in England! 
Woollen's made at Kendal " ' ' '*'^°"*^ 
""into EnSud ""."'^^ "" ''''^''^ '^""^ '^'^'^^^^ 
'^%S ".^ '^^'^'"° ^'''"''^'^^ *° England.' See 
Medleys or miied b'road'-cloth, first made ' * 
F™ "'■° f ^'If '^°*^ '^'^^''^" ^^ Sedan, in 
MaSe ! ■ P'-'ti-onage of cardinal 

Broadcloth first dressed and dyed in' Euc^land' 
by Brewer, from the Low Countrie.3 . " "'*; 



1451 

1331 

1340 
1390 

1463 

1608 
1614 

1646 
1667 I 



British and Irish woollens prohibited in Prance 1677 
AU persons obliged to be buried in wooUen and 

the persons directing the burial otherwise to 

forfeit 5^., 29 Chas. II. . . ,f-,o 

The nianufacture of cloth greatly impi'oved in 

England by Plemish settlers . iggg 

Injudiciously restrained in Ireland, „ Will. IIL 1608 
The exportation from Ireland wholly prohibited 

except to certain ports of England . 1701 

EngUsh manufacture encouraged by 10 Anne' 

1712, and 2 Geo. I. . , ' 

Greater in Yorkshire in 1785 than in a'u England 

at the revolution. Chalmers 
Value of woollen manufactures of all khids 

exported: in 1847. 6,896,038/.; in 1854. 

9,120 759^; in 1861, 11,118,692?.; in 1864 

18,565,078?. ^ 



B^oS^i^Sl™ ^::,XSCt:!i teS ';--P---"onFeb. 3, in comme- 
visited England ; and St J3 azv a Shi ?. P discovered their art. He is said to have 
landin--pli?ce He was l.isl mf'nf S %■ • ^^ ''"^''^1^' is celebrated for having been his 
Diocleriini'e;secutior289 ^ '^'''''' "^ ^™^^"^' ^'''^ ^^^^^^ martyrdSm in the 

eallS'^lS^mlf bet^^/rltl':/,;!;;^^^ England in the house of lords, is so 

cloth. AVool was the laSe cXmoditv n/ ^ ' ""Z-^'?.* ^^?^ "' ''^™^^' covered with red 
woolsack first came into Se! '"''''^°'''*^ "^ ^"S^'-^^^d 1" the reign of Edward III. when the 

r^^^rZ^oc^^t.:^^^^^:-^ naval .arsenal in England, and 
Henry VIII. 1^12, when the Harrv PrnnpT^^ ^'^ ^'"' ^"^^t ^« <^^i'^J 'i^ the reign of 

in 1552. The r^/d ^If^SfJoi^nS^^^^^ Here she also was burnt 

.^enades, .c, a. niadeUt^- £— k^^lL^iSS^S^^^ 



V.'OR 



nn 



won 



the royal arsenal, but the institution was not completely formed mitil 19th Geo. II. 1745' 
The arsenal, storehouses, &c., burnt, to the value of 200,000?. Maj'- 20, 1802. Another great 
lire occurred June 30, 1805. Fatal explosion of gunpowder, Jan. 20, 1813. The hemp- 
store burnt down, July 8, 1813. Another explosion by gunpowder, June 16, 1814. About 
10,000 persons are now employed in Woolwich arsenal. 

WORCESTER was successively an important Welsh, Roman, and Saxon town. It was 
burnt by the Danes 1041, for resisting the tribute called Danegelt. William 1. built a castle 
1090. The city was frequently taken and retaken during the civil wars of the middle ages. 
— The BiSHOi'iiic was founded by Ethelrcd, king of the Mercians, 6S0, and taken from the 
see of Lichiield, of which it composed a part. The married priests of the cathedral were 
displaced, and monks settled in their stead, 964. The church was rebuilt by Wolstau, 
25th bishop, 1030. The see has yielded to the church of Rome four saints, and to the 
English nation five lord chancellors aud three lord treasurers. It is valued in tlie king's 
books at 1049?. i66-. 3 jt?. per annum. Present income, 5000Z. 

EECENT BISnorS OF WOKCESTER. 



1781. Richard Ilm'd, died May 28, iSoS. 
180S. Folliott H. Coruwall, died Sept. 5, 1831. 
1S31. Robert James Carr, died April 24, 1841. 



1S41. Henry Pepys, died Nov. 13, 1S60. 
i860. Henry Pliilputt (presekt bisliop). 



WORCESTER, Battle of, Sept. 3, 165 1, when the Scots army which came to England 
to reinstate Charles II. was defeated by Cromwell, who called it his crowning mcraj. 
Charles ^vitli difficulty escaped to France. More thau 2000 of the royalists were slain, and 
of 8000 prisoners most were sold as slaves to the American colonists. 

WORKING MEN'S CLUBS may be considered to have begun with the Working Men's 
]\Iutual Improvement and Recreation society, established in Lancaster by the instru- 
mentality of the Rev. H. Soils, in i860. The Westminster Working Men's club, in Duck- 
lane, originated with Miss Adeline Cooper, and was opened in Dec. i860. The AVorking 
Men's Club aud Institute Union was established by Lord Brougham and others, June 4, 1862. 

WORKING MEN'S COLLEGES. The first was established iu Sheffield, by working- 
men. The second, in London, by the rev. professor Frederic D. Maurice, as principal, 
in Oct. 1854 ; a third iu Cambridge, and, iu 1855, a foiu-th at Oxford; all, wholly for the 
working classes, aiul undertaking to imjiart such knowledge as each man feels he is most in 
want of. The colleges engage to find a teacher, wherever 10 or 12 members agree to form a 
class, and also to have lectures given. There were eleven classes at the one in London in 
1856; Mr. Ruskin gave lessons in draiving. These colleges have been found to be self- 
supporting. 

AVORLD. See Creation and Glohe. 

WORMS, a city on the Rhine, in Hesse Darmstadt. Here Charlemagne resided in 
806 B.C. Several imperial diets have been held at Worms, where was held the imperial diet 
before which Martin Luther was summoned, April 4, 1521, and by which he was proscribed. 
Luther was met by 2000 persons on foot and on horseback, at the distance of a league 
from Worms. Such was his conviction of the justice of his cause, that when Spalatin sent 
a messenger to warn him of his danger, he answered, "If there were as many devils in 
Wonns as there are tiles upon the roofs of its houses, I would go on." Before the emperor, 
the archduke Ferdinand, six electors, twenty-four dukes, seven margraves, thirty bishops and 
prelates, and many princes, counts, lords, and ambassadors, Luther a2)peared, April 17th, 
in the imperial diet, acknowledged all his writings and opinions, and left Worms in fact a 
conqueror. Yet, to save his life, he had to remain in seclusion under the protection of the 
elector of Saxony for about a year. 

WORSHIP. The first worship mentioned is that of Abel, 3S72 B.C. Gen. iv. "Men 
began to call on tlie name of the Lord," 3769 B.C. Gen. iv. The Je\vish order of worship 
was set up by Moses, 1490 B.C. Solomon consecrated the temple, 1004 B.C. To the 
corruptions of the simple worship of the patriarchs all the Egyptian and Greek idolatries 
owed their origiu. Athotes, son of Menes, king of Upper Egypt, is supposed to be the CojJt 
of the Egyptians, and the Toth, or Hermes, of the Greeks, the Mercury of the Latins, and 
the Teidates of the Celts or Gards, 2 112 B.C. Usher. 

WORSHIP IN England. The Druids were the priests here, at the invasion of the 
Romans (55 B.C.), wdio eventually introduced Christianity, which was almost extirpated by 
tlie victorious Saxons (455-820), who were pagans. The Roman Catholic form of Christianity 
was introduced liy Augustine, 596, iiiid cunliiiucil till the Refonuatioii, irhichsee. 



WOR 



AVEE 



WOESHIP, continued. 



PLACES OF ■\VORSHir IN ENGLAND AND WALE.S IN 1851, 



Church of England . 

Wesleyan Methodists . 

Independents 

Baptists . . . . . 

Roman Catholics 

Society of Friends 

Unitarians 

Scottish Presbyterians . 

Latter-day Saints (Monnonilc. 

Brethren (Plymouth) 

Jews 



I'.'nccs of Worship. Sittings. Plates c 

i4)077 5)317.915 j New Church (Swedenborgians) . 

6,579 2,194,298 j Moravians ..... 

3,244 1,067,760 I Catholic and Apostolic Church ) 

2,789 752,343 I (Irvingites) . . . . )' 

S70 186,111 j Greek Church .... 

371 91 > 559 Countess of Huntingdon's ) 

229 68,554 Connection . . . . j 

160 86,692 Welsh Calvinistic Methodists . 

30,783 Various small bodies, some ) 

18,529 without names . f 

53 8,4381 Bqq Wesleyan Methodists . 



'-0) 



Vorship. 


Sittings. 


50 


12,107 


32 


9,305 


32 


7,437 


3 


291 


log 


35,210 


828 


198,242 


54<5 


105,557 


note. 





WOESTED, spun wool, obtained it.s name from having been first spun at a town called 
Worsted, in Norfolk, in which the inventor lived, and where manufactures of worsted are 
still extensively carried on, 14 Edw. III. 1340. Anderson. " A Wor.sted-stocking Knave " 
is a term of reproach or contempt used by Shakspere. 

WOETHIES, NINE, a term long ago given to the following eminent men : 



Jews. 
J oshua . 
David . 
Judas Maccubajus 



Pied. 

B.C. 1426 

• . I015 

. 161 



Heathens. 
Hector of Troy 
Alexander the Great . 
Julius Csesar . 



Died. 

B.C. I184 
■ • 323 



CImsiiatis. Died. 

King Arthur of Britain . a.d. 542 
Charlemagne of France . . 814 
Godfrey of Bouillon . .1100 



In Shakspcare's Love's Labour's Lost, act v. sc. 2, Hercules and Pompey appear as worthies 
WOTHLYTYPE. See under Photography. 

"WOUNDING. ]\Ialicious wounding of another was adjudged death by the Encdish 
statutes. The Coventry act was passed in 1671. See Coventry Act. By lord EllenboroiTgh's 
act, persons who stab or cut with intent to murder, maim, or disfigure another were 
declared gudty of felony without benefit of clergy. Those guilty of maliciously shootin^r at 
another ni any dwelling-house or other place, are also punishable under the same statute in 
the same degree, 43 Geo. III. 1802. This offence is met by some later statutes, particu- 
larly the act for consohdatmg and amending the acts relating to oftences against the per^^on 
9 Geo. IV. June, 1828. This last act is extended to Ireland by 10 Geo. IV. 1829 An act 
for the prevention of maliciously shooting, stabbing, &c., in Scotland, 6 Geo IV 182 ? • 
amended by 10 Geo. IV. June 4, 1829. 16 & 17 Vict. c. 30, 1853, was passed for the 
prevention and punishment of assaults on women and children. 

WRECKS. The I0.SS of merchant and other ships by wreck upon lee-shores coasts and 
di-sasters m the open sea, was estimated at Lloyd's, in 1800, to be about an averacre of -lee, 
ships a year. In 1830, it appeared by Lloyd's Lists, that 677 British vessels we?e totallv 
lost, under various circumstances in that year. 



British vessels wrecked in 1848, were, .sailing vessels, 
SOI, steamers 13 ; tonnage, 96,920. 

In 1851 there were wrecked 611 vessels, of which 
number u were steamers ; the tonnage of the 
whole being 111,976 tuns. I 

The year 1852-3, particularly the winter months 



(Dec. and Jan.), was very remarkable for the 
number of dreadful shipwrecks and fires at sea • 
but a few of them are recorded. ' 

Many vessels were lost in the great storms Oct 25 
26, 1859, May 28, 1861, Oct. 19, 20, 1861, and Nov 
13, 14, 1862. 



1852 . . . . lOI 


s 




1853 . . . . 83 






Vessels wrecked or suffering 




Vessels 


other casualties. 


totally wrecked. 


»8s6 . . 1153 . 




— 


1857 • • 1143 • • 




384 


1858 . . 869 . 




354 . 


1859 • • 1415 • • 






i860 . . 1379 . 




541 



WRECKS OF VESSELS ON BRITISH COASTS. 

Ves 



Lives lost. ! 
. 920 



<els. 



55 



1141 



lives lost 

■ 1549 
. . 469 



1 



Lives lost. 

■ 521 

• • 532 

• 340 

• • 1645 

• 536 



Vessels wrecked or suffering Vessels 

other casuallies. totally wrecked. 

i86i . . 668 . . — 

1862 . . 1827 . 

1863 . . 2001 

1864 . . 1741 . 



455 
503 
467 



Lives lost. 



620 

516-^^ 



3619 hves were saved by the use of rocket apparatus, life-boats, &c. 



AVKE 



793 



\VKE 



'WliEClvrf OF SilllTING, CJIltitUxl. 



REMARKABLE CASES OF BRITISH VESSELS WRECKED OK BURNT. 



Moiy Rose, 60 guns, going from Portsmouth 
to Spitbead, upset in a squall ; all on board 

perished July 20, 1545 

Cofonation, go guns, foimdered off the Ram- 
head ; crew saved : Harwich, 70 guns, wrecked 
on Mount Edgcumbc ; crow jiorished, Sept. i, 1691 
lioi/al Socenif/n, loogunsjburnt in the Mcdway, 

Jan 29, 1696 
Stirliiig Castle, 70 guns, Mary, 70 guns, Nor- 
thuiaberland, 70 guns, lost on the Goodwin ; 
Vanguard, 70 guns, sunk at Chatham ; Yryrk, 
70 giuis, lost near Harwich ; all lost but four 
men; Resolution, 60 guns, coast of Sussex; 
NciccastU, 60 guns, at Spithead, 193 drowned ; 
Reserve, 60 guns, at Yarmouth, 173 perished ; 
in the night of Nov. 26, 1703 

Association, 70 guns, and other vessels, lost 
with admiral sir C. Shovel, ofi' the Scilly isles 
(ichich see) Oct. 22, 1707 

Solebay. 32 guns, lost near Boston neck ; crew 
perished Dec. 25, 1709 

Edgar, 70 guns, blew up at Spithead ; all on 
board i^erished . . . Oct. 15, 1711 

Victor)/, 100 guns, near the isle of Aldenioy ; all 
perished Oct. 5, 1744 

Colchester, 50 guns, lost on Kentish Knock ; 40 
men perished Sept. 21, ,, 

Namar, 74 guns, foundered near Fort St. David, 
East Indies ; all perished excejit 26 persons ; 
Pembroke, 60 guns, near Porto Novo ; 330 of 
her crew perished . . . April 13, 1749 

Prince George, 80 guns, burnt in lat. 48 N., on 
her way to Gibraltar ; about 400 perished 

April 13, 175S 

Lichfield, 50 guns, lost on the coast of Barbary; 
130 of the crew perished . . Nov. 29 ,, 

Tilbury, 60 guns, lost off Louisbourg ; most of 
the crew perished . . . Sept. 25, 1759 

Ramilies, 90 guns, lost on the Bolt-head; only 
26 persons saved ; Conqueror, lost on St. 
Nicholas's Lsland, Plymouth . Feb. 15, 1760 

Due d'Arjuitaine, 64 guns, and Sunderland, 60 
guns, lost off Pondicherry ; all perished, 

J.an I, 1 761 

Raisonnable, 64 guns, lost at the attack of Mar- 
tinique ' Feb. 3, 1762 

Repulse, 32 guns, foimdered off Bermuda; crew 
peri-shed 1775 

Tliwiderer, 74 guns ; Stirling Castle, 6^;Dffiance, 
64; Phoenix, 44; La Blanche, 32; Laurel, 28; 
Sliarl; 28; Andromeda, 28; Deal Castle, 24; 
Penelope, 24; Scarborough, 20 ; Barbadoes, 14; 
Cameleon, 14 ; Endeavour, 14; and Victor, 10 
guns : all lost in the same stonn, in the West 
Indies, in Oct. 1780 

Gen. Barker, Indiaman, off Schevehng, Feb. 17, 1781 

Grosvenor, Indiaman, coast of Caffraria, Aug. 4, 1782 

S(can, sloop of war, off Waterford ; 130 persons 
drowned Aug. 4, ,, 

Royal George, above 600 jjorsons perished, 

Aug. 29, ,, 

Centaur, 74 guns, foundered on her XJassage 
from Jamaica; capt. Inglefield and 11 of the 
crew saved ..... Sept. 21, ,, 

Ville de P((ri.<i, of 104 guns, one of admii'al Rod- 
ney's prizes ; the Gloriei'.x, of 74 guns, lost in 
the West Indies Oct. 5, ,, 

Sup'-rb, 74 guns, wrecked in TellichoiTy road.s, 
East Indies Nov. 5, 1783 

Calo, 50 guns, admiral sir Hyde Parker, on the 
Malab.-ir coast ; crew perished . . . ,, 

Count Belgidioso, Indiaman, off Dublin Bay ; 147 
souls perished .... March 13, ,, 

Menai, ferry-boat, hi the Stridt ; 60 drowned, 

Den. s, 178s 

HalseictU, E. Indiaman ; 100 persons perished, 

Jan. 6, 1786 



Hartwell, Indiaman, with immense wealth on 

board May 24, 

Charlemont Packet, from Holyhead to Dublin ; 

104 drowned Dec. 22, 

Pandora, frigate, on a reef; 100 souls perished, 

Aug. 28, 
Union, packet, of Dover, lost otf the port 'of 
Calais ; a similar occurrence had not hap- 
pened for 105 j'ears before . . Jan. 28, 
Winterton, E. Indiaman: m.any perish, Aug. 20, 
Impt'tueux, 74 guns, bm-nt at Portsmouth, 

Aug. 24, 
Scorpion, 74 guns, burnt at Leghorn. Nov. 20, 
Ardent, 64 guns, burnt off Corsica . April, 

Boytu, by fire, at Spithead (see Boi/nc) May 4, 
Courageux, 74 guns, capt. B. Hallowell, near 
Gibraltar ; crew, except 124, perished, 

Dec. 18, 
La Tribune, 36 guns, off Halifax; 300 souls 

perished Nov. 16, 

Resistance, blown up in the Straits of Banca, 

July 24, 
Royal Charlotte, Bast Indiaman, blown up at 

Culpee Aug. i, 

Proserpine frigate, in the Elbe; 15 Uves lost, 

Feb. I, 

Laline, 36 guns, wrecked off the Vlie island, 

coast of Holland; only two men saved, 

Oct. 9, 

Impregnable, 98 guns, wrecked between Lang- 

.stone and Chichester . . . Oct. 19, 

Sceptre, 64 guns, wrecked in Table Bay, Cape of 

Good Hope ; 291 of the crew perished . 
Nassau, 64 giuis, on the Haak Bank ; 100 

perished Oct. 25, 

Ethalion, frigate, 38 guns, on the Penmarks 

Dec. 24, 
Queen, transport, on Trefusis Point ; 369 souls 

perished Jan. 14, 

Mastiff, gunbrig, on the Cockle Sands, Jan. 19, 
iie/misf, 64 guns, off Ushant . . March 10, 
Queen, W. Indiaman, by fire, off Brazil. July 9, 
Invincible, 74 guns, near Yarmouth ; capt. John 
Rennie and the. crew, except 126 souls, 

perished March 16, 

Margo.te, Margate-hoy, near Reculver ; 23 per- 
sons perished Feb. 10, 

Bangalore, E. Indiaman, Indian Sea, April 12, 
Active, West Indiaman, in Margate Roads, 

Jan. 10, 
Ilindostan, East Indiaman, went to pieces on 

the Culvers Jan. 11, 

La Deterniinde, 24 guns, in Jersey Roads : many 

drowned March 26, 

Resistance, 36 guns, off Cape St. Vincent, 

May 31, 
Lady Hobart, packet, on an island of ice, 

June 28, 
Seine, frigate, 44 guns, off Schelling, July 31, 
Antelope, capt. Wilson, off PeUew Islands, 

Aug. 9, 
Victory, Liverpool shiji, at Liverpool ; 27 

drowned Sept. 30, 

Circe, frigate, 32 guns, on Yarmouth coast, 

Nov. 16, 
Nautilus, E. Indiaman, on Ladrones Nov. 18, 
Fanny, in Chinese Sea ; 46 souls perish, 

Nov. 29, 
Suffisante, sloop of war, 16 guns. 



17S7 
1790 
1791 

1792 



1793 
1794 
1795 



1796 
1797 
1798 



iSoi 
1S02 



off Cork, 
Dec. 25, 
April I, 
Sept. 4, 
Bank, Texel, 
Nov. 18, 

Venerable, 74 guns, at Torbay; lost 8 men, 

Nov. 24, 
Severn, on a rock, near Grouvillc, . Dec. 21, 



Apollo, frigate, on coast of Portugal 
Cumberland Packet, on Antigua coast,_ 
Romney, 50 guns, on Haak 



1S04 



WRE 



Jd-i 



WRE 



WRECKS OF Shipping, continued. 

Doris, frigate, on the Diamond Rock, Quiberon 
Bay Jan. 12, 

Abergavenny, East Indiaman, on the Bill of Port- 
land ; more than 300 persons perish, Feb. 6, 

Naiae, transport, on Newfomidland coast, 

Oct. 23, 

JEiiens, transport, off Newfoundland : 340 pe- 
rished Oct. 23, 

Aurora, transport, on the Goodwin Sands; 300 
perished Dec. 21, 

King George, packet, from Park- gate to Dublin, 
lost on the Hoyle bank ; 125 persons, pas- 
sengers and crew, drowned . Sept. 21, 

Alhenicn, 64 guns, near Tunis; 347 souls 
perished Oct. 27, 

Glasgow, packet, off Farm Island; several 
drowned Nov. 17, 

Felix, 12 guns, near Santaudor ; 79 souls lost, 

Jan. 22, 

Blenheim, 74 guns, admiral sir T. Troubridgc, 
and Java, 32 guns, foundered near isle of 
Rodriguez, East Indies . . Feb. i, 

. Ijax, 74 guns, by fire, off the island of Tenedos ; 
250 perished Feb. 14, 

Blanche, frigate, on the French coast; 45 men 
perished March 4, 

Ganges, East Indiaman, off the Cape of Good 
Hope May 29, 

Prince of Wales, Park-gate packet, and Rochdale, 
transport, on Dunleary pomt, near Dublui ; 
nearly 300 souls perished . . Nov. ly, 

Boreas, man-of-war, upon the Hannois rock in 
the Channel Nov. 28, 

Anson, 44 guns, wrecked in Mount's Bay ; 60 
lives lost Dec. 29, 

A'latha, near Memel ; lord Roystou and others 
'drowned Apiil 7, 

Astrea, frigate, on Anagada coast . May 23, 

Frith, passage-boat, in the Frith of Dornoch ; 
40 persons drowned . . . Aug. 13, 

Foxhound, 18 guns, foundered on passage from 
Halifax ; crew peri.shed . . Aug. 31, 

Sirius, 36 guns, and Mac/icienne, 36 gims, 
wrecked when advancing to attack the 
French, off Isle of France . . Aug. 23, 

Satellite, sloop of war, 16 guns, upset, and aU on 
board perished .... Dec. 14, 

Minota%»; of 74 guns, wrecked on the Haak 
Bank ; 360 jiersons perished . . Dec. 22, 

Pandora, sloop-of-war, off Jutland, 30 persons 
perished Feb. 13, 

Saldanha, frigate, on the Irish coast; 300 per- 
sons perished Dec. 4, 

at. George, of 98, and Defence, of 74 guns, and 
the Hero, stranded on the coast of Jutland, 
adm. Reynolds and all the crews (about 2000 
persons) peri.shed excei^t 18 seamen, Deo. 24, 

Manilla, frigate, on the Haak Sand, 12 persons 
perished Jan. 28, 

British Qacen, packet, from Ostcnd to Margate, 
wrecked on the Goodwin Sands, and all on 
board perished Dec. 17, 

Duchess of Wellington, at Calcutta, by fire, 

Jan. 21, 

Seahorse, transport, near Tramore Bay ; 365 per- 
sons, chiefly soldiers of the sgth regiment, 
and most of the crew, drowned . Jan. 30, 

Lord Melville and Boadicea, transports, with 
upwards of 200 of the 82nd regiment, with 
wives and children, lost near Kinsale ; almost 
all perished Jan. 31, 

llarpooner, transport, near Newfoundland ; 100 
persons drowned .... Nov. 10, 

William and Mary packet, struck on the 
Willeys rocks, near the Holmes lighthouse, 
English Channel, nearly 60 persons perished, 

Oct. 24, 

i^aeen Charlotte, East Indiaman, at Madras ; all 
on board peri-shcd .... Oct. 24, 



1814 
1816 



1817 
1818 



Ariel, in the Persian Gulf; 79 souls perished, 

March 18, 1820 

Earl of Moira, on the Burbo Bank, near Liver- 
pool ; 40 drowned .... Avig. 8, 1821 

Blendon Hull, on Inaccessible Island; many 
l^crished July 23, „ 

Juliana, Ea.st Indiaman, on the Kentish Knock ; 
40 drowned . . . . . Dec. 26, ,, 

Thames, Indiaman, off Beachey Head ; several 
drowned Feb. 3, 1822 

Drake, 10 guns, near Halifax; several drowned, 

June 20, „ 

i'itojierc, steamer ; 11 persons lost . Dec. 14, „ 

Alert, Dublin and Liverpool packet ; 70 souls 
porLshed Jlarch 26, 1823 

Robert, from Dublin to Liveipool ; 60 souls 
perished May 16, ,, 

Fanny, in Jersey Roads ; lord Harlcy and 
many drowned Jan. i, 182S 

Venus, packet, from Waterford to Dublin, near 
Gorey ; g persons drowned . . March 19, ,, 

Newry, from Newry to Quebec, with 360 pas- 
sengers ; cast awajr near Bax-dsy, about 40 
persons were drowned . . April 16, 1830 

Lady Sherbronke, from Londonderry to Quebec ; 
lost near Cape Ray; 273 souls perished; 32 
only were saved .... Aug. 19, 1831 

Experiment, from Hull to Quebec ; wrecked 
near Calais April 15, 1832 

Earl of Wemyss, near Wells, Norfolk : the cabin 
filled, and 11 ladies and childi'cn were 
drowned; all on deck escaped . July 13, 1833 

Amphitriti', ship with female convicts to New 
South W.ales ; lost on Boulogne Sands ; out of 
131 persons, three only were saved Aug. 30, 1833 

United Kingdom, W. Indiaman, with i-ich cargo ; 
run down by the Queen of Scotland steamer 
off Northfleet, near Gravesend . Oct. 15, „ 

Waterwitch, steamer, on the coast of Wexford ; 
4 drowned Dec. 18, ,, 

Lady M'unro, from Calcutta to Sydney ; of 90 
persons on board, not more than 20 were 
saved Jan. 9, 1834 

Cameleon, cutter ; run down off Dover by the 
Castor irigide ; 13 persons di-owned Aug. 27, ,, 

Killarney, steamer, off Cork ; 29 persons pe- 
rLshed Jan. 26, 183S 

Forfarishire, steamer, from Hull to Dundee ; 38 
persons drowned. Owing to the courage of 
Grace Darling and her fatlier, 15 persons 
were saved. (See Forfarshire) . . Sejjt. 6, ,, 

Protector, E. Indiaman; at Bengal ; of 178 per- 
sons on boai'd, 170 perished . Nov. 21, ,, 

William Huskisson, steamer, between Dublm 
and Liverpool ; 93 passenger.s saved by capt. 
Clegg, of the Hudderifleld . . Jan. 11, 1840 

Lord WillicDn £entinck,ofi TSomhsij; 58reciauts, 
20 officers, and 7 passengers perished : the 
Lord Castlereagh also wrecked ; most of her 
crew and passengers lost . . June 17, „ 

H.M.S. Fairy, captain Hewitt; sailed from 
Harwich on a surveying cruise, and was lost 
next day in a violent gale, off the coast of 
Norfolk Nov. 13, ,, 

City of Bristol, steam-packet, 35 souls perished, li. I 

Nov. 18, ,, 

Thames, steamer, captain Gray, from Dublin to 
Liverpool, wi-ecked off St. Ives ; the captain 
and 55 pei-sons laerished . . Jan. 4, 1841 

Governor Fenner, from Liverpool for America; 
run down off Holyhead by the Nottingham 
steamer out of DubUn ; 122 persons perished. 

Feb. 19, ,, 

Amelia,' irom London to Liverpool ; lost on- the 
Heme Sand Feb. 26, „ 

President, .steamer, from New York to Liverpool, 
with many passengers on board ; sailed , on 
March 11, encountered a terrific storm two 



WllE 



(95 



WRE 



WRECKS OF Shipping, continued. 

I lays afterwards, and has never since been 
heard of March 13, 

[In this vessel were, Mr. Tyrone Power, the 
comedian ; a son of the duke of Richmond, 
&c.] 

WiUiam Browne, by striking on the ice ; 16 
passengers who had been received into tlic 
longboat were thrown overboard by the crew 
to Hghten lior .... April 19, 

htibtlla, from London to Quebec ; struck by an 
iceberg May 9, 

Solway, steamer, on her passage between Belfast 
and Port Carlisle ; crew saved . Aug. 25, 

Amanda, off Metis : 29 passengers and 12 of the 
crew lost Sept. 26, 

James Cooke, of Limerick, coming from SUgo to 
Glasgow Nov. 21, 

Abercromhie Robinson and Waterloo transports, 
in Table Bay, Cape of Good Hope : of 330 
persons on board the latter vessel, i8g, prin- 
cipally convicts, perished . . Aug. 28, 

Sinlfire, war-steamer, on the coast of Jamaica, 

Sept. 10, 

Reliance, East Indiaman, from China to London, 
off Merlemont, near Boulogne: of 116 per- 
sons onboard, seven only were saved Nov. 13, 

Hamilton, on the Gunfleet sands, near Har- 
wich ; 11 of the crew perished . Nov. 15, 

Conqueror, East Indiaman, homeward bound, 
near Boulogne ; crew and passengers lost, 

Jan. 13, 

Jessie Logan, East Indiaman, on the Cornisli 
coast ; many lives lost . . Jan. 16, 

Soheay, royal mail-steamer, near Corunna ; 28 
lives lost, and the mail . . . April 7, 

Catharine, trader, blown up off the Isle of Pines : 
most of the crew were massacred by the 
natives, or afterwards drowned . April 12, 

Amelia Thompson, near Madras, part of crew 
.saved May 23, 

Albert, troop-ship, from Halifax, with the 64th 
regiment on board, which was miraculously 
saved July 13, 

I'cyoius, steam -packet, from Leith ; off the Fern 
islands ; of 59 persons, 7 only were saved, 

July ig, 

[Mr. Elton, a favourite actor, was among the 
sufferers.] 

Fhiini.r, in a terrific snow-storm, off the coast of 
Newfoundland ; man.y lives were lost, Nov. 26, 

rjbcrfehU, iron steam-ship, from Brielle, Feb. 22, 

Jlanrhrsta; steamer, from Hull to Hamburg, 
off the Vogel Sands, near Cuxhaven ; about 
30 hves lost ..... June 16, 

Margaret, HuU and Hamburg steamer; many 
lives lost Oct. 22, 

Great Britain, iron steam-ship, grounded in 
Dundi'um bay. (See Gnat Britain.) Sept. 22, 
[Recovered by Brvuiel, ifec. , Aug. 27, 1847.] 

John Lhjiid, by collision, in tlie Irish sea : 
several lives lost .... Sept. 25, 

Tioeed, W. India mail-packet ; 72 souls perished, 

Feb. 19, 

Curricle, brig ; a gale in the St. Lawrence ; 170 
emigrants perished . . . May ig, 

Avenger, H.M. steam-frigate; off N. coa.st of 
Africa ; officers and crew (nearly 200) lost, 

Dec. 20, 

Exmoulh, emigi-ant-ship, from Londonderry to 
Quebec ; of 240 persons on board, nearly all 
were drowned .... April 28, 

Ocean Monarch {vihich see) . . ■ Aug. 24, 

Caleb Grimsliaw, emigrant-ship, by fire ; 400 
persons miraculou.sly escaped . Nov. 12, 

Royal Adelaide, steamer, wrecked on the Tongue 

Sands, off Margate, above 400 Uves lost, 

March 30, 



1844 



1845 



1847 



1849 
1850 



1852 



Orion, steam-ship, off Portpatrick. (See Orion.) 

June 18, 1830 

Rosalind, from Quebec ; a number of the crew 
drowned Sept. g, ,, 

Edmund, emigrant-ship, with nearly 200 pas- 
sengers from Limerick to New York (of 
whom more than one-half perished), wrecked 
off the Western coast of Ireland . Nov. 12, ,, 

Ama:o)i,'W. India mail-steamei\ {^og Aiuason.) 

Jan. 4, 

Birkenhead, ti-oop-ship, iron paddle-wheeled, 
and of 556 horse-power, sailed from Queens- 
town, Jan. 7, 1852, for the Cape, h.aving on 
board detachments of the 12th Lancers, 2nd, 
6th, 12th, 43rd, 45th, and 60th Rifles, 75rd, 
74th, and gist regunents. It struck upon a 
pointed pinnacle rock off Simon's bay. South 
Africa, and of 638 persons, only 184 were 
saved by the boats ; 454 of the crew and 
soldiers perished .... Feb. 26, ,, 

Victoria, steam-packet. (Sec Victoria.) Nov. 8,g, ,, 

Lily, stranded and blown up by gunpowder, 
on the GuU-of-Man ; by which more than 30 
persons lost their lives . . . Dec. 24, ,, 

St. George, steam-ship, bound from Liverpool to 
New York, with 121 emigrant passengers 
(chiefly Irish), and a crew consisting of 
twenty-nine seamen (the captain inclusive), 
was destroyed by fire at sea. The crew and 
seventy of the passengers were saved by the 
American ship Orlando, and conveyed to 
Havre, in France ; but the remainder, fifty- 
one souls, are supposed to have perished, 

Dec. 24, ,, 

Queen Victoria, steam-ship, bound from Liver- 
pool, was wrecked off the Bailey lighthouse, 
near Dublin ; she mistook her course in a 
snow-storm; 67 lives were lost out of 120, 

Feb. 15, 1853 

Independence, on the coast of Lower California, 
and which afterwards took fire ; 140 persons 
were drowned or burnt to death, a few escap- 
ing, who underwent the most di-eadful ad- 
ditional sufferings on a barren shore, Feb. 16, ,, 

Duke of Sutherland, steamer from London to 
Aberdeen ; wrecked on the pier at Aberdeen, 
and the captain (Hoskins) and many of the 
crew and passengers perished . April 2, ,, 

Rebecca, on west coast of Van Diemen's Land ; 
capt. Sheph.ard and many lives lost, April 2g, ,, 

William and Mary, an American emigrant-ship, 
near the Bahamas. She struck on a sunken 
rock ; about 170 persons perished May 3, ,, 

Aurora, of Hull ; sailed from New York, Aiiril 
26, and foundered ; about 25 hves lost. May 20, ,, 

Bourneuf, Australian emigrant vessel. Stnick 
on a reef near Torres Straits. The captain 
(Bibby) and six lives lost . . Aug. 3, ,, 

Annie Jane, of Liverpool, an emigrant vessel, 
driven on shore on the Ban-a Islands on west 
coast of Scotland; about 348 lives lost, 

Sept. 29, „ 

Haneood, brig, by collision with the Trident 
steamer, near the Mouse light near the Nore ; 
foundered with six of the crew, who perished, 

Oct. 5, „ 

Dalhousie, foundered oft' Beachey Head. The 
captain (Butterworth), the passengers, and 
all the crew (excepting one), about 60 persons 
in all, perished. The cargo was valued at 
above ioo,ooo( Oct. 19, ,, 

Marshall, screw-steamer, in the North Sea, ran 
into the barque Woodhouse ; about 48 persons 
suijposed to have perished . . Nov 28, ,, 

Tayleur, emigrant ship, driven on the rocks off 
Landbay Island, north of Howth ; about 380 
lives lost Jan. 20, 1854- 



Arctic, U. S. mail steamer, by collision in a fog with the Vctia French steamer off Newfoundland ; 
above 3oolive3 lost, Sept. 27, 1854. 



WRE 



WRE 



WRECKS OF Shipping, continued. 

Favourite, in the Channel, on her way from 
Bremen to Baltimore, came into violent con- 
tact with the American barque Hes^per, off 
the Start, and immediately went down ; 201 
persons were drowned . . April 29, 1854 

Lady Nugent, troop-ship, sailed from Madras, 
Siay 10, 1854 ; foundered in a hun-icane ; 350 
rank and file of the Madras light infantry, 
officers and crew, in all 400 souls, perished, 

May, „ 

Forenmner, African mail-steamer, struck on a 
sunken rock off St. Lorenzo, Madeira, and 
went down directly afterwards, with the total 
loss of ship and mails, and 14 hves . Oct. 25, 1854 

JfUe, iron screw-steamer, stiiick on the 
Godevryrock, St. Ives' Bay, and all perished, 

Nov. 30, „ 

City of Glasgow, a Glasgow steamer, with 480 
persons on board, disappeared in . . . ,, 

In the storm which raged in the Black Sea, 
Nov. 13 — 16, 1854, eleven transports were 
wrecked and six disabled. The new steam- 
ship Prince was lost with 144 lives, and a 
cargo worth 500,000?. indispensable to the 
army in the Crimea. The loss of life in the 
other vessels is estimated at 340 . . . ,, 

George CaMHJnf/, Hamburg and New York packet, 
near the mouth of the Elbe : 96 lives lost, and 
Staley, English schooner, near Neuwreek, in 
a great storm . . . . . Jan. i, 1S55 

Mercury, screw-steamer, by collision with a 
French ship : passengers saved . Jan. 11, ,, 

Janet Boyd, bai-k, in a storm off Margate 

Sands ; 28 hves lost .... Jan. 20, „ 
Will 0' the Jli.-'p, screw-steamer, on the Burn 
Rock, off Lambay; 18 lives lest . Feb. 9, ,, 

Morn a, steamer, on rocks near the Isle of Man ; 
21 lives lost Feb. 25, ,, 

John, emigrant vessel, on the Muncles rocks off 
Falmovith ; 200 lives lost . . . May i, ,, 

Pacific, ColUns steamer, left Liverpool for New 
York, with 186 persons on board ; never since 
heard of (supposed to have struck on an ice- 
berg) Jan. 23, 1856 

Josephine Willis, packet-ship, lost by colhsion 
with the screw steamer Mangerton in the 
channel ; about 70 lives lost . . Feb. 3, ,, 

John Rutledge, from Liverpool to New York, 
ran on an iceberg and was wrecked ; many 
lives lost Feb. 20, „ 

Many vessels and their crews totally lost,* 

Jan. -1-8, 1857 

Violet, royal mail-steamer, lost on the Good- 
win ; many parsons iierished . Jan. 5, , 

Tyne, roj al mail-steamer, stranded on her way 
to SoutLampton from the Brazils . Jan. 13, , 

St. Andr,v', screw-steamer, totally wrecked 
near Latakia ; loss about 145,000?. . Jan. 29, , 

Ciarlemagiif, iron chpper, wrecked by the coast 
of Cant en: isassengers saved; loss, about 
110,000' March 20, , 

H.i\I.S. 7 aleigh, soguns, ^vi-ecked on south-east 
coast of Macao .... April 14, , 

Cafi" '.ne Adamson, Australian vessel, wrecked, 
iwenty-five miles from Sydney, 20 hves lost, 

about June 3, , 

H.M.S. Transit, wrecked on a reef in the Straits 
ofBanca July 10, , 

Dunbar, clipper, wi-ocked on the rocks near 
Sydney; 121 persons, and cargo valued at 
22,000;., lost; one person only saved, who 
was on the rocks thirty hom-s . Aug. 20, ,: 



Sarah Sands, an iron screw-steamer, sailed 
from Portsmouth for Calcutta, in Aug. 1857 '< 
300 soldiers on board. On Nov. n, the cargo 
(government stores) took fire. By the exer- 
tions of colonel Moffat and captain Castle, the 
master of the vessel, who directed the soldiers 
and the crew, the flames were subdued, 
although a barrel of gunpowder exploded 
during the conflagration. A new danger then 
arose — the prevalence of a strong gale — water 
was shipped heavily where the port quarter 
had been l^lown out. Nevertheless, after a 
fearful struggle, the vessel arrived at the 
Mauritius, Nov. 21, withoutlosing a single life, 

Nov. 11-21, 1057 
Windsor, emigrant-ship, struck on a reef near 
the Cape de Verde Islands . . Dec. i, ,, 

Aca, Indian mail-steamer, with ladies and 
others from Lucknow on board ; wrecked 
near Ceylon Feb. 16, 1850 

Eastern City, burnt about the equator on her 
way to Melbourne ; by great exertions all 
on board were saved . . . Aug. 23, 24, ,, 

Austria, steam emigrant-ship, burnt in the 
middle of the Atlantic. Of 538 persons on 
board, only sixty-seven were saved. The 
disa.ster due to carelessness . Sept. 13, ,, 

St. Paul, captain Pennard, from Hong Kong to 
Sydney, with 327 Chmese emigrants, wrecked 
on the island of Rossel, Sejit. 30, 1858. The 
captain and 8 of the crew left the island in 
search of assistance, and were picked up by 
the Prince of Denmark- schooner. The French 
steamer Styx was di.spatched to the island, 
and brought away one Chinese, Jan. 25, 1859. 
All the rest had been massacred and devoured 
by the natives ,, 

Czar, steamer, wrecked off the Lizard, four- 
teen hves lost .... Jan. 23, 1859! 

Eastern Monarch, burnt at Sjiithead ; out of 500, 
eight lives last. The vessel contained invalid 
soldiers from India, who with the crew, be- 
haved admh-ably .... June 2, ,, 

Alma, .steamer, grounded on a reef near Aden, 
Red Sea, about 35 miles from Mocha ; all per- 
sons .saved; after 35 days' exposure to the 
sun, without water, they were rescued by 
H.M.S. Cyclops : sir John Bowring, who was 
on board, lost valuable papers . June 12, ,, 

Admella, steamer, rimning between Melbourne 
and Adelaide, struck on a reef; of about 72 
persons, only 23 were saved ; many perished 
through exposure to cold . . Aug. 6, ,, 

Royal Cliartcr, screw-steamer, captain Taylor, 
totally wrecked off Moelfra, on the Anglesea 
coast ; 446 lives lost. The vessel contained 
gold amounting in value to between 700,000?. 
and 800,000?. ; much of this has been reco- 
vered .... night of Oct. 25-26, ,, 

Indian, mail-steamer, wrecked off the coast of 
Newfoundland; out of ij6, 27 lives lost, 

Nov. 21, ,, 

Bkrvie CoMle, sailed from London Docks for 
Adelaide ; lost in the Chamiel and all on 
board, 57 persons ; last seen on . Dec. 25, ,, 

Northerner steamer, wrecked on a rock near 
Cape Mendorino, between San Francisco and 
Oregon ; 38 lives lost . . . Jan. 6, ifCo 

Endymion, sailing-vessel, burnt in the Mersey ; 
I0.SS above 20,000? Jan 31, ,, 

Dreadful gales ; and many wrecks on the coast,! 

Feb. 15-19, ,, 



* A large American vessel, Northern Belle, was wrecked near Broadstairs. The American government 
sent 21 silver niedals and 270?. to be distributed among the heroic boatmen of the place, who saved the 

t Poraona an American shij), captain Merrihew ; 419 persons on board, from Liverpool to New York- , 
was wrecked on Blackwater Bank, through the master mistaking the Blackwater for the Tuskar Ught, 
only 24 persons saved, night of AprQ 27-28, 1859. ,,„„- , ,. ,,._,, „. ^ 

X American barque Lima, with emigrants, wrecked oft Barf.eur ; above 100 lives lost, Feb. 17, i86o. On 



Wl!E 



79) 



vrvj 



WRECKS OF Shipping, coniinued. 

OiuUiit, steamer,; lust tlirough collision with the 
Heroine of Bidefurii, abreast of Beachej' Head, 
the captain and about 50 persons perished, 

Feb. 19, ] 

Ihingnrian, new mail-steamer, wrecked off 
coast of Nova Scotia ; all on board (205) lost 
on the night of . . . . Feb. 19-20,* 

Nimrod, steamer, wrecked on rocks near St. 
David's head ; 40 lives lost . . Feb. 28, 

MdUibiir, iron ship, on her way to China, with 

lord Klgin and baron Gros ; wrecked off Point 

lie Galle, Ceylon. The ambassadors displayed 

much heroism ; no lives lost. Of much specie 

unk, a good deal was recovered . Hay 22, 

Arctic, Hull steamer, wrecked off Jutland ; 
niany persons saved by Mr. Earle, who lost his 
own life while endeavouring to save others, 

Oct. 5, 

Connaught, steamer, burnt ; crew .saved through 
the gallantry of the crew of an American brig. 

Oct. 7, 

Juanita, wrecked through collision with an 

American vessel, Joseph Fish, 13 lives lost, 

March 15, 

Canadian, steamer, struck on a field of ice in 
the straits of Belle-isle, and foundered in half 
an hour ; 35 lives lost . . . June 4, 

H.M.S. Conqueror, stranded on Runa Cay, near 
Bahamas, and lost [the captain and master 
were censured for neglect of duty] Dec. 29, 

Harmony, lost with all hands off PljTnouth, 

Feb. 27. : 

Lotus, merchantman, off Chale Bay, in the great 
storm ; crew all lost except two . Oct. 19, 

Ocean Monarch, 2195 tons, sailed from New York, 
March 5, laden with i^rovisions ; foundered in 
a gale Mai'ch 9, 

Upwards of 60 merchantmen lost during gales in 

March, 

Mars, Waterford steamer, struck on a rock near 
Milford haven ; about 50 lives lost April i, 

Bencouhfi, East Indiamau, 1400 tons ; struck on 
sands near Bude haven, Cornwall ; about 26 
lives lost Oct. 19, 

Many vessels lost during storm . . Oct. 19, 

Colombo, East India mail steamer, in thick 
weather, wrecked on Minicog Island; 440 
miles from Point de Galle, Ceylon ; no lives 
lost (the crew and passengers taken off by 
the Ottawa from Bombay, Nov. 30) Nov. ig, 



Lifeguard, steamer, left Newcastle, with about 
41 passengers ; never sinceheard of ; supposed 
to have foundered off FLamborough head, 

Dec. 20, 

Orpheus, H.M.S. steamer, new vessel, 1700 tons; 
commander Burnett ; wrecked on Manakau 
bar, W. coast New Zealand ; 70 persons saved ; 
about 190 perished . . . Feb. 7, 

Anglo-Saxon, mail steamer, captain Burgess, in 
dense fog, wi-ecked on reef off Cape Race, 
Newfoundland ; about 237, out of 446, lives 
lost April 27, 

All Serene, Austr.alian ship ; gale in the Pacific; 
above 30 lives lost (the survivors suffered much 
till they reached the Fiji isles in a punt), 

Feb. 21, 

Many shipwrecks in consequence of the cyclone 
at Calcutta Oct. 5, 

H.M.S. Racehorse, off Chefoo Cape, Chinese 
coast ; 99 lives lost . . . Nov. 4, 

The Stanley, Friendship, &c., in the gale off 
Tynomouth ; and the Dalhoiisie, screw 
steamer, mouth of the Tay; same gale; 34 
lives lost Nov. 24, 

H.M.S. Bombay, burnt off Flores Island, near 
Montendes ; 91 lives lost . . Dec. 14, 

L'lia, cutter; off Great Ormes head, during a 
gale ; several lives lost ; 7 persons drowned 
by upsetting of the life-boat . Jan. 14, 

Eagle Speed, emigrant vessel, foundered near 
Calcutta ; 265 coolies drowned ; great cruelty 
and neglect imputed . . . Aug. 24, 

Duncan Dunbar, wrecked on a reef at Las Rocas, 
S. America ; no Uves lost . . Oct. 7, 

Ibis, steamer, machinery damaged, off Bally- 
croneen bay; 15 lives lost ; sailed from Cork, 

Dec. 18, 

Samphire, mail-steamer ; collision with an 
American barque ; several lives lost, Dec. 13, 

London, sterimer, on her way to Melbom-ne ; 
foundered in Bay of Biscay ; about 220 persons 
perished (including capt. Martin, Dr. Woolley, 
principal of the university of Sydney, G. V. 
Brooke, the tragedian) ; about the same time 
the Amalia steamer went down with a cargo 
worth 200,000/. ; no lives lost . . Jan. n. 

Many wrecks and much loss of life during 
Jan. 6-11 



1864 



WRITING. Pictures were undoubtedly tlie first essay towards writing. The most 
ancient remains of writing which have been transmitted to us, are upon hard .substances, 
such as stones and metals, used b}' the ancients for edicts, and matter-'^ of public notoriety. 
Athotes, or Hermes, is said to have written a history of the Egyptip" , and to liave been the 
author of the hieroglyphics, 21 12 e.g. Usher. Writing is said 1,0 have been taught to the 
Latins by Europa, daughter of Agenor, king of Phoenicia, 149415.0. Thucydidcs, Cadmus, 
tlie founder of Cadraea, 1493 ^■<^-> brought the Phcenician letters into Greece. Vossius. 
The commandments were written on two tables of stone, 149 1 e.g. Usher. Tlie Greeks 
and Romans used waxed table-books, and continued the use of them long after papyrus was 
known, t See Pcqvjrus, Parchment, Paiicr. Astle's " History of Writing "was first pub- 
li.shed in 1784. 



the same rojk, on Nov. 25, 1120, was wrecked the 5ta)!<:/i€ JV>/", containing the children of Henry I. and 
a large number of attendants : in all 363 persons perished. 

* Luna, American emigrant vessel, wi-ecked on rocks off Barfleur; about 100 lives lost, Feb. 19, i860. 
Jxidy Biffin, an American steamer, sunk through collision with schooner Augusta on lake Michigan ; of 385 
persons on board, 287 were lost, including Mr. Herbert Ingram, M.P., founder of the " Illustrated London 
News," and his son : morning of Sept. 8, i860. 

t " 1 would check the petty vanity of those who sUght good penmanship, as below the notice of a 
scholar, by reminding them that Mr. Fox was distinguished by the clearness and firmnes.s, Mr. Professor 
I'orson by the correctness and elegance, and sir William Jones by the ea.s2 and beauty of the cliaracters 
they respectively emijloyed."— iir. Parr. 



WRO 



798 



XER 



AVEOXETER, in Shropshire, the Roman city Vriconium. Roman inscriptions, ruins, 
seals, and coins were found here in 1752. Some new discoveries having been made, a 
committee for further investigation met at Shrewsbury on Nov. 11, 1858. Excavations were 
commenced in Feb. 1859, -which were continued till May. Large portions of the old town 
were discovered ; also specimens of glass and pottery, personal ornaments and toys, house- 
hold utensils and implements of trade, cinerary urus, and bones of man and of the smaller 
animals. A committee was formed in London in Aug. 1859, with the view of continuing these 
investigations, which were resumed in 1861, through the liberality of Beriah BotHeld, M.P. 

WURTEMBERGr, originally part of Swabia, was made a county in 1297, and a duchy 
in 1495. '^^^^ dukes were Protestants until 1772, when the reigning prince became a 
Roman Catholic. Wurtemberg has been repeatedly traversed by hostile armies, particularly 
since the revolution of France. Moreau made his celebrated retreat, Oct. 23, 1796. The 
political constitution is dated Sept. 25, 1819. Population of Wurtemberg in Dec. 1861, 
1,720,708; of Stuttgardt, the capital, 51,655. 



149S- 
1496. 



1550. 
1568. 
1593- 



1628. 
1674. 
1677. 



1733- 
1737- 
1793- 



DUKES. 

Eberbard I. 
Eberhard II. 
Ulrich ; deprived of his states by the emperor 

Charles V. ; recovers them in 1 534. 
Christopher the Pacific. 
Louis. 
Frederic I. 
John Frederic ; joined the Protestants in the 

thirty j-ears' war. 
Eberhard III. 
William Louis. 
Eberhard Louis ; served under William III. in 

Ireland ; and with the English armies on 

the continent, 
Charles Alexander. 
Charles Eugene. 
Louis Eugeno (joins in the war against 

France). 



1795. Frederic Eugene makes peace with France, 

1796. 
1797. Frederic II. mames the prmcess royal of 

England, May 18 ; made elector of Germany, 

1803 ; acquired additional territories, and 

the title of king in 1805. 

KINGS. 

1805. Frederic I. supplies a contingent to Napo- 
leon's Russian army ; yet joined the allies 
at Leipsic in 1813. Died in 1816. 

1816. William I., Oct. 30 ; son (born Sept. 27, 1781). 
He abolished sei-fdom in 1818; instituted 
representative government in 1819; entered 
into a concordat with Rome in 1857; was 
the oldest living sovereign, 1862; died June 
25, 1864. 

1864. Charles I., son ; June 25 ; boni March 6, 1823 ; 
married princess Olga of Russia. 



WURTZBURG, in Bavaria, was formerly a bishopric, and its sovereign was one of the 
greatest ecclesiastic princes of the empire. It was given as a principality to the elector 
of Bavaria in 1803 ; and by the treaty of Presburg, in 1805, was ceded to the archduke 
Ferdinand of Tuscany, whose electoral title was transferred from Salzburg to this place. In 
1814 this duchy was again transferred to Bavaria, in exchange for the Tyrol, and the arch- 
duke Ferdinand was reinstated in his Tuscan dominions. Ministers from the second-rate 
German states met at Wurtzbm'g to promote union amongst them, Nov. 21 — 27, 1859. 

WURTZCHEN. See Bautzen. 

AVYATT'S INSURRECTION. See HehcUions, 1554. 



X. 



XANTHICA, a military festival observed l)y the Macedonians in the month called 
Xanthicus (our April), instituted about 392 B.C. 

XANTHUS, in Lycia, Asia Minor, was besieged by the Romans under Brutu.s, 42 b.c. 
After a great struggle, the inhabitants set tire to their city, destroyed their wives and 
children, and perished. The conqueror wished to spare them, and offered rewards to his 
soldiers if they brought any of the Xanthians into his presence, but only 150 wei'e saved. 
Phitarch. 

XENOPHON. See Retreat of the Greeks. 

XERES DE LA Fronter.i (S.W. Spain), the Asia Regia of the Romans, and the seat of 
the wine-trade in Spain of whicli the princi^ial wine is that so well known in England as 
Sherry, an English corruption of Xeres. The British importations of this wine in 1850 
reached to 3,826,785 gallons ; and in the year ending Jan. 5, 1852, to 3,904,978 gallons. 
Xeres is a handsome and large town, of great antiquity. At the battle of Xeres, July 19-26, 
711, Roderic, the last Gothic sovereign of Spain, was defeated and slain by the Saracens, 
commanded by Tarik and Muza. 



XER 



YEA 



XEEXES' CAMPAIGN, Xerxes crossed the Hellespont by a bridge of boats, and 
entered Greece in the spring of 480 B.C., with an army which, together with the numerous 
retinue of servants, eunuchs, and women that attended it, amounted (according to some 
historians) to 5,283,220 souls. Herodotus states the armament to have consisted of 3000 
sail, conveying 1,700,000 foot, besides cavalry and the mariners and attendants of the camp. 
This multitude was stopped at Tlievmopylre (which sec) by the valour of 300 Spartans under 
Leonidas, Aug. 7-9, 480 B.C. Tlie fleet of Xerxes was defeated at Artemisiuni and Salamis, 
Oct. 20, 480 B.C. ; and he hastened back to Persia, leaving behind Mardonius, the best of 
his generals, with an army of 300,000 men, who was defeated and slain at Platrea, Sept. 22, 
479, B.C. Xerxes M'as assassinated by Artabanus, 465 B.C. 

XIMENA (S. Spain), tlie site of a battle between the Spanish army mider the command 
of general Ballasteros, and the French corps commanded by general Kegnier, Sept. 10, 181 1, 
The Spaniards defeated their adversaries ; the loss was gi'eat on both sides. 



Y. 

YAPiD. The precise origin of our yard is uncertain. It is, however, likely that the 
word is derived from the Saxon rjynl, a rod or shoot, or gyrdan to enclose ; being anciently 
the circumference of the body, until Henry I, decreed that it .should be the length of his 
arm. See Standard Measures. 

YARIMOUTH, Great (ISTorfolk), was a royal demesne in the reign of William I,, as 
appears from Domesday Book. It obtained a charter from John, and one from Henry III. 
In 1348, a plague here carried off 7000 persons : and that terrible disease did mucli havoc, 
again in 1579 and 1664. The theatre was built in 1778 ; and Nelson's pillar, a fluted 
column, 140 feet in height, was erected in 1817. The suspension chain bridge over the river 
Bure was built by Mr. E. Cory, at an expense of about 4,oooZ. Owing to the weight of a 
vast number of persons who assembled on this bridge to ■witness an exhibition on the water, 
it suddenly gave way, and seventy -nine lives, mostly those of children, were lost, May 2, 
1845. The railway from London to Norwich was opened in 1844, 

YEAR. The Egyptians, it is said, were the first who fixed the length of the year. 



The Roman year was introduced by Romulus, 
738 B.C. ; and it was corrected by Numa, 713 B.C., 
aud again by Julius Cfesar, 45 B.C. See Calendar. 

The solar or astronomical year was found to comprise 
365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 51 seconds, and 6 
decimals, 265 B.C. 

The Ulnar year, which comprehends twelve lunar 
months, or 354 days, 8 hours, 48 minutes, was in use 
.among the Clialdwans, Persians, and ancient Jews. 
Once in every three years was added another lunar 
month, so as to make the solar and the lunar year 
nearly agree. But though the months were Umar, 
the year was solar ; that is, the first month was of 
thirty days, and the second of twenty-nine, and so 
alternately : and the month added triennially was 
called the second Adar. The Jews afterwards 
followed the Roman niauner of computation. 

The sidereal year, or return to the same star, is 365 
days, 6 hoiu-s, g minutes, 11 seconds. 

The Jews dated the beginning of the sacred year in 
March ; the Athenians in June ; the Macedonians 
on Sept. 24 ; the Christians of Egypt and Ethiopia' 
on Aug. 29 or 30 ; and the Persians and Armenians 
on Aug. 1 1. Xcarly all Christian nations now com- 
mence the year on Januaiy i. 

Charles IX. of France, in 1564, published an anSt, 



the last article of which ordered the year for the 
time to come to be constantly and universally 
begun, and written on and from January i. 

See New Style, Platonic Year, Sabbatical Tear, French 
Revolutionary Calendar * 

The beginning of the year has been reckoned from 
the day celebrating the birth of Christ, Dec. 25th ; 
his circumcision, Jan. i ; his conception, March 
25 ; and his resurrection, Easter. 

The English began their year on the 25th of Decem- 
ber, until the time of William the Conqueror. 
This prince having been crowticd on Jan. i, gave 
occasion to the English to begin their year at that 
time, to make it agree with the then most remark- 
able period of their history. Slow. Until the act 
for altering the style, in 1752 (see Style), the year 
did not legally and generally commence in Eng- 
land until March 25th. In ScotLand, at that 
period, the year began on the ist of January. This 
difference caused great practical inconveniences ; 
and January, February, and part of JIarch some- 
times bore two dates, as we often find in old re- 
cords, 1745-1746, or 1745-6, or 174^. Such a reckon- 
ing often led to chronological mistakes ; for in- 
stance, we popularly say " the revolution of 16S8,' 
as that event happened in February 1688, accord- 



* The year in the northern regions of Siberia and Lapland is described in the following calendar, given 
by a traveller : — "Junez^. Snow melts. July i. Snow gone. July g. Fields quite green. July ij. Plants at 
full growth. July 25. Plants in flower. Aug. 2. Fruits ripe. Aug. 10. Plants shed their seed. Au;/. 18. 
Snow." Tlic snow then continues ui^on the gi'ound for about ten months, from Aug. iSth of one year to 
June 23rd of the year following, being 309 days out of 365 ; so that while the three seasons of spring, 
summer, .and -vutumn arc together only tifty-six days, or eight weeks, the winter is of forty-four weekb' 
duration in these countries. 



YEA 



800 



YEZ 



YEAR, continued. 

ing to the then mode of computation : l.)ut if the 
year were held to begin, as it does now, on the 
first of January, it would be the revolution of 
i68g. 

Year of Our Lord. Sec Anno Domini. 

Year of the Regn. From the time of William the 
Conqueror, io56, the year of the sovereign's reign 
has been given to all public instruments. The 
king's patents, charters, proclamations, and all 
acts of parliament have since then been generally 
so dated. The same manner of dating is used in 



most o: the European states for all similar docu- 
ments and records. See List of Kings under 
England, p. 275. 
Year and a Day. A space of time in law, that in 
many cases establishes and fixes a right, as in an 
estray, on proclamation being made, if tlie owner 
does not claim it within the time it is forfeited. 
The term arose in the Norman law, which enacted 
that a beast found on another's land if unclaimed 
for a year and a day, belonged to the lord of the 
soil. It is otherwise a legal space of time. 



YEAR-BOOKS contain report.? in Norm an -French of cases artrued and decided in the 
conrts of common law. The printed volumes extend from the beginning of the reign of 
Edward II. to nearly the end of the reign of Henry VIII., a period of about 220 years ; but 
in this series there are many omis.sions. These books are the first in the long line of legal 
• reports in which England is so rich, and may be considered a.s, to a great extent, the founda- 
tion of our unwritten law, '■'■Lcxnon scTipta." In 1863 et seq. the year-books of 30 & 31 
Edward I. 1302-3, were edited by Mr. A. J. Horwood, for the scries of the Chronicles and 
Meniouials published at the expense of the British government. 

YELLOW FEVER, a dreadful American pestilence, made its appearance at Philadelphia, 
where it committed great ravages, A.D. 1699. It appeared in several islands of the West 
Indies in 1732, 1739, and 1745. It raged with unparalleled violence at Philadelphia in 
Oct. 1762 ; and most awfully at New York in the beginning of August 1791. This fever 
again spread great devastation at Philadelphia in July 1793 ; carrying off several thousand 
persons. Hardic. It again appeared in Oct. 1797 ; and spread its ravages over the 
northern coast of America,' Sept. 1798. It re-appeared at Philadelphia in the summer of 
1802 ; and broke out in Spain, in Sept. 1803. The yellow fever was very violent at 
Gibraltar in 1804 and 1814 ; in the Mauritius, July 1815 ; at Antigua, in Sept. 1816 ; and 
it raged with dreadful consequences at Cadiz, and the Isle of St. Leon, in Sept. 18 19. A 
malignant fever raged at Gibraltar in Sept. 1828, and did not terminate until the following 
year. 

YEOMEN OF THE Guard, a peculiar body of foot guards to the king's person, instituted 
at the coronation of Henry VII. Oct. 30, 1485, which originally con.sisted of fifty men under 
a captain. They were of a larger .stature than other guards, being required to be over 
six feet in height, and were armed with arquebiises and other arms. The band was increased 
by Henry's successors to one hundred men, and seventy supernumeraries ; and when one of 
the hundred died, it was ordered that his place should be supplied out of the sevent}'. 
They were clad after the manner of king Henry VIII. Ashmolc's Instit. This is said to 
have been the first permanent military band instituted in England. John, earl of Oxford, 
was the first captain in i486. Beatson's Pol. Index. 

YEW-TREE {Taxus). The origin of planting yew-trees in clmrchyards was (these latter 
being fenced) to secure the trees from cattle, and in this manner jireserve them for the 
encouragement of archery. A general plantation of tliem for the use of archers was ordered 
by Richard III. 1483. Stotr's Cliron. Near Fountains Abbey, Yorkshire, were lately 
seven yew-trees called the Seven Sisters, supposed to have been planted before 1088 ; the 
circumference of the largest was thirty-four feet seven inches round the trunk. In 1851, a 
yew-tree was said to be growing in the churchyard of Gresford, North Wales, whose circum- 
ference was nine yards nine inches, being the largest and oldest yew-tree in the British 
dominions ; but it is affirmed on traditionary evidence that there are some of these trees in 
England older than the introduction of Christianity. The old yew-tree mentioned in the 
survey taken of Richmond palace in 1649, is said to be still existing. 

YEZDEGIRD, or PER.siA]sr Era, was formerly universally adopted in Persia, and is still 
used by the Parsees in India, and by the Arabs, in certain computations. This era began 
on the 26th of June, A.D. 632, when Yezdegird was elected king of Persia. The year con- 
sisted of 365 daj's only, and therefore its commencement, like that of the Old Egyptian and 
Armenian year, anticipated the Julian year by one day in every four years. This difterence 
amounted to nearly 112 days in the year 1075, when it was reformed by Jelaledin, who 
ordered that in future the Persian year should receive an additional day whenever it should 
appear necessary to postpone the commenceiuent of the following year, that it might occur 
on the day of the sun's passing the same degree of the ecliptic. 



YNG 



801 



YOR 



YNG LINGS (youths, or off- shoots), descendants of the Scandinavian hero Odin, ruled 
Sweden till 830, when the hist of tho pontiff kings, Ohaf Tra3telia, being expelled, lead to 
the foundation of the Norwegian monarchy. 

YOKE. The yoke is spoken of as a type of servitude throughout Scripture. The cere- 
mony of making prisoners pass under it was practised by the Samnites towards the Romans, 
321 B.C. See Camlinc Forks. This disgrace was afterwards inflicted by the Romans upon 
their vanquished enemies. Dufrcsnuy. 

YORK. Tho Eboracuvi of the Romans, and one of the most ancient cities of England, 

The castle was built by Riobard III., 1484, and 
was rebuilt 1741 

The corporation built a mansion-liouse for tho 
lord mayor 1728 

The famous York petition to parliament to re- 
duce the expenditure and redress grievances 
was gotten up . . ... . Dec. -1779 

yorkshire Philosophical Society established . 1822 

First meeting of the British Association held 
liere Sept. 27, 1831 

Fall of the iron bridge over the Ouse ; five 
persons killed .... Sex^t. 27, 1861 



Here Sevcrus (a.d. 207), and here also Constan- 
tino kept courts, and his son Constantine the 
Great was born, in 274, and proclaimed em- 
peror A.D. 306 

Abbey of St. Mary's, founded by Seward the 
D.me 1030 

York was burnt by the D.uies, and all the Nor- 
mans slain 1069 

The city and many churches were destroyed by 
fire June 3, 1137 

York received its charter from Richard II. and 
the mayor was made a lord . . . . 1389 

The Guililhall erected 1446 



DUKES OF YORK. 



1385. Edmund Plantagenet (fifth son of king Ed- 
ward III.); created duke, Aug. 6; died 
1402. 

1406. Edward (his son), was degraded by Henry IV. 
in 1399, but restored in 1414; killed at 
Agincourt, 1415 ; succeeded by his nephew. 

1415. Richard (son of Richard, earl of Cambridge, 
who was beheaded for treason in 1415); 
became regent of France in 1435 : quelled 
the rebellion in Ireland In 1449; claimed 
the throne, and was appointed protector in 
1454: his office was annulled, and he bigan 
the civil war in 1455, and was slain after his 
defeat at Wakefield in 1460. 

1460. Edward (his .son) afterwards king Edward IV. 

1474. Richard (his second son), said to have been 
murdered in tho Tower, 1483. 

1494. Henry Tudor, afterwards Henry VIII. 



1605. Charles Stuart, afterwards Charles I. 

1643. James Stuart (his second son), afterwarv^s 
James II. 

1716. Ernest (brother of George I.) ; died 1728. 

1760. Edward (brother of George III.) ; died 1767. 

1784. Frederic (son of George III.), born, Aug. 16, 
1762 ; marries princess Frederica of Prussia, 
Sept. 29, 1791 ; commands the Briti.sh forces 
at Antwerp, April 8, 1793 ; present at the 
siege of Valenciennes, May 23 ; defeated at 
Dunkirk, Sept. 7 ; at Bois-le-Duo, Sept. 14 ; 
and at Boxtel, Sept. 17 ; appointed com- 
mander-in-chief, 179S ; defeated near Alk- 
maar, Sept. 19 and Oct. 6, 1799; accused by 
colonel Wardle of abuse of his patronage, 
he resigns, Jan. 27, 1809 ; becomes again 
commander-in-chief, 1811 ; strongly oi^posos 
the Catholic claims, 1825 ; dies Jan. 3, 1S27. 



YORK, ARCHBi.siiorRic of. The most ancient metropolitan see in England, being, it 
is said, so made by king Lucius about 180, when Christianity was first jiartially established 
in Eiigland. The bishop Eborins was present at the council of Aries, 314. The see was 
overturned by the Saxojis, was revived by ])ope Gregory on their conversion, and Paulinus 
was made archbishop about 625. York and Durham were long the only two sees in tho 
north of England, until Henry L erected a bishopric at Carlisle and Henry VIIL another at 
Chester. York was the metropolitan see of the Scottish bishops ; but during the time of 
archbishop Nevil, 1464, they withdrew their obedience, and hail archbishops of their own. 
Much dispute arose between the two English motrojjolitans about precedency, as by pope 
Gregory's institutions it was thought he meant, that whichever of them was first confirmed, 
should bo superior : appeal was nuide to tho court of Rome by both parties, and it was 
(letermuied in favour of Canterbury. The archbishop of York was allowed to style himself 
jirimate of England, wlide tho ai'chbishop of Canterbury styles himself primate of all 
England. The province of York now contains the dioceses of York, Carlisle, Chester, 
Durham, Sodor and Man, Manchester, and Ripon {which see). York has yielded to the 
church of Rome eight saints and three cardinals, and to England twelve lord chancellors, 
two lord treasurers, and two lord presidents of the north. It is rated in the king's books, 
39 Henry VIII. 1546, at 1609Z. 19s. 2d. per annum. Bealson. Present income io,oooZ. 



AIICIIBI.SIIOPS OF 

1501. Tliomas Savage, died Sept. 3, 1507. 

1508. Christopher Baiubrigg, poisoned at Rome, 

July 14, 1514. 

1514. Thoma.s Wolsey, died Nov. 29, 1530. 

1531. Edward Loo, died Sept. 13, 1544. 

1545. Robert Holgate, deprived Alarch 23, 1554. 

1555. NicoLos lloath, doiirivod. 

1561. Thomas Young, died Juno 26, 1568. 



YORK SINCE 1500. 

1570. Edmund Grindal, translated to Canterbury, 

Jan. 10, 1576. 
1577. Edwin Sands or Sandys, died July 10, 1588. 
1589. John Piers, died Sept. 28, 1594. 
1595. Matthew llutton, died Jan. 16, 1606 
1606. Tobias Matthew, died March 29, 1628. 
1628. George Momitaigne, died Oct. 24, 1628. 
„ Samuel Harsnet, died May 25, 1631. 

3 F 



YOR 802 ZAM 

YORK, continued. 
1632. Richard Neyle, died Oct. 31, J640. ' 1747. Mattlicw Hutton, translated to Canterbury, 

1641. John Williams, died March 25, 1650. i March, 1757. 

[See Tdcaitt tin ?/eo;'.s.] ' i757- J^ihn Gilbert, died 17G1. 

1660. Accepted Frcwen, died M.arch 28, 1CG4. 1761. Robert Hay Drummond, died Dec. 10, 1776. 

1G64. Richard Sterne, died June 18, 1683. 1777- William Markbam, died Nov. 3, 1S07. 

1683. John Uolben, died April 11, 1686. , 1S08. Edward Venablos Vernon, died Nov. 5, 1847 

[See vacant tico 2/ears.] 
1688. Thomas Lamplough, died May 5, 1691 
1691. John Sharp, died Feb. 2, 1714. 



1714. Sir William Dawes, died April 30, 1724. 
1724. Launcclot Blackburn, died March 23, 1743. 
1743. Thomas Herring, translated to Canterbury, 
Oct. 1747. 



1847. Thomas Musgrave, died May 4, 18C0. 

iS(5o. Charles T. Longley, translated to Canterburj' 

(from Din-ham), 1862. 
1862. William Thomson, translated from Gloucester, 

PKESENT archbishop. 



YORK MINSTER wan erected at diirerent periods, and on the site of former Imildiiig.s. 
The first Christian cluirch erected here, which appears to have been preceded by a Reman 
temple, was built by Edwin, king of Northnmbria, of wood, in 625, and of stone about 635. 
It was damaged b}' lire in 741, and was rebuilt by archbishop Albert, about 780. It was 
again destroyed by fire in the year 1069, and i-ebuilt by archbishop Thomas. It was once 
more burnt down in 1137, with St. Mary's Abbey, and 39 parish churches in York. 
Archbishoj) Roger li'egan to build the choir in 1171 ; Walter Gray added the south transept 
in 1227 ; John de Romayne, the treasurer of the cathedral, built the noith transept in 1260. 
His son, tlie archbishoj), laid the foundation of the nave in 1291. In 1330, William de 
Melton built the two western towers, which were finished by John de Birmingham in 1342. 
Archbishop Thoresby, in 1361, began to rebuild the choir, in accordance with the magniii- 
cence of the nave, and he also rebuilt the lantern tower. Thus by many hands, and 
many contributions of multitudes on the promise of indulgences, this magnificent fabric was 
comjileted. It was first set on fire bj' Jonathan Blartin, a lunatic, and the roof of the choir 
and its internal fittings destroyed, Feb. 2, 1S29 ; the damage, estimated at 6o,oooZ., was 
repaired in 1832. An accidental fire broke out, which in one hour reduced the belfry to a 
shell, destroyed the roof of the nave, and much damaged the edifice, May 20, 1840. 

YORK AND Lakcastee, Waes of. See Hoses. 

YORK (U]iper Canada), founded in 1794; since 1S34 named Toronto. lu the war 
between America and Great Britain, the United States' forces made several attacks upon the 
province of Ujiper Canada, and succeeded in taking York, the seat of the government, April 
27, 1813 ; but it was soon afterwards again retaken by the British. 

YORK TOWN (Virginia, United States). Lord Cornwallis had taken possession of 
York town in Aug. 1781 : but after sustaining a disastrous siege, he M'as obliged to sur- 
render liis arm}', consisting of about 7C00 men, to the allied armies of France and 
America, under the command of general Washington and count Rochambeau, Oct. 19, 1781. 
This mischance was attributed to sir Henry Clinton, who had not given the garrison the 
necessary succour they expected ; and it mainly led to the close of the war. It was strongly 
fortified by the Confederates in the American civil war, but surrendered to M'Clellan", 
May, 1862. 

YTTRIUM, a rare metal. The earth yttria was discovered by professor Gadolin in a 
mineral at Ytterby, in Sweden, 1794. The metal Avas first obtained by Wtihler in 1828. It 
is of a dark gi'ey colour, and brittle. 

YVRES (now Ivrv, N.-W. France), where a battle was fought, March 14, 1590, betv>-cen 
Henry IV. of France, aided by his chief nobility, and the generals of the Catholic league, 
over whom the king obtained a complete victory. 



Z. 

ZAMA (near Carthage, N. Africa), the scene of the battle between the two greatest 
commanders in the world at the time, Hannilial and Scipio Africanus. The victory was won 
by Scipio, and was decisive of the fate of Carthage ; it led to an ignominious peace the year 
after, which closed the second Punic war. The Romans lost about 2000 killed and wounded, 
while the Carthaginians lost iu killed and prisoners more than 40,000; some historians 
make the loss greater ; 202 b. c. 



ZAN 803 ZOO 

ZANTE. One of the Ionian islands, ivliich aer. 

ZANZALEEN'S. This sect rose in Syria, umler Zan;^aleo, 535 ; ho tanght tliat water 
hiptisni was of no efficacy, and that it was necessary to be baptised witli fu-e, by the applica- 
tion of a red-liot iron. The sect was at one time very numerous. 

ZE, ZOW, ZIERES. For yc, you, and yours. The letter z was retained in Scotland, 
and was commonly written for the letter y so late as the rei^n of queen Mary, up to which 
]H'riod many books in the Scottish language were printed in Edinburgh Avith those words, 
1543- 

ZELA (N.-E. Asia Minor). Where Julius C'iosar defeated Pharnaces, king of Pontus, 
son of Mithridates. Cresar, in announcing this victory, sent his famous dispatch to the 
senate of Rome, in these words : " Vem\ vidi, vici " — " I came, I saw, I conquered" (perhaps 
the shortest despatch on record). This battle ended the war : Pharnaces escaped into 
Ijosjihorus, whore he was slain by his lieutenant, Asander ; Pontus was made a Piomau 
province, and Bosphorus given to Mithridates of Pergamus, 47 n.c. 

ZELL, Hanover., ^in Denmark, 1772. 

ZEND-AVESTA, ancient sacred books of th#Parsees ; of which 3 out of 21 are extant. 
The age of these books is much disputed. Professor Max Miiller says that the MSS. had 
been preserved by- the Parsee priests at Bombay, whore a colony of fire-worshippers had fled 
in the loth centuiy. Anqnetil Dnperron's French translation, from a modern Persian 
version, M-as published in 1771. 

ZENO, Sect of. See Stoics. 

ZENOBIA, Qiieenofthe East. See P«7iH//m. 

ZENTA, in Hungary, the scone of a battle where the Germans under prince Eugene, 
defeated the Turks, Sept. 11, 1697. This victory led to the peace of Corlowitz, ratitied, 
January, 1699. 

ZINC. The ore of zinc, calamine, was known to the Greeks, who used it in the manu- 
facture of brass. It is said to have been known in China also, and is noticed by 
European writers as early as 1231 ; though the method of extracting it from the ore was 
unknown for nearly five hundred years after. The metal zinc is first mentioned by Para- 
celsus (who died in 1541). A mine of zinc M'as discovered on lord Ribblesdale's estate, 
Craven, Yorkshire, in 1809. Zincography was introduced in London shortly after the 
invention of lithogra])hy became known in England, in 1 817. See LitlLograpliy. Zinc is 
mucli used in voltaic batteries ; and its application in manufactures has greatly increased of 
late years. It is often called Spelter. See Photordncogrcqihy. 

ZIRCONIUM, the metallic base of the earth Zirconiaj which was discovered by Klaproth 
in 1789 ; from this Berzelius obtained the metal in 1824. Zirconia is found in the sand of 
the rivers of Ceylon. The metal exists in the form of a black powder. 

ZIZYPHUS VULGARIS. A slirub brought from the south of Europe about 1640. The 
Zr.yplius Paliurus shrub {Christ's Thorn) was brought from Africa before 1596. See 
Floiccrs. 

ZODIAC. Its obli(]uity was discovered, its twelve signs named, and their situations 
assigned them by Anaximander, about 560 B.C. The Greeks and Arabians borrowed the 
zodiac from the Hindoos. Sir W. Jones. 

ZOLLVEREIN (Customs' Union), the name given to the German Commercial union, of 
v.'hich Prussia is at the head. It began in 1818, and was gradually joined by nearly all the 
German states except Austria, and a treat}' was signed ]\Iarch 22, 1833, which became the 
basisof the association. On Feb. 19, 1853, an important treaty of commerce and. navigation, 
between Austria and Prussia, to last from Jan. 1854 to Dec. 1865, was signed, to which the 
other states of the Zollverein gave iu their adhesion on April 5, 1S53. In Nov. 1861, 
Prussia threatened to withdraw unless certain changes were made. 

ZOOLOGY (from zoon, Greek for animal) is the division of biology which treats of 
animals. Aristotle (322-284 B.C.) is the founder of the science. Systems of classification 
have been made by John Ray (1628-1705), Charles Linnd (1707-78), G. Bullbn (1707-88), 
and George Cuvier ( 1769- 1832). ''■ 

* The animal kingdom w-is divided by Linn.tjus into six classes ; viz. : — Mdriinialia, wliich includes all 
animals tliat .suckle their young ; Ava, birds; Amphibia, or amijhibious animals; I'i^ces, fi.shcs; 
Iiisixla, insects ; Vcniief, worms ; 1741. Cuvier, who died in Paris, May 13, 1832, in his great work, linjite 
Aiiiinale, published in 1S16, distributed the animals into four great divisions, the VeHehrata (ribbed; • 

3 F 2 



zoo 804 ZUT 



ZOOLOGY, contimccd. 

The Zoological Society of London (originally the 
Zoological Club) was founded in 1826, and its gar- 
dens in the Regent's Park were opened in April, 
1827 ; the society was chartered March 27, 1829. 

Dr. James Murie was appointed by the society to be 
their first " anatomical prosector," May 3, 1865. 

On the demolition of Exeter Change, in 1829, the 



menagerie of Mr. Cross was temporarily lodged in 
the King's Mews, whence it was removed to the 
Surrey Zoological Gardens, 1832. 
The Zoological Gardens of Dublin were opened, 
1832. 

See Aqvnrium, Uippopotamus, Giraffe, and Accli- 
matisation. 



ZORNDORFF, in Prussia, where a battle was fought between the Prussian and Eussian 
armies ; tlie former, commanded by the king of Prussia, obtained a victory over the forces of 
the czarina, whose loss amounted to 21,529 men, while that of the Prussians did not exceed 
11,000, Aug. 25 and 26, 1758. 

ZOUAVES AND Foot Chasseurs. When the French established a regency at Algiers, 
in 1830, they hoped to find the employment of native troops advantageous, and selected the 
Zooaouas, a congregation of Arab tribes, fiimous for daring and skilful courage. In time 
numbers of red republicans, and other entlmsiastic Frenchmen, joined the regiments, 
adopting the costume, &c. : eventually the Africans disappeared from the ranks, and no 
more were added, they having been frecpiently guilty of treachery. The French Zouaves 
formed an important part of the army in the Crimean war, 1854-5* 

ZUINGLIANS, the followers of the reformer Ulricus Zuinglius, who at Zurich, declaimed 
against the church of Rome, and effected the same separation for Switzerland from the papal 
dominion, which Luther did for Saxony. He procured two assemblies to be called ; by the 
first he was authorised to proceed, by the second^ the ceremonies of the Romish church were 
abolished, 15 19. Zuinglius died in arms as a soldier, being slain in a skirmish against his 
popish opponents in 1531. The Zuinglians were also called Sacramentarians. 

ZULPICH. See Tolbiac. 

ZURICH was admitted a member and made head of the Swiss confederacy, 1351, and 
was the first town in Switzerland that separated frem the clmrch of Rome. See Zuiiirilians. 
A grave-digger at Zurich jioisoncd the sacramental wine, by which eight persons lost their 
lives and many others were grievously injured, Sept. 4, 1776. The French were defeated here, 
losing 4000 men, June 5, 1799. The Imperialists were defeated by Massena, the former 
losing 20,000 men killed and wounded, Sept. 25, 1799. See Switzerland. On June 24, 
1859' the Austrians were defeated by the allied French and Sardinian army at Solferino. 
Preliminaries of peace were signed at Villa Franca by the emperors of Austria and France on 
July 12 following. A conference between the representatives of the powers concerned 
having been appointed, the first meeting took place on August 8. After many delays a 
treaty was signed on Nov. 11, and ratified Nov. 12. Lombardy was ceded to Sardinia ; the 
formation of an Italian Confederation, under tlie presidency of the pope, was determined on, 
and the rights of the ex-sovereigns of Tuscany, Modena, and Parma were reserved. The 
formation of the kingdom of Italy in 1861 annulled the treaty of Zurich. 

ZUTPHEN, in Holland. At a battle here Sept. 22, 1586, between the Spaniards and the 
Dutch, the amiable sir Philip Sidney, author of "Arcadia," was killed. He was serving 
with the English auxiliaries, commanded by the earl of Leicester. 



fae MoUusca fsoft bodied) ; the Arliculata (jointed) ; and the Radiata (the organs disposed romid a centre). 
In 1859, professor Owen made known a system of arranging the class Mammalia according to thenatiu-c of 
their brains. 

* The Zouave organisation and drUl were introduced into the federal army in the great civil war in 
America, by fiphraim E. Ellesworth, early in 1S61. He was assassinated on May 24, same year, at 
Alezaiiclria, just after taking down a secession flag. 



INDEX. 



ITlic refcveiices are to articles in tlio body of the work ; the italics refer to articles in this Index. The year 
given is A.D. when B.C. is not mentioned; two dates, thus, 1508-82, signify the year of the person's 
birth and death ; b., born ; d., died ; fl., flourished ; m., murdered ; I:, killed.] 



Abbas, Persia, 1582 
Abbot, abp. ; Canterbury, 161 1 
Abbot, Charles; speaker, 1802 
Abdel-Kader; Algiers, 1S35 
Abderahman, I. — V., caUphs, 755- 

1023 
Abdul-Medjid, Turkey, 1839-61 
Abdul- Aziz, Turkey, i86i 
Abelard, d. 1142 ; Abelard 
Abercromby, Jas., speaker, 1835 
Abercromby, sir R., 173S-1801 ; 

Trinidad, Alexandria, 
xVberdeen, earl of, 1784-1S60; Aber- 
deen adm. note 
Abcrnethy, J., surgeon, 1764-1S31 
Abingdon, earl of; trials, 1794 
Abinger, Id., att -gen., 1827; ex- 
chequer 6., 1834 
Abrantes, duke of ; see Junot 
Ab.salom killed, 1023 B.C. 
Abubeker ; Ali, 632 
Accuni, F. ; adulterations, 1822 
Achilli V. Newman ; trials, 1852-3 
Achniet ; see Ahmed 
Acilius ; statues, temples 
Ackermann, R. ; lithographj-, 1S17 
Acron ; aromatics, 473 B.C. 
Acton, Mrs. ; Royal Inst., 1S38 
Actuarius ; purgatives, 1245 
Adair, serj.; Junius, 1769 
Adalbert, St. ; Prussia, 997 
Adam ; duel, 1779 
Adam, R. and bros., architects 

1728-92 
Adams, J. C , mathernat. ; Nep- 
tuue, 1845 ; J. (1797) and J. 
Q. (1825), United States O're- 
sideyUs) 
Adams v. Dundas ; trials, 1831 
Adderley, Mr. ; Birmingham, 1856 
Addington.II., 1757-1844; Addingt. 
Addison, Joseph, 1672-1719, Spec- 
tator, 1711; Stanhope ad- 
ministration, 1717 ; allegory, 
Clio, clubs 
Adelais ; Adelaide ; England, 
queens (lien. I., William IV.) 
Adcodatus ; pope, 672 
Adolphus, Frederic ; Sweden, 1751 
Adri.an, Rome; emperor, 117; 

edicts, persecutions ; popes 
JEgeus ; Athens, 1283 B.C. 
iEgineta, Paulus ; surgeiy, 640 
yEgisthus ; Mycena;, 1201 B.C. 
.dimilianus ; Rome, 146 B c. 
yEneas; Italy, Alba, 11S2 B.C. 
.32schines, Gk. orator, 389-344 B.C. 
jEschylus, Greek tragedy, 526-456 

B.C. ; drama 
ilisculapiu.'s ; infirmaiics 



iEsop ; falsles (about 600 e.g.) 

Africanus ; see Scipio 

Agamemnon; Mycenae, 1201 B.C. 

Agathocles ; Carthage, Sicily, Sy- 
racuse, 317 B.C. 

Age, proprietor of; trials, 1844 

Agesander ; Laoooon 

Agesilans; Sparta, 398 b.o. 

Agis ; Sparta, 427 B.C. 

Agnew, Mr. Vans ; India, 1848 

Agnodice ; midwifery 

Agricola ; Britain, 78 ; Lancaster, 
Caledonia, Roman wall 

Agricola, John ; Antinomians 

Agrippa ; Pantheon, 27 B.C. 

Aholiab ; sculpture 

Ahmed I.— III. ; Turkey, 1603, 
et seq. 

Airy, G. B., h. iSoi ; Greenwich, 
1S35 ; pendulum, standard 

Aislabie, Mr. ; Sunderland admi- 
nistration, 1718 ; South Sea 

Akbar, India ; 1556 

Akenside, Mark, poet, 1721-70 

Alaric, d. 410 ; Rome, France 

Albemarle, Geo., Monk, duke of, 
1608-70 ; administrations, 1660 

Alberoni, card , 1664-1751 ; Spain, 

171S 
Albert ; Austria, Bohemia, Ger- 
many, Hungary 
Albert (prince consort), 1S19-61 ; 

England, 1840; regency bill, 

duelling 
Albcrtus Magnus ; automatons 
Albion the Longobard, kiUed 573 
Albuquerque (viceroy) ; India, 

1503-15 
Alcibiades, killed 404 B.C. ; Athens 
Alcipi^e ; Areojiagitas 
Alcock, Mr. ; dueUing, 1S07 
Alcuin (theologian), 735-804 
Aldebert ; impostors, 743 
Aldhelmc ; SaUsbury, 705 ; poetry, 

ballads 
Alectus ; Britain, 294 
Alen?on, due d' ; Agincourt, 1415 
Alexander of Paris : Alexandrine 
Alexander the Great, 356-323 b c. ; 

Macedon, Egypt, Gordian, 

Tyre, Memphis 
AlexanderSevenis; Rome,em.,222 
Alexander I. ; Russia, 1801 ; Aus- 

terlitz, 1805: Leipsic, 1S13 
Alexander ; see pope ; Scotland 
Alexander, Mr. ; trials, 1830 
Alexander, sir W. ; Nova Scotia, 

1722 
Alexius, East (emperors), 1081-1103 
Alfieri, V., 1749-1803 



Alfred the Great, 849-901; Eng- 
land, councUs, clocks, crown, 
militia 

Alfred, prince ; Godwin, 1053 ; 
England ; royal family, b. 1844 

Alibaud ; France, 1836 

Ali Pacha; Rosetta; Turkey, 1S20 ; 
Albania 

AUeyne, Edwd., d. 161 7; Dulwich 
coll. 

Almansour; Bagdad, 762 

Almeida, L. ; Madagascar, 1506 

Alphonsiis ; Sicily, Spain, Por- 
tugal (kings) 

xVlsop, Joseph ; trials, 1839 

Althorp, vise. ; Grey administra- 
tion, 1830 ; Melbourne, 1835 

Alva, duke of, 1508-82 ; Antwerp, 
HoUand 

Alvanley, lord; duel, 1835 

Alvlnzi, Marshal ; Areola, 1796 

Alyattes ; Lydia, 761 B.C. 

Alypius of Alexandria ; dwarfs 

Amadeus, Savoy ; annunciation 

Ambrose, St., d. 397 : anthems, 
Te Deum, liturgies 

Ambrosius ; Stonehenge 

Amenophis ; Egypt, 1821 B.C. 

Americus Vespucius, d. 1512 ; 
America, note 

Amherst, lord ; China, 1816, India 
1823 

Ammianus Marecllinus, hist., d. 
390 

Amontons, W. ; telegraphs, 1663- 

170S 
Amos prophesies abt. 787 B.C. 
Ampbro, A. M. 1735-1836; elec- 

ricity (galvanism) ; electric 

telegraph 
AmuUus ; Alba, 794 e.c 
Amurath ; Turkey, Beyrout 
Amyntas ; Macedon, 540 B.C. 
Anacharsis, 592 B.C. ; anchors, 

bellows 
Anacletus ; pope, 78 
Anacreon, poet, _^. about 557 B.C. 
Auastasius ; pope ; East ; emperors 
Anaxagoras, 480 b.c. ; earthquakes 
Anaximander, 547 b.c. ; maps 
Anaximcnes, 548 B.C. ; air 
Anderson, J. ; slavery (in U. States), 

note, 1853 
Andre, maj., United States, 1780 
Andrew; Hungary, kings 
Andrews, IL, U. 1820; almanacs 
Andronicus, 240 b.c ; drama 
.(\jidronicus ; Eastern empire 

1071-1391 
Angela, St. ; UrsuUue nuns, 1537 



806 



INDEX. 



Angerstein, J., d. 1822; National 

Gallery 
Anglesey, Arthur, earl of ; Ireland 

(lord-lieutenant), 1828, 1830 
Angus, earl of ; Linlithgow 
Anjou, Plantagenet, Jarnac, 1569; 

Naples, 1266 
Ankerstrom (kills Gustavus III.), 

Sweden, 1792 
Anna, St. ; Mexico, 1853 
Anne of Brittany, t/. 1514; maids 

of honour 
Anne of Austria, d. 1666 ; iron 

mask 
Anne ; England, semper eadem 
Ansell, G. ; fire-damp, 1E65 
Anselm, apb. ; Canterbury, 1093 
Anson, admiral; Acapulco, 1744; 

naval battles, 1747 
Anson, general; India, 1857 
Anthony : monachism,4th century 
Antigonus ; Ipsiis, 301 B.C., profiles 
Antioohus I.— X. 280-65 B.C. Syria, 

Jews, 170 or 168 B.C. 
Antipator; Cranon, 322 B.C. 
Autisthenes ; cj'nics, 396 s.c. 
AntoneUi, card. 6. 1806; Rome, 

1848 
Antoninus Pius ; Rome, emperors, 

138 ; Roman wall 
Antony, Mark, d. 30 ; Rome, 43 
B.C. ; Armenia, Philippi, 42 
B.C. : Actium, 31 B.C. 
Auviti, col., killed; Parma, 1859 
Apelles, p.ainter, 352- 30S B.C. 
Apollodorus ; Ti-ajan's pillar, 114 
Apollonius; Syria, 168 b.c. 
Appian, hist. .jt. about 147 
Appius Cl.audius ; Rome, 449 b.c. ; 
aqueducts, decemviri, Virginia 
Applegarth ; printing machine 
Apries; Egypt, 571 B.C. 
Apsley, Id. ; North adminis., 1770 
Apuleius, d. 174 
Aquinas, T., theol. d. 1274 
Arago, D. F., nat. phil., 1786-1853 
Aram, Eugene ; ti'ials, 1759 
Aratus ; Achaia, 245 B.C. 
Arbogastcs ; Aquileia. 394 
Arcadius and Honorius, eastern 

and western empire, 395 
Arcbelaus; Cappadocia, 20 B.c. 

Macedon, 413 b.c. 
Archemorus ; Nemaian games 
Archer, F. S. ; collodion, 1851 
Archidamus ; Sparta, 648 b. c. 
Archilochus, 708 B.C. ; Iambic 

verse 
Archimedes, 287-212 B.C. ; circle, 
cranes, mechanics, mensura- 
tion, org.ans, reflectors, screw, 
planetarium 
Archytas ; automaton, pulley 
Ardesoif, Mr. ; cockfighting, 1788 
Arctin, Gui ; musical notes, 1025 
Ai-fastus, chancellor, lord high, 

1067 
Arfwedson, Mr. ; lithium, 1817 
Argyll, duke of ; Dunblane, 1715 
Ariarathes ; Cappadocia 
Ariobarzanes, 322 B.C. ; Capi^a- 

docia, 93 B.C. 
Ariosto, L. Ital. poet., 1474-1533 
Aris, gov. ; prisons. 1800 
Aristarchvis, 156 bc. ; sun, globe 
Aristfeus ; conic sections, 330 B.C. 
Aristides the Just, d. 468 B.C. ; 

Athens 
Aristippus ; Cyrenaic sect, 392 B.C. 
Aristocrates ; Arcadia, 715 b.c. 
Aristodemus ; biarchy, 1 102 b.c. 
Aristophanes, d. 427 u.c. ; comedy 



Aristotle, 384-332 b.c ; Aristo- 
telian philosophy, acoustics, 
botany, Macedon, mechanics, 
metaphysics, philosophy 

Arius, d. 336 ; Arians 

Arkwright, R. (1732-92) ; cotton, 
Manchester, spinning 

Ai-lington, lord ; cabal, 1670 

Arminius, d, 1609 ; Arminians, 
Dort 

Armstrong, W. G. ; eloctricit3-, 
1840 ; cannon, 1859 

Arne, T., music composer, 1710-88 

Arnold, gen. ; United States, 1780 

Arnold, l)r. Thos., hist., 1795-1842 

Arrian, hi.st. ,.ff. 148 

Arsaces; Parthia, 250 B.C. 

Artabazus ; Pontus, 487 B.C. 

Artaxerxes ; Persia (kings) 

Artemisia ; mausoleum, 350 B.C. 

Artemones ; battering-ram, 441 

B.C. 

Arthur, king ; Britain, 506 
Artois, count d' ; duelling, 1778 
Arundel, abp. ; Canterbury, 1397-9 
Arundel, Henry, earl of ; adminis- 
trations, 1547 
xVscanius ; Alba, 1152 B.C. 
Asdrubal ; see Hasdnibal 
Asellius ; laeteals (1622), lympha- 
tics 
Asgill, Mr. ; translation, 1703 
Ashburton, Id. ; treaty, 1842 
Ashe, gen. ; Briar's creek, 1779 
Ashford, Mary ; appeal, 1818 
Ashlej', lord ; cabal, 1670 
Ashley, sir Arthur ; cabbages 
Aslitou, colonel ; Wigan, 1643 
Aske ; pilgrimage of grace, 1536 
Aslctt, Rob. ; exchequer bills, 1803 
Assheton, Wm. ; clergy, charities 
Astley, lord ; Naseby, 1645 
Aston, sir A. ; Drogheda, 1649 
Astyages ; Media, 594 b.c 
Athanasius, d. 373 ; Athanisian 

creed 
Athelstan ; England (king), 924 ; 

mint, 928 
Athenaius, Greek, d. 194 
Athol, duke of; Man, sold by, 1765 
Athothes ; hieroglyphics, writing 
Atossa ; marriage by sale 
Attains, d. 197 b.c ; seven churches 

(Pergamus), parchment 
Atterbury, bji. F. ; banished, 1723 
Attila ; Hungary, Chalons. 451 
Attwood, T. ; chartists, 1838 
Atwell, W. ; trials, 1857 
Aubcr, D., music composer, 6. 1784 
Auchmuty, sir Samuel; Batavia, 

i8ii ; Monte Video, 1807 
Auckland, Id. bp. ; Bath and Wells 

1S54 
Auckland, lord ; Grey administra- 
tion, 1830 ; India, 1835 
Augereau, gen. ; Castiglione, 1796 
AugustenlDurg, duke of, Denmark, 

1863 
A>igustin, St. (of Hippo), 354-430 
Augustin the monk, abp. Canter- 
bury, 602 ; Rochester 
Augustus (emperor), Ronie,27B.c ; 
prajtoiian guard 



Au.stria, John of; Lepanto, 1571 
Averrocs, med. writer, jj. 1199 
Avisa ; queens (John) 



B. 



calculating 



Babbage, C, h. 1792; 

machine 
Babcr ; India, 1525 
Babeuf ; d. 1791 ; agrarian law 
Babbington, uhich see, 15S6 
Babrius ; fable 
Bach, J. Sebastian, music, 1685- 

1754 
Bachelier, M. ; encaustic, 1749 
Back, G. ; north-w. passage, 1833 
Bacon, lord (1561-1626); lawyers, 

aeronautics 
Bacon, sir Nicholas ; keeper. Id., 

1558, baronet 
Bacon, John, sculptoi', 1740-99 
Bacon, Roger, d. 1292 ; astrology, 
camera lucida, loadstone, ma- 
gic-lantern, magnet, optics, 
spectacles 
Bacon, T. F. ; trials, 1857 
Baffin, W. M. ; Baffin's Bay, 1616 
Bagnal, lieut. ; duel, 1812 
Bagot, bishop; Oxford, 1829 
Bagration, pr, ; Mohilows, 1812 
Bagster, Miss M. ; trials, 1S28 
Bailej', rev. W. ; trials, 1843 
Baillie, col. ; Aroot, 1780 
Baillie, general ; Alford, 1645 
Baillie. Joanna, poet, 1763-1851 
Bailly, M., philo. : executed, 1793 
Bainbrigg, aljp. ; York, 150S 
Baines, M. T. ; Pahnerston adminis- 
tration, 1S55 
Baird, sir David; Cape, 1S06, 

Scringapatam, 1799 
Bajazet ; 'I'urkcv, 1389 
Baker, colonel ; Bull's Bluff, 1861 
Baker, H. ; Bakerian Lecture, 

176s 
Baker, S. W. ; Africa, 1864 
Balard, M. ; amylene, 1844 
Balchan. admiral ; Alderney, 1744 
Baldwin 1. — V. ; Jerusalem, iioo- 

85 ; East Flanders 
Bales, P. ; calligraphy 
Bahe, M. W., b. 1808 
Balfour, John ; Scotland, 1679 
Baliol, Edw. ; Scotland, kings, 1329 
Baliol, John ; Scotland, 1293, 

Oxford, Dunbar 
Ballarat, Melbo\irne, 1854 
Ballard, John; Babington's con- 

spirao}', 1586 
Ballasteros, gen. : Ximcna, 1811 
Balmerino, lord ; rebellion, Scot- 
land, 1745 ; trials, 1746 
Baltimore, lord ; America, 1632 ; 

trials, 1768 
Bancroft, abp. ; Canterbury, 1604 
Bancroft, G., hist., b. 1800 
Banks, sir J., 1743-1820 ; hort. soc, 

royal institution, 1799 
Bannister, Mr. : retired, 1815 
Bar, due de ; Agincourt, 1415 
BaradiX'Us ; Eutyehians, Jacobites 
Baranelli, L. ; trials, 1855 



Aulas Gellius, Latin misc.,/. i6q 1 Barantz, north-w. pa.ssage, 1594 



Aurelian ; Rome, emp. 270 ; Ale- 

manni 
Aurelius ; Rome, emp. i6i 
Aurungzebe ; India, 1658 
Ausonius, poet, d. 394 
Au.stin ; see Austin, St. 
Austin, capt. ; Franklin 
Austin. W. ; trials, 1855 



Barbarossa, rf. 1546; Tunis, Algiers 
Barbauld, Mrs. A. L. , 1743-1825 
Barber, Fletcher, Saimdci-s, and 

Dorey; trials, 1844, and 7iote 
Barberini ; Portland vase 
Barbou ; printers, 1539-1755 
Barbour, J. ; trials, 1853 
Barclay, capt.;pedcstrianism, 1S09 



INDEX. 



807 



Barclay, Perkins, & Co. ; porter 
Barcla}', Rob., d. 1690; quakers 
Barhani, lord ; admiralty, 1S05 
Baring, Alex., Peel admiiiist. 
1834; sir P.; London Insti- 
tution, 1S05 ; Russell adminis- 
tration, 1S46 
Barker, Robert ; panorama, 17S8 
Barlow ; clocks, 1676 
Barlow, rcv.J.;RoyalInstitut. ,1842 
Baiiow, sir G. ; India, governors, 

1805 
Barlowc, William ; compass, 1608 
Barnard, general ; India, 1857 
Banics, T., d. 1841 ; Times 
Barnct, Geo. ; trials, 1S16 
BaiT^, Isaac, Rockingham ad- 
ministration, 17S2 
Barrett, captain ; Cumberland ; 

naval battles, 1811 
BaiTie, capt.; naval battles, 1811 
Barrington, bp. ; Durham, 1791 
Ban-ington, Mr. ; duel, 1788 
Ban-ington ; trials, 1790 
Barrot, O. ; France, 1848 
BaiTOw, Isaac, 1630-77 
Barry, sir Charles, ai'chitect, 1795- 

i86o ; parliament 
Barth, Dr. ; Africa, 1849 
Barthulftiiy, E. ; triaLs, 1855 
Barton, Bernard, poet, d. 1849 
Barton, Dr. ; insurance, 1667 
B.arton, Elizabeth ; impostor, 1534 
Baschi, Matt. : Capuchins, 1525 
Ba.^il, St., d. 380; Basilians 
Basil ; East. emp. 867 ; Russia 
Basilowitz ; Russia, czars, 1462 
Bath, earl of ; Bath admin., 1746 
Bathou ; Transylvania, 1851, &c. 
Bathurst, bp. ; Norwich, 1805 
Bathurst, earl ; Liverpool adminis- 
tration, l8l2. 
Bathyllus ; pantomimes 
Batman, J. ; Victoria, 1835 
Batthyany, Hungary, 1848 
Battus ; CjTene, 631 B.C. 
Bauragarten ; asstlietics, 1750 
Bavaria, elector of ; Ramilies, 1706 
Baxter, sir D.; Dundee, 1863 
Baxter, G. ; printing in coloiirs, 

1836 
Baxter, Rd., theologian, 1615-91 
Baj-ard, chevalier, killed, 1524 
B.ayle, P., d. 1706 ; dictionary, 1697 
Bayle\-, lieut. ; duel, 1818 
Baynard, Geoffrey ; combat 
Bazalgette, J. W., 6. 1819; sewers, 

Thames 
Beadon, bi.shop ; Bath, 1802 
Bean aims at the queen ; trials, 1842 
Beaton, cardinal; m. 1546 
Beattie, Jas.; poet, 1735-1803 
Beauclcrc, lord Charles, drowned 
while assisting ata wreck, i86i 
Bean Nash ; ceremonies 
Bcauchamp, Henry de ; Wight 
Beauchiimp, John de ; barons 
Beaufort, cardinal, d. 1447 
Beauharnais, Eugene, 1781-1824 ; 

Italy, Mockei-n 
Bc.anlieu, genei-al ; Lodi, 1796 
Be.anmont,sirG. , National Gallery 

opened 
Beaumont, Mr. ; duel, 1821-1826 
Beaumont ; viscoiuit, 1440 
Beauregard, P. G., 6. 181 8; United 

States, 1S61 
Bcauvoir, sir J. de; trials, 1835 
Becket, T., ju. 1170 ; Becket 
Bcckford, W. ; Fonthill Abbey 
Bede, Venerable, d. 735 
Bedford, duke of; duel, 1822 ; Ire- 



land, lord-licuts., 1490-1757; 
Fiance, 1422 ; admiralty, 1744 ; 
nobility, 1470 
Bedingfield, Ann ; trials, 1763 
Beeby, William ; longevity 
Beeching, J. ; life-boat, 1851 
Beethoven, L., mus. comp., 1770- 

1827 
Begum charge, Chunar, 1781 
Behem, Martin ; Azores 
Beliring, {?. 1741 ; Behring's straits 
Bela, Hungai-y 
Belasyse, Id. L. ; adm., 1687 
Belcher, sirE. ; circumnavigation, 

1S36 ; Franklin 
Beleredi, count Rd., b. 1823 ; 

Austria, 1865 
Belisarius, d. 564 ; Africa, east emp. 
Bell, And., d. 1832 ; Lancasterian 

schools 
Bell, sir C, 1778-1842; nerves 
Bell, H. ; steam, 1812 
Bellamont, lord; duel, 1773 
Bellamy; trial, 1844 
Bellarmine, card , 1542-1621 
Bellingham kills Perceval, 1812 
Bellinghaua, sir Daniel ; mayor (of 

Dublin), 1665 
Bellini, music, 1802-35 
Bellot, lieut., d. 1853 ; Franklin 
Belochus; Assyria, 1446 b.c. 
Belus ; A.ssyria, 2245 B.C. 
Belzoni, d. 1823 
Bern; Hungary; d. 1850 
Benbow, adm.; naval battles, 1702 
Benedict, Benedictines ; popes, 

574-1758 
Bentham, Jer. (1746-1832); savings' 

banks 
Bentinck.lord G., (?. 1848; protec- 
tionists 
Bentinck, lord W. ; Assam, India ; 

1S27 
Bentley, Rd., scholar, 1662- 1742 
Beranger, J. P. de, poet, 1780-1857 
Berengarius ; fete de Dieu 
Berenger, Butt, lord Cochrane, and 

others ; trials, 1814 
Berengeria ; queens (Richard I.) 
Beresford, lord; Albnera, 1811 
Beresford, lord J. ; suicide, 1841 
Beresford, Wm.; Derby adm., 1S32 
Berg, gen.; Poland, 1863 
Berkeley case ; trials, 1858 
Berkeley cause ; trials, 181 1 
Berkeley, Hon. C. ; duel, 1842 
Berkeley, lord ; admiralty, 1717 
Berkeley, lord ; America, N., 1644 ; 

Bresi;, 1694 ; Carolina 
Beruadotte, 1764-1818 ;Dennewitz, 

Sweden 
Bernard, St., 1091-1153 
Bernard, S. : tri.aLs, 1858 
Bernard, sir Thomas; British Inst. 
1805; Royallnstitution, 1799 
Bernini, 1598- 1680 
Berri,duke and duchess of; France, 

1820-1833 
Berry, lieut. ; trials, 1807 
Berthelot, P. M., b. 1827; acety- 
lene, olefiant gas, 1862 
Bei-thier, gen. ; marshals 
BerthoUet, C. L., 1748-1822; chlo- 
rine 
Bertie, lady G. C; lord great 

chamberlain 
Berwick, duke of, d. 1734 ; Landen, 

Almanza, Ne^Ty 
Berzelius, Jas., 1779-1S48; che- 
mistry, silicium 
Bessemer, H. ; iron, steel, 1856 
Bossus ; Persia, 331 b.c. 



Best, capt.; duel, 1S04 ; Surat, 161 1 
Bcthell, bp.; Gloucester, 1824 
Bethell, sirR. ; solicitor-gen., 1852, 

attorney -gen., 1859 (see IVest- 

bury) 
Bethencourt ; Canaries, 1400 
Betty, master ; theatres, 1804 
Bevern, prince ; Breslau, 1757 
Bewick, T., 1753-1828 ; wooden- 
graving 
Bexley, Vansittart, lord ; Liverpool 

administi-ation, 1812 
Bcza, Theodore, theologian, 1519- 

1605 
Bialobrzeski, abp. ; Poland, 1861 
Bickersteth, bp. ; Ripon, 1856 
Biela, comet, 1826 
Big Sam; giants, 1809 
Bingley, lord ; Oxford adm. 1711 
Bird, the boy; trials, 1831 
Birkbeck, Dr.. d. 1841 ; mechanics' 

institutes 
Biscoe, capt.; southern continent, 

1832 
Bishop ; burking, 1831 
Bishop, A. ; derrick,' 1857 
Bishop, sir H., mu.sic, 1787-1855 
Bishop, J. F. ; Italy, 1S62 
Bismarck, O., b. 1813; Prussia, 

1862; Gastein 
Black, Dr. ; duel, 1835 
Black, Jos., 1728-99 ; magnesia, air, 

balloon 
Blackburn, abp. ; York, 1724 
Blaokstone, sir W., law, 1723-80 
Blair, Hugh, 1717-1800; rhetoric, 

verse ; — John, chronologist, d. 

1797 
Blake, adm. R., 1599-1657; Algiers, 

Dover straits, Portland isle, 

Santa Cruz 
Blakesley, Robt. ; trials, 1841 
Blanc, Louis, b. 1813; France, 1848 
Blanchard ; balloon, 1784-1819 
Blanchard, Laman ; suicide, 1845 
Blanchard, T. ; timber bending, 1855 
Blandy, Miss; trials, 1752 
Bligh, captain ; bread-fruit tree ; 

Adventure bay, Bounty mutiny 
Bligh, captain, v. Mr. Wcllesley 

Pole ; trials 1825 
Bligh, Mr. ; trials, 1806 
Blomfield, bp, ; Chester, 1824 ; 

London, 1828 
Blondin, crystal palace, 1861 
Blood, col. , d. 1680 ; Blood, crown 
Blood, Mr. ; trials, 1832 
Bloomer, Mrs, ; dres-s, 1849 
Bloomfiold, R. , poet, 1766-1823 
Blucher, marshal, d. 1819; Jan- 

vilUers, Ligny, Waterloo 
Bhim, R. ; shot in 1848 
Blumenbach, J. F., 1752-1840 
Blundell, lieut. ; duel, 1813 
Boadicoa ; Britain, d. 61 
Boardman, captain: duel, 181 1 
Boccaccio, 1313-75, Decameron 
Boddington ; trials, 1797 
Boden, col. ; Sanscrit, 1832 
Bodley, T. ; Bodleian lib., 1602 
Boerrhaavc, H. ; med. writ. 1668- 

17.38 
Boethius, killed, 524 
Boeticher : Dresden china, 1700 
Bogle V. Lawson; trials, 1841 
Bohemia, king of — "Ich Dien;" 

Crecy, 1346 
Boilcaii, Nic, poet, 1636-1711 
Boiroimhe, Bryan ; Ireland, 1014 
Bois de Cbfcue, JIdlle. ; beards, 1834 
Bolam, Mr.; trials, 1839 
Boldero, capt. ; duel, 1842 



808 



INDEX. 



Boleslaus ; Poland 

Boleyii, Anne, England (queen 

Hen. VIII.) 
Boleyn, earl of Wiltshire ; admi- 
nistrations, 1532 
Bolingbroke, lord ; Oxford ad- 
ministration, 1711 ; deism 
Bolivar (1783-1830), Columbia 
Bolland, Acta Sanctorum, 1643 
Bonaparte family, France, p. 
Bonar, Mr. and Mrs. ; trials, 1813 
Bonaventura, 1221-74 ; conclave 
Bonavisa, Anthony; distaff, 1505 
Bond ; magnetism, 166S 
Bond, prof. ; photograph j', 1851 
Bonelli, electric loom, 1854 
Bonhcur, Rosa, painter, b. 1822 
Bonner, bishop of London ; admi- 
nistrations, 1554 
Bonnet, C, naturalist, 1720-93 
Bonnycastle, J., mathematician, 

rf. 1 82 1 
Bonpland, A. , naturalist, 1773-185S 
Bon well, rev. J. ; trials, 1S60 
Boon, colonel ; America, 1754 
Boosey, T. ; copyright, 1S54 
Booth, B. ; book-keeising, 1789 
Booth, Wilkes, assassin ; U. States, 

1 86s 
Booth, Mr. ; theatres, 1817 
Borde, Andrew ; Merry-Andrew 
Borelli ; mechanics, 1679 
Borgese, H. ; diamond 
Borgia, Cicsar, killed, 1507 
Borowlaski, count ; dwarf, 1739 
Borrington, lady ; trials, 1808 
Borromeo, abj). Charles, 1538-84 
Boscan, poet, 1496-1543 
Boscawen, adm., 1711-60; Lagos 
Bosquet, marshal : Inkermann, 

1854 
Bossuet, J., misc., 1627-1704 
Boswell, sir A. ; duel, 1822 
Boswell, James, biogra., 1740-95 
Bothwell, earl of ; Scotland, 1567 
Bottle conspirators ; trials, 1839 
Bouchet, Anthony ; illuminati 
Bouchier, archbp. ; Canterbury, 

i486 
Boufflers, marshal ; 1644-1711 
Bougainville, d. 1811; circumnavi- 
gation, New Hebrides 
Bouilld, marquis de; Eustatia,i7Si 
Boulby, Mr. ; China, i860 
Boulton, Mat., d. 1809; Birming- 
ham 
Boulton and Watt ; coinage, 1788 
Bourbon famUy ; Bourbon, duke 

of; duels, 1778 
Bourgeois, sir F. ; Dulwich, 1813 
Bourke, sir R. ; Victoria, Australia, 

1831 
Bourmont, marshal ; Algiers, 1S30 
Bourne, Sturges ; Canning admin- 
istration, 1827 
Bousfield, W. ; ex;ecutions, 1856 
Bowen, sir G. ; Queensland, 1859 
Bower, Mr. Elliott ; trials, 1852 
Bowes, Miss ; Strathmore, 1766 
Bowring, sir J. ; 6. 1792 ; Canton, 

China, Siam 
Bowstead, bishop ; Lichfield, 1843 
Bowyer, bp. ; Ely, Che.'iter, 1812 
Boyd, captain ; duel, 1808 
Boyd, Hugh ; Junius 
BoydeU, aid., d. 1804; British In- 
stitution 
Boyle, earl of Orrery ; orrery 
Boyle, Rob., 1626-92 ; phosphorus, 

Royal Society 
Boyle, Henry ; Godolphin admin- 
istration, 1702 



Brabant, duke of ; merchants, 1296 
Bradljury, H. ; nature -printing, 

1855-6 
Bradley, admiral : trials, 1814 
Bradley, Jas., 1693-1762; astro- 
nomy, Greenwich 
Bradwardine, abp. ; Canterbury, 

1349 
Braganza, John of ; Portugal, i6.|o 
Bragg, gen. ; United States, 1862-3 
Braham, John, singer, 1777-1856 ; 

theatres 
Brahe, Tycho, 1546-1601; astro- 
nomy, globe 
Braidwood, Jas. ; fires, k: 1861 
Bramah, J., 1749-1814; hydrosta- 
tics ; planing-macliino 
Brande, W. T., chemist, 6. 1788; 
Royal and London Institutions 
Brandreth, the Luddite ; Derby 

trials, 1817 
Brandt, count ; Zell, 1772 
Brandt ; cobalt, phosphorous, 1667 
Brantome, P., historian, 1 527-161 4 
Brasidas, killed, 422 B.C. 
Brcakspeare, Nicholas; pope, 11 54 
Brederode, H. de ; gueux, 1566 
Bremer, sir Gordon ; China, 1840 
Bremer, Fred., novelist, b. 1S02 
Brcndou, St. ; Clonfert, 550 
Bronn, captain ; Hibornia, 1833 
Bronnus ; Rome, 390 B.C. 
Brereton, col. ; Bristol, 1832 
Bresson, count ; suicide, 1847 
Brett, J. W. ; submarine tele- 
graph, 1845 
Brewster, David, b. 1781 ; kalei- 
doscope, British association 
Brie, Mr. ; duel, 1826 
Bridgewater, earl ; admiralty, 1699 
Bridgewater, duke of, 1720-1803 ; 

Bridgewater Canal 
Bridport, lord ; L'Oriont, 1795 
Brienne, M. de; notables, 1788 
Bright; corpulency, 1809 
Bright, John, b. 1811 : agitators, 

peace coiigi-ess 
Brindley, J.as., 1716-72 ; tunnels, 

Bridgewater canal, Barton 
Brinklett; trials, 1828 
Brinvilliers, niadame de, executed, 

1676 ; poisoning 
Bristol, mayor of; trials, 1832 
Bristol, John, earl of ; administra- 
tions, 1621 
Brodie, sir B. C, surgeon, 1783- 
1S62 ; — chemist, b. 1817, gra- 
phite, 1862 
Broke, captain ; Chesapeake, 1813 
Brome, Adam de ; Oriel, 1337 
Bromley, sir Thomas; adminis- 
trations, 1579 
Brongniart, A., geo. ; 1 770-1847 
Brooke, sir James, b. 1803 ; Borneo 
Brothers, R., d. 1824 
Brough, M. A.; trials, 1854 
Brougham, H., 6. 1778; chancellor, 

impeachment, social science 
Broughton, lord ; Russell admin- 
istrations, 1046, 1S51 
Brown, gen. ; Prague, 1751 
Brown, H. ; trials, 1858 
Brown, captain John ; United 

States, 1859 
Brown, W., 1783-1864; Liverpool, 

1857 
Brown, R., d. 1620; Brownists, 

independents 
Brown, Rob., botanist, cZ . 1858; 

Brownian 
Browne, American gen. ; Chip- 
pawa, 1814 ; Fort Erie 



Browne, Hannah; trials, 1837 
Browne, George ; Dublin, 1554 
Brownrigg, Eliz. ; trials, 1767 
Brownrigg, gen. ; Candj', 1815 
Bruck, baron ; Lloyd's, vote 
Bruce, J., 1730-94; Africa, Bruce ; 

Nile, Palmyra 
Bruce, David ; Nevill's Cross, 1346 
Bruce, Edward; Dundalk, 1318 
Bruce, Robert, <?. 1329; Scotland,- 
king, 1306; Bannockbuni,i3i4 
Bruce, Michael; Lavalette, 1816 
Bruce, com. ; Lagos, China, 1851 
Brucher, Antcmio ; coinage, 1553 
BrudeneU ; trials, 1S34 
Brueys, admiral ; Nile, 1798 
Brunei, I. K., 1769-1849; blocks, 

steam, Thames tunnel 
Brunei, I. K., 1806-59; steam 
Bruno ; Benedictines, Chartreuse, 

Cologne, turnery 
Biimswick, duke of ; Valmy, 1792; 

Quatre Bras, 1815 
Brunt, Davidson, Thistlewood, 
Ings, and Tidd ; Cato-street, 
1820 
Brutus, Lticius Junius ; consuls, 

509 B.C. 
Biiitus and Cassius; Philijipi, 
42 B.C. 

Bryan Boiroimhe ; harp, Clontarf , 

1014 
Bubb ; opera-house, 1821 
Buchan, M ; Buchanites, 1779 
Buchan, captain; N.-W. passage, 

1819-22 
Buchanan, J. ; U. States, 1856 
Buckhurst, Thomas, lord; admi- 
nistrations, 1599 
Buckingham, Stafford, duke of ; 

con.stable, 1521 
Buckinghiim, G. Villiers, duke of ; 
administrations, 1615, 1621 ; 
dress ; kUled, 1628 
Buckingham, duke of ; cabal 
ministry, 1670 ; Peel adminis- 
trations, 1841 ; duel, 1822 
Buckingham, marquess of ; Ire- 
land, lord lieutenant, 1787 
Buckinghamshire, earl of ; Liver- 
pool administration, 1812 
Buckland, W. ; geologist, 1784-1856 
Buckland, F. ; fisheries, 1863 
Buckle, H. T. ; historian, 1823-62 
Bufalmaco ; cai'icatures, 1330 
Buffon, G., 1707-88; geology, 

zoology, 1749 
Bugeaud, marshal, 1784-1849; 

Morocco, 1844 
Bulkeley, bishop ; Bangor, 1553 
Bull, J., " God save the Kmg," 

1606 
Bull, G., bishop, 1634-1709 
Bulwer, E. Lytton, novelist, b. 

1805 
Bunning, J. B. ; coal-exchango, 

1849 
Bunsen, baron C. J. ; 1791-1860 
Bunsen, R. ; voltaic pile, 1842 ; 

spectrum, i860 
Bunyan, J., 1628-88, Bedford; al- 
legory, pilgi-im's progress 
Buonarotti, Michael Angelo; 1474- 

1564 
Burbage, James ; plays, drama 
Burdett, sir F., 1769-1844; duel, 

1S07 ; riots, trial, 1820 
Burdock, Mary Anne ; trials, 1835 
Burden, Mr. : trials, 1841 
Biirger, G. ; poet, 1748-94 
Burgess, bishop ; Salisbury ; St 

David's, 1S25 



INDEX. 



Burgh, Hubert de ; Whitehall 
JJurgoyne, gen. ; Saratoga, 1777 
Burke, Edmund, 1730-97; Rock- 
ingham administrations, 1782, 
Canada, Junius 
Burke and Wills; Australia, 1860-3 
Burleigh, lord ; administrations, 

1358 
Bumes, sir A., mm'dered; India, 

1841 
Burnet, Dr. ; antediluvians 
Burns, R. ; poet, 1759-96 
Burnsidc, gen. A. ; U. States, 1862 
Burr, colonel ; duel, 1804 
Burton, R. ; 1576-1616 
Bury, Richard de ; libraries, 1341 
Bute, earl of; Bute adm., 1762-3 
Buttevant, viscounts, 1385 
Butler, bp. S. ; Lichfield, 1840 
Butler, bp. J., 1692-1752 
Butler, ciptain ; Silistria, 1854 
Butler, Sam. (Ihulibran), 1612-80 
Butler, gen. B. ; New Orleans, 1862 
Butt, Mr. ; trials, 1817 
Button, su- Thomas ; N.-W. pas- 
sage, 1612 
Buxton, Mr. ; trials, 1829 
Buxton, sir T. F., 1782-1845 ; 

prisons, 1815 
Byng, J., exec 1757; Gibraltar; 

Byng, 1757 
Byrne, Miss; riot, 1819 
BjTon, commodore ; port Egmont, 

1765 
Byron, George, lord, 1788-1824; 

Greece ; Missolonghi 
Bysse, Dr. ; musical festivals 

C. 

Cabot, Sebastian and John ; Ame- 
rica, 1497 
Cabi-al, Alvarez de ; Brazil, 1500 
Cabrera, general ; Spain, 1840 
Cade, Jack ; Cade's insurrection, 

1450 
Cadmus, 1453 B.C. ; alphabet, 

Bceotia 
Cadogan, captain ; duel, 1809 
Cadwallader ; Britain, 678 
Caicilius Isidorus ; slavery in 

Rome, 12 B.C. 
Cxmon ; Anglo-Saxons, 6S0 
Caesar, Julius, 100-44 B.C. ; Rome, 
Britain, calendar, ides, Dover, 
Pharsalia, Zela, Rubicon 
Csesar, Octavius, 63 B.C. -14 a.d. ; 
Rome, Activim, massacres, tri- 
umvirate, Philippi, emperor 
Cajsalpinus ; blood, circulation, 

1569 
Cagliostro, d. 1795 ; diamond 

necklace 
Caithness, carl of ; steam-caniage, 

i860 
Calaphilus ;''wandering Jew 
Galas, J., judicially mvu'dered, 1761 
Calder, sir Rob. ; naval batt, 1805 
Caldoron, P., dramatist, 1601-82 
Calcjiini ; dictionaries, 1500 
Calhoun, Mr. ; temijerance soc., 

1818 
Caligula ; Rome, emperor, 37 
Calippus; Calippic period, 330 B.C. 
Calixtus, pope ; Cahxtins, 1656 
Callcott, J. W. ; music, 1766-1821 
Callicratus : calligi-aphy 
Callimachus ; Abacus, architec- 
ture, Cormtliian, 540 b.c. 
Callinicus ; Greek fire, wildfire 
Callisthenes ; Chaldean, Maccdon, 

328 B.C. 



Calonne ; notables, 1788 
Calthorpe, Id. ; Birmingham, 1857 
Calverly ; pressing to death, 1605 
Calvert and Co ; porter, 1760 
Calvui, John, 1509-64 ; Calvmism 
Cambacorcs; directory, 1799 
Cambridge, dukes of ; Cambridge 
Cambridge, present duke of, b. 

1S19 
Cambyses ; Egypt, Persia, 525 B.C. 
Camden, lord ; chancellor, lord, 
Peroival adm., 1809, exehe- 
qvier, Ireland (lord-lieut.) 
Camden, W., antiquary, 1551-1623 
Camelford, lord ; duel, 1804 
Cameron, H. I. ; trials, 1858 
Camillus ; Rome, 391 B.C. 
Camoous, poet, 1524-79 
Campbell, bishop ; Bangor, 1859 
Campbell, sir C. See Clyde. 
Campbell, John, lord, 1779-1861 ; 
attorney-general, king'sbench, 
ch.ancellor, Palmerston 
Campbell, Rev. J. ; trials, 1S63 
Campbell, major ; duel, trials, 1S08 
Campbell, capt. ; marriages forced, 

1690 
Camiibcll, Thos., poet, 1777-1844 
Campion; tri.als, 1857 
Canaletti, painter, 1697-1768 
Canning, George, 1 770-1 827 ; Can- 
ning, duel, 1 809, grammaiians, 
king's .speech 
Canning, visct., 1812-62; India, 

1S55 
Canova, A., sculptoi-, 1757-1822 
Cantillon ; wills (Napoleon's), 1821 
Canton, J., (/. 1772 ; phosphorus, 

magnetism 
Canute; England, 1017; Alney 
Capel, H. ; admiralty, 1679 
Capet family ; France, 987 
Capo d'Istria, count ; Greece, 1831 
Car ; augiuy 
Caracalla ; Rome, emp. 211; Ale- 

manni 
Caracci, L., painter, 1555-1619 ; An., 

156S-1609 
Cai-accioli, adm., executed 1799 
Caractacus ; Britain, 50 
Caraffa, bishop ; Theatines, 1524 
Carausius ; Britain, 281 
Cardan, J., 1501-76 
Cardigan, lord ; duel, 1840 ; trials, 

1S41-63; Balaklava, 1854 
Garden, Mr. ; trials, 1854 
C'ardross case ; trials, 1861 
Cardwell, Edward ; Palmerston 

administration, 1855-1859 
Carey, bishop ; St. Asaph, 1S30 
Carleton, .sir Guy ; U. States, 1782 
Carlile, R. ; atheist; trials, 1S19, 

1831 
Carlisle, earls of; Ireland, lord- 
lieutenant, 1859 
Carlyle, Thos., 6. 1795 
Carlos, Don ; Spain, 1833 
Carmarthen, marquess of; admi- 
nistrations, 1689 
Carnot, L., mathem., 1753-1823 
Caroline ; queens (George II.), 

parks 
Caroline; queen (George IV.), 
Brandcubui-g-house, delicate 
investigation 
Carpenter, gen. ; Preston, 1715 
Carr, bishoji ; Worcester, 1831 
Carr, Holwell ; National Gallery, 

1824 
Carrd ; congelation, i860 
Carstairs, rev. W. ; thumbscrew 
Cartier ; America, 1534 



Carter, Richard; alchemy, 1476 
Carteret ; circumnavigator, 1766 
Carteret, lord ; Walpole adminis- 
trations, 1721 
Carthage, St. ; Lismore, 636 
Cartwright, major ; trials, 1820 
Carvilius, Spurius ; divorces 

231 B.C. 
Casella, L. ; thermometer, 1861 
Cashin, Miss ; quackery, 1830 
Cashman ; Spafields, riots, i8i6 
Casimir; Poland 
Cassander ; Maccdon, 316 B.C. 
Cassibelaunus ; chariots 
Cassini, 1625-1712 ; astronomy; 
Bologna, latitude, Saturn, 1655 
Cassius ; Philippi, 42 B.C. 
Castanos ; Spain, 1852 
Castel, M. ; Dartmouth, 1404 
Castlereagh, lord ; union with Ire- 
land, 1800 ; Pitt admin., 1804; 
Liverpool admin., 1812 ; duel, 
1S09; .suicide, 1S22 
Catesby, Rob. ; gunpowder, 1605 
Cathcart, Id. ; Copenhagen, 1807 
Catlicart, general; Kaffraria; In- 

kerinann, 1854 
Catherine ; England, queens (Hen. 

v., VIII., Charles II.) 
Catherine; Russia, 1725; Odessa; 

Sebastopol 
Cato (the censor) ; agriculture ; 
149 B.C. ; (the tribune), kills 
himself, 46 b.c. 
Catullus, poet, d. 40 B.C. 
Catulus ; Cimbri, loi B.C. 
Caulaincoiirt ; Chatillon, 1814 
Cans, S. de ; steam-engine, 1615 
C.autley, sir P. ; Ganges, 1S54 
Cavaignac, general; France, 1848 
Cavaliere, Emilio di ; oi^era, reci- 
tative, 1600 
Ciivendish, circunmavigator, 1586 
Cavendish, H., d. 1810; balloons, 
electricity, chemistry, nitro- 
gen, hydrogen, water 
Cavendish, Johnde; judges, 1382 
Cavendish, lord John; Portland 

administration, 17S3 
Cavour, CainiUe de, 1810-61 ; Sar- 
dinia, Austria 
Caxton, Wm. 1421-gx ; printing 
Caylus, count ; encaustic painting, 

1765 
Cecil, Wm. ; administrations, 1572 
Cecrops ; Athon.s, 1556 B.C. 
Celeste, madame ; theatres, 1844 
Celestin: pope, 1143 
Celsus ; midwifery, &c. , 37 
Cerdic ; Britain (Wessex; 
Cerinthus ; apocalypse 
Cervantes, M.S., 1547-1616; doa 

Quixote 
Chacornac ; planets, 1853 
Chad, St. ; baths, 667 
Challoner, T. ; alum, 1608 
Chalmers, Dr. T., 1780-1847 
Chambers, bishop; Peterborough, 

1541 
Chambers; encyclopedia, 1728,1859 
Chambor.s, sir William ; Somerset- 
house, 1775 
Changarnier, general; France, 1851 
Channing, W., 1780-1842 
Chantrey, F., sculpt., 1781-1841 
Chappe, M. ; telegraphs, 1793 
Chares ; colossus, 288 B.C. 
Charlemagne, 742-S14: academy, 
couriers, Avars, Bavaria, Chri.';- 
tianity, Navarre 
Charles Albert; Sardinia, 1831; 
Novara, 1849 



SIO 



INDEX. 



Charles; England, Fiance, Spain, 

Savoy, Germany, Sweden, 

Sicily, &c. 
Charles V. ; emperor, 1500-58 ; 

Spain, Austria, Germanj', 

Spires 
Charles V. ; Bastile, 1369 
Charles VI. ; picqiiet, 1390 
Charles XII., 16S2-1718 ; Sweden, 

Frederick shald 
ChaTles the Bold, Burgundy, 1468, 

Nancy, Liege 
Charles, archduke, 1771-1847 ; As- 

pernc, Eekmiihl, Essling 
Charles of Anjou ; Naples, 1266 
Charles of Lorraine ; Lissa, 1757 
Charles Stuart, prince ; pi-eten'dcr, 

Culloden, 1746 
Chai-lesworth, J. C. ; trials, i£6i 
Charlotte, queen (George III.) 
Charlotte, princess of Wales, 1796- 

1817 ; Claremont 
Charteris, col. ; trials, 1730 
Chass^, gen. ; Antwerp, 1832 
Chateaubriand, viscount, 1769-1848 
Chatham, earl of, 1708-78 ; New- 
castle admin , 1757; Chatham 

admin., 1766; Walchercn, 1809 
Chatterton, T., poet, 1752-70 
Chavicer, G., 1328-1400; Canterbury 

tales 
Chaves, marq. of ; Portugal, 1826 
Chelmsford, Id. ; Derby adm., 1858 
Cherubini, music comp., 1760-1842 
Chesham, Sarah ; trials, 1851 
Cheshire rioters ; trials, 1842 
Chevallier, M., 6. 1806 
Chevreul, E., chemist, &c., h. 1786; 

candles 
Chicheley, archbp. ; Canterbury, 

1414-1443 
Childeric ; France, kings 
Chilliugworth, W. , theolo. , 1602-44 
Ching NouDg ; China, wine, 1998 

B.C. 

Chladni, E. ; 1756-1827 ; acoustics 
Choiseul, E. due de, 1719-85 
Cholmondeley, gen.; horseguards, 

1693 
Chosroes I. ; Persia, 531 
Christian : Denmark ; Sweden, 1448 
Christian IV. ; Christiana, 1624 
Christian VII. ; Oldenburg 
Christina ; Sweden, 1633 ; Sisaln, 

1833 

Christuphe ; Hayti, 1811 

Christopher, Robt. Adam ; Dei-by 
administration, 1852; Den- 
mark (kings) 

Chrysostom, father, 354-407 

CInu'chill, C. ; satires, 1731-54 

Cialdini, gen. ; Italy, i860; Castcl 
Fidardo, Gaeta 

Cibber, C. ; poet-laureate, d. 1757 

Cicero, 106-43 ^■'^- 1 Athens, Rome, 
Catiline, PhililJpics 

Cid (Spanish hero), d. logg 

Cimabue, mu.sic, 1240-1300 . 

Cimarosa. musician, 1755-1801 

Cimon ; Euryraedon, 466 b.c. 

Cincinnatus, dictator, 458 B.C. 

Cinna, consul, killed, 84 B.C. 

Clanny, Dr. Reid ; safety lamp, 
1817 

Clanrioarde, marq. of ; postmaster, 
1846; Russell administration, 
1851 ; Palmerston administra- 
tion, 1855 

Clapporton, Hugh, traveller, 17S8- 
1827 

Clare, John, poet, 1793-1864 

Clare, carl of; duel, 1820 



Clarence, duke of; Anjou, Claren- 
cieu.'c ; rebellion, 1478 ; ad- 
miralty, 1827 
Clarendon, earl of (Hyde), 1608-74; 
administrations, 1660, 1685 ; 
— G. F. Villiers, h. 1801 ; Ire- 
land, lord-lieut. ; Aberdeen, 
Palmerston 
Clarke, Adam, theol., 1760-1S32; 
Sam., theol., 1675-1729: Edw. 
D., traveller, 1768-1822 
Clarke, M.A. ; trials, 1814 
Clarke, Gen. ; cape, 1795 
Clarke, 51. C. ; Shak.speare, con- 
cordance, 1847 
Clarkson, Thomas, d. 1846; .slavery 
Claude Lorraine, painter, 1600-82 
Claudian, Latin poet, d. 408 ; 

archery 
Claudius ; Rome, emperor, 41 
Claudius, App.; decemviri, 451 b.c. 
Clausel, marshal ; Algiers, 1836 
Claussoli, chev. ; fia.x, 1851 
Claverhouse ; Bothwell, 1679 
Clay, Mr. ; slavery, U.S., 1820, 

Liberia 
Clayton, Mr. ; duel, 1830 
Clayton. Dr. ; gas, 1739 
Cleaver, bishop ; Bangor, St. 

Asaph, 1 806-1 81 5 
Cleisthenes ; ostracism, 510 b.c. 
Clemens Rom.anus, pojje, 662 ; 

Alexandrinus, d. abt. 213 
Clement, popes, 91 ; — IV. ; con- 
clave, 1268 ; — VII. ; pontiff, 
benefices, Clementino.s, 1378; 
—VIII.; index;— XIV. (Gau- 
ginelli); 1769; Jesuits; — 
Jacques; France; 1589; — 
Josejih, planing-machine, 1825 ; 
— Julian ; midwifery, 1663 
dementi, M., music, d. 1832 
Cleombrotus ; Sparta, 380 B.C. 
Cleomencs ; Sp.arta, 520 B.C. 
Cleon, Athenian demagogue, d. 

422 B.C. 
Cleopatra ; Egypt, 69-30 B.C. ; rose 
Clifford, C. ; life-boat (note), 1S56 
Clifford, lord ; Roman Catholics, 

1S29; — sir Tho. cabal, 1670 
Clinton, H. Fj-nes, 1780-1852 ; 

chronology 
Clinton, sir H. ; Yorktown, 1781 
Clinton, Geoffrey de ; Kenilworth, 

1120 
Clive, Rob. lord, 1725-74 ; Arcot, 

India, Plassey 
Cloncurrj', lord, v. Piers; trials, 1807 
Clo.se, Mr. ; duel, 1836 
Clotaii-e, France, kings, 558 
Clovis (Chlodowig, Ludwig, Ludo- 
vicus, Louis) ; France, 481 ; 
Normandy, Paris, Clovis, 
Salique, fleur-de-lis, Alemanni 
Cloots, Anacharsis, exee., 1794 
Clune, &c. ; trials, 1830 
Clyde, lord, 6. 1792 ; India, 1857 
Clymer; printing-press, 1814 
Cobbctt,iWilliam, 1762-1835 ; trials, 

1809, 1811, 1831 
Cobden, R., 1804-65 ; anti-corn- 
law league, free trade, French 
treaty, peace congress 
Cobham, Id. ; roasting alive, 1418 
Coburg, prince of; Fleurus, 1794. 

(See So.re-C'obvrfi.) 
Cochrane, lord (afterwards Duu- 
donald) ; d. i860 ; Basque roads, 
.stocks, trials, 1814 
Cockbuni, sir A., solicitor-genoi-al, 
1858 ; attoniey-geuoral, king's 
bench 



Cocking, Mr. ; balloon.s, 1837 
Codrington, admiral sir E. ; Nava- 

riiio, 1827 
Codrus ; Athens, 1092 B. c. 
Cohorn, B. van (military engineer), 

1641-1704 
Coke, sir Edw., 1550-1634; jxu-lia- 

ments, 1592 
Colbert, J. B., 1619-83; tapestry 
Colborne, sir John ; Canada, 1 8 j8 
Colclough, Mr. ; duel, 1807 
Coleman, St. ; Cloyne, 6th cent. 
Coleman, Mrs. ; actress, 1656 
Colenso, bp , Church of England, 

1863 
Coleridge, Samuel T. ; poet, <tc., 

1772-1834 
Coles, capt. Cowpcr ; navy of 

England, 1855-62 
Colet, J., Paul's school, 1512 
Coligni, admiral, killed 1572 
Collard, rear-adml. ; suicide, 1846 
Collier, J. P., Shakspeare, 1849; 

Jeremy, 1650-1726 
Collingwood, lord, 1750-1810; Tra- 
falgar, 1805 ; naval battles, 1809 
Collins, govr. ; Hobart Town, 1804 
Collinson. capt. ; Franklin, 1850 
CoUucci, V. ; trials, 1861 
Colman, G., d. 1794; G. jun., d. 

1826; theatres, 1777 
Colonna family flourish, 1288-1555 
Colonna, V., poetess, 1490-1547 
Colpoys, admiral ; mutinies, 1797 
Colt, colonel ; pistols, 1853 
Columba, St., 521-97; isles 
Columbanus, d. 614 or 615 
Columbiere ; armorial bearing.s, 

1639 
Columbus, Chr., 1436 or 1442-1506 ; 
America, Bahama, Caracca.s, 
Christopher's, Salvador, Do- 
mingo 
Columbus, Bartholomew ; maps, 

1489 
Columella, medical writer,about 46 
Colville, sir Charles ; Cambray, 

1815 
Combe, G., 1788-1858; craniology, 
Combermere, lord ; Bhurtpore, 

1826 
Comines, Ph. de, hi.st., 1445-1509 
Commodus ; Rome, emperor, 180 
Comneni ; eastern emperors, 1057 ; 

Pontus, Trebizond, 1204 
Comte, A., 1795-1852 ; positive 

phil. 
Comyn, Sir. ; trials, 1830 
Conde, Louis; Jarnac, 1569 
Conflans ; Quiberon, 1759 
Confucius, d. 479 b. c. ; China 
Congleton, lord; suicide, 1842 
Congreve, W., dramatist, 1672-1729 
Congreve, sir Wm., d. 1828 ; fire- 
works, 1814 
Conolly, J. ; lunatics, 1S39 
Conon ; Sparta, 394 B.C. ; Arginusaj 
Conrad ; Germany, 911 
Conrad II. : Germany, 1024 ; Bur- 
gundy 
Conradin ; Naples, Germ.any, 1268 
Constans ; Aquileia, 340 
Constantine ; Rome, emp. 323 j 
Adrianople, aruspices, Ijanner^ 
Britain, Eastern empire, Rome 
York, Scotland 
Constantino II. ; Aquileia, 340 
Constantine IV. ; monasteries 
Constantius ; Rome, emps., 305 
Contarini (doges at Venice), 1041- 

1674 
Conway; sir Edw., admiuiatra- 



INDEX. 



811 



tion, 1621 ; general Conway, | 

Chatham administration, 1766 1 

Cook, capt., 172S-79; Australia, 

Cook's Voyages, JJehring's 

Straits, Botany bay, Flattery 

Cape, New Hebrides, New 

Ze;iland, Norfolk Island, Ota- 

heitc, Owhybee, Port Jackson 

Cook, Mrs., mvn'dered ; trials, 1841 

Cook, J. P., murdered : trials, 1856 

l.'ooke, sir George ; Chatham, 1766 

Cooke, E. W., U. A., 6. 1810 or 1811 

Cooke, Eliz. ; trials, 1832 

Cooke, Geo. Fred., actor, 1765-1812 

Cooke, W. F., electric teleg., 1837] 

Cooper, Astley, surgeon, 176S-1841 

Cooper, J. Feuimore, Am. novelist, 

1798-1S51 
Coojier, Mr. ; slave trade, 1787 
Cooper; trials, 1805, 1842 
Coote, sir Eyre ; India, Arcot, 

1760 ; Carnatic, Cuddalore 
Cope, sir John ; Prestonpans, 1745 
Copernicus, Nic. 1473-1543 ; astro- 
nomy, attraction, solar system 
Coplcston, bishop ; Llandaff, 1827 
Copley, J., painter, 1738-1815 
Coram, T., foundUng hosp., 1739 
Cordaj-, Cliarlottc ; France, 1793 
Corder, Wm. ; trials, 1828 
Cordova, general de ; Granada, 1492 
Cjrelli, A., musician, b. 1653 
Conn ; libertines, 1525 
Coriolauus ; Volsci, 490 B.C. 
Curmac ; Cashel, 901 
Corneille, P., tragedy, 1606-84 
Cornelia, Maximiliana ; vestals, 92 
Cornelius ; Spitzbergen, 1595 
Cornhill, Henry ; shcriiT, 11S9 
Cornwall, bi). ; Worcester, iSo3 
Cornwallis, .al)p. ; Canterbury, 

1768 ; Lichfield, 1781 
Cornwallis, marquess, 1738-1805 ; 
admii-alty, India, America, 
Bangalore, Ireland(lord-lieut.}, 
Seringapatam 
Coro3bus; Olj'mpiads, 776 B.C. 
Correggio. A., painter, 1494-1534 
Corry ; duel, 1800 
Cort, H. ; iron, 1781 
Corte Real ; America, north-west 

passage, 1500 
Cortcz, F. ; Mexico, 1521 ; d. 1547 
Coryate, Thomas ; forks, 1608 
Cosmo I. ; Port Ferrajo, 1548 
Costa, M., musician, b. 1810 
Coster, L. ; printing 
Cottenham, lord ; chancellor, lord 

high, 1836 
Cottington, lord ; administrations, 

if>35 
Cotton, R. ; Cottonian libraiy, i5oo 
Cotton, sir Stapleton ; Villa Franca, 

1812 
Coulomb, C., d. i8o6 ; electricity, 

1735 
Courtanvaux ; ether, 1759 
Courtenaj-, abp. Canterbury, 1381 
Courtenay ; Tbomites, 1838 
Courtenay, sir Wm. ; Exeter, 1469 
Courtois, M. de ; iodine, 1812 
Courvoisier ; trials, 1840 
Cousin, v., French philos., h. 1792 
Coutts, Miss A. Burdett, 6. 1814; 

trials, 1847 
Coventry, sii- John ; Coventry act, 

1670 
Coventry ; administrations, T. 

1628-1672 
Coverdalc, Miles, b. 1487 ; Bible, 

1535 
Cuwlcy, Abraham, poet, 1618-67 



Cowper,lord; Burford, Halifax, 1714 
Cowper, E. ; printing-machine, 181 5 
Cowpei-, Wm., poet, 1731-1800 
Cox, Walter; trials, 181 1 
Coyle, Mr. Bernard; duel, 1802 
Crabbe, G., poet, 1754-1832 
Craggs, Mr. ; Sunderland admin., 

171S 
Crampton, Mr. ; United States, 

1856 
Crane, sir Francis ; tapestry, 1619 
Cranfield, Lionel, lord ; adminis- 
trations, 1621 
Cranmer, archbp., 1489-1556; Can- 
terbury, administrations, 1 529 ; 
Cranmer,homilies, martyrdom 
Cranworth. lord ; chancellor, 1852 
Crassus, Marcus ; ovation, slain, 

53 B.C. 
Craterus ; Cranon, 322 
Crawfurd, earl of ; Brechin, 1452 
Crawlej' ; trials, 1S02-1S63 ; steel 
Crellin, Miss; trial.s, 1842 
Crespigny, Mr. ; duel, 1828 
Cresswell, sir C. ; pi'obate, 1857 
Crewe, bp. ; Bambrough, 17 78 
Crichton,Jas. "the admirable," 711. 

about 1560 
Crillon, due de ; Gibraltar, 17S2 
Crockatt r. Pick ; trials, 1818 
Croesus ; Lydia, 560 b.c. 
Ci-oft; impostors, 1553 
Croft, sir Richard; suicide, 1818 
Crofts, Mr. ; dwarfs, 1653 
Crollius ; calomel, 1608 
Croly, G. : poet, 1785-1860 
Crompton, S., 1753-1827 ; cotton; 

mule, 1779 
Cromwell, Oliver, 1599-1658 ; ad- 
ministrations, 1653 ; Aniboyna, 
agitators, common wealth, Eng- 
land, Drogheda, Dundalk, 
mace, Ireland, Marstou Moor, 
NaseW, Worcester 
Cromwell, Richard ; administra- 
tions, 1658 ; England 
Cromwell, T., lord Essex ; admin- 
istrations, 1532 ; registers 
Crookes, Wm. ; thallium, 1861 
Crosbie, sir Edward ; trials, 1798 
Cross, E. ; Surrey Gardens, 1831 
Crossley, F. ; Halifax, 1857 
Crouch ; trials, 1844 
Crowther, lieut. ; duel, 1829 
Crozier, capt. ; N.-W. passage, 1845 
Cruden, Alex. ; concordance, 1737 
Cruikshank, G., b. 1794; wood-en- 
graving 
Ctesias; hist., 398 B.C. 
Ctesibius, 140 B.C. ; clock, organ, 

pump 
Cubitt, Mr. ; treadmill, 1S17 
CuUen, W., physician, 1710-go 
Cumberland, duke of ; Clostcr- 
seven, Culloden, P'ontenoy, 

1745 
Cumberland, R. ; comedies, 1732-84 
Camming v. lord de Roos ; trial, 

1837 
Gumming, rev. John, h. i8io 
Cunard, Sam., 1787-1865 ; steam 
Curio; amphitheatres, abt. 50 B.C. 
CuiTan, John Philpot, orator, 1750- 

181 7; duel, 1790 
Cursor, Papirius ; dials, 293 B.C. 
Curtius, Marcus ; earthquakes, 

358 B.C. ! 

Cuthbert, St.,ii. 687; Canterbury, 

741 
Cuthbert v. Browne ; trials, 1S29 
Cuvier, G., naturalist, i7(;9-iS32; 

zoology 



Cuyp, A., painter, 1606-72 

Cyprian, father, m. 25S 

Cyriacus ; Abrahamites 

Cyril, father, J. 386 

Cynis the Great, killed, 529 B.C. ; 

Bactriana, Cyprus, Jerusalem, 

Media, Persia 
Cyrus the younger ; Cunaxa, 

401 B.C. 

Czermak, Dr. ; larJ^lgoscope, 1861 



D. 



Dacier, mad. ; 1650-1720, Dolphin 
Da;dalus ; labyrinth, axe, 1240 B.C.? 
Uagobert ; Denis, St., 673 
Daguerre, M., d 1851 ; photogi-aphy 
Dabl, professor ; dahlias 
D'Alembert, 1717-83; acoustics 
Dalhousie, marquess of, 1S12-60; 

India, gov. -gen., 1S48 
Dalmas, A. ; trials, 1844 
Dalmatia, see Snult 
Dalrymple, sir Hew ; Cintra, i8o3 
Dalton, John, chemist, 1766-1S44; 

atomic theory, 1808 
Damasus, pope, 366 ; jiontift', crown, 

pope, tiara 
Damiens, Damiens' attempt, 1757 
Dampier ; circumnavigator, i68g 
Dampier, bishop ; Ely, 1808 
Damremont, marshal ; Algiers, 

Constantia, 1S37 
Danaus ; Greece, 1485 B.C.? 
Danby, earl of ; administrations, 

1673 ; physic garden 
Dangerfield ; meal-tub plot, 1679 
Daniel prophesies, 606 B. c. 
Daniel, Sam. ; poet laureate, 1619 
Danneker, J., sculptor, 1758-1841 
Dannenberg, gen. ; Oltenitza, 1S54 
Dante, Alighieri, Italian poet, 1265- 

1321 
Danton,G.,exec. 1794; clubs, Fren. 
D'Arblay, mad., 1752-1849 
Darbon t'. Rosser; trials, 1841 
D'Arcon, M. ; Gibraltar 
Dardanus. Ilium, 148 B.C. 
Dargan, Ireland, Dublin exhibi- 
tion, 1853 
Darius, Persia, 521 B.C. ; Greece 
Darling, Grace ; Forfarshire, 1838 
Darling, sir C. ; Jamaica, 1857 ; 

Victoria, 1863 
Darmes ; France, 1840 
Darnlcy, lord; Scotland, 1565 
Dartmouth, earl of ; Oxford ad- 
ministration, 1711 ; Rocking- 
ham admin., 1766 
Darwin, Erasmus, naturalist, 1731- 

1800 
Darwin, Charles, naturalist, b. 1809 
Dashwood, sir Francis ; Bute ad- 
ministration, 1762 
Daubeny, C. ; atomic thcorj'-, 1850 
Dauglish, Dr. ; bread, 1859 
Daun, count, d.1766; Hochkirchen, 

Torgau 
Davenant, William ; drama, opera, 

1684 
Davenport, Miss ; theatres, 1844 
David ; Jews, 1065 B.C. 
David, George ; impostors, 1556 
David I. ; Scotland, 1124: Carlisle 
David, J., painter, 1748-1825 
Davidson, D. ; trials, 1855 
Davila, 1576-1631 
Davis, Jefferson, b. 180S ; United 

States, 1 861 
Davis ; N.-W. passage, 1585 ; quad- 
rant, China 



812 



INDEX. 



Davoust, marshal ; Ki-asnoi, Mo- 

hilow, Jena, Eckmiihl, 1809 
Davy, sir Humphrey, chemist,&c., 
1779-1829 ; Royal Institution, 
barium, electricity, phospho- 
rus, calcium, magnesium, 
potassium, sodium, safety- 
lamp, strontium 
Davys, bp. ; Peterborough, 1839 
Dawes, abp. ; York, 1714 
Day (Kossuth's notes case), trials, 

i860 
Day, Mr. ; Fairlop fair 
Deaclet). B. Baring; trials, 1831 
Deane, adml. ; naval battles, 1653 
Dcane, abp. ; Canterbury, 1501 
Debain ; harmonium 
De Balton ; duel, 1811 
De Burgh, Hubert ; Whitehall 
DoCandollc, A., botanist,i778-i84i 
De Courcy, baron; peers, 11 81 
Decius Mus sacrifices himself, 

295 B.C. 
Dee, Dr. J., d. 1608 ; astrology 
Doerfoot ; pedestrianism, 1861 
De Foe, Daniel, 1663-1731 ; Robin- 
son Crusoe, Juan, plagvie 
De Foix, Gaston ; Ravenna, 1512 
De Gasparis, A. ; planets, 1849 
De Genlis, mad., 1746-1830 
De Grasse, admiral ; Chesapeake, 

naval battles, Tobago, 1781 
De Grey, earl ; Ireland, lord lieu- 
tenant, 1427 
De Haven, lieut. ; Franklin, 1850 
Delabeche, H., 1796-1855; geology 
De la Clue, admiral ; Lagos, 1759 
Delambre, J., mathematician, 1749- 

1822 
De la Rue ; trials, 1S45 
De la Rue, Warren, lAotography, 

1857 ; eclipse, i860 
De la Roche, Paul, 1797-1856 
De I'Epde, abb^, 1712-89; deaf 
De Lesseps, M. ; Suez, 1857 
De Loundres, Henry; Dublin, 1205 
D'Estaign, count; Boncoolen,i76o; 

Georgia 
D'Esterre, Mr. ; duel, 1813 
D'Etrees, adml. ; Texel, 1673 
Delille, J., Fr. poet, 1738-1813 
Demetrius ; Athens, Macedon, 

impostors, Poland 
Democritus, b. about 470 B.C. 
Demosthenes, 382-322 B.C. j philip- 
pics 
Dcnison, archdeacon; trials, 1856 
Denison, bishop: Salisbury, 1801 
Denison, E. B. ; bells, 1856 
Denison, J. E. ; speaker, 1857 
Denman, lord, 1778-1854; att.- 

gen., king's bench 
Denmark, prince George ; admi- 
ralty, 1702, queens (Anne) 
Denner, J., clarionet, about 1690 
Denny, J. ; trials, 1851 
De Quincey, Thos., essayist, 1786- 

1859 

Derby, present earl of, 6. 1799; 
Derby administrations, 1852, 
1858 

Derby, earl of ; Man, Wigan, Derby 

Derby,countessof ; Latham-house, 
1644 

De Roos, lord, v. Ciimmuig ; trials, 
1337 

De iiuyter, adml. : Sheeniess, 
1667 ; Chatham, Texel 

Derwentwater, earl of ; execu- 
tions, 1716 ; Greenwich 

Dcs Cartes, Ren6, 1596-1650; car- 
tesian, rainbow 



Dcsmoulius, Camille; exec. 1794; 

clubs, 1782 
Dessaix, general ; Marengo, 1800 
Dessalincs ; Hayti, 1803 
De Stael, madame, 1 766-181 7 
Deucalion; deluge, 1503 B.C. 
De Veres, earls of Oxford ; Id. gt. 
chamberlain, marqiiess, duke 
Devigne, Hen. ; billiards, 1571 
DeviUe, H. St. C. ; aluminium, 

1856; platinum, 1859 
Devonshire, duke of; Devonshire 

administration, 1756 
De Winter, adm. ; Camperdown, 

1797 
De Witt; chain, 1666; murderer, 

1672 ; Hague, m. 1762 
Dhuleep Singh ; India, 1849 ; Pun- 
jab 
Diaz, B., discovers Cape of Good 

Hope, i486 
Di Bardi, Donato ; sculpture, 1383 
Dibdin, C., 1748-1814; ballads 
Dibutades ; models 
Dick, Mr. ; trials, 1S18 
Dickens, Chas. , novelist, b. 1812 
Dickinson, capt. ; trials, 1829 
Dickson, col. ; trials, 1859, 1863 
Diderot, D., philos., 1713-84 
Didius julianus ; Rome, emp. 193 
Dido; Carthage, 869 B. c. 
Didot, M. ; paper-making, stereo- 
type 
Diebitsch, gen. ; Balkan, 1829 
Diesbach ; prussic acid, 1709 
Digby, E. ; gunpowder plot, 1605 
Digges, L. ; optics, 1671 
Dillon, Mr. Luke ; trials, 1831 
Diocletian ; Rome, emp. 284 ; Dal- 

matia 
Diodati, J., theologian, 1576-1649 
Diodorus Siculus ; 50 B.C. -13 a.d. ; 

Etna 
Diogenes, cynic, d. 323 B.C. ; an- 
thropophagi 
Dionysius; Portugal, annodomini, 

catapultie 
Dionysius Ilalicarnassus, Gr. poet, 

fl. 30 B.C. 
Dionj-sius Syracuse, 406 B.C. 
Diophantus ; algebra, 370 
Dipoanus ; sculpture, marble 
Dircks, H. ; ghosts, 1858 
Disraeli, I., 1 766-1 848 ; Benjamin, 
b. 1805 ; Derby administra- 
tions, 1852, 1858 
Diver, Jenny ; trials, 1740 
Dixon, capt. ; Apollo 
Dixon, Hepworth, b. 1821 
Uockwra, Mr. ; penny-post, 1683 
Dodd, Mr. ; steam, 1815 
Dodd, Dr. ; trials (executed for 
forgery), 1777 ; Magdalens, for- 
gery 
Doddridge, Philip, theol , 1702-51 
Dodsloy, R. ; annual register, 1758 
Dodson, sir John ; admiralty court, 

1857 
Doggett, T. ; gives prize, 1715 
Dolci, C, painter, 1616-86 
Dolben, abp. ; York, 16S3 
Dollond, John, 1706 61 ; achro- 
matic telescopes, 1753 ; optics 
Domenichino, Z., painter, 1581-1641 
Dominic, St. : Dominicans, 1215 
Doniitian ; Rome, emp., 81 
Donald of the Isles ; llarlaw, 1411 
Douatus, grammaiian, _/!. 355 
Donizetti, G. ; music, 1798-1848 
Donkin, sir R., suicide, 1841 
Donovan ; duel, 1779 
Dord, GusUvv, artist, b. 1S33 



Dorey, Georgiana ; trials, 1844 

Doria, And., 1466-1560 

Dormer, lord ; Roman Catholics, 

1829 
Dorset, duke of ; administrations, 

16S9 ; Pelham administration, 

1744 
D'Orvilhers ; Ushant, 1778 
Dost Mahomed ; Afghanistan, 1829 
Douglas, earl of ; Homelden, 1402 
Douglas, William ; Otterbum, 

1388 
Douglas, James ; British Colum- 
bia, 1858 
Douglass, sir John ; delicate inves- 
tigation, 1806 
Douw, G., 1613-80 
Dove, H., b. 1803 ; dichrooscope, 

i860 
Dove, W. ; trials, 1S56 
Dowdeswell, William ; Rocking- 
ham administration, 1765 
Doyle, sir John ; Portugal, 1828 
Doyle, J., b. 1826; caricatures 
Doyle V. Wright ; trials, 1851 
Draco, Athens, 621 B.C. ; laws, 

Draco 
Drake, Francis, 1545-96 ; Armida, 
Cadiz, California, Chatham, 
circumnavigation, Drake's ; 
Deptford, New Albion 
Drayton, M., jioet, 1563-1631 
Drebbel ; optics, 1621 ; microscope, 

thermometer 
Dred Scott case ; slavery, U.S. 
Drouet ; Vai-ennes, 1791 
Drummond, abp. ; York, 1761 
Drummond, gen. ; Chippawa, 1814 
Drummond, lieut. ; lime-light, 

about 1826 
Drummond, Mr. ; murdered, trials, 

1843 
Drj'den, John, poet ; 1631-1700 ; 

poet-laureate 
Dubois, cardinal, 1656- 1723 
Duboscq, M. ; electric lamp, 1855 
Dubritius, St. ; Llandaff, 612 
Duckworth, sir ; Dardanelles, 1807 
Duchesne, Pcre, see Ilehert 
Ducrow ; theatres, Astley's, 1825 
Dudley, earl of Leicester; ad- 
ministrations, 1558 
Dudley, lord; admin., 1551 
Duell, Wm. ; trials, 1740 
Dufay; electricity, 1733 
Duff, captain ; trials, 1841 
Dugdale, W.-, 1605-S6 
Duggan, Wm, ; trials, 1832 
Du Oueschn, B. ; Montiel, 1369 
Duilius defeats Carthaginians, 

260 B.C. 
Dulong, P. L., 1785-1838; acids 
Dumouriez, gen,, 1739-1823 ; Jem- 

mappes, 1792 
Dun, John ; bailiff 
Duncan, Dr. ; ichnology, 1828 
Duncan I. ; Scotland, 1033 
Duncan, admiral lord ; Camper- 
down, 1797 ; Texel 
Duncannon, viscount ; Melbourne 

administration, 1834-5 
Duncombe, F. ; sedan chairs, 1634 
Dundas, Henry; .savings' banks, 

iSio; Pitt admin., 1804 
Dundas, sir D. ; solicitor-general, 

1846; CQin. -in-chief, 1S09 
Dundas, gen. ; Kilcullen, 1798 
Dundas, lieut. -col. ; Prescott, 1838 
Dundas, major; trials, 1831 
Dundas, sir R. ; Baltic, 1855 
Dundee, vise. ; ICilUecrankie, 168 
Dundonald, earl, 1775-1S60 



INDEX. 



813 



Dundonald, lord, see Cochrane : rf. 

iS6o 
Dunn, Richard ; trials, 1847 
Dunstan, nbp., </. g8S ; Canterbury, 

959 ; coronation 
Duns Scotus, d. 130S; burying 

alive 
Dupetit Thouars ; Ot<aheite, 1843 
Dupont ; Baylen, iSoS 
Durazzo, C'liarlos of, m. 13S6 ; 

Naples, king, 13S1 
Darcr, A. U., 1471-1528 ; engraving 
Durham, earl of, 1792-1840; Grey 

admin., 1830 ; Canada, 1838 
Duroc, marshal ; Bautzen, 18 13 
Dutrochet ; endosmosis, abt. 1828 
Du Val, Claude ; robbers, 1670 
Dwyer; trials, 1843 
Dyce, Wrn., painter, 1806-64 
DjTnocke family ; championship 



E. 



Eadbald ; convents, 630 

Eiidmer, d. about 1124 

Eastlake, sirC, 1793-1809 : Eoyal 
Academy 

Eaton, Daniel ; trials, 1796, 1812 

Eden, bp. ; Man, 1847 

Edgar ; England, king, 958 

Edgar, rev. Mr. : temperance, 1829 

Edgeworth, Maria, 1767-1849 

Edmund ; England, 940, 1016 

Edward the Confessor, England ; 
kings, 1042 ; Dancgeld 

Edward I. ; England, kings, 1272, 
Lewes, Scotland, Wales 

Edward III. ; England, kings, 
1327, Cressy, Sluys, Garter 

Edward JV. ; England, kings, 
1461, Barnet, Tewkesbury, 
Towton 

Edward VI. ; England, kings, 
1547, Christ's hospital 

Edward, Black Prince ; 1330-76 ; 
duke, Cressy, Poitiers • 

Edwardes, lieut. ; India, 1848 

Edwy, England, 955 

Egan, Mr. ; trials, 1843 

Egbert ; England, king, 828 

Egerton, sir Thomas ; chancellor, 
lord high, 1596 

]'Jgg, Aug., painter, 1816-63 

Eglinton, earl of; Ireland, lord- 
lieutenant, 1852. tournament 

Egmont, lord ; administrations, 
1763 

Egrcmont, carl of; Grenville ad- 
ministration, 1762 

Ehrcnberg, C, naturalist ; b. 1795 

Eickc, II. ; trial.s, 1S59 

Eldon, lord ; chancellor, lord, iSoi ; 
d. 1838 

Eleanor, queens (Edward I., 
Hen. II. and III.) 

Elgin, lord ; Elgin marbles ; d. 
1841 ; James, lord, 1811-63 ; 
Canada, 1846; China, 1857; 
Japan ; Palmerston ; India, 
1861, govT.-gen., 1861 

Elgin,lord, i'. Ferguson ; trials, 1807 

Elijah prophesies about 910 B.C. 

Ehsha prophesies 896 b.c. 

Elizabeth, queen, 1 533-1603 ; Eng- 
land, 1558; goose; poor laws ; 
Richmond ; Whitehall 

EUzabeth, England, queens (Ed- 
ward IV., and Ilenry VII.) 

Elizabeth; France; trial.s, 1794 

Elkington ; gilding ; electrotype 



Ellice, E. : Melbourne administra- 
tion, 1834 
EUenborough, lord ; attorney- 
general, 1801 ; king's bench ; 
delicate investigation ; 'present 
lord, h. 1 790 ; Wellington ad- 
ministration, 1S28 ; India, 
govr.-gen., 1842; Derby admi- 
nistration, 1858 
EUesmere, lord ; administrations, 

1615 ; chancellors. Id , 1603 
Elliot, captain ; China, 1840 
Elliot, gen. ; Gibraltar, 1781 
Elliot, sir Gilbert, North admini- 
stration, 1770 
Ellis, Wellbore ; Grenville admi- 
nistration, 1770 
El i^hinstone, administrations, 1795; 
Cape of Good Hope ; Saldauha 
Elsynge, Wm. ; Sion college, 1340 
Elzevir family, printei-s, 1583-1680 
Emerson, R. W.; essayist, h. 1803 
Emmet, Robert; rebellions, con- 
spiracies ; trials, 1S03 ; press 
Empedocles ; suicide 
Encke, J. F. ; 6. 1791 ; comets, 

1818 
Enderby, Messrs. ; southern con- 
tinent, 1838 
Enghien, due d', executed, 1S04 
Ennius, 239-169 e.c. ; stenography 
Ei»minondas, 371 B.C. ; Louctra, 

Mantinea, 362 B.C. 
Epicurus; 342-270 B.C., philosophy 
Epictetus; philoso. \ fl. 118 
Epiphanius, St. ; abstinence 
Erasistratus ; anatomy, about 300 

B C. 

Ei'asmus, D., 1467-1536; Greek 

language, Rotterdam 
Eratosthenes ; degree, 250 B.C. 

armillary sphere 
Eratostratus fires Diana's temple, 

356 B.C. 
Ei-cchtheus ; Athens, 1383 B.C. 
Eric ; Denmark 

Ericsson, capt. ; caloric ship, 1853 
Erichthonius ; Troy, i44<3 B.C., car 
Erie, sir W. ; common pleas, 1859 
Ernley sir John ; administrations, 

1685 
Erroll, earls of ; constable of Scot- 
land, lord high 
Erskine, lord ; chancellor, lord ; 
Grenville administration, 1S06 
Erskine, gen. ; India, 1795 
Esdaile, E. ; trials, 1858 
Espartcro ; Spain, BUboa, 1836 
Esqnirol, E. ; lunatics, 1810 
Essex, earl of; administrations, 

1532, 1579; Newbury, 1643 
Este, Sir Augustus d' ; maixiage 

act, royal, 1844 
Ethelbert ; 560, Canterbury 
Etheldra ; Ely, 673 
Ethelred ; 979 ; coronation, Dane- 
geld 
Ethersey, com. ; suicide, 1857 
Etty. Wm., painter, 1787-1849 
EucUd ; geometry, 300 B.C. 
Euler ; 1707-83 ; acoustics 
Euchidas ; pcdcstrianism 
Eugene, piince ; 1663-1736 ; Bel- 
grade, Turin, Zenta 
Eugenie, empress, France, 1853 
Eugcnius ; popes ; Aquileia 
Eumenes ; parchment, igo B.C. 
Eumolpus ; Eleu.sinian mysteries 
E\iripides, 480-406 B.C. ; tragedy 
Eurysthenes ; biarchy, 1102 B.C. 
Eurysthcus ; Mycen;c, 1289 B.C. 
Eusden, L. ; poet laureate, d. 1730 



Eusebius, of Ciesarea, 275-340 
Eustachius ; thoracic duct, 1563 
Euthalius ; accents, 458 
Eutyches ; fl. 447 
Evander ; Circensian games 
Evans, general de Lacy ; British 
legion, 1835 ; Spain, 1835, 
Irun, Sebastian 
Evans ; trials, 1858 
Evans, W. E., harmonium, 1841 
Evelyn, J., 1620-1706; horticul- 
ture, lime-tree 
Examiner, the ; trials, 1812 
Exmouth, lord; Algiers, 1816 
Eyre, John ; transportation, 1771 
Ezekiel prophesies about 595 b.c. 



Fabius, Quintus ; painting, 311 

B.C. 

Fabii, killed at Cremera, 477 B.C. ; 

Fabii 
Faber, F. ; oratorians, 1848 
Fahrenheit, G. D., 16S6-1736; 

thermometer, about 1726 
Fairb.airn, Mr. ; tubular bridge, 

1849 
Fairfax, T. ; Naseby, 1645 
Falok, Dr. ; steam-engine, 1779 
Falconbridge ; London, 1453 
Falconer, H., geologist, d. 1S65 
Falieri, M., Venice, 1355 
Falkland, visct. ; Newbury, 1643 
Falstaff, sir John ; taverns 
Fancourt, Samuel ; circulating 

libraries, 1740 
Faustin I. ; Hayti, 1849 
Faraday, Michael, b. 1791 ; Royal 
Institution, chemistry, electri- 
city, magnetism, magneto- 
electricity, ice 
Farqnhar, Mr. ; buys FonthiU 

abbe J', 1822 
Farren, Miss, actress, retires, 1797 
Fatima ; Mahometanism, note 
Faulkner, G. ; newspapers, 1728 
Fauntleroy, H. ; furgi-ry, 1S24 
Faust, John ; ])rinting, 1442 
Faustulus ; Alba, 770 b.c 
Faux, Guy ; gunpowder plot, 1605 
Fawcett, col. ; duel, 1S43 
Feli.x, popes 

Fellows, C. ; Lyoia, 1840 
Fclton assassinates Buckingham 

at Portsmouth, 1628 
Fenflon, abp., 1651-1715; Cambray 
Fenning, Eliza ; executions, 1815 
Fenwick, J. ; executed, 1697 
Ferdinand ; Austria, Naples, Por- 
tugal, Sicily, Spain, Tuscany, 
Castile, Cordova 
Ferdiiaand of Brunswick, Minden, 

1759 
Fergus ; Scothmd, coronation 
Ferguson, J. ; planets, 1854 
Ferrers, e.arl ; trials, j-jCo 
Fessel ; gyroscope, 1852 
Fielding, H., novelist, 1707-54; 

magistrates 
FicKchi ; Fr.ance, 1836 
Fillmore, M. ; United States, presi- 
dent, 1850 
Finch, sir John ; chancellor, lord ; 
administrations, 1640; Hene- 
ago. chancellor, 1673 
Finch, D. ; admiralty, 1680 
Fiuigucrra ; engraving, 1460 
Fiuuorty, Peter ; ti-ials, 1808, 1811 
Finnis, T. ; lord mayor, 1856 
Finuis, col. ; India;; 1857, nott 



814 



INDEX. 



Fisher, bp. ; administrations, 1509, 

Salisbury; executed, 1535 
Fisber ; duel, 1806 
Fitzgerald, H. ; life boat, 1856 
Fitzgerald, lord; attainder, 1798 
Fitzgerald, lord, o. Mrs. Cllarkc ; 

trials, 1814 
Fitzgerald, lord ; Wellington ad- 
ministration, 1830 
FitzberViert, Mrs. ; liVel, 17S9 
Fitz-O.sborn ; justiciars, 1067 
Fitzpatrick, Grenvillc administra- 
tion, 1806 
Fitzpatrick, Hugh ; trials, 1813 
FitzRoy, R., 1805-65 ; circumnavi- 
gation, 1826 ; New Zealand, 
1843 ; meteorology, 1857 
Fitzwalter, Robert de ; Dunmow, 

1244 
Fitzwilliam, earl ; Grenville ad- 
ministration, 1806; Ireland; 
lord-lieut. 
Flaminius ; Thrasymcne, 217 B.C. 
Flamsteed, J. ; Greenwich, 1745 
Flannock : rebellions, 1497 
Flavins, Titus Lartius ; dictators, 

498 B.C. 
Flaxman, J., sculptor, 1754-1826 
Fletcher of Saltoun, ji. 1700; 

ballads 
Fletcher, will-forger ; trials, 1844 
Flight and Robson, apollonicou, 

1817 
Flinders, capt : explores New 

Holland, 1801 
Flood, Mr. ; absentees, 1773 
Florence, Eliz. ; trials, 1822 
Flores, gen., Uruguay, 1863 
Florus, Rom. historian ; fl. 106 
Flourens, M. J. P., philos , 0. 1794 
Fohi ; China, 2240 B.C. 
I'olengio, Theo. ; macaroni 
Foix, Gaston de ; Ravenna, 1512 
Folkestone, lord; arts, society of, 

1754 
Follett, sir Wm. ; solicitor-gen. ; 

attorney-gen., 1844 
Folliott, bp. ; Hereford, 1803 
Foote, Sam. ; 1721-77 ; theatres 
Foote V. Hayiie ; trials, 1824 
Forbes, lord ; horse-guards, 1702 
Forbes, Ed wd., naturalist, 1815-54 
Forbes, J. D., nat. pbilos., b. 1809 
F'or.stei% Mr. ; Preston, 1715 
Forster, M. ; planets, i860 
Fortescue, • lord : Ireland ; lord- 
lieutenant, 1839 
Forwood, St. (Southey), murdered 
wife and four children, Aug., 
1865 
Foscaro, doge ; deposed 1457 
J"oster, John, es.'^ayist, 1770-1843 
Fottrell, capt. ; duel, 1817 
Foucault, M. ; pendulum, 1851 
Fouche, J., due d' Otranto, 1763- 

1820 
Fould, Acliille, b. iSoo; France, 

1 861 
Foulis, R. & A. ; printers, 1707-76 
Fourdrinier, M. ; paiier, 1807 
Fourier, C., <?. 1837; Fourierism 
Fowke, caijt. : exhibition, 1862 
Fox <fc Henderson ; crystal palace, 

1851 
Fox, bishop of Winchefter ; ad- 
ministrations, 1509; privy seal 
Fox, Ch-irles Jame.s, 1748-1806 ; 
duel, 1779 ; Portland admin., 
1783; India bill, people 
Fox, George ; 1624-91 ; quakcrs 
Fox, Henry ; Newcastle admini- 
stration, 1757 



Fox, sir Stephen ; Chelsea, 162S 
Foxe, John, martyrologist, 1517-87 
Francia, Dr., 1755-1840 ; Paraguay 
Francis, St. ; 1182-1226, Cordeliers, 
Francis I., cmijeror, 17 — ; Ger- 
many, Austria 
Francis I. France, 1515 ; duelling; 

cloth of gold ; Marignan ; lie ; 

Pavia ; Sicily 
Francis; trials, 1842 
Francis, sir Philip ; Junius 
Francisco d'Assise ; Spain, 1846 
Fr.anks ; suicide : trials, 1825 
Frankfort, lord, v. Alice Lowe ; 

trials, 1842, 1852 
Frankland, Edw., ethyl, methyl, 

1849 
Franklin, B., 1706-go ; electricity, 

1752; lightning 
Franklin, sir John ; north-west 

passage, 1825 ; Franklin 
Eraser v. Bagley ; trials, 1844 
Frederick, duke of York, 1762- 

1827 ; York 
Frederick ; Germany, Prussia, 

Hesse, Nuremberg, Palatinate, 

Prague, Hochkircben, Torgau 
Fredercik-Augustus ; Poland, 1697 
Frederick- Lewis, I'rince ; Wales, 

1729 
Fremont, J. C, 6. 1813 ; U. States, 

1856 
Frgmj% M. ; steel, 1861 
French, col. ; trials, 1820 
Frenej' : trials, 1749 
Frewen, abp. ; York, 1660 
Frith, W. P., painter, 6. 1820 
Frivell, Wm., po.st-oflfice, 1631 
Frobisher, sir Martin, (?. 1594 ; 

north-west pas.^age, 1576 
Froissart, histoi-ian, 1337-1410 
Frumentius ; Abyssinia, 329 
Frost, John ; chartist ; Newport, 

1839 
Froude, J. A., historian, b. 1818 
Fuad Pasha ; Damascus, Turkey, 

1860-5 
Fuller, J. ; Royal Institution, 1833 
Fulton, R. 1765-1815; steam- 
engine, 1803 
Furlcy, Mary ; trials, 1844 
Furneaux, capt. ; Adventure Bay, 

New Holland ; returns, 1774 
Fu.seli, H., painter, 1741-1825 



G. 

Gage, gen. ; America, 1775 

Gaine, W. ; parchment, paper, 1S57 

Gainsborough, Thomas, painter, 
1727-88 

Galba ; Rome, cmp., 68 

Gale, IJalloons ; gunpowder, 1865 

Gale Jones ; trials, 1811 

Gale, Sarah, and Grcenacre ; trials, 
1857 

Galen, 130-200; physic 

Galgacus, 84 ; Grampians 

Galileo di Galilei, 1564-1642; 
acoustics, astronomy, falling 
bodies, haj-moiiic curve, ice, 
inquisition, planets, smi, tele- 
scopes 

G.all, J., 1758-1828; craniology 

Galle, l!r. ; Neptune, 1846 

Gailicn; balloons, 1755 

Gallicnus ; Rome, emp., 160 

Galvani, Louis, 1737-9S ; electricity, 
1791 ; voltaic pile 

Galway, earl of; Alman.".,a, 1707 

Gama, Yasco da, d. 1525 



Gambler, lord ; Basque Roads, 

1S09 ; Copenhagen 
Ganganclli ; Clement XIV., popes, 

1769 
Gangcland ; apothecary 
Gardiner, bp. ; administrations, 

1529 
Gardiner, lieut. Alan ; missions, 

1850 
Garibaldi, Joseph, b. 1S07 ; Italy, 

1859-62 ; Solferino, Sicily, 

Naples, Volturno 
Garnerin, M. ; balloons, 1802 
Garnet, gunpowder plot, 1605 
Garnet, Dr. Thos. ; Rtiyal Institu- 
tion, 1801 
G.arriek, David, 1717-79; theatres, 

Driuy-lane, jubilees 
Garrow, Wm. ; attorney-general, 

1S13 
Garth, Dr. ; Kit-Cat club, 1703 
Gassendi, 1592-1655 ; sini, sound 
Gaston de Foix ; Ravenna, 1512 
Gates, gen. ; Saratoga, 1777 ; Cam- 
den, 1780 
Gauden, hp.; eikon basilike, 1649 
Gaudin, M. ; sapjihire, 1857 
G.aunt, John of, b. 1340 ; Ghent, 

roses, wars 
Gausius, 335 B.C. ; caustic 
Gavcstons, beheaded, 1312 ; re- 
bellions 
Gay,John, 1687-1732 ; fables, oyjeras 
Gay-Luss.ac, J., 1778-1850 ; balloons 
Ged, William ; .stereotype, 1730 
Geffrard, general; Hayti, 1858 
Gelasius L pope, 492 ; breviary, 

pall ; Candlemas 
Gellert, C. F., 1715-69 
Gellius, Aulus, Latin misccllanj', 

fl. 149 
Gelon ; Syracuse, 485 B.C., Himera 
Genghiskhan ; see Jcughis Khan 
Genseric lands in Africa, 429 
George, David, d. 1556 ; family of 

love 
George, St. ; garter 
GeoFge I. — IV. ; England ; kings 
George I. ; accession, 1714 
George II. ; Dettingen, 1743 
Georgi ; dahUa, 1815 
Geramb, barons ; .aliens, 1812 
Gerard, J. ; ishj-.^ic garden, 1567 
Gerbert, d. 1003 ; arithmetic 
Germaine, lord George Sackvillc, 

Minden, 1759 
Germanus ; Sodor, 447 
Geristenzwcig, general, Poland, »;., 

1861 
Gesler; Switzerland, 1306 
Geta ; Rome, emp. 211 
Gibbins, Mr., killed; liots, 1831 
Gibbon, Edw.ard ; historian, 1737-94 
Gibbous, Grmlin ; sculptor, 164S- 

1721 
Giblons, Orlando; music, 1583- 

1625 
Gibbs J., architect, 1674-1754 
Gibbs, sirV. ; attorney-gen., 1807 ; 

common pleas 
Gibson, J., sculptor, 1790-1866 
Gibson, T. M. ; Palmerston admi- 
nistration, 1S59 
Gie.'mar, general; Praga, 1831 
Gififord, lieut. ; Kildare, 1798 
(lifford, R. ; attornc3--geu. , 1S19 
Gifford, Wm. ; "Quarterly Rev." 

1809 
Gilljcrt, archbp. ; York, 1757 
Gilbert, Dr. ; electricity, iCco ; 

magnetism 
Gilbert, gen. ; Ferozeshah, 1843 



INDEX. 



815 



Gilbert, G., execution, 186.-; 
Gilubrist, earl (of Angus), 1037 
Gildrts, historian, 516-570 
Gillam. Kd. ; trials, 1828 
(iilltspie, col. ; Vcllorc, 1806 
Gillespie, gen. ; Kalunga ; ducl,i7S8 
Ginckel, gen. ; Aughrim, 1691 
Gioberti, Italian writer, 1801-52 
Gioja, F., compass, 1302 
Giotto, painter, 12 76- 1336 
Gladstone, rev. Mr. ; trials, 1852 
Gladstone, W. E. ; b. 1S09 ; I'ccl, 

Aberdeen, Talmerston ad- 

minist. , Kus.sell 
Glaisber, J. ; metcoi-ologj', 1850 ; 

balloons, 1862 
Glanville, R. de, cli. justice, iiSo 
Glas, capt. , murdered ; trials, 1766 
Gla.s, John; Gla.sites, 1727 
Glenelg, lord (Charles Grant) ; 

Wellington adm., 1828 
Glcndower, Owen ; Wales, 1401 
Glerawley, lord, v. Burn ; trials, 

1820 • 

Gloucester, duke of ; marriage act, 

1772 
Glover, E. A. ; trials, 1S58 
Glnck, C. ; music, 1714-87 
Gobelin, G. ; tapestry ; Gobelins 
Goderich, lord, d. 1859 ; Goderich 
Godolphin, earl ; Godolphin ad- 
min. 1684 
Godfrey, JI. ; Bank of England, 

1694 
Godfrey of Bouillon ; Jerusalem, 

1099 
Godoy, M., prince of peace ; Spain, 

1806; (/. 1851 
Godwin, Wm. ; politics ; novels, 

1755-1836 
Godwin, sir G. ; Pegu, 1852 , . 
Goethe, or Gothe : German miscel. 

1749-1832 
Gog and Magog ; Guildhall 
Goldoni, Italian dramatist, 1707-95 
Goldschmidt (Jenny Lind) ; Night- 
ingale fund 
Goldschmidt, H. ; planets, 1852 
Goldsmith, Oliver ; miscel. 1728-74 
Gonsalvo de Cordova, d. 1515 
Good, Daniel ; trials, 1842 
Goodrich, bp. ; administ. 1551 
Goodyear, 0. ; caoutchouc 
Gordian ; Rome, emps 237 
Gordon, lord G., d. 1793; riots; 

libel ; trials, 1781, 1788 
Gordon, col. duel, 1783; C;hina,i863 
Gordons, L. and L. ; trials, 1804 
Gorgey, gen. ; Hungary, 1849 
Gorham v. bishop of Exeter ; trials, 

1849 
Gortschakoff, gen. ; Kalafat, 1S54; 

Silistria, Tchernaya 
Gort.':ehakoff, prince ; Vienna con- 
ference, 1853 ; Poland, 1861 
Oo.ssett, sir W. ; trials, 1842 
Gough, Sir Hugh ; China, 1841 ; 

India, 1846 ; Goojcrat,Sobraon, 

Fcrozeshah 
Goulburn, H. ; Wellington aduiin- 

istration, 1828 
Gonld, J. ; works on birds, 1832-C4; 

humming-birds, 1862 
Gould, Miss, trials, 1S22 
Gould, murderer ; trials, 1840 
Gourlay, captain; duel, 1S24 
Gower, earl; Wilmington adm., 

1742; North adm., 1770 
Gower, J.,(^ 1402 
Gracchu.s, Tiberius, slain, 133 ; 

Cains slain, 121 B.C. 
Grady, Mr. ; duel, 1827 



Grafton, duke of; Roekinghaoj 
adm., 1765; Grafton •a,cli'pi< 
1767 •- / 

Graham, bp. ; Chester, 1848 / 
Graham of Claverhouse, 1641-89 ; 

Killiercankie ^ A 

Graham, A. ; planets, 1848' - ' \ 
Graham, gen. ; Barossa,. r8i-i\; 

Sebastian, Bergen-op-Zeom 
Graham, Mr. ; magnetism, 1722 
Graham, Mr. ; duel, 1791 
Graham, Thos., 6. 1805 ; mint, dif^ 

fusion, dialysis, atmolysis 
Graham, sir James, 1792-1861 ; 

Grey, Peel 
Grammont, due de, Dottingen,i743 
Granard, Arthur, earl of ; Kil- 

mainham, 1675 
Granb}', marquess of ; Chatham 

adminis. , 1766 
Grant, capt. John ; cookery, 1857 ; 

cottager's stove 
Grant, sir Colquhoun ; duel, 1835 
Grant, lieut. ; trials, 1816, 1844 ; 

Central Africa, 1863 
Grant, see Glenelp, Pittsburg, 1862 
Grant, gen. Ulysses, 6. 1828 ; 

United States, 1863 
Grantham, lord ; Shelburue ad- 
ministration, 1782 
Grantley, Id. ; attorney-gen., 1763 
Granville, earl; Russell, Pahner^- 

ton admin., 1S51 
Gratian ; canon law, 1151 
Gratian, Rome emp. 
Grattan, Henry, 1746-1820; duel- 
ling, 1800, 1S20 
Graj', bp. ; Bristol, 1827 
Gray, lord ; Pomfret castle, 1483 
Gray, Thomas, 1716-71 
Greathead, Mr. ; life-boats, 1789 
Greatrix, S'al. ; impostors, 1666 
Greaves, lord ; suicide, 1830 
Greeley, Horace, b. 181,1 
Green, Mr. ; balloons, 1828 
Greenacre, J. ; trials, 1837 
Greene, general ; Camden, 1781 
Greenwood, T. ; file, i860 
Gregoire, M. ; national convention, 

1792 
Gregory the Great, d. 604 ; Aber- 
deen, chanting, Christianity 
Gregory I. -XVI. ; popes, 590 tt 

seq. 
Gregory VII. ; Italy, 237 
Gregory XI., pope ; pallium 
Gregory XIII. : calendar, 1582 
Gregory Nazianzen, Greek father, 

326-390 
Grenville, George, Newcastle ad- 
rain., 1754; Grenville admin., 
1763 
Grenville, F. ; British Museum, 

1846 
Grenville, lord ; Grenville admin., 

1806 ; delicate investigation 
Gresham, sirT.,*?. 1579; Gresham 
Grey, hp. ; Hereford, 1S32 
Grey, earl, 1764-1845 ; Grey, reform 
Grey, Henry, earl ; Russell admi- 
nistration, 1835 
Grey, lady Jane, exec. 1554 ; Eng- 
land, queens 
Grey, Sir George; Russell admin., 
1846; Palmerston adm., 1S55 
Grey, sir G. ; Cape, 1856 
Grey, S. ; electricity, 1720 
Griesbaeh, J., Greek critic, 1745- 

l8l2 

Grimaldi, Joseph, retires, 1828 
Grimm Jacob, i785-i£63 ; diction- 
ary (Gcnnan) 



IMlriiidall, abp. ; York, 1570; Can- 
terbury, litur'^y 

Grinfield, general ;I)en'ierara,i8o3, 
Tobago 

tSnuTlell, Mr. ; Frankliiv expedi- 
tion, 1^50^ ■\, 

Grocyn, Wm.^; Greek, i49o\- '■. 

Grogan, col.; captured, U. Stevtes^^ 

■ V, '^'*' \ ■ '■■[ 

jStos, baron ; china,' 185? • ' ' I 

Giwe. G., 6. 1794 J — ; J 

Grotius7"li.j 1583-1645; philo«)phy/ 
GrQve, W.- Tlr-^-^^kltaie "."batteiy, 

1839 ; -correlation, 1842 ■■ , -■ 
Growse, Elias ; needles. 
Guelph ; Bavaria, Brunswick 
Guericke, Otto von, d. 1686 ; air, 

electricity, 1647 ; Magdeburg 
Guerin-JIeneville (ailantinc), silk, 

1858 
Guernsey, W. H. ; trials, 185S 
Gueschn, B. du, d. 1380 
Guieciardini, F.; hist., 1482-1540 
Guido, Arctino, .;?. 1030 
Guido, Reni, painter, 1575-1642 
Guilford, earl of; trials, 1853 
Guinness, Mr. ; Patrick's, St., 1S65 
Guiscard: Naples, 1059; con.spira- 

cies, 1710 
Guise, dukes of ; Guise 
Guizot, M., b. 1787; France 
Gunter, E. ; Gunter's chain, 1606 
Gurney, G. ; Bude light, 1841 
Gurney, Russell ; recorder, 1856 
Gurwood, Colonel; suicide, 1845 
Gustavus Adolphus ; killed, Lut- 

zen, 1632 ; Sweden, Munich 
Gustavus Vasa; Sweden, 1521 
Gu.stavus I. — IV. ; Sweden 
Outer, of Nuremberg ; air, 1659 
Guttenberg, J., d. 1467; printing 
Guy Faux ; gunpowder plot, 1605 
Guj', Thos. ; Guy's hospital, 1721 
Guyton, ?4orvcau ; balloons, 1784-94 
Guzman, Dominickde ; beads, 1202 
Gwynne, Nell ; bell-ringing, 1687 
Gyges ; Lydia, 718 B.C. 
Gylippus, 414 B.C. ; Syracuse 

H. 

Habakkuk, prophet, ab. 326 B.C. 
Hachette, Jeanne de la; Beauvais, 

1472 
Ilacker, L. ; Sabbath schools, 1740 
Ilacket, W^m. ; imijostors, 1591 
Hackuian, Mr. ; trials, 1770 
Haddington, earl of ; Ireland (lore' - 

lieut.), 1S34 
Hadley ; quadrant, 1731 
Hadrian; Rome, emperor, 117 
Hwcker; magnetism, 1851 
Hafiz (Persian poet), d. 14th cent. 
Haggai prophesies about 630 u.c. 
Haggart, David ; trials, 1S21 
Haggarty and HoUoway ; trials, 

1807 
Hahnemann, Sam., 1755-1S43; 

homceopathy 
Hakluyt, R. : geog., 1553-1616 
Hale, sir Matthew, judge, 1609-76 
Hales, Stephen, philosopher, 1677- 

1761 
Halifax, earl of; Halifax adminis- 
tration, 1714 : trimmer 
Hall, sir B. ; health, Palmorstwi 

administration, 1855 
Hall c. Semplo; trials, 1862 
llalUuu, Henr3% 1778-1859 
Hall, Marshall, m.d., 1790-1857 
Uall, Rev. Robert, 1764-1831 
Hall, Siim, d. 1862 ; lacu 



816 



INDEX. 



Haller, A. von ; physiologist, 1708- 

77 
Halloy, Edmund, astronomer ; 

Greenwich, 1719 
Halloran, Dr. ; transported for 

forging a frank, i8i8 
Hamel, J. ; Mont Blanc, 1820 
Hamilcar; Carthage, 237 B.C. 
Hamilton and Douglas cause ; 

trials, 1769 
Hamilton, bp. ; Salisbury, 1S54 
Hamilton, duke of ; duelling, 1712; 

tiials, 1S13 
Hamilton, James, marquess of, 

administrations, 1640 
Hamilton, J. ; court of honour 
Hamilton ; duel, 1748, 1804 
Hamilton, Mary; trials, 1736 
Hamilton, sir W. ; Herculaneum 
Hammond, Mr. ; ambassador, 1751 
Hampden, Richard ; administra- 
tions, i6go 
Hampden, John, killed 1643 ; shii> 

moncy, Ohalgi-ove 
Hampton, H. ; free church, 1859 
Hancock, T. caoutchouc, 1843 
Handcock ; trials, 1855 
Handel, G. F., 1684-1759 ; Handel, 

opera, oratorios 
Hannibal, 247 183 B.C. ; Rome, 
Bernard, iSagentnm, Spain, 
Cannaj, Carthage, Zama 
Hanson, capt. ; duel, 1776 
Hans Sachs, German comic writer, 

1474-1578 
Hanway, Jonas, d. 1768 ; umbrella 
Harcourt, lady, fete de vertu 
Harcourt, lord ; Oxford adminis- 
tration, 1711 
Hardicanute ; England, 1039 
Harding, prof. ; planets, 1S04 
Hardingo, sir Henry (aft. lord), 

1846 ; India 
Hardinge, Mr. ; journals, 1752 
Hardwicke, earl of; Pelham ad- 
min., 1744; Derby admin., 
1852 ; Irehind(lord-licut.), 1801 
Hare, R. ; blov/pipe, 1802 
Hargrave, J. ; cotton, 1767 
Hargi-eaves, E. ; Australia, 1851 
Harley, Robert, Godolpliin ad- 
ministration, 1702 ; Harleian 
library, see Oxford 
Harmodius kills Hii>parclius, 514 

B.C. 

Harney, gen. ; United States, 1855 
Harpur, W. ; Bedford, 1561 
Harold II. ; Hastings, 1066 
Haroun-al Raschid, caliph, 7S6-009 
Harrington, earl of ; Pelham ad- 
ministration, 1744 
Harris, Mr. ; Covent-garden, or- 
gans, 1682 ; clocks, api^lcs, 
fluxions 
Harris, sir W. S. ; lightning con- 
ductors, 1820 
Harrison, gen. ; United States, 

president, 1841 
Harrison, J. ; pneumatic loom, 

18C4, Harrison, 1714 
Harrison, Mr. ; congelation, 1857 
HaiTowby, earl of ; Pitt adniinis- 

tration, 1804 et seg 
Harsnet, archbp. ; York, 1628 
Hartiuger, Mr. ; duel, 1820 
Hartland, sir R. ; Madriis, 1771 
Harvey, B. Bagenal; trial, 1798 
Harvey, Dr. VVilliam, 1578-1657; 

blood, anatomy, midwifery 
Harwood ; porter, 1730 
Hasdrubal ; Carthago, Spain ; Mc- 
taurus, 207 B.C. 



Hastings,marquess of, India gov.- 
gen. 1 81 3 

Hastings, Warren, 1732-1818 ; In- 
dia, 1772 ; Chunar, Hastings 

Hatchell, Mr. ; duel, 1814 

Hatfield tires at George III. ; trials, 
iSoo 

Hatfield ; executions, 1803 

Hatton, sir Christopher, d. 1591 ; 
chancellor (lord high), master 
in chancery) 

Haiiy, R., 1742-1822 ; crystallo- 
graphy 

Ilaiiy, V. ; blind school, 1804 

Havelock, gen.; India, 1857, Cawn- 
pore 

Ilawke, admiral ; naval battles, 

1747 
Hawkesbury, lord ; administra- 
tions, T807, Amiens 
Hawkey, lieut. ; duel, trinl, 1846 
Hawkins, Sir John, d. 1595, 
Guinea, slave trade, 1562; 
potatoes, tobacco, Chatham 
Hay, lord John ; British legion, 

1S35 ; St. Sebastian's 
Haydn, Joseph [compiler of this 

book], d. 1856 
Haydn, Joseph, 1732-1809; music 
Haydon, Benj., painter, 1786-1846 
Hayes, Mr. ; duel, 1728, 1806 ; 

trials, t8o2 
Hayes, sir H. B. ; trials, 1800 
Haynau, gen. ; Hungary, 1849 
Hay ward ; trials, 1821 
H. B. ; caricatures 
Head, sir Francis ; Canada, 1836 
Headfort, marquess ; trial, 1805 
Hearne, north-west passage, 1769 
Heath, archbp. ; York, 1555 
Heborden, Dr. ; Humane Society, 

1774 
Ilebert, J. R. (pfere Duchesne), 

executed, 1794 
Hector of Troy ; slain, 1183 B.C. 
Heenan, J. ; boxing, i860 
Hegel, G., philosopher, 1770-1831 
llehl; animal magnetism, 1774 
Heine, H., German poet, 1707-1856 
Helena, St. ; cross, 328 ; Bethlehem 
Hcliodorus, Jl. 398 
Heliogab.alus ; Rome,emp.2i8; silk 
Helmholtz, H., 6. 1821 ; ophthal- 
moscope, 1S51 
Heloise, d. 1 163 ; Abflard 
Helps, Arthur ; hist, and miscel., 

6. 1811 
Helsham, capt. ; duel, 1829 
Hem.ans, Felicia, poet, 1794-1S35 
Hencke ; planets, 1845 
Hengist, octarch, Salisbury 
Henley, lord ; Grenville admini- 
stration, 1763 
Henley, Jos. ; Derby administra- 
tion, 1852 
Henley, orator, d. 1756 
Heiniis, Dr. ; duel, 1833 
Henrietta ; queens (Charles I.) 
Henry ; kings ; England, France, 

Germany, Spain 
Henry I. ; Tinchebray, 1106 
Henry V. ; Agincourt, 1415; Cher- 
bourg 
Henry VII. ; Bosworth, 1485 
Heni-y VIII. ; England, 1509; age, 
defender, field, monasteries, 
spurs 
Henry II. ; tournaments, 1559 
Henry IV. ; France, 1589; Nante-s, 

Ravaillac, Yvres 
Heniy the Lion ; Brunswick, 1139 
Henshaw, Mr. ; duel, 1820 



Hepburn, ensign; trials, i8n 

Heraclitus, philosopher,,/?. 500 B.C. 

Heraclius ; cross, 615 

Herbert, adm. ; Bantry Bay, i68g 

Herbert, George, ch. poet, 1593- 
1635 

Herbert of Cherbury,lord, 1581-1648 

Herbert, Sidney (aft. lord), 1810-61 ; 
Peel, Palmerston admin. 

Hercules Tyrins ; purple 

Herder, J. G. von, philosopher, 
1744-1803 

Hermann (Arminius), Germany, 9 

Hero of Alexandria, ./Z. 284-221 B.C. 

Herod ; Jews, 42 b.c. 

Ilerodian, hist., ji. 173 

Herostratus fires temple at 
Ephesus, 356 B.C. 

Herodotus, b. 484 B.C. : history 

Herophilus ; anatomy, 302 B.C. 

Herries, J. C. ; Peel adm., 1834 

Herring, abp. ; Canterbury, 1747 

Herring, Mrs. ; trials, 1773 

Ilerschcl, W., 1738-1822 ; Saturn, 
.astronomy, telescope, sun, 
Uranus, nebular hypothesis 

Herschel, J. P., 6. 1790 ; actino- 
metor, photography 

Hertford, marquess of ; his execu- 
tors V. Suisse, trials, 1842 

Hertford, earl of ; administrations, 
1547, Pinkey 

Hervie, H. ; doctors' commons, 
1560 

Hesiod, Greek poet, fl. 850 B.C. ; 

Hess, gen. ; Solferino, 1859 

Heytesbury, lord ; Ireland (lord- 
lieut.), 1844 

Hiero, Syr.acuse. 478-275 B.C. 

Hieronymus, see Jerome 

Hilary ; hymns, 431 -^ 

Hill, lord ; commander-in-chief, 
1S2S 

Hill, Rowland, 6. 1795 ; post-office 

Hillsborough, lord ; North admi- 
nistration, 1770 

Hind, J. R , b. 1823 ; planets, 1S47 ; 
comets 

Hindes, lieut. ; duel, 1817 

Hinds, bp. ; Norwich, 1849 

Hipparchus, Jl. 162 b.c. ; astro- 
nomy, Canary, constellation, 
degrees, latitude, longitude 

Hippias ; ostracism, 510 b.c. 

HiiDi^ocrates, d. 357 B.C.; anatomy, ; 
siu-gery, loadstone 

Hoadley, bp. B., d. 1761 ; Ban- 
gorian 

Hobart, lord ; Addington adm., 
1801 

Hobbes, T., 1588-1679; academics 

Hobbima, painter,./?. 1681 

Hobhouse, sir J. C. (aft. lord 
Broughton); Melbourne adm., 

1834 
Hoche, gen. ; Dunkirk, 1793 
Hocker, murderer ; trials, 1845 
Hodgson, gen. ; Belleisle, 1761 
Hodgson V. Greene ; trials, 1832 
Hofer, Andrew; Tyrol, 1809-10 
Hofmaun, A., 6. 1S18; chemistry, 

ammonia, aniline 
nog.orth, W., painter, 1697-1764 
Hogg, James, poet, 1772- 183 5 
Holbein, Hans, <i. 1554 
Holcroft, T. ; melodrama, 1793 
Holdemesse, earl of ; Devonshire 

administrations, 1756 
Holgate, abp. ; Y'ork, 1545 
Holinshed, Ralph, d. about 1580 
Holkar ; India, 1804 
Holland, lord; Melbourne admi- 



INDEX. 



817 



nistration, 1S35 (t sefi-, trials, 

1797 
Holland, sir H., 6. 1788 ; Roy. Inst. 

186s 
Holiest murderers ; trials, 1851 
Holmes, adm.. Capo Coast, 1663 
Holt, sir John, King's Bench, 1689 
lliilt ; trials. 1844 
Holwell, Mr. ; suttees, 1743 
Homo, lieut. ; Delhi, 1857 
Homer, fl. 962 B.C. (Clinion); poetry 
Hompesch. baron, duel, ibo6 
Hone, Wm., 1779-1842; trials, 

1817, almanacs 
Honey and Francis ; riots, 1821 
Honorius ; West, empire, 395 
Hood, adm. ; Madeira, 1807 ; 

Toulon 
Hood, Thomas, comic writer, 179S- 

1845 
Hook, Theodore, novelist, 1788- 

1841 
Hooke, Rob., 1635-1703 ; air, boil- 
ing, camera, geolog'y, mechan- 
ics, microscope, telegraphs 
Hooker, Rich., theol., T553-1600 
Hooker, \V., botanist, 1785-186S I 

J. D. 6. 1816 ; gen. R., U. S., 

1862-3, Fredericksburg 
Hopkins, Matthew ; witches, 1645 
Hopley, T. ; trials, i860 
Horace, 65-8 B.c.,Lat. poet; Athens, 

satires 
Horler, H. ; trials, 1853 
Uormisdas ; Per.sia, 272 
Horn, count ; Xordlingen, 1634 
Home, G., bp. ; Norwich, 1790 
Home Tooke, John, d. 1812 ; 

Home Tooke, &c. 
Horner, Fr. ; bullion, 1810 
Hornor, Mr. ; Colos.seiun, 1S24 
Hornsby, Dr. ; Radcliffe obs., 1771 
Horrebow ; asti-onomy, 1659 
Horrox, Jer., d. 1641 ; astronomy, 

Venus 
Horsfall, Mr. ; trials, 1813 
Horsfall, Messrs. ; cannon, 1856 
Horsley, bp. ; St. Asaph, 1802 
Ho.sea prophesies about 785 u.c. 
Hotham, adm. ; naval battles, 1795 
Hotspur; Otterburn. 1388 
Houljlon, sir J., Bank of England, 

1695 
Houghton, John, executed, 1535 ; 

Charterhouse 
Howard, John, 1726-90 ; prisons, 

potatoes 
Howard, Luke, rf. 1864; clouds 
Howard, adml. sir Edward , naval 

battles, 1 513 
Howard of EfBngham, lord ; 

armada, 1588 
Howard v. Gossett ; trials, 1842 
Howe, sir William; Long Island, 

1776 
Howe, lord, 1784 ; Pitt, 1783; Brest, 

Ushant 
Howel Uha ; Wales, 911 
Hovvley, Dr., abp. ; Canterbury, 

1828 ; Lambeth 
Huber, F., 1750-1831 ; bees 
Hudson, Jeffrey, 1626 ; dwarf 
Hudson, H. ; Hudson's Bay 
Huggins, Wm. ; spectrum, note 
Hughes, sir E. ; Trincomalee, 1782 
Hugo, Victor, 6. 1802 
Hullah, J., b. 1812; music, 1840 
Humbert, gen. ; Killala, 1798 
Humboldt, A. de, 1769-1859 
Humboldt, W. de, 1767-1835 
Hume, David, hist , 1711-76; Jos., 

politics, 1777-1855 



Humphrey, duke of Glouoester, d. 

at Bury, 1447 
Hunniades, J. ; Hungary, 1442 ; 

Turkey, Varna 
Hunt, Henry, reformer ; trials, 
1820, Clerkenwell, Manchester 
Hunt, John and Leigh ; trials,i8Ti- 

1812 ; J., anthropology 
Hunt. Wm. Holman painter, b. 

,827 
Hunter, John, surgeon, 1728-93 ; 

W., 1718-83 
Huntingford, bp. , Hereford, 1802 
Hmitly, earl of ; Brechin, 1452 
Hunton, Jos. (forgery) ; execu- 
tions, 1828 
Hurd, bishop ; Worcester, 1781 
Huski.ssiai, Wm., 1770-1830: Wel- 
lington admin., 1828; Liver- 
pool, 1830 
Hu.ss, John, burnt, 1415 , Hus.sites 
Hutchinson, Amy ; trials, 1750 
Hutchinson, John, rf. 1737; Hutch- 

insonians 
Hutchinson, major ; Alexandria, 

1801 
Hutchinson, J. H. ; Lavalette's 

escape, 1815 
Hutton, abp. ; Canterbury, 1757 
Hutton, W., d. 1815 ; geology 
Huyghens, d. 1695 ; astronomj-, 

optics, pendulums 
Hyde, sir E. ; chancellor, Id. h., 1660 
Hyde, Laurence ; administrations, 

1689 et seq. 
Hyder Ali, d. 1782 ; India, Arcot, 

Carnatic, Mysore 
Hyginus, pope, 139 ; martyr 
Hypatia, philosopher, m. 415 B.C. ; 

hydrometer 
ITyperides ; Cranon, 322 B.C. 
Hyrcanus, John, d. 107 B.C. ; Sa- 
maritans 



I. 



Ibrahim, pacha, 1789-1848 ; Anti- 

och, Beyrout, Egypt, Greece, 

Sj-ria, Turkey, Damascus, 

Wahabees 
Ignatius, St. ; mart. 115 : liturgies, 

250 
Impey, major ; duel, iSoi 
Inachus ; Argos, 1856 b.o. 
Incledon, C. , d. 1826 
Inez de Castro ; Coimbra, 1355 
Inglefield, capt. ; Franklin, 1852 
Inglis, col. ; Albuera, 1811 
Ingram, Herbert, d. i860, 111. Lon. 

News 
Innocent I. — XII. ; popes 
Innocent III., pope, 1198; tran- 

substantiation 
Irenreus, martyr, 202 
Irving, E., 1792-1834: Irvingites, 

trial, 1832 ; unknown tongues 
Irving, Washington, 1783 1859 
Isabella ; salique law, Spain 
Isaiah prophesies about 760 b.c. 
Islip, abp. ; Canterbui-y, 1349 
Isocratcs, Gr. orat., 436-338 b.c, 
Iturbide. ; Mexico, 1821-1865 
Ivan; Russia, 1462; czars 



J. 

Jackson, bp. ; Oxford, 1812 ; Lin- 
coln, 1852 
Jackscin, gen ; United States, 1829 
Jackson, Thos. "Stonewall," 1S24- 



63 ; Manassas, United States, 
1862 ; Chanceilorsville 
Jackson, T. ; executions, i86i 
Jackson, C. T. ; ether, 1846 
Jackson, J. B.; printing in colours, 

1720 
Jacob, Dr. ; Christ's hcspital, 1854 
Jacobi ; Baltic, 7iote, electrotype 
Jacquard loom, 1806 
James ; England, Scotland, Spain 

(kings) 
James IV. ; Flodden, 1513 
James, H. ; photozincography, i860 
Jane, England, 1534; queens, 

Sicily 
Jansen, C, 1585- 1638; Jansenism 
Jason, argonautic exp., 1263 B.C. 
Jebb, Joshua, prison reformer, 

1793-1863 
Jeffcott, sir John W. ; duel, 1833 
Jefferson, T. ; United States, pre- 
sident, i8oi-8 
Jeff cry, Robert ; Sombrero, 1S07 
Jeffrey, Francis, critic, 1773-1850 
Jeffreys, George (afterward s lord) ; 
administrations, 1685 ; king's 
bench, chancellor, lord high, 
bloody assize, d. 1689 
Jellaohich ; Hungai-y, Vienna, 1848 
Jenghis Khan ; Tartary, 1206 ; 
Hungary, India, Moguls, Af- 
ghanistan 
Jenkinson, bp. ; David's, St., 1825 
Jenkins, Henry ; longevity, d. 1670 
Jenner, E., 1749-1823; vaccination 
Jennings, Mr. ; tontines, 1798 
.Tereiniah prophesies about 629 B.C. 
Jerningham, Mrs. ; blue-stockings, 

1760 
Jerome, 331-420 ; ascension, litur- 
gies 
Jerome of Prague ; burnt, 1416 
Jersey, countess of ; delicate in- 
vestigation, 1806 
Jervis, sir John ; Cape St. Vincent ; 
— solicitor-gen. , att. -gen. , com- 
mon pleas, d. 1856 
Joan of Arc, burnt 1431 : Jo.in 
Joan ; queens (Henry IV.), Naples 
Joel prophesies about 800 b.c. 
John, St., d. 100 ; baptism, ac- 
cusers, evangelists, gospels 
John I.— XXIII. ; popes, 523, &c. 
John of Aiistria ; Lepanto, 1571 
John, king ; Bohemia, Portugal, 

Spain, France, Poitiers 
John, king; England (1199), chai"- 
ter of forests, magna charta, 
" We" 
John of Leyden; anabapti.sts, 1534 
John the Fearless ; Burgundy, 1404 
Johnson, Andrew, 6. 1S09 ; United 

States, 1865 
Johnson, Sam. ,1709-84; dictionary, 

literary societies 
Johnson, judge ; trials, 1805 
Johnson, capt. ; trials, 1846 
.lohnston, capt. ; steam, 1823 
Johnston, gen. ; Ro.ss, N., 1798 
Johnston, Albt., i-. Pittsburg, 1862 ; 

Jos., U. S. 1863 
Johnston, Robert ; trials, 1818 
Johnston, sir John ; marriages, 

forced, 1690 
Joinville, Jean de, hist.,1224-1318; 
prince de ; Ocean Monarch, 
1848 
.lon.ah prophesies about 862 B.C. 
Jcmes, colonel; Duugiin, 1647, 

Rathniines 
Jones, H. Beiice ; Royal Institu- 
tion, i860; spectrum, 7iots 

3 G 



818 



INDEX. 



Jones, Gale; trials, iSii 
Jones, Inigo, avcbitect, 1572-1652 
Jones, Jaue ; trials, 1842 
Jones, Mr. : riots, 1819 
Jones, Mr. Todd ; duel, 1S02 
Jones, Owen, 1842 ; Alhambra, 

James's Hall, St. 
Jones, sir Wm., 1746-94; Asiatic, 

chess, Menu, Sanskrit 
Jones, T. ; book-keeping, 1821 
Jonson, Ben., 1574- 1637 : poet-laur. 
Joquemin, M. ; picquet, 1390 
Jordan, Mrs., actress, d., 1S16 
J osepli ; Germany, Namiir, Portugal 
Josephine, empress, 1763- 181 4; 

France, 1809 
Joseph\is, Jewish hist., d. 93 
Jotliam ; fables, 1209 B.C. 
Joubert, gen. ; Novi, 1799 
Jourdan, marshal ; Cologne, Fleu- 

rus, Vittoria, 181 3 
Jovian, Rome, emps. , 363 
Juarez, B. ; Mexico, 1858 
Judas Maccabisjus ; rules, 16S- 

160 B.C. 
Judith ; Abyssinia, 960 
Jugurtha, d. 104 B.C. ; Numidia, 

Jugurthine war 
Julian ; Rome, emp. 360, edicts, 

Paris 
Julianus, Salvius ; edicts, 132 
Julius, Mr. ; duel, 1791 
Julius II., pope, 1503; Rome, 

Bologna, Laocoon, Cambi-ay 
Julius Ciesar ; see Ccesar, Julius 
Jung Bahadoor : Nepaul, 1857-60 
Junot, marshal, 1771-1813 ; Cintra, 

Vimiera, 1808 
Jussieu, A. L. de, botanist, 1748- 

1836 
Justin, emp., Rome, 518 and 565 
Justin, St. ; Rochester, 604 
Justinian ; eastern empire, 527 
Justin Martyr, 164 ; millennium 
Juvenal, 59-128 ; satires 
Juxon, apb. ; administrations, 

1640; Canterbury, 1660, bishs. 

K. 

Kane, Dr. ; Franklin, 1843 
Kant, Immau, 1724-1804 ; meta- 
physics 
Kaunitz, 1755-94 
Kaye, bisiiojj ; Bristol, 1820, 

Lincoln 
Kean, Charles, b. 181 1 ; theatres 
Kean, Edmund, 1787-1833 
Keane, lord ; Ghiznee, 1S39 
Keats, John, 1796 182 1 
Keenau ; trial, 1803 
Keith, George ; earl-marischal of 

Scotland, Aberdeen, 1593 
Keith, George ; quakers, 1646 
Kellet, capt. ; Franklin, 1848 
Kelly, Miss ; theatres, trials, 1816 
Kelly, sir F. ; soUcitor -general, 

1845 ; attorney-general 
Kemble, Charles, 1775-1854 
Kemble, John, 1757-1823 
Kemble, Miss F., b. i8ii 
Kemp abp. ; Canterbm-y, 1452 
Kempe, John ; wool, 1331 
Kempcnfeldt, adm. ; Royal George, 

1782 
Kempis, T. a, theology, 1380-1471 
Kennedy, alderman ; trials, 1858 
Kennedy, Mr. ; Franklin, 1851-53 
Kennedy, C. R. ; trials, 1858, 7iote 
Kent, Edw. duke of, 1767-1820 
Kent, Odo, earl of; treasiu-er, 1066 



Kent, G. ; knives (cleaner), 1844 
Kentigern, St. ; abstinence, Glas- 
gow, Asajih, 560-83 
Kenyon, lord ; attorney-general, 

1782, king's bench 
Kepler, J., 1571-1630; optics, 
planetary motions, 1609, rain- 
bow, tides, dye-houses 
Keppel, adm. ; Belleisle, U.shant, 
trials, 1779, coalition, nav.-il 
battles 
Keppel, commodore ; China, 1857 
Keying ; China, 1842-58 
Ivilligrew, Thos. ; drama, 1662 
Kilmarnock, lord ; rebellions, 

trials, executions, 1746 
Kilwarby, abp. ; Canterbury, 1272 
Kil warden, lord ; king's Ijench ; 

trials, 1803 
King, Thos. ; ventriloquism, 1716 
King, Mr. Locke ; administrations, 

1851 
King, Dr. ; Csesarean operation 
King, col. ; suicide, 1850 
King, C. ; trials, 1855 ; gems, i860 
Kinglake, A. W., hist., b. 1802 
Kingsley, C, novels, (fee, b. 1819 
Kingston, duchess of; trials, 1776 
Kingston, earl of, v. Lord Lorton ; 

trials, 1776 
Kingston, Evelj'n duke of; Wal- 

pole, 1 721 
Kirby and Wade, capts. ; shot, 

1702 ; naval battles, note 
Kircher ; jEolian harp, 1653, phi- 
losopher's stone, trumpet 
Kirkman ; piano-forte 
Kirwan, Richard B. ; trials, 1852 
Kiss, Karl, sculptor, 1802-65 
Klapka, general G., 1820 
Kleist; electricity, 1745 ; Leyden 
Klopstock, poet, 1724-1803 
Kmety, gen. (Ismail pacha), d. 

1865 ; Hungary, Kars 
Knatchbull, sir E. ; Peel adminis- 
trations, 1834-5 
^Kneller, sir Godfrey, painter, 1648- 

1723 
Knight, Chs., diffusion soc, 1S27 
Knight, G. ; magnetism, 1756 
Knight, Mr. ; north-west passage, 

1602, South Sea bubble, 

bribery 
Knight !'. Wolcot ; trials, 1807 
Knox, John; 1505-72, Presbyteri- 
ans ; congregation ; Scotland 
Knutzen, Matthias ; atheism, 1674 
Kock, Paul de, novelist, 6. 1794 
Kohl, F. ; execution, 1S65 
Konig, F. ; printing-machine, 1814 
Konig, M. ; phonoscope,tonometer, 

1862 
Korner, Th., poet, 1791-1813 
Kosciusko ; Poland, 1794 ; Cracow 
Kossuth, L. , b. 1802; Hungary, 

United States 
Koster, Laurence ; printing, 1438 
Kotzebue ; north-west passage, 

1815, Aug. drama; killed, 

1819 
Kouli Khan ; Moguls, India, Persia, 

1730 
Kunckel ; phosphorus, 1670 
Kutusoff, M., 1745-1813; Russia, 

Muskwa, Smolensko, 1812 
Kyhl, P. ; nature-printing, 1833 

L. 

Labouchere, Henry ; Russell ad- 
ministration, 1846; Palmer- 
ston administration, 1855 



Labourdonnaye ; Tournay, 1792 
Lachaise, Pere, i624-i7og,cemctery 
La Bruyere, French essays, 1644-96 
Lacordaire, Pfere H. D., 1802-61 
Lactantius ; d. 325 ; fathers 
Ladislas ; Bohemia, Hungaiy 
Laennec, R., physician, 1781-1826 
Lafarge, madame ; trials, 1840 
Lafayette, mai-q. ; 1757-1834 
Lafitte, d. 1844 ; wills (Napoleon's) 
La Fontaine, 1621-95, fables 
Lagava, &c. ; execution, 1856 
Lagny ; circle, 1719 
La Grange, J. L., 1736-1813 ; 

acoustics, astronomy, 1780 
Laing, S. ; India, 1S61-2 
Li.ird, Mr. ; Birkenhead 
Lake, gen.; Bhiu-tpore, 1805; 

Delhi, Lincellas 
Lake, hon. capt. ; Sombrero, 

1807-10 
Lalande, J.,a'!tron., 1732-1804 
Lally ; beheaded, 1766 
La Marmora, gen. A., 6. 1804 ; 

Tchernaya, 1855, Italy, 1862 
Lamartine, A. de ; b. 1792 ; miscel. 

writer 
Lamb, C. ; 1775-1834 ; essays 
Lamb, Dr. ; killed, 1628 ; riots 
Lamballe, princesse de ; France, 

1792 
Lamberg, ct. ; Austria, 1848 
Lambert, Mr. ; d. 1809; coi-pulency 
Lambert (Latham), J. ; trials, 1855 
Lambrecht, Mr. ; duel, trials, 1S30 
Lambton, Mr. ; duel, 1826 
Lamennais, Pfere, F. R. de, 1782- 

1854 
Lamoricifere, gen., 1806-65 > France, 

1851 : Rome, i860 
Lamplough, archbp. : Yoi-k, 1688 
Lancaster, capt. ; Bantam, 1603 
Lancaster, duke of; Lancaster 
Lancaster, Joseph ; 1771-1838, 

Lancasteriau schools, educa- 
tion 
Lander, Richard ; 1804-34 ! Africa 
Landseer, sir E , painter, 6. 1803 
Lanfranc, archbp. Canterbury, 1070 
Langara, adm. ; naval battles, 17S0 
Langdale, Id. ; master of roUs, 1S36 
Langdale, sir M. ; Naseby, 1645 
Langham, abp. Canterbury, 1366 
Langton, abp. Canterbury, 1206 
Lannes ; marshals ; Aspernc, 1809 
Lansdowne, marquess of, 1780- 

1863 ; see Petty, Shelhurne ; 

Goderich adm. 1827 ; Russell 

adm. 1846, 1851 ; Aberdeen 

adm. 1852 ; Palmerstou adm. 

1855 et seg. 
Laomedon; 'Troy, 1260 B.C. 
Laplace, P. de ; mathemat., 1749- 

1827 
Latimer, bp. ; burnt, 1555 ; pro- 

testants 
Latimer, viscount ; administra- 
tions, 1672-3 
Laud, William, abp., 1573-1645; 

Canterbury, administrations 
Lauderdale, duke of ; cabal, 1670 
Laura ; Petrarch, 1327 
Lautrec ; d. 1528 
Lavalette's escape, 1815 
Lavater, J. ; 1741-1801; j^hysiog- 

nomy 
Lavoisier, A. ; 1743-94 > carbon, 

nitric acid, &c. 
Law, bishop ; Chester, Bath, 1824 
Law's bubble, 1720 
Lawes, H., 1600-62 
Lawless, Mr. ; riots, 1828 



INDEX. 



819 



L iwrence, geu. H ; 1806-57 ; India, 

1857 
Lawixnco, Sir J. ; 6. 181 1 ; India, 

1863 
Lawrence, Sir T., painter, 1769-1830 
Layard, Austen ; 0. 1817 ; Nineveh 
Ijaycr's conspiracy, 1722; Layer 
Lcako, adin. ; d. 1720 ; admiralty, 
Gibraltar, Mediteri-anean, Mi- 
norca 
Tjeatliam, E. ; trials, 1861 
Lediu Rollin, A. ; b. 1808 ; France, 

1848 
liOo, Alexander ; theatres, 1830 
Loe Boo, iirince ; Pelew Islands, 

1784 
liCe, archbp. ; York, 1544 
Le-J, \V. ; stocking-frame, 1589 
Leo, gen. Robt., Unit. States, 1862 
Leech, John, 1817-64, caricatures 
Leeds, duke of; administrations, 

16S9 
Leeke, H., Bushire, 1856 
Lecuwenhoek ; 1632-1723 ; animal- 
cute, polypus 
Lefevre, C. Shaw; speaker, 1839 
Leggatt, B. ; burning, 1612 
Legge, bishoi) ; Oxford, 1827 
Legge, H. B,, N'ewcastleadm.,1754 
Logros. Raymond ; Dublin, 1171 
Leibnitz, Gottfried; 1646-1716, 

mathematics, fluxions 
Leicester, earl of ; administrations, 

1558; national associations 
Leicester, earl of, v. Morning 

Herald; trials, 1809 
Leighton, abp. Robt,, 161 1-84 
Leighton, G. C. ; jirinting in 

coloui's, 1849 
Le Jay ; polyglot, 1628-45 
Lelewel ; Poland, 1863 
Loly, sir P., jxainter, 1617-S0 
Le Maire ; circumnavigator, 1615 
Lennox, col. ; duel, 1789 
Lenoir; gas, 1S61 
Le Notre ; James's Park, St. 1668 
Leo ; popes, Eastern empire 
Leo X., pope ; 1513, indulgences 
Leon, Diego de ; Spain, 1841 
Leon, Ponce de; America, 1512 
Leonarda of Pisa; algebra, 1202 
Leonardo da Vinci, 1452-1519 
Leouidas ; Thermop\-la;, 480 b c. 
Leopardi, Italian orat., 1798-1837 
Leopold, Germany ; Morgarten, 
1315 ; Sempach, 1386; Bel- 
gium, 1830 
Lepidus ; triumvir, 43 h.c. 
L'Epee, abbe de ; 1712-89, deaf 
Lo Pique, M. ; duel, 1808 
Le Sage, 1668- 1747 
Leslie, C. R., painter; 1794-1859 
Lessing, G. E., German philoso- 
pher, 1729-81 
Lestock, admiral; Toulon, 1744 
L'Estrange, sir R. ; newspapers, 

1663 
Lettsom, Dr. ; Humane Soc. 1774 
Lever, sir Ashton ; museum 
Leverrier, U., b. i8n ; Neptune, 

1846 
Levy, Mr. Lyon; monument, 1810 
Lewis, Mr. ; theatres, 1773 
Lewis, Sir G. Cornewall, 1806-63 > 

Palmerston adm. 1855 
Lewisham, vise. ; Addington ad- 
ministration, i8ot 
Lcybourne, William de ; admiral, 

1297 
Libanius, orator, 314-363 
Liddon, lieut. ; north west pas- 
s;igo, 1819 



Liober, T. ; Erastianism, 1523-84 
Liebig, J., 6. 1803 ; agriculture, 

chemistry 
Light, F. ; Penang 
Ligonier, lord; Bute, 1762 
I.,ilburne, col. ; levellers, Wigan, 

1651 
Lilly, George, d. 1559 ; charts 
Lilly ; astrology, 1647 
Lin ; China, 1840 
Linacre, Dr., (i 1524; gardening, 

lectures, physicians 
Lincoln, Abm. , b. 1809; United 

States, 1S60-2 
Lincoln, earl of ; administrations, 

1579 
Lind, Dr. ; anemometer, wind 
Liud, Jenny (Goldschmidt), b. 1821 
Lindley, John, bot. 1799-1865 
Liszt, F. ; music, b. 1811 
Lindsay, earl of; Edgehill, 1642 
Lindsay, sir John ; Madras, 1770 
Lingard, J., 1771-1851, historian 
Linlithgow, lord ; guards, 1660 
Linnajus, C. von, 1707-78; botany, 

Linntean zoology 
Linvis, poet, ,^. 1281 B.C. 
Liprandi ; Balaklava, Eupatoria, 

185s 
Lisle, lord ; administrations, 1544 
Lisle, sir G. ; Colchester, 1648 
Lisle, visot. ; Portsmouth, 1544 
Listen, J. ; retires, 1838 
Little John ; Sherwood forest 
Littleton,lord;chancellor,lord,i64i 
Littleton, Mr ; Melbourne ad- 
ministration, 1834 
Liverpool, earl of; 1770-1828; 
Liverpool administration, 1812 
Livingstone, D., b. 1817 ; Africa 
Livius, Titus, hist. d. 18 
Llewellyn: Wales, 11 94 
Lloyd, bishop ; Oxford, 1827 
Lloyd, Mrs. Catherine ; quackery, 

1831 
Lloyd, Charles, esq. ; Junius, 1769 
Lloyd, W. ; Portland vase, 1S45 
Locke, J., 1632- 1 704; physics, car- 
tesian, coin 
Locke, W. ; ragged schools, 1844 
Lockyer, major; duel, 1S17 
Lofting, John, thimble, 1695 
Logeman ; magnetism, 1S51 
LoUard, Walter; Lollards, 1315; 

burned, 1322 
Lombo, sir Thomas ; silk, 1714 
London dock company ; trials, 1851 
Londonderry, lord ; see Castle- 

reagh ; suicide, 1822 
Long, sirR. ; administrations, 1660 
Long, Misses Tihiey; trials, 1825 
Long, St. John; quack; trials, 

1830-1 
Longfellow, H. W., 6. 1807 
Longinvis ; philoso. ; killed, 273 
Longley, abp. York, i860; Ripon 
Longstreet, gen., Chicamauga, 

1863, U. States 
Lonsdale, bishop ; Lichfield, 1843 
Lonsdale, earl of; duel, 1792 ; Derby 

administration, 1852 
Lopez; Cuba, 1850; United States 
Lopez, sir Manasseh ; Gram- 
pound ; trials, i8ig 
L'Orme, Philibert de ; Tuileries ; 

1564 
Lorraine, Chas. of ; Lissa, Mohatz, 

1687 
Lorraine, duke of-; Creoy, 1346 
Lorraine, Claude, painter, 1600-82 
Losinga, H. : Norwich, 1091 
, Loudon, C. J., 1783-1843; botany 



Loughborough ; att -gen. ; coali- 
tion, 1783 
Louis ; France, Spain, 1724 
Louis III. ; landgrave, 1130 
Louis XI., " Christ. an ; " blood, 

posts, 1470 ; Provence 
Louis XII ; tester, 151 3 
Louis XIII. ; Lnuis d'ur, 1640 
Louis XIV. ; Dieu-donuS, Nantes, 

16S5 
Louis XVIII. ; Hartwell, 1807-14, 

France 
Louis, king; Hungary, Buda, 1526 
Louis, prince of Cond^ ; Jarnac, 

1569 
Louis Bonaparte ; Holland, 1806 
Louis Napoleon ; France, 1848, 

and n. 
Louis- Philippe ; France, 1830 
Louisa- Maria, infanta ; Spain, 1846 
Louise, queen, d. 1850; Belgium, 

1832 
Louth, lord, trials, 1811 
Louvel ; trials, 1820 
Level, trials, 1812 
Lovat, lord ; conspiracy, trials, 

1747 
Lowe, Alice ; tri:ils, 1842 
Lowther, vise. ; WeUington adm., 

1828 
Loyola, Ignatius ; Jesuits, 1534 
Luby, Thos. ; fenian, trial, 1865 
Lucan, earl of ; trials, 1856 
Lucan, killed, 65 ; Rome, Cordova 
Lucas, Mr. ; steel, 1S04 
Lucian, about 120200 
Lucilius ; satire, 116 b. c. 
Luoretia, d. 47 b. c. ; Rome, 

spinning 
Lucretius, d. 52 B.C. 
Lully ; nitric acid, 12S7 (music,) 

1633-72 
Lumley v. Gye ; trials, 1854 
Lunardi, M. ; balloons, 1784 
Lutatius ; naval battles; 241 b.c- 
Luther, Martin, 1483-1546; Au- 

gustins, Lutheranism, Dort, 

Protestantism, Augsburg, Cal- 

vinists. Worms 
Lvither, R ; planets, 1852 
Luxemburg, marshal ; Enghien, 

1692 
Luxmore, bishop ; Bristol, 1807 
Lycurgus ; Sparta, 881 b.c 
LyeU, sir C, 6. 1797 ; geology, 

man 
Lyly. W. ; euphuism, 1581 
Lyndhurst, lord, 1772-1863; chan- 
cellor; lord Canning, adm., 

1827 ; Wellington adm. 1828 ; 

Peel adm. 1834, 1841 
Lynedoch, lord; Barro.sa, 1811 ; 

Bergen-op-Zoom, St. Sebastian 
Lynch; trials, 1817 
Lyon, capt. ; north-west passage, 

1821; gen. N., Springfield, 1S61 
Lyon, John ; Harrow school, 1571 
Lysander ; Sparta, 405 B.C. 
Lysimachus ; Ipsus, 301 B.C., 

Corns 
Lysippus ; Lysistratus ; sculpture, 

busts, 328 B.C. 
Lyttelton, Geo., lord; dreams, 1779 
Lyttou, B. Bulwer, novels, 6. 1805, 

guilds 



M. 

Macadam, J.; macadamising, 1819 
Jlacarthy, sir Charles ; Sierra 
Leone, Ashantees, 1824 

3 (; 2 



820 



INDEX. 



Macartney, earl ; duel, 17S6; China, 

1793 ; [ndia 
Macanlaj', T. B., 1800-1859; Mel- 
bourne ndin., 1837 
Machetb ; Scotland, 1057 
MacCabe ; rubbers, 1691 
MacClellan, gen. George, 6. 1826; 

United States, 1861-4 
Macclesfield, earl of; chancellor, 

lord high, 1718 
MaoCorinuck ; reaping machine, 

1 83 1 
Macdonald, marshal ; Parma, 

Trebia, 1799 
Macdonald, capt ; Prussia, 1861, n. 
Macdonalds massacred ; Gleucoe, 

1692 
MacDowell, gen. J.; Manassas,i86i 
WacduflF, Mr. : duel, 1790 
Macfarlane, S. ; trials, 1844 
Macgregor, J. ; bank, British, 1849 
Machiavelli, N., 1469-1527 
Mack, general ; Ulm, 1805 
Mackay, gen. ; Killiecrankie, 1689 
Mackay and Vaughan ; trials, 1816 
Maokintofh, sir James ; 1765-1832 
MacLachlan, Jessie; trials, 1662 
Macklin, C, actor, </. 1797 
Macklin ; Bible, books 
Macreath, Mr. ; trial.s, 1841 
Macleod, H. D. ; tri ds, 1858 
Macleod, Mr. ; United States, 1S41 
Maclise, D. ; painter, b. 1811 
McMillan, J. ; trials, 1S61 
MacNama'-a, capt. ; duel, 1803 
M'Clure, capt. ; Franklin, 1850 ; 

nortli-west passage 
M'CuUoeh, J. E.,polit. ecoii., 6. 

1789 
M'Neill, sir J. ; Sobastopol, 1855 
McCarty, gen. ; Eiiniskillen, 1689 
McClintack, capt. ; Frariklin, 1859 
McGill, Mr. ; trials, 1842 ' 
McKenzie, Mr. ; duel, 1788 
McNaghten, sir W. ; killed, 1841 
McNaughten, Mr.; trials, 1761, 1843 
Macready, W. ; actor, b. 1793 
Ma«robius ; writer, d. 415 
Madan, bp, ; Peterborough, 1794 
Madiai, the; Tuscan3% 1852 
Madison, James ; United States, 

president, 1809 
Maecenas, d. 8 ; dedications, baths 
Magee, J.; trials, 1813 
Mngellan ; killed, 1521 ; circum- 
navigation, Philippine 
Magi ; fire worshijiiiers, Epiphany 
Magnus, king, Norway, Sweden 
Maguire, capt.; Franklin, 1848 
IMagus, Simon; Simonians, heretics 
Mahomet, 570-632 ; Hegira, 622 ; 
Mahumctanism, Mecca, Me- 
dina, Beder, Turkey, Koran 
Mahomet II., d. 1481 ; eastera em- 
pire, Turkey, Adrianople, 
Constantinople, Albania 
Maimonides; JewLsh wr., d. 1208 
Maitland, capt.; France, 1815 
Maitland, .sir Fred.; China, 1838 
Majendie, bishop ; Chester, 1800 
Major ; couChology, 1675 
Malachi prophesies about 397 b.c. 
Malcolm ; Scotland, kings, clan- 
ships, Alnwick, Dunsinaue 
Malebranche, N. ; philos., 1638- 

1713 
Malherbe ; Fr. poet, 1556-1628 
Malibran, madame; music, 1808-36 
Mallet, R. ; earthquakes, seismo- 
meter, 1858 
Malmesbury, lord, 6. 1807; Derby 
administrations, 1852, 1858 



Malpighi, M. ; anatomist, 1628-94 
Maltby, bishop ; Durham, 1836 
Malthus, T., 1766-1834, polit. econ. 
Malzel, J. ; metronome, 1815 
Manasseh, Ben Israel ; Jews, 1657 
Manby, capt. ; life-preserver, 1809 
Manchester, earl of ; administra- 
tions, 1620 
Manchester will ; trials, 1854 
Mandoville, vise.; administrations, 

1620 
Manes ; killed, 274 ; Manicheans 
Manfred ; killed, 1266 ; Naples 
Maulius; Cimbri, 102 B.C., Rome 
Manners, lord John ; Derby ad- 
ministrations, 1852, 1S58 
Mannings ; murderers, trial, 1849 
Manny, sirW. ; charter-hou^e, 1371 
Mansel, bi.shop ; Bri.stol, 1808 
Mansell, T. ; executions, 1857 
Mansfield, lord ; att.-gen., 1754 ; 
Duml:>lain, 1715 ; fictions in 
law, king's bench 
Mansfield, C B, ; benzole, 1849 
M-anuel ; Eastern empire, Trebi- 

zond 
Manutius, see Aldus 
Mar, earl of; Karlaw, 1411 
Marat; stabbed; France, 1793 
Marcellus ; Rome, 212 b.c. 
March, Roger, earl of; rebellions, 

1398 
March, R. ; rope-making, 1784 
Marchniont ; trials, 1858 
Marcion ; Marcionites, 140 
Marcus Aureli\is ; Rome, emp. 161 
Marcus Curtius ; Rome, 362 b c. 
Mardonius ; Myeale, Platsea, 

497 B.C. 
Margaret ; queens (Edward I.) 
Margaret of Anjou (queen of 
Henry VI.), d. 1481 ; Tewke.s- 
bury, Tovvton, AVakefield 
Margaret of Norwaj' ; Calmar, 1393 
Margaret (governess of the Nether- 
lands, 1559); beards 
Margraff ; Vjeet-root, 1747 
Maria da Gloria ; Portugal, 1826 
Maria-Louisa, d. 1847 ; France, 

p. 318; wills (Napoleon's) 
Maria-'f hercsa ; Germany, 1711 
Maria- Antoinette; France, 1793 ; 

diamond necklace 
Marius, d. 86 B.C. ; Ambi-oues, 

Cimbri 
Markham, abp. ; York, 1776 
Marlborough, duke of, 1650 1716 ; 
com. -in-chief, marshals, Blen- 
heim, Uouay, Liege, Lisle, Mal- 
plaquet, Oudenarde, Ramilies 
Marlboi-ough, earl of; administra- 
tions, 1628 
Marlowe, Chr. ; dramatist, d. 1593 
Marniont, marshal ; Salamanca, 

1812 
Marmontel, J. F., 1723-99 
Marot, Clement ; poet, 1495-1544 
Marr, earl of ; trials, 1831 
Marsh, bp. ; Llandaflf, 1816 
Marshall, Mr. ; California, 1847 
Marshall, T. R ; trials, 1859 
Martel, Charles ; France, 714 
Marten, Maria ; trials, 1828 
Marth ; planets, 1854 
Martial; epigrams, ,rf. 100 
Martin, John ; painter, 1790-1854 
Martin, Jon. ; fires York minster, 

1829 
Martin ; popes, 649, et seq. 
Martin, Rd. ; animals, 1822 
Martin, rev. G. ; suicide, i860 
Martyr, Peter, d. ^561 



Marvell, A. ; d. 1678 ; ballot 

Mary I., 1516-58; England, queen, 
1553; Calais 

Mary II. 166294; England, queen, 
i68g 

Mary, queen of Scots, 1542-87 ; 
Scotland, Carlisle, Edinburgh, 
pyc.amoi-e, Langside, Loch- 
lev<5n-castle, Fotheringay 

Maryborough, lord ; postmastei-, 
1835 

Masaniello ; Naples, 1647 

Maskelyne, Dr. N. ; Greenwich, 
1765; Schiehallien, 1772 

Maskelyne, N. ; Venus, Greenwich, 
almanacs 

Mason, Mr. ; U. States, 1861 

Masaena ; Zurich, 1799 ; jUmeida, 
Busaco 

Massey v. Headfort; trials, 1804 

Masse.y, W. ; India, 1S65 

Massillon, 1663-1742 

Mathew, Theobald, d. 1856; tem- 
perance 

Mathews, Ch.as. ; actor, 1776-1835 

Mathias ; anabaptists, 1534 

Matilda, queens (William I.) ; 
Bayeux tape.stry, 1066 

Matilda, queens (Stephen) 

Matilda (empress) ; England, in5 

Matilda, Denmark ; 1772 ; Zell 

Matilda, countess ; Canossa, 1077 : 
Italy 

Matthew, T., abp, York, 1606 

MattLews, adm. ; Toulon, 1744 

Maud. See Mntdda 

Maule, Fo.x (lord Panmnre), Rus- 
sell administi-ation, 1846 

Maunsell, col. ; meal-tub plot, 
1679 

Maupertuls, P. L. de, 1698-1759 ; 
latitude 

Maurice, F. D.; b. 1S05 ; working- 
men's college. 1854 

Mausolus ; 377 b.c. mausoleum, 
wonders 

Maximin ; Rome, emp. 235; giants, 
persecutions 

Maximilian ; emperors, Germany, 
1493 ; Mexico, 1864 

Ma,zarin, cardinal ; France, 1643 ; 
tontines 

Mazzuoli, F. ; engraving, 1532 

Mead, Dr. Rich., 1673-1754 ; ino- 
culation 

Mead, Geo., gen., b. 1816 ; United 
States, 1863 

Meagher; Ireland, 1848 

Medhurst, Frs. H. ; trials, 1839 

Medici ; Medici family 

Medicis, Catherine de, d.1589 ; Bar- 
tholomew, St. 

Medina- Sidonia, duke of; armada 

Medon ; Athens, 1044 

Mehemot, All ; Egypt, Syria 

Meikle, A., thra.shing-machine, 
1776 

Melanchthon, Philip, 1497-1560 ; 
Augsbui'g confession 

Melas, general ; Marengo, i8co 

Melbourne, viscount ; Melbourne ; 

trials, 1836 
Mellon, Miss (afterwards dvichess 
of St. Alban's), first appear- 
ance, 1795 
Melville, lord ; impeachment, 1806 
Memnon said to invent alphabet, 

1822 B.C. 
Menander, d. 291 b. c, drama 
Mendels.sohn, F. Bartholdj^, 1S09 

48 
Mendizabal, Spain, 1S35 



INDEX. 



821 



Jlendoza, Pedro dc ; Buenos 

Ayres, 1530. 
Alenoii, general; Alexandria, 1800 
Menschiknff, jirince ; Holy Places, 
1853 ; Russia, Alma, llusso- 
Turkisb war 
Moreator, Gcr., 1512-94 ; charts 
Morov:e\is, Jlerovingiaiis, France, 

443 
Mesiiier, Frederic Ant. ; mesmer- 

if-ni, 1766 
Motelhis ; Acha'a, 147 b. c. 
Motastasio, Pet., poot, 1698-1782 
Melins ; telescopes, 1590-1609 
Moton ; golden number, 432 B.C. 
jNIetternich, prince, 1773-1859 
Metz, M. de ; reformatory, 1839 
]Mi-ux and Co. ; porter 
Meyer, Simon ; Saturn. 1608-9-10 
Meyerbeer, J. M., 1794-1864 ; mus. 

conip, 
Mezentius ; indiction, 312 
Jlic.ih prophesies about 750 B.C. 
Jlichael Aiigelo Buonarotti, 1474- 

1564 
Michael ; eastern empire 
Micliaelis, J.,\V., bib. critic, 1717-91 
Alichclet, J., hi.st., b. 1798 
Middlese.^, earl of ; administra- 
tions, 1621 
Jliddleton, Con ; 1683 1750 
Miiii Ik-ton; N. \V. passage, 1742 
Middleton (or Myddelton;, sir 

Hugli, 1555-1631, New River 
Jtiddleton, John ; giants, 1578 
Sliocislas ; Poland, 962 
Miguel, dom. ; Portugal, 1824 
Mildraay, sir J. H. .; trials, 1814 
Jlildmay, sir Walter ; administra- 
tions, 1579 
Jlill, .Jas., hist., 1776-1836 
Millais, J. E , 6. 1829, painter 
^Miller, Hugli ; geology, suicide, 

1856 
Miller r. Salomons; trials, 1852 
Jlillie, Mr. ; trials, 1839 
Miltiades ; Marathon, 490 B.C. 
Milman, H. H., b. 1791, hist. 
Milosch; Servia, 1815 
Milton, John, 160874; Paradise 
Lost, Cripplegate, Enghsh 
literature 
Mina, d. 1836 ; Spain, 1835 
Minos; Crete, 1015 B.C. 
Jlinto, earl of; India, gov— gen. 

1807 
Miramon, gen. ; Mexico, 1859 
Mirtjs, M. ; Me.xico, 1861 
51i-;ter, Josiah ; tri.als, 1841 
Mitchell, sir F. ; viotuaU';rs, 1621 
Mitcliell, D. ; aquarium, 1853 
Mitchell, adm. ; Bantry-bay, 1801-2 
Jlitchell ; Ireland, 1848 
Mitford, sir John ; att. -general, 
1800 ; speaker, 1801 ; — W., 
hist, of Greece, 1744-1827 
Mithrid.ates the Gre.at, 131-63 B c. ; 
Pontus, comets, electuary, 
massacres, omens 
Mitra, gen. B., Buenos Ayres, 

1859 
Moffat, colonel ; wrecks, 1857 
Jlohun, lord ; duel, 1712 
Moir, capt. : trials, 1830 
Moira, earl of; India, gov. -gen., 

1813 
Mole, count, d. 1855 
Mulesworth, sir William ; Aber- 
deen adm., 1852 
Moli&re, Fr. comic drama., 1622-73 
Alolinos, 1627-0 ; quietists 
Molyneux, Mr. ; ab^entee, 173S 



Mompesson, Giles ; victuallers, 
1621 

Monk, general, administrations, 
1660, guards, d. 1670 

Monk, bishop ; Gloucester, 1830 

Monmouth, duke of, 1685 ; rebel- 
lion, Sedgemoor, iron niask, 
Bothwell 

Monroe, Mr. ; United States, pre- 
sident, 1817-21 

Monstrelet, EJig. de, hist., d. 

1453 
Montacute, marquess of ; Man, 

1314-43 
Montagu, Lird ; administrations, 

1660-89 
Montagu, lady M. W. ; inocula- 
tion, 1718 
Montague, Mrs., d, 1800; May- 
day 
Montaigne, M. de, essayist, 1533- 

92 
Moutalembert, comte de ; France 
Jlontanus ; Montanists, about 171 ; 

pjlyglot, 1559 
Montefiore, sir Mo=es ; Jews, 1837 
Montemolin, comte de ; Sjiaiu, 

i860- I 
Montesquieu, 1689-1755 
.Montoverde ; opera, 1607 
Jlontferrat ; assassins, 1192 
Monttbrt, Simon de : barons' war, 
commons, Kenilworth, stew- 
ard, lord high, speaker, Eewes, 
killed at Evesham, 1265 
Montfort, Amauri de ; Albigenses, 

1 208 
Montgolfier, M. ; balloons, 1782 
Montgomeiy, Mr. ; suicide, duel, 

1803 
Montgomery, comte de ; tourna- 
ments, 1559 
Montholon, comte de ; will (Napo- 
leon's), 1821 
Monti, Ital. poet, 1754-1828 
Montpensier ; France, Sp:mish 

marriage, 1846 
Montrose, duke of; Pittadni. 1S04 
Montrose, marquess of, executed, 
1650; Corbiesdale, Scotland, 
Alt'ord, Philiphaugh 
Moore, abp. ; Canterbury, 1783 
Moore ; murdered, trials, 1853 
Moore, capt. ; Franklin, 1848 
Moore ; almanac, 1698-1713 
Moore, serjeant; leases, 1535 
Moore, Anne ; abstinence, 1808 
Moore, sir John, k. at Corunna, 

1800 
Moore, sir Jonas ; Greenwich 
Moore, Thos. ; poet, 1780-1852 
Mordaunt, Charles, viscount ; ad- 
min i-strat ions, 1689 
More, sir Thomas, 14S2-1535 ; ad- 
ministrations, 1529, lord chan- 
cellor, supremacy 
More, Hannah, 1745-1833 
More, Roger ; rebellion, 1651 
Moreau, general, 1763-1813 ; Ales- 
sandria, Augsburg, Wiirtem- 
berg, Dresden 
Moreland, Sam. ; speaking- 
trumpet, 167 1 
Morelli ; tourniquet, 1674 
Moreton, John, earl of ; Ireland, 

1177 
Morgan ; buccaneer, 166S 
Morgan, colonel ; Lincoln 
Morgan, confederate general ; U. 

States, 1862 
Morland, Geo., 1764-1804 
Morlcy, T. ; music, d. 1604 



Morning Chronicle ; trials, 1810 
Morning Herald ; trials, 1809 
Morning Post; libel, 1792 
Mornington, lord ; India, 1798 
Morpeth, viscount (now earl of 
Carlisle) ; Melbourne adm , 

, 1835 

Morris, George ; flowers, 1792 
Morris, Mr. ; theatres, 1805 
Moi-tara, E. ; Jews, 1858 
Mortier, mar. ; Romainvillo, 1814 
Mortimer, E. A. ; trials, 1859 
Mortimer, earl of March ; Berke- 

le3', 1327 
Morton, ai'chbishop ; Canterbury, 

14S6 
Morton, regent of Scotland, 1572 
Morton, sir A. ; administrations, 

162S 
Morton, Thomas ; ether, 1846 
Morton; trials, 1852 
Moryson, Fynes ; forks 
Mosely, Wolf, &c. ; trials, 1819 
Moses, 1571-1451 B.C. 
Mosquera, gen.. New Granada, 

1861 
Moss, bishop; Oxford, 1S07 
Mosse, Ur. ; lying-in-hospital, 1745 
Mothe-Guyon, madame de la ; 

quietists, 1697 
Mountaigne, .abp. ; York, 1628 
Mount-Sandford, lord, killed ; 

trial, 1828 
Mour,avieff ; Kars, 1855 
Mourzoufle ; Constantinople, east- 
ern empire, 1204 
Mozart, W. A ; music. 1756-91 
M\iirlaead, J. G. ; trials, 1825 
Mudie, C. ; circulating library, 

1842 
Mulgrave, earl ; Liverpool adm., 

1812, Ireland, lord-lieut. 
Midlens, J. ; trials, 1S60 
Miiller, F. ; execution, 1864 
MiiUer, F. Max ; b. 1S23, Vedas, 

Sanskrit, language 
Mulot, M. ; artesian well, 1841 
Mulready, Wm. ; painter, 1786-63 
Mummius, L. , Coriutii, 146 B.C. ; 

painting 
Munich, m.arsh.al ; Perekop, 1736 
Munoz, duke ; Spain, 1S33 
Munro, H. ; Buxar, 1764 
JIunster, earl of; suicide, 1842 
M\uizer ; levellers, anabaptists, 

1524-5 
Murat,Joachim, 1767-1815 ; Erfurt 

Naples 
Mur.atori, L, ; hist., 1672-1750 
Murchisijn, sir Roderick I. 

1792; geology, Brit. Assoc, 
Murdoch, Mr. ; gas, 179a 
Mnrillo, B. S. , 1613-85 ; painting 
Mui-ray, Mr. ; penny post, 1683 
Murray, earl of ; Scotland, 1567 
Murray, lady A>ig. ; marriage act, 

1793 
Murray, B. ; trials, 1S41 
Jlurray, bishop ; David's, St., 1800 
Murray, sir James ; Tan-agona, 

1813 
Murray, sir Geo. ; Peel adm., 1834 
Musa ; Spain, 712 
Musams,/. 1413 B.C. 
Musgrave, abji. ; Hereford, 1S37 
Musgrave, sir Richard : duel, 1802 
Musliat, Mr. ; steel, iSoo 
Myddelton, sir Hugh, 1555-1631 ; 

New River 
Jfylne, R. ; 1734-1811 
Jlyron ; sculptor, _i;. 4C0 B.C. 
Mytton, general ; Wales, 1645 



822 



INDEX. 



N. 

Nabis ; Sparta, 206 B.C. 
Nabanasser.rt. 747 b.c. ; astronomy 
NachimofF, admiral ; Siuope, 1853 
Nadar ; balloon, 1S63 
Nadir Shah ; Persia, 1732 ; Delhi, 

Afghanistan, Cabul 
Nahum prophesies about 713 b.c. 
Nana Sahib ; Cawnpore, India, 

1857 
Napi.er of Merchiston ; logarithms: 

Napiei-'s bones, 1614 
Napier, admiral sir C, Portugal, 

Sidon, Baltic, 1854 
Napier, gen. sir C. ; Meeanee, 1843 
Napier, lord ; China ; Edinburgh ; 

United States, 1856 
Napier, Mr. ; coin, 1844 
Napoleon Jerome ; p. 318 >i. 
Napoleon Bonaparte, 1769-1821, 
p. 318 ; confederation, legion 
of honour, models, notables, 
Cairo, Egypt, Elba, Fontaine- 
bleau, Malta, Mamelukes, St. 
Helena, Simplon, vaccination; 
7iis battles : Acre, Areola, As- 
perne, Auerstadt, Austerlitz, 
Bautzen, Borodiao, Castig- 
lione, Charleroi, Dresden, 
Eckniiihl, EssUng, Eylau, 
Friedland, Hanau, Italy, Jena, 
La Rothifere, Leipsic, Ligny, 
Lodi, Lutzen, Marengo, Mon- 
tereau. National guard, Pul- 
tusk, St. Dizier, Simplon, 
Tilsit, Troyes, Vienna, Water- 
loo, Wurtzburg 
Napoleon, king of Rome ; p. 319 
Napoleon III., 6. 1808; p. 318; 
Boulogne, Strasburg, Cher- 
bourg,Italy, Magenta, Solferino 
Narses ; East, empire, 552 : Goths, 

Italy, Rome 
Narvaez, gen, ; Spain, 1846 
Nash, Mr. ; theatres, parks, 1818 
Nasmyth, .J. ; steam-hammer, 1838 
Nasmyth, lieut. ; Silistria, 1854 
Nasr-ul-Din. ; Persia, 1848 
Nearchus : sugar, 325 b.c. 
Nebuchadnezzar ; Jews, 605 b.c 

TjTc, Babylon 
Necho ; Egypt, 634 b.c. 
Neil, col. ; India, 1857, Allahabad, 

Benares 
Neilson, J. ; 1792-1865 ; blowing- 
machine, 1S28 
Nelson, Herat. ; admiral lord. 

1758-1805 ; Nelson 
Nero ; Rome, emperor, 54 
Nesselrode, comte de, 1770-1S62 
Newcastle, marquess of ; Marston- 

moor, 1644 
Newcastle, duke of ; Pelham adm. 
1749; Newcastle adm. 1754; 
Aberdeen adm. 1852 
Newenham, W. B. ; trials, 1844 
Newman, rev. J., and Achilli ; 

trials, 1852 ; Tractarians 
Newport, sir John: exchequer, 
XT '^34 

Newton, sir Isaac, 1642-1727 ; air ; 
binomial ; coin ; diamond ; 
astronomy ; royal society ; 
hydrostatics ; gravitation ; 
mechanics 
Ney, marshal, 1769-1815; Den- 
newitz, France, Quatre-Bras, 
Ulm, Ney 
Neyle, archp. ; York, 1632 
Niccoli, Nicholas; Ubraries, 1436 



Nicephori, emperors; east. empire, 

802-963 
Nicephorus ; comets 
Nicholas ; Russia, 1825-55 
Nicholas, V., pope, 1447-55 ; St. 

Peter's, Rome 
Nichols, col. ; New York, 1664 
Nicholson ; trials, 1813 
Niebuhr, B. H. ; hist., 1776-1821 
Nifepoe ; photography, 18 14 
Niger, P. ; Rome, emp , killed, 194 
Nightingale, F.,b. 1820; Scutari, 

Nightingale 
Ninus ; Assyria, 2059 b.c. 
Nisbet, sir John ; advocates, 1685 
Noad, H. M. ; electricity, 1855 
Noah, 2347 B.C. ; ark, Armenia 
Noailles, marshal ; Dettiugen, 

1743 
Norfolk, Thomas, duke of; ad- 
ministrations, 1540; people 
Norman, sir J. ; mayor, 1453 
Norman. Robert ; magnet, 1576 
Normanby and Buckingham, duke 

of ; Godolphin adm. 1702 
Normanby, marquess of; Ireland 

(lord lieut.) 1835 
North, bishop ; Winchester, 1781 
North, lord; North adm. 1770 
North, sir P. ; king's counsel, 

1663 
Northampton, Henry, earl of ; ad- 
ministrations, 1609 
Northumberland, Algernon, duke 
of; Derby administration, 1852 
Northumljsrland, Dudley, duke 

of; administrations, 1551 
Northumberland, Hugh, duke of; 

Ireland (lord-lieut.), 1763 
Northumberland, earl of ; coaches, 

Man 
Norton, sir Fletcher; att.-gen., 

1763 
Norton, Jeffrey de ; recorder, 1298 
Norton v. lord Melbourne ; trials, 

1836 
Nostradamus ; almanacs, 1566 
Nott, gen. ; Ghiznee, 1842 
Nottingham, earl of ; administra- 
tions, 1684 
Numa Pompilius ; Rome, kings, 

715 B.C. ; calendar 
Numitor ; Alba, 795 b.c. 
Nunez, A. ; Paraguay, 1535 



O. 

Oakley, sir Charles; Madras, 1792 
Gates, T. ; Gates' plot, 1678 
Gbadiah prophesies about 587 b.c. 
O'Brien, king ; Limerick, 1200 
O'Brien, W. S. ; Ireland, 1846, 1848 
O'Connell, Mr. Daniel, 1775-1847 ; 
duel, 1815 ; agitators, duel, 
emancipation, repeal, trials 
C1831, 1844), Ireland 
O'Connell, Mr. Jlorgan ; duel, 1835 
O'Connor, Arthur ; press, riots, 

trials, 1798 
O'Connor, Fergus, d. 1855 ; char- 
tists 
O'Connor, Roger; trials, 1817 
Gchus; Persia, 359 b.c. 
Gctavius ; Rome, 37 b.c. 
Odin; Sweden, 70 b.c. 
Odo, earl of Kent ; treasurer 
Odo. abp. ; Canterbury, 941-58 
Odoacer ; Italy, 476, Heruli 
G'Donnell, gen.; Spain, 1841 
(Edipus; Boeotia, 1266-768.0. 
CEnotrus; Arcadia, Greece, 1710B.C 



Oersted, H. C, 1777-1851; elec- 
tricity, 1819 
Ogle, George; duel, 1802 
Oglethorpe, gen. ; Georgia, 1732 
O'Grady, Mr. ; duel, 1803 
Ogyges ; deluge, 1764 B.C. 
O'Halloran. Dr. ; trials, 1818 
O'Keefe ; trials, 1825 
Gibers, M. ; planet, 1802 
Oldcastle, sir John ; burnt, 1418 
Oliphant, sir Wm. ; advocate 
Ohvarez governs Spain, 1621-43 
Oliver, L. ; trials, 1858 
Ollendorflf, H. G. ; linguist, 1803-65 
OUivant, bp. ; Llandaff, 1849 
O'Loghlen, sir M. ; Roman catho- 
lics, 1S36 
Omai ; Otaheite 

Omar, caliph, 634 ; Alexandria, All 
Omar Pacha ; Citate, Montenegro, 
Oltenitza, Ingour, Russo- 
Turkii'h war, 1855 
Ommaney, capt. ; Franklin, 1850 
O'Moore, Rory ; Carlow, 1577 
O'Neil, rebellion ; massacre. Black- 
water, 1598 
O'Neil, Miss ; appears at Covent 

Garden, 1814 
Opie, John; painter, 1761-1807 
Oppian, poet,./?. 171 
Onslow, 'sir R. ; Halifax adm., 

1714 
Orange, William, prince of; Hol- 
land, Maestricht, revolution, 
1572 ; England, 1689 
Orange, prince of; Quatre-Bras, 

181S 
Orbelliana ; Circassia, 1857 
Orellana ; Amazonia, 1540 
Orestes ; Myceuie, Sparta, 11 75 

B.C. 

Orfila, M. J. ; physic, 1783-1853 
Orford, earl of; admiralty, 1709 
Orloff, count; diamonds, 1772 
Ormond, James, duke of ; Ireland, 

P- 399 
Ormond, earl of; combat, 1446 
Ormond, marq. of ; Rathmines, 

1649 
Orr, Wm. ; trials, 1797 
Orrery, earl of ; Orrery 
Ortega, gen. ; Spain, 1S60 
Osborn, Sherard ; Franklin, 1854 
Osborne, sir Thos. ; administra- 
tions, 1672 
Oscar; Sweden, 1844 
Osgodeby, Adam de ; master of 

the rolls, 1295 
Ospina ; New Grenada, 1857 
Ossory, lord ; tea, 1666 
Osymandyas; Egypt, 2100 b.c; 

observatories, painting 
Othman; Turkey, 1298 
Otho ; Rome, emp., 69; Germany, 

936 ; Greece, 1832-62 
Otto, M. ; Amiens, 1802 
Ottocar; Bohemia, 1197 
Oudinot, marshal ; Rome, 1849 
Outram, sir James ; 1805 63 ; Mo- 

hammerah, India, 1857 
Overbury, sir T., poisoned, 1613 
Ovid ; poet, d. 18 
Owen, W. D. ; trials, 1858 
Owen, Robert ; socialists, 1834 
Owen, Richard, b. 1804; odonto- 
graphy, palajontology, zoology 
Oxcndeii, sir George ; Surat, 1664 
Oxford. Edward ; trials, 1840 
Oxford, earl of; Godolphin adm., 

1702 ; Oxford adm. 
Oxford, John, earl of; yeomen, 
i486 



INDEX. 



823 



Paciolo ; algebra, 1494 

Paddon, lieut. ; takes Cerbfere, 
1800 

Paget, lord ; duel, trials, i8og 

Paget, lord Wm., v. Cardigan, 
trials, 1844 

Paget, sir A. ; trials, 1808 

Paget, sir William; administra- 
tions, 1547 

Paine, Thomas ; trials, 1792 

Pakington, sir John ; admiralty, 
1858 

Palafox, gen. ; Saragossa, 1809 

Palamedos ; alphabet, backgam- 
mon, battle, dice, chess, 680 

B.C. 

Palestrina; 1529-94, mnsic 
Palladio, A. ; architect, 1518-80 
Palli.sor, sir Hugh ; Ushant, 1778 
Pahn, the bookseller ; trials, 1806 
Palma, cardinal, shot ; Kome, 1848 
Palmer, J. ; mail coaches, 1784 
Palmer; duel, 1815 ; trials, 1856 
Palmerston, Henry, vise. ; 1784- 

1865 ; Palmerston 
Panizzi, A. ; British Museum, 1859 
Panmure, lord ; Kussell adm., 

1851 
Paoli, Pascal ; Corsica, 1753 
Papachin, adm. ; flag, 1688 
Papin ; steam-engine, 1681 
Papineau ; Canada, 1S37 
Papirius Cursor ; sun-dial, 293 B. c. 
Paracel.sus; d. 1541 ; alchemy 
Parini, Guis. ; poet, 1729-99 
Paris, count of; b. 1838; Orleans 
Park, Mungo ; d. 1805 ; Africa 
Parker, adm. ; Copenhagen, 1801 
Parker, abp. Matthew ; Canter- 
bury, 1558 ; liturgy. Nag's 
Head 
Parker (mutineer) ; trials, 1797 
Parker, capt. ; Boulogne 
Parker, sir Peter ; Bellair, 1814 
Parker, Thomas, lord ; chancellor, 

lord, 1 71 8 
Parkes, consul; China, i860 
Parma, duke of; Yvres, 1590 
Parma, prince of; Antwerp, 1585 
Pamienio ; Macedonia, 329 b.o. 
Parnell, sir Henry ; Melbourne 

adm. 1835 
Parr, Thomas ; 1483-1635 ; longe- 
vity 
Parrhasius ; painting,./?. 397 B.C. 
Parry, E. ; north-west passage, 

1818 
Parsons, bp. ; Peterborough, 1813 
Parsons family ; Cock-lane ghost, 

impostors, 1762 
Pascal, B. ; 1623-62 ; air, calcu- 
lating machine, barometers 
Paskiewitch ; Silistria, 1854 
Pasteur, M. ; fermentation, 1861 
Patch, Mr. ; trials, i8o5 
Pate, lieut. ; trials, 1850 
Paterculus ; d. 31 
Paterson, W. : bank, 1694 ; Darien 
Paton, Miss ; at Haymarket, 1822 
Patrick, St. ; preaches, 433, Ar- 
dagli, Armagh, Dublin, isles, 
shamrock 
Paul, St. ; martyred, 65 ; popes 
Paul ; see Sarpi 
Paul I. ; Russia, 1796 
Paul II. ; pope, 1464; purple 
Paul, sir J., &c. ; trials, 1855; 

fraudulent trustees 
Pauhnus ; bells, 400 



Paull, Mr. ; duel, 1807 
Paululio, Anafesto ; doge, 697 
Paulus yEmilius ; Canute, 216 B.C. 
Paulus, Marcus ; eomjiass, 1260 
Pa^dus; Abrahamitcs 
Pavisanias; Sparta, 4S0 B.C. ; Pla- 

teiB, Macedon, 336 B.C. 
Pausias, of Sieyon, 360-330 B.C. ; 

painting 
Paxton, sir Joseph; 1803-65 ; ex- 
hibition of 1851 ; crystal 
palace 
Payne, Mr. G. ; duel, 1810 
Peabody, G., 6. 1795 ; London, 1862 
Peace, the prince of ; Spain, 1806 
Pearce, &e. : gold robbery, 1857 
Peckham, abp. ; Canterbury, 1279 
Pedro (Peter) ; Portugal, Brazil, 

1822 
Peel, captain sir F. ; India, 1858 
Peel, col. ; West Australia, 1828 
Peel, sir Robert ; 178-81855 ; Peel 
adm. (see note), 1834-1841 ; acts 
of parliament, conservative, 
corn bill, duel, 1815 ; income- 
tax, tariff 
Peele, .James ; book-keeping, 1569 
Pelham, H. ; Wilmington adm. 

1742 ; Pelham adm., 1744 
Pelham, bp. ; Bristol, 1807; Nor- 
wich, 1857 
Pelham, sir W. ; engineers, 1622 
Peli.ssier, due de Malakhoff; 1784- 

1854; Algiers, Dahra 
Pelletier ; quinine, 1820 
Pellew, sir Ed.; naval battles, 1795 
Pelouze, F. J., b. 1807, formic acid 
Peltier, M. ; libel, trials, 1803 
Pemberton, sir Francis ; king's 

bench, 168 1 
Pembroke, earl of ; Godolphin 
adm. 1702 ; lord lieutenant ; 
Linoohi ; protectorates ; Salis- 
bury ; admiralty 
Pcngelly, W. ; man 
Penn, admiral ; Jamaica, 1655 
Penn, Wm. ; d. 1718 ; Pennsylva- 
nia, Quaker 
Penny, captain ; Franklin, 1850 
Pepe, gen. F. ; Naples, 1820 
Pepin ; France, 752 ; Ferrara 
Pepys, bp. ; Worcester, 1841 
Perceval, Spencer ; m. 1812 ; Per- 
ceval 
Pei-cy (Hotspur) ; Otterburn, 1388 
Percy, lord ; Durham, 1346 ; Ho- 

melden 
Perdiccas ; Macedon, 454 B.C. 
Perdita, Mrs. Robinson ; theatres, 

1779 
Pereire, M. ; credit mobilier, 1852 
Pereyra ; Uruguay, 1856 
Pericles; Athens, 4698,0. 
Perillus ; brazen bull, 570 B.C. 
Perkin Warbeck ; Warbeck, 1492 
Perkin, W. H. ; aniline, 1857 
Perkins ; engraving ; copper-plate 

printing, 1819 
Perreans ; forgery ; trials, 1776 
Perreira : deaf and dumb 
PeiTing, John ; mayor, 1803 
Perry, Mr. ; trials, 1810 
Perry, lieut. ; trials, 1854 
Perseus ; Pydna, 16S b.c. 
Persigny, J. G., 6. 1808 France, 

i860 
Persius, 34-65 : satires 
Pcrugino, Paolo, 1446-1524 
Peter the Cruel ; Montiel, 1369 
Peterthe Great ; 1672-1725; Russia, 
Deptford, Petersburg, Narva, 
Pultowa 



Peter the Hermit ; crusades, 1094 
Peters, C. H. ; planets, 1862 
Petion ; Port-au-Prince, 1806 
Peto, S. M., 1809 ; diorama, 1855 
Petrarch, 13,-4-74; Petrarch, son- 
nets 
Petre, sirWm. ; administrns, 1547 
Petronius ; Ethiopia, 22 B.C. 
Petronius Arbiter, <l. 66 
Pettigi'ew, T. ; ei^itiphs, 1857 
Petty, lord H. ; Grenville adm., 

1807 
Petty, AVm. ; Royal Society, i65o 
Pezet, J. A. ; Peru, 1863-5 
Phalaris ; brazen bull, 599 B.C. 
Pharamond ; France, 418 ? 
Pharaohs ; Egypt, 1899 b c. 
Pharnaces ; Pontus, Capjiadocia, 

744 B.C. 
Phffidrus writes fables, 8 
Pheidon, jl. 869 b.c, ; coinage, 

silver, scales, weights 
Phelps, Mr. ; theatres, Sadler's 

Wells, 1844 
Phepoe, Mrs. ; trials, 1797 
Phidias,/. 438 B.C., statues 
Philip, D. ; France, Macedon, 

Spain, Hesse, Orleans, 1640 
Philip, St.,Neri; oratorios, 1550 
Philip the Good ; Burgundy, Hol- 
land, 1419-67 
Philip the Great, killed 336 B.C. ; 
Macedon, yEtolia, Chseronaja, 
Locri, 338 B.C. 
Philii? II. ; Spain, 1556 
Phihppa, queen (Edward. III.) ; 

Durham, 1346 
Philipps, T. ; Newport, 1839 
PhilHp, gov. ; Australia, 1788 
Phillips, J. T., Brit. Assoc. 1831 ; 

fire annihilator, 1849 
Philopojmen ; Achaia, 194 B.C. 
Philpott, bp. ; Worcester, 1861 
Phipps, capt. ; north-west passage, 

1773 

Phocas ; east. emp. , 602 

Phocion ; killed, 317 B.C. 

Phoroneus ; Argos (1807 B.C.), sa- 
crifice, laws 

Photius Gallus ; rhetoric, 87 b.c. 

Piastus ; Poland, 842 

Piazzi, M. ; planet, 1801 

Pichegru ; Manheim ; killed, 1805 

Pickard, sir H. ; lord mayor, 1357 

Pieton, gen., trials, 1806; Quatre- 
Bra.s, Waterloo, 181 5 

Pierce ; United States, president, 

1853 

Piers, abp. ; York, 1589 

Pigot, David Richard ; exchequer, 
1846 

Pigot, Id. ; India, Pigot diamond, 
1802 

Pigot, major-gen.; Malta, 1800 

Pike, Miss ; Cork, trials, 1800 

Pilkington, bishop ; hturgy 

Pilpay ; falales 

Pindar, 522-439 B.C.— Peter (Dr. 
Wolcot) ; trials, 1807 

Pinel, M. ; lunatics, 1792 

Pinzon ; America S., 1500, Peru, 
1863 

Pisander ; naval battles, 394 B.C. 

Pisistratus ; Athens, 527 B.C. 

Pitman, I. ; phonography, 1837 

Pitt; diamond, 1720 

Pitt, Wm. ; see Chatham, earl 

Pitt, Wm. ; 1759-1806; Pitt admi- 
nistration, 1783 ; India com- 
pany, E., reform, duel, 179S 

Pius ; popes, 142 e' seq. 

Pius IV. ; confession, 1504 



824 



INDEX. 



Pius VII. ; concordat, i8oi 
Pius IX. ; pope, 1846 ; papal ag- 
gression, conception 
Pizarro ; America, 1524 
Plato, 429-347 B.C. ; academies, 
anatomy, antipodes, names, 
Sicily 
Platts, John ; executions, 1847 
Plautus, 6. 184 B.C. ; drama 
Pliny, the elder, 24-79 ! pearls, 
Vesuvius ; the younger, d. 100 
Plumer, sir Thomas; att.-gen., 

1S12 
Plummer, Eugenia ; trials, i860 
Plunket, lord ; lord chancellor 

(Ireland), 1830 
Plutarch, fl. 80 ; biography 
Pooock, admiral ; Cuba, 1762 
Poerio, C. ; Naj.iles 1850-59-60 
Pogson, N. ; planets, 1856 
Poictiers, Roger de ; Liverpool, 

1089 
Poiteviii, M. ; balloons, 1852-58 
Pole, Wellesley ; mint ; trials, 

1825 
Pole, abp, ; Canterbury, 1556 
Polignac, prince de ; France ; 1830 
Pulk. Jas ; United States, presi- 
dent, 184s 
Pollio, C. ; slavery, 42 B.C. 
Pollock, gen. G. ; India, 1842 
Pollock, sir Frederick ; attorney- 
general, exchequer, 1834-1844 
Polo, Marco, writes about 129S 
Polybius, 207-122 B.C. ; signals, 

telegraphs, Achaia, physic 
Polycarp martyred, 166 
Polydorus : Laocoon 
Poniare ; Otaheite, 1799 
Pumpey, killed 48 b c. ; Rome, 

Spain, Pharsalia 
Pond, J. ; Greenwich, 181 1 
Pontius, C. ; Claudine forks, 321 

B.C. 

Poole, A. ; auricular confession, 

1858 
Pope, Alex., 16S8-1744 ; alexan- 
drine verse, satire, Homer, 1 7 14 
Pope, gen. J. ; Manassas, United 

States, 1862 
Popham,sir Home ; Buenos Ayres, 

Cape, trials, 1807 
Poppsiea (wife of Nero); masks 
Porsenna ; labyrinth, 520 b.c. 
Person, prof., 1759-180S; writing 
Porter, sir Charles ; Limerick 
Porteus, bp. ; London, 1787 
Portland, duke of, Portland adm., 
1783 ; Ireland (lord lieute- 
nant ; Junius 
Portman, sir Wm. ; king's bench, 

1554 
Port-^muuth, earl of; trials, 1823 
Posidonius./f. 86 B.C. : atmosphere, 

moon, tides, air 
Potamon ; eclectics, about i 
Potter, abp. ; Canterbury, 1737 
Pottinger, sir H. ; China, 1841 
Pouchet, M. ; spout, generation, 

1859 
Poussin, N., painter, 1594-1665 
Powell, Langhame, and Foyer, 

colonels ; Wales, 1647 
Power, Mr. ; wrecks, 1841 
Power, Mrs., Mary ; longevity, 1853 
Powys, bishop ; Man, 1S54 
Poyer, colonel ; Wales, 1647 
Praslin murder, 1847 
Praxiteles, ./J. 363 b.c. ; mirrors 
Premislaus ; Poland, 1295 
Prescott, Wm. ; 1796-1859 
Preston, lord; conspiracy, 1691 



Pretender, old, 16SS-1765 ; yovmg, 
1720-88 ; Pretender, Falkirk, 
Prestonpans, Culloden 

Prctsch, P. ; photo-galvanography, 

1854 
Prevost, sir George ; Plattsburg, 

1814 
Priam ; Ilium, Troy, 1224 B.C. 
Price, Mr. ; duel, 1816 ; alchemy 
Price, adm. ; Petropaulovski, 1854 
Prichard, Dr. ; ethnology, 1841-7 
Priessnitz, V. ; hydropathy, 1828 
Priestley, Joseph, 1733-1804 ; earth- 
quakes, eudiometer, nitrous 
gas, oxygen, fluorine 
Pride, col. ; Pride's purge, 1648 
Prim, gen. Juan, b. 1814; Castel- 
lejos, Guad-el-ras, i860, Spain 
Prior, M. ; poet; 1664-1721 
Prince, H. J. ; agapomonians 
Priscillian ; gnostics, 384 
Pritchard, Dr. E. W. ; trials, exe- 
cution, 1865 
Probert ; trials, 1824 
Probus, Rome, emp. 276 ; massacre 
Frocles ; biarch, 1102 B.C. 
Propertius ; poet, 26 B.C. 
Proudhon, P. de. ; socialist, 1809- 

6S 
Prynne, W. ; lawyer, 1600-70 
Psammetichus, 650 B.C. ; Egypt, 

laljyrinth, languages, sieges 
Pseusennes, 971 B.C. ; Egypt 
Ptolemy (a.-^tronomer), d. 161 
Ptolemy ; Egypt, Bible, Septua- 
gint, Ipsus, pharos, arithme- 
tic, academies 
Ptolemy, Epiphanes, 205 B.C. ; 

Egypt, Rosetta 
Puckering, sir John; chancellor, 

lord high, 1592 
Pugin, A. W., 1811-52 , decorat.art 
PuUen, capt. ; Franklin, 1852 
Pulteney, Mr. ; Halifax adm., 1714 
Pulteney sir James ; Ferrol, 1800 
Purcell, Henry ; nmsic, 1658-95 
Purchas, Sam. ; 1577- 1628 
Purdon, col. ; Ashantees, 1826 
Purefoy ; duel, 1788 ; trials, 1794 
Pusey, Dr. E. , b. i860; Puseyiwm 
Pye, Hen. J. ; poet-laureate, 1790 
Pym, J. ; politician, d. 1643 
Pyrrho ; sceptics, 334 B.C. 
Pyrrhus, 281 B.C. ; Macedon, Epi- 

rus, Tarentum. Ascutum 
Pythagoras, J?. 555 B.C. ; acoustics, 
astronomy, Copernicus, Egypt, 
the globe, harmonic strings, 
shoes, solar sj-stem, spheres 



Q. 



Quekett, prof. ; histology, 1857 
Quentin, col. ; duel, 1815 ; trials, 

1814 
Quevedo, Span, writer, 1570-1647 
Quintilia ; Qiiintilians 
Quintin ; libertines, 525 
yuintus Fabius, 291 B.C. ; painting 
Quiros ; New Hebrides, 1606 



R. 



Rabelais, F., satirist, 14S3-1553 
Rachel, mademoiselle, d 1858 
Racine, J. ; dramat., 1639-90 
Radoliffe, Dr. John ; Radcliffe 

library, 1737 
Radetzky, marshal, fZ. 1858 ; Atis- 

tria, Novara, Italy, 1S48 



Radnor, earl of ; administrations, 

1684 
Rae, Dr. ; Franklin, 1848 
Raglan, lord ; Russo-Turkish war, 

1857 
Ragotski ; Transylvania 
Raikcs, Mr.,1781 : Sunday-schools, 

education, infanticide 
Raleigh, sir Walter, 1552-1618 ; 

dress, Pennsylvania, Trinidad, 

Virginia, England 
Ramirez II. ; Semincas, B.C. 938 
Rameses ; Egypt, 161 8 
Ramsay, David ; combat, 163 1 
Ramsay, sir George ; duel, 1790 
Ranee ; Trappist, 1662 
Randolph, 1'. ; post-office, 1581 
Randolph, bp. ; Bangor, London, 

1809 
Raphael, 1483-1520 ; cartoons 
Raphael, Alex. ; Roman Catholics, 

1834 
Rarey, J. S. ; horse, 185S 
Katazzi, U., 6. 1808; Italy, 1862 
Raueli, C. ; sculptor, 1777-1857 
Ravaillac kills Henry IV., 1610 
Rawdon, lord ; Camden, 1781 
Rawlinson.col. sir H. , 6. 1810 ; As. 
Syria, Babylon, Behisttin, 1844 
Ray, John, 1628-1705 
Raybere ; Bartholemew's, iico 
Raymond, lord ; attorney-general, 

1725 ; king's bench 
Reaumur, d. 1757 ; light 
Reay, Miss, killed; trials, 1779 
Reay, lord ; combat, 1631 
Rebeccaites ; trials, 1843 
Redanies, D. ; execution, 1857 
Redesdale, lord ; att.-gen , 1800 
Redpath, L. ; trials, 1857 
Rcecc, R. ; bogs, 1849 
Reed, Andrew, 17871862 ; orphan, 

idiots, incurables 
Reeves, Mr. John ; levellers, 1792 
Regnier, gen. ; Kalitsch, Maida, 

Ximera, 181 1 
Rcgulus, 250 B.C. ; Carthage 
Reich, F., and Richter, T., in- 
dium, 1863 
Reichenbach, C. ; 6. 1788 ; paraf- 

fine, 1831 ; odj'l 
Reichenstein ; tellurium, 1782 
Reichstadt,duke de ; Franco, p. 319 
Reid, gen. ; India, 1857 
Reinbauer ; trials, 1829 
Rembrandt ; painter, 1606-74 
Remigius de Fescamp ; Lincoln, 

1086 
Remy, St. ; Rheims 
Renata, Maria ; witchcraft, 1749 
Renaudot, M. ; newspapei-s, 1631 
Rennie, J. (1761-1821), and sir J. ; 
breakwater, 181 2 ; Waterloo- 
bridge, London -bridge 
Reschid, Pacha; Turkey, 1853 
Reuohlin, J., reformer, d. 1522 
Reuss ; engraving 
Raynere, Richard; sheriff, ii8g 
Reynolds, sir Joshua ; royal 

academy, 1768 
Rejaiolds, sir Joshua, 1723-92 
Reynolds, abp. ; Canterbury, 1313 
Reynolds, capt; trials, 1840 
Reynolds, George ; duel, 17S8 
Riall, gen. ; Chippawa, 1814 
Ricasoli B., 6. abt. 1803 ; Italy,i86i 
Rice, Sprinar (lord Monteagle) ; 

administrations, 1834 
Rich, Richard, lord ; cliancellor, 

lord, 1547 
Richard I., England, 1189; 
Ascalon, Coeur de Lion, 



INDEX. 



825 



ct nion druit, laws, Oleron, 

ii^ivigatiou laws 
Richard III., 14S5 : Boswovth 
Richardson, sir John ; naturalist, 

1783-1865, Franklin 
Richardson, H., 1852 ; life-boat ; ! 

Sam., 1689-1761 I 

Richelieu, duke of ; Closterseven, 

1757 
Richmond, duke of; Ror-kingham 
administration, 1782, ii;c. ; 
Ireland, duel 
Richter, J. Paul, Ger. novel., 1763- 

1825 
Ridel, Stephen, 1189 ; chancellor, 

lord, Ireland 
Rider, William : silk hose 
Ridley, bp., burnt, 1554 
Riego put to death, 1823 ; Spain 
Rienzi, N., in. 1354 ; tribune, Home 
Riguet, JI. ; tunnels 
Rinuccini, Octavio, 6. 1621 ; opera 
Ripon, earl of ; Goderich admi- 
nistration, 1827 
Rivers, earl, m. 1483 ; Pomfret 
Rizzio, David, m. 1566; Scotland, 

France, Naples 
Robert, duke of Normandy ; 

Tinchebray, iio6 
Robert II. ; pilgrimages, 1060 
Roberts, D., R.A., d. 1864 
Robertson, capt. ; trials, 1862 
Robertson, Dr. Wm., hist , 1721-93 
Robespierre, F. M. ; reign of 

terror, France, 1793-4 
Robin Hood; robbers, archery, 

1 189 
Robinson, F. ; Goderich, note 
Robinson, James ; ether, 1848 
Robinson, R., 1735-90; indepen- 
dents 
Robinson, sir Thomas ; Newcastle 

administration, 1754 
Robinson, of York, murdered ; 

trials, 1853 
Robson, W. ; trials, 1S56 
Rochambeau ; Yorktown, 17S1 
Rochefoucauld, F. De la, philos., 

1613-80 
Rochester, earl of ; administra- 
tions, 1679 
Rockingham, mai-q. of; Rocking- 
ham administrations, 1765 
Roderick ; Spain, 709 ; Wales, 843 
Rodney, G. ; Eustatia, 1781 
Kodolph of Hapsburg; Austria, 

1278 
Rodolph of Nuremberg ; Wire, 

1410 
Roebuck, J. ; duel, 1835 ; Sebas- 

topol 
Roger; Sicily, Naples, 1130 
Rogers, John, burnt, 1555 
Rogers, Sim., poet, 1 763-1855 
Roggewein ; circumnavigator, Eas- 
ter Island, 1722 
Roh;in, card. ; diamond neckl., 

1786 
Rollin, Ch.as., hist., 1661-1741 
Romain, JI. ; balloons, k. 1785 
Romilly, sir Samuel ; criminal law, 

Kuicide, 1818 
Romilly, sir J. ; solicitor-general, 

muster of the rolls, 1851 
Romney, Geo., p.ainter, 1734-1802 
Ronmlns; Rome, 753 B.C. ; ca- 
lendar, Allia, aruspices 
Romulus , Augustulus ; western 

empire, 475 
Ronalds, F. ; electric telegraph, 

1823 
Rongc, J. ; kinder gartcn, 1S51 



Rooke, sir George ; Gibraltar, 
1704; snuff, Alderney, Cadiz, 
Cape la Hogue, Cape St. 
Vincent, Vigo 
Roper, colonel ; duel, 1788 
Rosas ; Buenos Ay res, 1852 
Roscoe, W., hist., 1753-1831 
Rose, sir Hugh ; India, 1858 
Hoseberry, countess of ; trials, 1814 
Rosencrans, gen.. Unit. S., 1862 
Ross, sir J. ; Franklin, north-west 

passage, 1848 
Ross, colonel ; duelling, 1817 
Ross, gen. ; Baltimore, Washing- 
ton, 1 8 14 
Rosse, earl of; telescopes, 1828; 

Royal Society, 1848 
Rosser, Mi-., and Miss Darbon ; 

trials, 1841 
Rossi, count, m. 1848 ; Rome 
Ros.sini, G., mus. comp. , h. 1792 
RostopcUin ; Moscow, 1812 
Rothesay ; duke 
Rothschild, Anselm (the first), 

d. 1812 
Rothschild, baron ; Jews. 1849 
Roubiliac, .sculptor, d. 1762 
RoupeU, W., M.P. ; trials, 1862 
Rousseau, J. J,, philos., 1712-1778 
Rowan, A. H. ; trials, 1794, 1805 
Rowe, Nicholas ; poet-laureate, d. 

7715 
Rowley, admiral J. ; Bourbon, 

1810 
Roxana; Macedon, 311 B.C. 
Roxburgh, duke of, 1812 ; Boc- 
caccio 
Rozier, M. ; balloons, 17S3 
Rubens, P. P., painter, 1577 1640 
Rudbock, 01., thoracic duct 
Rudolph; Austria, Germany 
Ruhmkorff's induction coil, 1851 
Runjeet Singh ; Afghanistan, 1818; 

diamonds 
Rupert. prince, 1619-82 ; engraving, 
Birmingham, Edgehill, Miir- 
ston-moor, Naseby, Newark 
Ruric ; Russia, 862 
Rush, Bloomfield, the murderer ; 

trials, 1849 
Ru.skin, John, art critic, b. i8ig 
Russell, C. ; .suicide, 1856 
Russell, colonel ; guards, 1660 
Russell, adm. Edw. ; La Hogue, 

1692 
Russell, J. Scott, b. iSoS; fires, 

steam-navigation, wave 
Russell, lord John, 6. 1792 ; Rus- 
sell administration, note, Aber- 
deen ; reform 
Russell, lord W., m. ; trials, 1840 
Ru.ssell, W. H. ; Times, 1854, 1857, 

1861 
Ruthvcn, Mr. ; duel, 1836 
Rutland, duke of; Ireland (lord 

lieutenant), 1784 
Ruyter ; see De Rutjter 
l?yder, bp. ; Gloucester, 1815 
Ryder, sir Dudley ; king's bench, 
1754 

S. 

Sabatta, Levi ; 1666 

Sabine, gen. Edw. ; Royal Society, 

i85i ; magnetism 
Sacheverel, Dr. ; high church 

party, 1709 
Sack vi He, lord George; Minden, 

1759 
Sadleir, J.; suicide, 1856: Dr. ; 1858 
Sadler, .Mr. ; balloons, 1812 



Sadler, Mr. ; Sadler's Wells, 1683 
Sadler, sir Ralph; administrations, 

1540 
Safford, Mr. ; planfcts, 1862 
S.igarelli ; Apostolici, 300 
St. Arnaud, marshal ; Russo- 

Turkish war. Alma, 1854 
St. Charo ; concordance, 1247 
St. Cyr, marshal ; Dresden, 1813 
St. George, Mr. ; trials, 1798 
St. John, John de; treasurer, 1217 
St. John Long ; quack, 1830 
St. John, Henry, afterwards lord 
Bolingbroke ; Oxford admi- 
nistiation, 1711 
St. John, O. ; benevolences, 161 5 
St. John, William ; chancellor, lord 

high, 1547 
St. Leonards, lord ; chancellor, 

lord high, 1852 
St. Mars, M. de ; iron mask 
St. Ruth, general ; Aughrim, 1691 
St. Vincent, earl; admiralty, 1801 ; 

Cape St. Vincent 
Saladin, 11361193; A scalon, Da- 
mascus, Egypt, Syria, Aleppo 
Sale, lady ; Cabul, India, 1842 
Sale, sir Robert ; Moodkee, 1845 
Salisbury, bishop of ; assay 
SaUsbury, marquess of ; Derby 

administrations, 1852, 1858 
Salisbury, Robert, earl of; admi- 
nistrations, 1603 
Salisbury, countess of ; garter 
Salisbury, earl of, 1604 ; coronets, 

Orleans 
Salkeld; Delhi, 1857 
Sallo, Denis do ; critics, reviews, 

1655 

Sallust, d. 34 B.C. ; Mauritania, 
Catiline 

Salomons, D. ; Jews, 1835; mayor 

f'alt, Titus ; alpaca, 1852 

Salv'ator Rosa, painter, 1615-1673 

Salvino degli Armato ; spec- 
tacles 

Salviati, Dr., mosaic, i86i 

Salvius Julianus ; edicts, 132 

Samuel rules Israel, 11 40 B.C. 

Sanballat; Samaritan, 332 B.C. 

Sancho, king ; Portugal, Spain, 
970 

Sancroft, abp. Canterbury, 1678 ; 
bishops, England 

Siinders, will -forger ; trials, 1844 

Sandwich, earl of ; administra- 
tions, 1660 ; naval battles, 
Solebay, Aix-la-Chapelle 

Sand3'S ; administrations, 1742, 1767 

Sandys, abp. E. ; York, 1577 

Sapor; Persia, 240 

Sappho; writes 611 B.C. ; Sapphic 

Sardanapalus ; Assyria, 820 b.c. 

Sarpi, Paul, 1552-1622 ; thermo- 
meter, blood 

Soul, Jews, 1096 B.C. ; Ammonites 

Saumarez, sir James ; Algesiras, 
1 801 

Samplers; trials, 1853 

Saunders, com. ; Franklin, 1849 

Saunders, sir Charles ; Chatham 
administr.ation, 1766 

Saussure, (/,. 1799: hygrometer 

Savage, John ; Babington's con- 
spiracy, 1586 

Savage, abp. ; York, 1501 

Savage, R., poet, 1700-43 

Savage, W. ; printing in colours, 
1819-22 

Sivary ; trials, 1825 

Savary, capt. ; steam-engine, 1698 

Savonarola, Jerome ; burnt, 1498 



826 



INDEX. 



Saward, J. ; trials, 1857 

Sawtre, sir William; burning 
alive, 1401 ; Lollards 

Saxe, count ; Fontenoy, 1745 

Saye and Sele, lord adn>ini»tra^ 
tions, 1660 

S;xye, lord, beheaded, 1450; Cade 

hiayers, T. ; boxing, 1 J6o 

Seanderbeg ; Albania, 1443 

Scanlan, Mr. ; trials, 1820 

Sihamyl ; Circassia, 1S59 

Scheele, 1742-86 ; nitrogen, oxygen, 
prussio acid, tartaric acid, pho- 
tography, glycerine, chlorine 
cheffer, Ary, paintei-, 1795-1858 

Scheibler, M. ; tonometer, 1834 

Scheiner, Chr. ; heliometer, 1625 

Schcutz ; calculating - machine, 

1857 
Schiaparelli ; planets, 1861 
Schilders, general ; Silistiia, 1854 
Schiller, F. , jxiet, &c,, 1759-1845 
Scliiinmelpeuniuck; Holland, 1805 
Schlegel, W. ; 1767-1836; — F., 1772- 

1829 
Schmidt ; organs, 1682 
Schffiffer, Peter ; printing, 1452 
Schonbein, M. ; gun-cotton, 1840, 

ozone 
Schomberg, capt. ; naval battles, 

1811 
Schomberg, dnke of; Boyne, Ire- 
land, LondondeiTy, Carrick- 
ferg\is, 16S9 
Schomburgk, sirR,; Victoria regia, 

1838 
Schroeder; piano forte, 1717 
Schrotter; phosphorus, 1845 
Schwann ; cell theory, 1839 
Schwartz, C. (n>issionary), d. 1798 
Schwartz, M. ; gunpowder, T320 
SchwartzenbcTg, prince of ; Dres- 
den, 1813 
Schwerin, marshal; Prague, 1757 
Scipio Africanus ; honour, Mu- 
maaitia, Rome, Zama, 202 b c. 
Scott, G. Gilbert ; architect, b. 

1811 
Scott, gen. Winfield, b. 1786 ; 
Blexico, 1847, United States, 
1861-Z 
Scott ; duelling, 1821, 1836 
Scott, Walter, 1771-1832 ; Waverley 
Scott, Dred ; United States, 1857 
Scrilie, E., dramatist, d. 1861 

(tet. So) 
Scudainore, lord ; apples 
Seabury, Samuel; Wshoprics, 1784 
Seaforth, earl of ; thistle, 1687 
Seal, J. ; trials, 1858 
Searle ; planets, 1858 
Sebiicon ; Egypt, 737 B.C. 
Sebastiani, maj-shal ; Talavera, 

1809 
Sebert ; Westminster Abbey 
Seeker, abp. ; Cantei'bury, 1758 
Sefton V. Hopwood ; trials, 1855 
Sejanus, d. 31 
Selden, J., 1584-1651 ; seas, jwet- 

lavireate 
Seleucus Nicator ; Scleucides, 

Syria, omens, Ipsus, 311 b.c. 
Selim ; Turkey, Syria, 15 12 
Selkirk, Alexander; Juan Fer- 
nandez, 1705 
Sellis, the valet ; suicide, 1810 
Semiramis, queen ; Assyria, eu- 
nuchs, 2007 B.C. 
Semi^le : trials, 1795, 1862 
Seneca, put to death, 65 ; Cordova 
Sennacherib; Assyria, 710 B.C. 
Senuefelder; lithograpliy, 1796 | 



Sergius ; popes, nativity, 690 ; jni- 

rification, Koran 
Scrtilrnei', morjjhia, 1S03 
Servetus, Michael, burnt, 1553; 

Unitarians, Arians, blood 
Servius TuUius ; coii»s, census, 

566 B. c. 
Scsostris ; Egypt, 161 8 B.C. 
Setalla ; burning-glasses 
Secerus, Rome, emp. 193 ; Britain, 

Roman wall.?, Memphis, 202 
Soxtus Pompeius ; Mylse, 36 b. c. 
•Seymour, sir Edw, ; speaker, 1678 
Seymour, sir M. ; Cliina, 1856 
Seymour v. Butterworth ; trials, 

1862 
Seyniour, Edward, duke of Somer- 
set ; administi'ations, 1547; 
protectors, admiralty 
Seymour, lord ; duel, 1835 
Seymour, lady ; tournament, 1839 
Shad well, Thomas; poet-laureate, 

rf. 1692 
Shaftesbury, earl of; administra- 
tions, 1672 (present earl, b. 
iSoi) 
Shak&peare, W., 1564-1616; Shak- 
speare, di-ama, nnilberry-tree 
Shalmaneser ; Assyria, 730 b.o. 
Sliai-p, A. ; cii-cle (squared,), 1717 
Sharp, archpb. ; Scotland, 1679 
Sharp, Granville; slaverj^, 1772 
Shaw, sir James ; mayor, 1805 
Shaw, sir John ; Greenock 
Slieares, the Messrs, ; trials, 1798 
Shedden v. Patrick ; trials, i86o 
Sheepshanks, B. ; astronomy, 
standard, 1855 ; Sheepshanks' 
donations, 1858 
Shcil, R. L. ; mint, 1846 
Shelburne, earl of ; Shelbirme ad- 
ministration, 1782 ; duel, 1780 
Sheldon, abp. ; Canterbury, 1663 
Sheldon, William ; tapestry 
Shelley, Percy B,, poet, 1792-1822 
SLieppard, Jack ; execution, 1724 
Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, 1751- 
1816 ; Grenville administx'a- 
tion, comedy, theatres 
Sheridan, Dr ; trials, 1811 
Sherman, gen. ; United States, 

1 861 
Shillibeer; omnibuses, 1S29 
Shipley ; arts, soc. of; 1754 
Shirley, bi.shop; Man, 1846 
Short, bishop ; Man, St. Asaph, 

1 841 
Shovel, sirCIoudesley ; Sicily, 1707 
Shrewsbury peerage cases, trials, 

1858, 1859 
Shrewsbury, duke of; administra- 
tions, 1 714 
Shrewsbury, earl of; Patay, 1429 ; 

Castillon, 1453 
Sibour, abp. ; France, 1857 
Sicard, abb^ ; deaf and dumb, 1742 
Siddons, Sarah ; retired, 1819 
Sidney, sir P., 1554-86; Algei-non, 

1617-83 ; Rye-house plot 
Sidmouth, Henry Addington, vis- 
count, d. 1S44; Addington ad- 
miuisfration, 1800, green bag, 
speaker 
Si^yes, abb^ : directory ; France, 

1799 
Sigi.smund ; Germ.nny, Bohemia, 
Hungary, Nicopolis, Poland, 
Prussia 
Silius Italiciss, poet, 1I. loi 
Sillim, Mr ; trials, 1S63 
Simeon the Stylite ; abstinence 
Simmons; tri;ils, 1808 



Simnel, Ijsrabert ; conspiracies, 

rebellion, 1846 ; Stoke 
Simon Magus ; Adrianists, Simo- 

nians, 41 
Simonides ; letters, mnenjonics, 

477 B.C. 
Simplicius, St.; collar of SS., 1407 
Simpson, Dr. ; chlorofoi-ni, 1848 
Simpson, the traveller ; suicide^ 

1840 
Sindercomb; conspiracy, 1756 
Singh, Runjoor ; Ahwal, 1846 
Sismondi, C, bist., 1773-1842 
Sisyjjhus ; Corinth, 1326 B.C. 
Sixtus ; popes, 119 
Sixtus v., pope; interdict, 158S 
Skrznecki, gen. ; Praga, Wawz, 

1831 
Slidell, Mr. ; United States, 1861 
Sligo, marqness of ; trijxls, 1812 
Sloane, sir Hans, ' 1660-1727 ; apo- 
thecary, Jesuit's bark, British 
Museum, CheLsea 
Sloanes ; trials, 1851 
Smart, A. ; suicide, 1856 
Smart; chimne3's, 1805 
Snxeaton, Mr. ; Eddystone, canaJ, 

1759 
Smeaton, sir John ; Wigan, 1643 
Smethurst, T. ; trials, 1859 
Smirke, R. ; post-office, 1825 
Smirke, S. ; BethlBhem, Briti.sh 

Museum 
Smith, sir Hstrry; India, Ahwal, 

Kaffrari;!., 1850 
Smith, Joseph ; savings' banks, 

Morraonites, 1823 
Smith, Madeleine ; trials, 1857 
Smith, Thomas ; lord mayor, iSog 
Smith, Miss, v. earl Ferrers ; trials, 

1846 
Smith, Adam; 1723-90, political 

economy, 1776 
Smith, sir J. E. (bottmist), 1759- 

1828 
Smith, capt. ; duel, trials, 1830 
Smith, Dr. R. Angvis; air, 1858 
Sunth, Dr. Southwood ; 1790-1861 ; 

sanitai'y legislation, 1832 
Smith, Mr. Beaumont; exchequer, 

trials, 1 84 1 
Smith, rev. S. ; trials, 1858 
Smith, rev. Sidney, 1771-1845 
Smith, Sam. Sidney ; trials, 1843 
Smith, sir C. Eardley ; evangelical 

alliance, 1845 
Smith, sir Sidney ; Acre, 1799 
Smith, Mr. Thomas ; customs 
Smith, J. ; bribery, trials, 1854 
Smith, and Markham, captains, 

duel, trials, 1830 
Smith, Wm. ; geology, d. 1840 
Smithson, J ; Smithsonian Insti- 
tution, 1846 
Smollett, Tobias, novels, &c., 

1720-71 
Smyth (will case); trials, 1855 
Smyth, W. H., astron., 1788-65 
.Snellius ; optics, 1624 
Snow, Dr. ; amyhjne, 1856 
Soames ; cocoanut-tree oil, 1829 
Soane, sir J., architect, 175 3- 1837 
Sobieski, John ; Poland, Cossaclis, 

Hungaiy, Vienna 
Socinus, Faustus {d. 1562) and Lk"©- 

lius, anti-trinitai"ians, arians, 

unitarians 
Socrates, 468-399 B.c.,; Athens, 

philosopliy 
Solomon ; Jerusalem, 1004 e c. 
Sol'tn ; Athens, 594 B.C. ; laws 

tax 



\i 



INDEX. 



827 



Solj'mau ; Turkey, Belgrade, 

Vienna, 1529 
Solyman II. ; Hungary, Buda, 

Mohatz, 1326 
Somers, lord ; administrations, 

1690 ; corn 
Somers, sir George ; Bermudas, 

i6og 
Somerset the black declared free, 

1772 ; slavery in England, ni>tc 
Somerset, sae Seymour : admiralty, 

1859 
Saphia, princess ; Hanover, 1659 
Sophia Dorothea, d. 1796; Eng- 
land, queens (Geo. \..) 
Sophocles, 495-405 B.C. ; tragedy, 

drama 
Sorel, Agnes ; jewellery, 1434 
Sostratws ; pharos, 280 b.o. 
Soto, Ferdinand de; Louisiana, 

Soult, marshal, 1 769- 1 85 1 ; Albuera, 
Oporto, Orthfes, Pyrenees, 
Tarbes, Toulouse, Villa Fianca, 
Douro 
Southey, Rob., 1774-1843; poet- 
laureate 
Soyer, A. (cook), d. 1858 
Spalding, Mr. ; diving-bell, 17S3 
Sparks, George ; trials, 1853 
Speke, capt., 1827-64 ; Africa, 

1863-4 
Speilman, sir John ; paper-making, 

Dartford, 1590 
Spencer, earl ; Grenville admin 

1806; Roxburghe club 
Spencer, Mr. ; electrotype, 1837 
Spenser, E., 1553-98; allegory, 

poet-laiu-eate, verse 
Sjjert, sir Thos. ; Trinity-house, 

1512 
Spina, Alexander de; spectacles, 

1285 
Spinoza, B. de, 1632-77 ; atheism 
Spohr, L., mus. comp., 1783-1859 
Spolicn, Jas. ; trials, 1857 
Spurgeon, C. H., b. 1834; Surrey 
gardens, crystal palace, taber- 
nacle 
Spurzheim, J. G. : craniology, i8oo 
Stackpole, captain ; duel, 1814 
Stackpoles, trials ; 1853 
Stacl, mad. de, novelist, d. 1817 
Stafford, archbishop ; Cautei'bury, 

1443 
Stafford, lord ; popish plot, 1680 
Stafford, marquess of, d. 1803 ; 

Bloomsbury 
Staines, sir William ; lord mayor, 

1800 
Stair, earl of, d. 1707 ; Glencoe, 

1692 ; Dcttiugen, 1743 
Staite ; electric light, 1848 
Stalker, gen. ; Bushire, suicide, 

1857 
Stanberry, John ; Eton, 1448 
Stanhope, earl ; Halifax adminis- 
trations, 1714 
Stanhope, Charles, earl; 1752-1816 ; 
printing-press : present earl 
(before, lord Mahon, the his- 
torian), b. 1805 
Stanliope, col. ; trials, 1816 
Stanhoi^e, hon. col, ; suicide, 1825 
Stanhope, lieut.-gen. ; Muiorca, 

1708 
Stanislaus; Poland, 1704 
Stuiley, bishop ; Norwich, 1837 
Stanley, sir John ; Man, 1406 
Stanley, sir \V. ; chamberlain ; 

Bo.sworth, 1485 
Stanley, lord; sec Derby, 1S20 



Stanley, Icird, of Alderley, 6. 1802 ; 
Aberdeen, Palmerston admin. 
Stanley, Edw., lord, b. 1826 
Stapleton, J., trials, 1858 
Stai^leton, Walter, bp. ; Exeter, 

1319 
Statins, Lat. poet (Thobai.s), fl. 79 
Staunton, Mr. ; China, 1840 
Steele, sir R., 1671-1729; Tatler, 
Spectator, clubs, Kit-Cat club 
Steele, Mr. ; murdered, trials, 1807 
Steenchel, Magnus; Sweden, 1314 
Stenhouse, J. ; dyes, charcoal, 

1853 
Stephen, pope ; England, Hun- 
gary, 997 ; Poland 
Stephens, Miss ; theatre.?, 1813 
Stephens, rev. Mr. ; trials, 1839 
Stephens, Robert ; Bible, 1551 
Stephenson, G., 1781-1848 ; rail- 
ways, Chatmoss 
Stephenson, R. , 1803-59; tubular 

bridges 
Sterne, Laurence, humourist, 

1713-68 
Sternhold, T. ; Psalms, 1555 
Stesichorus ; choruses, 5563.0. 
Stewart, col. ; Trincomalee, 1795 
Stewart, gen. ; Madras, 1783 
Stewart., capt. ; Franklin, 1850 
Stewart, Dugald, philosopher, 

1753-1828 
Stewart, Duncan ; Cfesarean 
Stewarts, trials, 1829 
Stifelius ; algebra, 1544 
Stigand, abp. ; Canterbury, 1052 
Stillingfleet, B. ; blue-stocking 
Stock, Dr. ; Sunday-schools, 1781 
Stockdale ; trials, 1826 
Stoddart, Dr. ; Times, 1812 
Stopford, adm. ; Acre, Sidon, 1840 
Storaoe, madame, d. 1817 
Storck; levellers, anabaptists, 1524 
Storks, H. ; Ionian Isles, 1859 
Stormont, vise. ; Portland admin., 

1783 
Strabo; geog., writes, 14 
Strachan, admiral sir Richard ; 

Havre, Walcheren, i8og 
Straduarius ; viol, 1700-22 
Straffoi-d, lord ; beheaded, 1641 
Strafford, earl ; admiralty, 1712 
Strangford, lord ; bribery, 1784 
Strattbrd, abp. ; Canterbury, 1333 
Stratford de Redcliffe, lord, 6. 178S 
Strevens, Mr. ; trials, 1857 
Strickland, Hugh ; nat. hist. , 

1811-53 
Stromeyer; clubfoot, 1831 
Strongbow ; Ireland, 1176 
Struensee, count; Zell, 1772 
Strutt,Edw. ; Aiierdeen, adm. , 1852 
Struve, F. ; astron., 1793-1864 
Strzelecki, A. ; Australia, 1840 
Stuart, Alexander ; marquess 
Stuart, conf. gen. ; United States, 

1862 
Stuart, gen. ; Cuddalore, 1783 
Stuart, sir John ; Maida, i8o6' 
Stukeley, Dr. ; earthquakes 
Sturt, capt. ; South Australia, 1830 
Sturmius ; magnet 
Succotli(St Patrick), preaches, 433 
Suchet, marshal : Valencia, 1812 
Sudbnry, abp. ; Canterbury, 1375 
Sue, Eiig., novelist, 1804-57 
Suetonius, C. T. ; writes, 118 
Suetonius Paulinus ; Menai, 61 
Suffolk, Thomas, earl of ; adminis- 
trations, 1540 
Suffrein, Thos. ; Trincomalee, 1782 
Sugden, sir Edward (afterwards 



lord St. Leonards) ; chancellor, 
lord, 1852 
Suisse, Nicholas ; trials, 1842 
Sullivan, Mr. ; Lima, 1857 
Sulpicius, Servius ; civil law, code, 

53 B-C. 
Sumner, archbp. ; Chester, 1828; 

Canterbury, 1848 
Sumner, bishop; Llandaff, 1826; 

Winchester, 1827 
Sumner, C. ; United States, 1856 
Sunderland, earl of ; administra- 
tions, 1684 
Sm-ajah Dowlah ; Black-hole, 

India, Plassey, 1757 
Surrey, earl of; Floddcn, 1513; 

Roman Catholics, 1829 
Susarion and Dolon ; comedy, 

562 B.C. 
Sussex, duke of; marriage, 1793 
Sutter, capt. ; California, 1847 
Sutton ; air-pipe, 1756 
Sutton, abp. ; Canterbury, 1805 
Sutton, C. M. ; .speaker, 1817 
Sutton, Thos. ; Charter-house, 161 1 
Suwarrow, marshal, 1730-1S00; 
Alessandria, Ismael, Novi, 
Parma, Poland, Praga, War- 
saw, Trebia, 1799 
Sw.an, Mr., M.P. ; bribery, 1819 
Sweyn ; Denmark, 985 ; England 
Swift, dean J., 1667-1745; Dr.apier 
Swynfen : trials, 1858 
Sydenham, Floyer,ti. 1788 ; literary 

fund 
Sydenham, lord; Melbourne ad- 
min., 1834 
Sydenham, Thos., 1624-89 
Sydney, Henry, viscount ; Ire- 
land, Id. licut. , 1690 
Sydney, see Sidney 
Sykes and Rumbold, Messrs. ; 

briber}-, 1776 
Sylla ; Rome, Athens, 85 B.C. 
Symington ; steam-engine, 1789 
Symonds, rev. Symon ; Bray, 
1533-58 



T. 

Tacitus, M. C, hist., about 62- 
100; Rome, emp., 275 

Tait, bp. ; London, 1856 

Talbot, Miss Augusta ; trials, 1851 

Talbot, H. F. ; photography, calo- 
type, &c., 1840 

Tallard, marshal ; Blenheim, 1704 

Talleyrand, 1 754-1838; Benevento, 
weights 

Tallis, Thos. ; music., d. 1585 

Talma ; actor, d. 1826 

Tamerlane, d. 1404 ; India, Da- 
mascus, Tamerlane 

Tandemus ; Adamite 

Tankerville, Ford, earl of ; ad- 
ministrations, 1699 

Tantia Topee ; India, 1857 

Tarquin; Rome, kings, Sibylline 
books 

Tarquinius Priscus ; cloaca, 5 88 b.c. 

Tasman, Abel ; circunmavigator, 
Australia, 1642 ; New Zealand, 
Van Diemcn's Land 

Tasso, Torquato ; poet, 1544-95 

Tate, Nahuni, '-/.1715 ; poet-l.iure.ate 

Tatian, aliout 170; aquarians, 
encratites 

Tattersall, R. ; races, 1766 

Taurosthenes ; carrier-pigeons 

Tavernier ; pe.arls, 1633 

Tawell, John ; trials, 1845 



828 



INDEX. 



Taylor, bp. Jeremy, 1613-67 
Taylor, gen. Zachary ; presidents, 

United Stites, 1849 
Taylor, Messrs. ; oil-gas 
Taylor, Dr. Brook ; acoustics, 1714 
Taylor, rev. Robert ; atheism, 

trials, 1827, 1831 
Taylor, rev. W. ; Vilind, bells, 1855-6 
Teba, countess ; (empress) France, 

1853 
Tekeli ; Hungary, revolts, 1676 
Teleki ; Austria, i860 ; Hungary, 

1861 
Telesphorus ; Lent, 130 
Telford, T. ; chain-bridges, i8ig 
Tell, Willi.am ; Switzerland, 1307 
Tempel ; planets, 1861 
Temple, earl; Newcastle admin., 

1757 
Teniers, D. (two), 1582-1694 
Tenison, abp. ; Canterbury. 1694 
Tennant, Mr. ; bleaching, 1798 
Tc-nniel, John, b. 1820 ; Punch 
Tennyson, Alfred, 6. 1S09; poet- 
laureate 
Tenterden, lord; king's bench, 

1818 
Terentius Varro ; Cann:e, 216 B.C. 
Terence, 195-159 n.c. ; dr.ima 
Tertullian writes, 197 ; cross, 

Montanists 
Tt'ucer, Troy, 1502 B.C. 
Teynham, lord ; trials, 1S33 
Thackeray, W. M., novelist, 

1811-63 
Thales, Miletus; globe, 640 B.C. ; 
Ionic sect., moon, water, world 
Thalestris ; queens 
Thanet, earl of ; riots, 1799 
Thecla ; Alexandrine codex 
Themistocles ; Marathon, Salamis, 

480 B.C. 
Theobald; civil law, 1138 
Theocritus; verse, 265 B.C. 
Theodore ; Corsica, 1736; Samos, 

keys, lathe 
Theodoric ; Spain, Goths, 553 
Theodosius ; Eastern emp., 379; 
Aquileia, Ostrogoths, massa- 
cre, paganism 
Theodosius, the younger; acade- 
mies, Bologna 
Theophilus ; Antioch, chronology 
Theophrastus, 394-287 b.c. 
Theopompus ; Ephori, funeral 

orations, Spai'ta, 353 B.C. 
Theseus ; Athens, 1235 B.C. 
Thesiger, sir F. ; sohcitor-gen., 
1844; attorney -gen, , chanc, 
lord high, 1858; trials, 1850 
Thespis ; drama, 536 B.C. 
Thevenot, M. ; coffee, 1662 
Thierry ; Holland, 936 
Thiers j M., b. 1798 ; France, 1836 
Thirleby ; Westminster, 1541 
Thirlwall, bp. ; St. David's, 1840 
Thomas, col. ; duel, 1783 
Thompson, miss ; trials, 1821 
Thompson, major ; suicide, 1832 
Thompson, William ; lord mayor, 

1828 
Thomson, Mr. Poulett ; IMelbourne 

admin., 1S35 ; calico 
Thomson, Jas. (the "Seasons"), 

1700-48 ; Richmond 
Thornton, Abraham; appeal, 1817 
Thorpe, William de ; bribery, 1351 
Thorpe, JohnT. ; lord mayor, 1820 
Thorwaldsen, 1 777-1840 
Thoth ; mythology, 152 b.c. 
Thrasybulus ; Athens, 403 B.C. 
Thucydides, 470-404 b.c. 



Thurlow, lord; chancellor, lord 

high, 1778 ; great seal 
Thurtell, J. : executions, 1824 
Thyra, Dannawerke 
Tiberius, 903 b.c. ; Capri, Rome, 

emp., 14 
Tiberius Gracchus ; agrarian law, 

132 B.C. 
Tibullus, Lat. poet, 50-18 b.c. 
Tieck. L., Ger. poet, 1753-1853 
Tierney, George ; duel, 1798 ; 

(loderich 
Tighe, Mr. ; trials, 1800 
Tigranes; Armenia, 93 B.C. ;Pontus 
Tiidesley, sir Thomas ; VVigan, 1651 
TiUy ; Magdeburg, 1631 ; Palati- 
nate, Lech 
Tilloch, Mr. ; stereotype 
Tillotson, abp. ; Canterbury, 1691 ; 

universalists 
Times newspajDer ; Times, trials, 

1790 
Timoleon; Syracuse, 343 B.C. 
Timour ; see Tamerlane. 
Tindal and Coverdale ; Bible, 1526 
Tippoo Sahib ; Madras, Serin ga- 

patam, Mysore, 1792 
Titian, 1477-1576 
Titus, Rome, emp. 79; Jerusalem, 

Tyre, arches 
Tofts, Mary ; impostor, 1726 
Toler, Mr. ; ?»., trials, 1853 
Tolly, Barclay de; Smolensko, 

1812 
Tolmidas ; Coronea, 447 B.C. 
Tomline, bp. ; Lincoln, Winchester, 

1820 
Tom Thumb ; dwarfs, 1846 
Tone, Theobald W. ; trials, 1798 
Tonson, Jacob, bookseller, d. 1736 
Tonti, Laurence ; tontines 
Tooke, J. Home, 1736-1812 
Tooke, W. ; prices 
Torrence, Mrs. ; tri.als, 1821 
Torrens, lieut. ; duel, 1806 
Torres ; Australasia, 1606 
Torricelli ; d. 1647 ; air, micro- 
scopes 
Torrington, Herbert, lord ; Wal- 

pole admin., 1727 
Totila ; Italy, 541 
Toussaint, 1794 ; Hayti, St. Do- 
mingo 
Tower, Mr. ; volunteer in 1S03 and 

i860 
Townley, G. V. ; trials, 1863 
Townshcnd, lord; duel, 1773; Ire- 
land 
Townshends ; Rockingham, Chat- 
ham, and Grafton admins., 
1765-7 
Train, Mr. ; street railways, i860 
Trajan ; Rome, emp., 98 ; Trajan's 

jiillar, Dacia 
Traugott, R. ; Poland, 1864 
Travers, Samuel ; poor knights of 

Windsor 
Treby, George ; Walpole, 1721 
Tre.sylian ; king's bench 
Trevelyan, C. ; Madras, 1859-60 
Trevethick ; steam engine, 1S02 
Trevor, sir John ; speaker, 1694 
Troas ; Troy, 1374 B.C. 
Troubridge, sir T. ; wrecks, 1807 
True Sun, prop, of; trials, 1834 
Truman, Hanbury, <Si Co. ; porter, 

1815 
Truro, lord ; chancellor, lord, 1850 
Truxo, Louisa; longevity, 1780 
Tucicer, E. ; vine disease, 1845 
Tuckett, capt. Harvej* ; duel, 1840 
Tuite, murderer; trials, 1813 



Tuke, W. ; lunatics, 1792 
Tull, William ; posting 
Tulloch, col. ; Sebastopol, 1855 
TuUus Hostilius ; Alba, saturnalia 
Tunstall, bp. ; administrations, 

1529, arithmetic, privy seal 
Turenne, mar.shal, 161 1-1675 
Turnbull, W. B. ; trials, 1861 
Turner, J. W,, 1775-1851 
Turner, miss ; trials, 1827 
Turner, Richard ; teetotaller, 1831 
Turner, Sydney ; reformatory, 

schools, 1849 
Turner; trials, 1817 
Turpin, or Tilpin, bp. ; writes, 818 
Turton, bishop ; Ely, 1845 
Tusser ; .agriculture, 1562 
Tj'ce, John ; taffety, 1598 
Tycho Brahe, 1546-1601 ; astro- 
nomy, platoiiic year, globe 
Tyler, John ; United States presi- 
dent, 1841 
Tyler, Wat; killed, 1381 
Tvndal, Wm. ; martyred, 1536 
Tyndall, J. ; Roy. Inst., 1S53 ; 
magnetism, Mont Blanc, 1857 ; 
calorescenoe 
Tyndarus ; Spart,a, 1490 B.C. 
Tyrconnel, earl of; Ireland, 1687 
Tyrone; rebellion, 1599 
Tysias, or Stesichorus ; choruses, 
epithalamium, 536 b.c. 



U. 

Udine ; stucco-work, 1530 

Ulfilas, bp. ; Bible, about 373 

Ulloa, Antonio ; platinum. 1741 

Ulpian (lawyer) ; slain, 228 

Ulysses; Troj.an war 

Upton, colonel ; Sebastopol, 1830 

Urban ; popes, 223 

Urban II. ; communion, crusades, 

1094 
Urban VIII., pope, "Eminence," 

1630 
Ursula, St. ; Cologne, Ursulines, 

1537 
Usher, abp. ; articles, 1614 



Valens ; eastern empire, western 

empire, 364 
Valentia, lord ; duel, 1798; trials, 

1796 
Valentia cause ; trials, 1772 
Valentine, B. ; antimony, 1410 
Valentinian ; western empire, 364 
Valerian ; persecutions, 257 
Vall.aret, Foulques de ; Malta, 1310 
Vallifere,madame de la ; midwifery, 

1663 
V.an Artevelde ; Ghent, 1379-83 
Vanbrugh, sir J. ; 1670-1726, Cla- 
rendon printing ofBce, opera 
Van Buren (president) ; United 

States, 1837 
Vancouver ; north-west passage. 

Vancouver, 1790 
Vander Heyden ; fire-engines, 1663 
Vandyck, 1599-1641 
Vane, sir Henry ; administrations, 

1640 
Van Eyck ; p.ainting, 1366 
Van Horn ; buccaneer, 1603 
Van Leyden ; engraving on wood, 

1497 
Van Marum ; electricity, 1785 



INDEX. 



829 



Van Mildcrt, bishop ; Lltiiidaff, 

Uurham, 1826 
Vansittai-t, Nicholas ; Liverpool 

adin., 1812 
VanTromp ; Holland, naval battles, 

Portland Isle, 1653 
Varole, M. ; optics, 1538 
Varro ; writes " de Re Rustica," 

37 B.C. ; grammarians, ilLu- 

minated books 
Varus, Alfrenus; civil law, 66 B.C.; 

code, digest 
Vasali, orBa.sil; Russia, 1270 
Va.sco deGama ; Cape, 1497 ; India 
Vattel, E. de ; publicist, 1714-67 
Vaubau, S. ; 1633-1707, fortifica- 
tions, Cherbourg 
Vaugban, sir Thos. ; Pomfret, 14S3 
Vaughan, Mackay, itc. ; trial, 1S16 
Vauquelin; chromium, gluciuum, 

1798 
A'aux, Jane, Mrs. ; Vauxhall, 1615 
Vega, G. de, 1503-36 — Lope de, 

1562-1635, poets 
Velasquez, painter, 1599-1660 ; 

Cuba, 1511 
Venables, Wm. ; lord mayor, 1825 
Venner, T. ; anabaptists, 1661 
Vere-street gang ; trials, 18 16 
Vergennes, M. de ; notables, 1788 
Vermandois, count de ; iron mask 
Vermuyden, Cornelius; levels, 162 1 
Vernet, 1714-S9; Horace, 1789- 1863; 

painters 
Vernon, adm. ; grog, Porto Bullo, 

1739 

Vernon, abp. ; York, 1808 

Vcrres ; Sicily. 70 B.C. 

Verrochio, Andrea; plaster, 1466 

Vesalius ; anatomy, surgery, 153S 

Vespasian ; Rome, emp. 69 ; am- 
phitheatres, Coliseum, Rhodes 

Vespucius, Americus, 1498 

Victor Amadeus ; Sardinia, 1630 

Victor Emmanuel, h. 1820 ; Sar- 
dinia. 1849 ' It^i'y. i85o 

Victor, marshal; Talavera, 1S09; 
Barrosa, Wi1;epsk 

Victor ; pope, 193 

Victoria, queen, b. i8ig; England, 
Scotland, Ireland, India 

Victoi-y,Espartero, duke of ; Spain, 
1840 

Vidil, baron de ; trials, 1861 

A'ieta, Francis ; algebra, 1590 

Vigillus ; pope, 537 

Villars, marshal; Malplaquet, 1709 

Villeneuve, adm. ; Trafalgar, 1S05 

ViUeroy, marshal ; Brussels, 1695 ; 
Ramilies, 1706 

Villiers, sir George ; administra- 
tions, 1615 

Villiers, bp. ; Durham, i860 

Vincent, B., Royal Inst. Library 
Catalogue, 1857 > Bible index, 
1848 

Vincent, H. ; chartists 

Virgil, 70-19 B.C. 

Virginia ; killed, 449 B c. 

Vitalianus ; pope, 537 

Vitellius, Rome, ernp. 69 

Vitruvius ; abt. 27 B c. ; ink 

Vivier; trials, 1842 

Volta, Alex.,1745-1826 ; electricity, 
Volta 

Voltaire, F. M. A. de; 1694-1778, 
miscel. 

Von Fuchs, Dr., d. 1856; water- 
glass, stereochromy 

Vortigern ; Wales, 447 

Voss, poet, 1751-1826 

Yyse, Mrs. A., trials, 1862 



W 

Waddington ; trials, 1820 
Vi'ager, C. ; admiralty, 1733 
Waghoni, licut.,rf. 1849; Waghorn 
Waithman, Robert ; lord mayor, 

1823 ; obelisk, bank 
Wake, abp. ; Canterbury, 1715 
Waketield, Eliz. ; savings banks, 

1804 
Wakefield, Ed. Gibbon ; marriages, 

S. Australia, trials, 1827 
Waldegrave, earl of ; trials, 1841 
Waldegrave, bp. ; Carlisle, i860 
Waldemar ; Denmark, 1157 
Waldcn, abp. ; Canterbury, 1398 
Wales, George, prince of, v. Tu/ief; 

trials, 1790; regency 
Walker, Mr. ; Vauxhall, congela- 
tion, ice, 1782 
AValker, George ; Londonderry, 

Boyne, 1689 
Walker, gen. ; filibusters, Nica- 
ragua, 1855, exec, i860 
WmH, governor; trials, 1802, Goree 
Wall, Mr. Baring ; trials, 1833 
Wallace, Sir W. ; exec, 1305 ; Fal- 

kirlv, Cambuskenneth, 1297 
Wallaces ; trials, 1841 
Walleustein, Albert, general, 1583- 

1634 ; Mecklenburg 
Waller, Sir W. ; Abingdon, 1644 
Wallis, circumnavigator ; Otaheite, 

W^allis, 1766 
Walpole, Horace, 1717-97 ; letters 
Walpole, Sir Robert, 1676-1745 ; 

Walpole adm. ; sinking fund 
Walpole, Spencer Horatio ; Derby 

administi ation, 1852- 1858 
Walsh, Mrs. ; murdered, trials, 1832 
Walsh, Nicholas ; printing, 1571 
Walsiugham, lord ; attorney -gen. , 

1766 
Walsingham, sir Francis ; adminis- 
trations, 1587 
Walter, E. ; commissionaires, 1859 
Walter, J., 1739-1812 ; Times, 1785 
Waltheof; beheading, 1076 
Walton, Brian, 1600 61 ; polyglot 
Walton, Izaac, 1593-1683 ; angling 
Walworth ; Blackheath, mace,i38i 
SVarburton, Eliot (lost), Amazon, 

1852 
Ward, Mr. ; forgery, 1726 
Ward, N. B. ; aquarium, Ward's 

cases, 1829 
Wardle, colonel ; impeachment, 
Wardle v. duke of York ; trials, 
1809 
Warenne, earl of ; Dunbar, 1296 
Warham, abp. ; Canterbury, 1503 ; 

administrations, 1509 
Warrington, R. , aquarium, 1850 
Warner, Mrs., d. 1854; theatres 
Warner, Messrs. ; bells, 1856 
Warren admiral sir John Borlace ; 

naval battles, 1798 
Warrington gang ; trials, 1806 
Warton, Thomas ; poet laureate, 

1785 
Warwick, earl of ; Baniet, St. 

Albans, Wakefield, 1460 
Warwick, John Dudley, earl of ; 

administrations, 1551 
Wa.shington, George, 1732-99; 
United States, York Town, 
Virginia 
Waterton, Chas. ; naturalist, 1783- 

1865 
Wathen, captain ; trials, 1834 
AVatson, admiral; India, 1756 



Watson, bishop ; Llandaff, 1782 
Watson, sirWm. ; electricity, 1740; 
liyhtning conductor ; trials, 
1817 
Watt and Downie ; trials, 1794 
Watt,Jas., 1 736-1819 : steam engine 
AVatteau, Ant., French painter, 

1684- 1 72 1 
Watts, Isaac, 1673-1748 ; hymns 
Watts ; theatres, trials, 1859, 

suicide 
Watts, T. ; newspapers, 1766 
Weare, Mr. ; trials, 1824 
Weathershed, abp. ; Canterburj-, 

1229 
Webbe, Sam., music, 1740-1819 
Weber, Carl von. 1786-1826 ; music 
Webster, Daniel, d. 1852 ; United 

States 
Webster, Dr. ; trials, 1842 
Webster, sir Godfrey ; trials, 1797 
Wedgwood, Josiah, 1731-95 ; earth- 
enware, Wedgwood (porcelain) 
Wedgwood, T. ; photography, 1802 
Weld, Mr. ; trappists 
Wellesley, sir A. , see WelHngtnn 
Wellesley, marquess ; India, 1798 
Wellesley, Mr. Long ; duel, 1828 
Wellesley Pole, v. Misses Long ; 

trials, 1825 
Wellesley v. Paget ; trials, 1809 
Wellington, duke of, 1769 1852 ; 
Wellington ; commander - ui- 
ehief, duel, 1829; trials, 1830 
Wells, W. ; dew, 1814 
Wells, lord Lyon ; Ireland (lord- 

lieut.), 1438 
Wensleydalc. lord ; peers, 1857 
Weiner, A. G., 1750-1817 ; geology, 

177s 
Wesley, J., 1703-91 ; Wesleyaiw 
West, Benj., 1738-1820; Royal 

Academy, 1792 
Westbury,lord chancellor; Palmcr- 

ston adm., 1861 
Westerton v. Liddell ; tri.als, 1855 
We.stmacott, sirR., 1775-1856 
Westmeath, lord ; trials, 1796 
Westmorland, earl of; Ireland 

(lord-lieut ), 1790 
Weston, Richard lord ; adminis- 
trations, 1628 
Wctherell, sir Chas.; attorney-gen 

1826 ; Bristol '' 

Wetherell, rev. Mr ; trials, 1845 
Weyland, Thomas de ; bribery, 1288 
Weymouth ; north-west passage, 

1602 " 

Weymouth, visct. ; Grafton adm., 

1767 
Wharncliffe, Id. ; Peel adm., 1834 
Wharton, Thomas, marquess of; 

Halifax adm., 171 4 
Wharton, Miss ; marriages, i6go 
Whately, abp. R., 1787-1S63 ; 

logic, (tc 
Wheatstone, C, h. 1802; stereo- 
scope, electricity, 1834; elec- 
tric telegraph, and clock 
Wheeler, sir Hugh; Cawnpore 

1857 
WheweU, 'V\^, philosopher, b. 1795 
Whlston, W., iheol, d. 1752 
Whitbread, Samuel ; suicide, 1815 
White, H. K., poet, 1785-1806 
White, Thos., Sion College, 1623 
Whitefield, G., 1714-70; Whitefield, 

Wesleyans, 1741 
Whitehead, W., d. 1785 ; poet lau- 
reate 
Wbitelock, gen. ; Buenos Ayres, 
1S07 



830 



INDEX. 



Whitgift, abp. ; Canterbury, 1583 
Whitney, Eli ; cotton, 1793 
Whittington ; lord mayor, 1405 
Whittlesey, archbp. ; Canterbury, 

1368 
Whitworth, Mr. ; cannon, Shoe- 

buryness, 1862 
Whitworth, earl ; Ireland, 1813 
AVhyte, :uaj.-gen. ; Demcrara, 1796 
Wickham, William of, 1 324-1405; 
education, Oxford, Winchester 
Wiekliffc, John, b. 1324 ; Wickliff- 

ites, Bible 
Wielami, C; Germ, miscel., 1733- 

' 1813 
Wigram, bp. ; Kochester, i860 
WillDerforce, bp. ; Oxford, 1846 
Wilberforce, W., 1759-1833; slave- 
trade 
Wild, Jonathan ; executed 1725 
Wilde, sir James ; probate court, 

1863 
Wilf ride, bp. ; Chichester, 673 
Wilkes, captain; circumnavigation, 

1S38 ; United States, 1861 
Wilkes, John ; North Briton, 
ol)elisk, warrants ; Wilkes, 
duel, 1763 ; trials, 1764 
Wilkie, sir D., painter, 1785-1841 
Wilkins, Dr. ; Wadham, 161 3 
William I., 1066; England, Battel- 
abbey, conquest, Domesday, 
castles 
William II. ; England, 1087 
William III.;}England, 1689, revo- 
lution, Boyne, Enghien, Je 
maintiendrai. New Forest 
William IV. ; England, kings, 1830; 

admiral 
William ; HoUand, Scotland 
Williams, Ann ; trials, 1753 
Williams, David, d. 1816 ; literary 

fund 
Williams, John, dean ; adminis- 
trations, 1621 
Williams, see BurJcing 
Williams, Roger ; America, 1635 
William.s, gen. W. P. ; Kars, 1855 
Williamson, sir Joseph ; adminis- 
trations, 1629 
Willoughby, sir Hugh ; north-west 

passage, 1553 
Willoughby de Eresb.y> lord ; 
chaml^erlain, lord great, 1626 
Willoughby, lieut. ; Delhi, 1857 
Wills, gen. ; Preston, 171 5 
Wilmington, earl of ; Wilmington 

adm., 1742 
Wilson, capt. ; Pelew Islands, 1783 
Wilson, sir A. ; Delhi, 1857 
Wilson, H. H. ; Sanskrit professor, 

1832 
Wilson, sir Robert; Lavalette, 1815 
Wilson, prof. John, 1785-1854 
Wilson, Mrs. C. ; poisoning, trials, 

1862 
Wilson, capt. W. ; United States, 

1862, note 
Wilton, earl of ; trials, 1859 
Winchelsey, abp. ; Canterbury, 

1293 
Winchester, gen. ; Frenchtown, 

1813 
Winchester, Henry; mayor, lord, 

1834 
Winchester, Wm., marquess of; 
administrations, 1554 



Winehilsea, earl of ; duel, 1829 
Winchilsea, earl of ; Wilmington 

adm., 1742; Bath adm., 1746 
VVindebank, sir Francis ; adminis- 

tration.s, 1635 
Windham, general ; India, 1857 
Windham, W. F. ; trials, 1861-2 
Windham, Wm. ; GrenviUe adm., 

1S06 
Windischgratz, prince ; Vienna, 

1848 
Winstanley ; Eddystone, 1696 
Winwood, sir Ralph ; administra- 
tions, 1612 
Winzingerode, gen. ; Kalisch, 1813 
Wiseman, cardinal Nicholas, 1802- 

65 ; ecclesiastical titles, papal 

aggression, Rome, Ireland, 

1858 
Witts, De ; massacred, 1672 
Withers, Dr. ; libel, 1789 
Witherings, Thomas ; post-office, 

163 1 
Witherington, W., painter, 1786- 

1865 
Withing, Richard ; Glastonbury, 

1539 
Witikmd (Saxon chief ), 779-785 
Wittgenstein, gen. ; Polotsk, 

Witepsk, 1812 
Wodehouse, lord ; Ireland (lord- 

lieut. ), 1S64 
Woden ; Wednesday 
Wohler, F. ; aluminium, 1827 
Wolcot, Dr., alias Peter Pindar; 

trials, 1807 
Wolfe, gen. ; Quebec, 1759 
Wolfius ; anemometer, 1709 
Wollaston, Wm., 1760-1828 ; cryo- 
phorus, camera, blow-pipe, 
palladium, rhodium 
Wolseley, sir Charles ; trials, 1820 
Wolsey, cardinal, 1471-1530 ; ad- 
ministrations, 1514; Hampton, 
Whitehall, York 
Wood, sir Charles ; Russell adm., 
1846 ; Palmerston adm., 1855 
Wood, Matthew ; mayors of Lon- 
don, 1815 
Wood ; Palmyra, 1751-53 
Woodfall, Mr. ; trials, 1786 
Wood mason ; ruling machines 
Wooler, Mr. ; trials, 1817 ; 1855 
Woolley, Mr. ; trials, 1863 
Worcester, marquess of; steam, 

telegraph, 1663 
Worcester, Edward, earl of; ad- 
ministrations, 162 1 
Wordsworth, Wm. ; 1770-1850; 

poet-laureate 
Wotton, sir Edward ; sug.ar, 1546 
Wouvei-manus, painters, 1620-83 
Wray, sir C. ; king's bench, 1573 
Wrede, gen. ; Hanau, 1813 
Wren, sir Christopher, architect, 
1632-1723 ; Chelsea, engraving. 
Greenwich, monument, St. 
Paul's, Walbrook 
Wren, Matthew ; Royal Society 
Wrench, Mr. ; theatres, 1809 
Wright; Mercator's charts, 1556 
Wright, sir Rob. ; king's bench, 

1687 
Wright and Doyle; trials, 1851 
Wriothe.sley,lord ; administrations, 

1547 
Wurmser, gen. ; Castiglione, 1796 



Wyat, sirThos. ; rebellions, 1554 

Wyld, S. ; globe, 1851 

Wynkyn de Worde ; angling, 1496 ; 

printing 
Wyiin, W. ; Canning adm., 1827 
Wyon, W., medallist, 1795-1851 



Xavier, Francis; 1506-52; Jesuits 

Xenophanes ; Eleatic sect, 535 B.C. 

Xenophon ; anatomy, couriers 
cymbals, retreat of the Greeks 
401 B.C. 

Xerxes ; Persia, 485 B.C. ; Mycale, 
Salamis 

Ximenes, card., 1437-1517 ; poly- 
glot 



Yale, Elisha ; auctions, 1700 
Yeh, commLssiouer ; China, 1857 
Yelverton, major ; trials, i860 
Y'onge, sir Geo. ; Shelbume adm., 

1783 
York, bishop ; Ely, 1781 
York, cardinal ; Scotland, 1807 
York, duke of, 1762-1827 ; York 
York, .James, duke of ; Solebay, 

1672 
Yorke, Charles, chancellor, lord 

high, 1770 
Yorke, sir Philip; att.-gen.; king's 

bench, 1733 
Yorke, Air. Redhead ; trial, 1795 
Young ; impostors, 1692 j 

Young, major ; Prescott, 1838 j 

Young, Charles ; theatre, 1807 | 

Young, Brigham, 6. 1801 ; Mor- ; 

monites 
Y'oung, Edw., poet, 1681-1765 
Young, Thos. , 1773-1829; Royal 

Institution, colour, spectrum 
Youngman, W. ; executions, i860 



Z. 

Zacharias ; pope, 741 
Zaleucus ; sumptuary laws, 450 B.C. 
Zamoyski, count ; Poland, 1862 
Zechariah prophesies about 520B.C. 
Zeno (stoic), Ji. 299 B.C. eastern 

empire, 474 
Zenobia ; Palmyra, 263 
Zenon ; Amienia, 18 
Zephaniah prophesies abt. 630 B.C. 
Zephyrinus ; pope, 202 
Zeuxis, ,/l. 397 B.C. ; i^ainting 
Zimmermann ; phj'siognomy, 1 776 
Zinzendorf, 1700-60 ; Moravians 
Ziska ; Bohemia, 1417 
Zoe ; eastern empire, 1034 
Zollicoffer, gen. ; U. States, 1861 
Zoroa.ster (supposed author of 

" Zendavesta") ; about 555 b.c. 

fire-worshipi^ers 
Zosimus ; alchemy, 410 
Zumalacarregui (Carlist) ; killed 

near Bilbao, 1835 
Zumpie, M. ; pianoforte, 1766 
Zurbano, gen. ; Spain, 1844 



^^2 A 8 0^^ 




"^iSBAa::: 



ADDITIONS AND COEBECTIONS. 



4. Note. Abyssinia. — Mr. Plowden was appointed 
consul at Massowab, in 1848. He concluded a 
treaty of commerce with Has Ali, emperor of 
Abyssinia, Kov. 2, 1849, wlio was deposed in 
1854 by his son-in-law, Theodore, the present 
ruler, who set aside the treaty. 

II. Administrations. — Decease of lord Palmers- 
ton, Oct. 18, 1865. Earl Russell reconstituted 
the cabinet ; lord Clarendon became foreign 
minister. 
Afmca. — -M. Du Chaillu, after being robbed, 
and undergoing many privations, returned to 
London near the end of 1865. He gave an 
account of his journey at a meeting of the 
Royal Geographical Snciety, Jan 8, i865. 

20. Albert Memorial. — A statue of the prince- 
consort (by Theed) was inaugurated at Rose- 
nau, his birth-place, in the presence of the 
queen and the royal family, Aug. ig, 1865. 

63. AuGUSTiNS. — Austin Friars church was restored 
and reopened, Oct. i, 1865. 

66. Austria. — Peace with Denmark signed Oct. 30, 
1864. 
Convention of Gastein (see Gastein) signed, Aug. 

14, 1865. 
Emperor's rescript suppressing the constitu- 
tion (reichsrath, A^c), with the view of giving 
autonomy to Hungary (which see), Sept. 21, 
1865. 
Rejoicing in Hungary, but dissatisfaction in 
Croatia, Austria, and other ijrovinces, Nov., 
Dec, 1865. 
Important treaty of commerce withGreat Britain 
signed December 16, 1865. 

74. Balloons. — Aeronautical Society of Great Bri- 
tain was founded with the object of fostering 
and developing aeronautics and aerology, by 
the duke of Ai'gyll, Mr. James Glaisher, sir 
Charles Bright, and others, Jan. iz, 1866. 

78. Bank Discount raised to 4^, Sept. 28 ; to 5, 
Oct. 2 ; to 6, Oct. 5 ; to 7, Oct. 7 (three times 
in one vcek) ; reduced to 6, Nov. 23 ; raised 
to 7, Dec. 28, 1865 ; to 8, Jan. 4, 1866. 

92. Battles. — 2nd col., line 53, after Oeversee(/>aMes 

and Prussians), Feb 6, insert 1864 

93. Bayeux tapestry is now preserved in the public 

library at Bayeux. 
97. Belgium. — Leopold I. died Dec. 10, 1865 ; suc- 
ceeded by his son Leopold IL 

114. Bolivia. — General Melgare jo defeats the troops 
of president De Acha, Dec. 28, 1864; and be- 
comes chief of the republic, Feb. 1865. He puts 
down an insurrection under Belzu, March, 1865. 

122. Brazil. — The allies under Flores defeat the 
Paraguayans at Santayuna on the Uruguay, 
Sept. 1865. 
Uruguayana surrenders to the allies, Sept. 18, 
1865. 

130. Brougham. — This popular vehicle is said to 
have been invented in 1839, and received its 
name in consequence of its adoption by loi'd 
Brougham soon after. 



PAGE 

135. Insert Cachet ; see Leftres <h Cachet. 
141. Calculating Machines. — Tables constructed 
by means of Scheutz's machine, edited by Dr. 
W. Farre, were published bj- the government 
in 1864. 
158. Cattle. — A severe cattle plague raged in Eng- 
land. 1745-56. 

The privy council ordered diseased beasts to be 
shot, and their skins destroyed ; granting 
moderate compensation, !March 12, 1746. 

A royal commission to inquire into the causes 
of the cattle plague and suggest remedies met 
first, Oct. 10 ; rejiort of majority consider the 
disease to have been imported, and recommend 
slaughter of animals, and stringent prohibi- 
tion of passage of cattle across public roads, 
&c., Oct. 31, 1865. 

27,432 beasts had been attacked; 12,680 died; 
8,998 slaughtered, up to Oct. 21, 1865. 

Orders in council for regulating the cattle trade 
(in conformity with the act of 1850), Nov. 23 
and Dec. 16, 1865 ; and Jan. 20, 1866. 

Disease still raging ; official report ; cattle at- 
tacked, 120,740; killed, 16,742; died, 73,750; 
recovered, 14,162 ; unaccounted for, 16,086, 
Feb. I, 1866. 
158. Caucus. — An American term, applied to a pri- 
vate meeting of the leading politicians of a 
party to agree upon the plans to be pursued 
during an election or session of congress. This 
institution is now a very powerful antagonist 
to public opinion. The word is said to be de- 
rived from " ship "-caulkers' meetings. A 
" caucus club," is mentioned by John Adams, 
in 1763. Ba.rtlett. 
170. Chili. Dispute with Spain ; sae Spain, 1864-5. 
174. China.— Rebellion of the north, 'the Nien-fei; 
June, 1865. 

Sir Rutherford Alcook, ambassador at Pekin, 
Nov. 26, 1865. 
17s. Cholera prevalent at Marseilles, Paris, Madrid, 
and Naples, July — October, 1865. 

An international meeting at Coustantinojjle, to 
consider preventive metusures, proposed, Oct. , 
1865. 

178. Church of England. — Meeting in London of 

three English bishops. Dr. Pusey, and nearly 
80 of the clergy and laity, vrith counts Orlolf 
and Tolstse, and the Russian chaplain, to con- 
sider on the practicability of uniting the 
English and Russi.an churches, Nov. 15, 1865. 

179. Cinque Ports. — Lord Palmerston died Oct. 18, 

1865, and earl Granville was appointed lord 

warden, Dec. 1865. 
Coal. — Explosion af^ Gethin mine, Merthyr 

Tydvill ;j 30 lives lost, Dec. 20, 1865. 
[In 1862 the explosion was at Gethin mine, not 

Cethin. ] 
Explosion at Highbrook colliery, near Wigan, 

Lancashire ; about 30 lives lost, Jan. 23, 1S66. 
202. Conservatives. — This name is now given to the 

party in the north of the United States which 



8;J2 



ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS. 



supports the president in his conciliatory 
efforts to re-establish the Union, Jan i865. 

213. Cotton. — The executive of the central relief 
fund heM their last meeting, Dec. 4, 1865. 

231. Death. — The commission on cipital punishment 
issued their report (recommending that penal 
servitude be sub.stituted for death in .some 
cases where murder was unpremeditated, and 
that executions should not be public;, Dec. 
1865. 

237. Dfnmark. — The project of a new constitution 
rejected by the assembly, Feb. 25, 1865. 
JJew ministry fonned under count Frysenborg, 

Nov. 6, 1865. 
A new constitution approved by the Rigsraad, 
Nov. 7, 1865. 

248. Dover. — Earl Granville was appointed con- 
stable, Dec. 1S65. 

265. Education. Comtuittee appointed at a meeting 

for establishment of higher schools for middle 
classes in London, by means of funds of lapsed 
charities, ifec, Nov. 7 ; nearly 28,000^. sub- 
scribed by end of Dec. 1865. 

266. EoYPT. — 2nd col. read Ptolemy II. Philadclphus 

reigns, &c. 285. 
281. England. — The Queen announces her assent to 
the marriage of princess Helena with prince 
Christian of Augustenburg, Dec. 5, 1865. 
Important commercial treaty with Austria 

signed, Dec. 16, 1865. 
New Parliament opened by the Queen in person, 
Feb. 6, 1 866. 
286. Ethyl ; read " compounds with metals." 
292. Executions. — Stephen Forward, alias Ernest 
Southey, for murder of his wife and four 
-children, at Maidstone, Jan. 11, 1866. 
294. Extradition Trkatv between Great Britain 
and France was concluded in 1S43. I" ^^c. 

1865, the French government gave notice of 
withdrawing from it in six months. 

297. Fenians. — They estabU-sh a provisional govern- 
ment at New York, and a congress of 600 
members held at Philadelphia, Oct. 1865. 

Fierce disputes between the senate and 
O'Mahony, the head-centre, who is charged 
with corruption and deposed ; Mr. Roberts 
apjjointed his successor, Dec. 1865. 

Fenians in United States said to have raised 
2oo,ooo^ in October ; they prepare to attack 
Canada, Dec. 1865. 

380,000 Fenians reported iu the United States 
Jan. 1866. 
302. Fires. — Great fire at Beale's wharf, ; about 
iSjOooJ. damage, Oct. 30, 1865. 

Immense fire at St. Katherine's docks, Jan. i, 

1866. ■ 

300. FiRE-BRiOADE. — The new one came into action 
and its energies were tested at the great fire at 
St. Katherine's docks, Jan. i, 1866. 

313. France. — Extradition treaty signed, 1843. 

316. Convention with Italy respecting the evacua- 
tion of Rome, &c. , Sept. 15, 1864. 
Death of M. Mocquard, Dec. g, 1864. 
Notice given of the abrogation of the Extradition 

treaty in six months, Dec. 1865. 
Biots of republican students at Paris ; several 
expelled from the Academy of Medicine, 
Dec. 1865. 
Emperor opens chambers with a pacific speech, 
Jan 22, 1 366. 

337. Giants. — 2nd column. It is stated that M. Brice 
is Anak. 

339. Glasoow. — Industrial exhibition opened, Dec. 
12, 1865. 

347. Graphotvpe, a new process for obtaining blocks 
for surface-printing, the invention of Mr. De 
Witt Clinton Hitchcock in i86o. It was de- 
scribed by Mr. Fitz-Cook at the Society of Arts, 
Dec. 6, 1865. Drawings are made on blocks of 
chalk with a silicious ink : when dried, the 
soft parts are brushed away, and the drawing 



remains in relief ; stereotypes are then taken 
from the block. 
349. Greece. — Brigandage prevails ; frequent, minis- 
terial changes under D^ligeorges, Comoun- 
douros, Bulgaris, Oct., Nov. Roufos becomes 
minister, Dec. 10, 1865. 
356. Gypsies are said to have entered Paris in 1427. 
363. Hay'ti. — Military insurrection under Salnave 
against Geffrard, May 7 ; Cape Hayti seized, 
May 9, 1865. 
Valorogae, a rebel vessel, fires into British 
Jamaica packet, near Acul, St. Domingo, Oct. 
22; H.M.S. Bulldog threatens Valiirotme ; 
Salnave orders the removal of refugees from 
British consulate at Cape Hayti, shoots them, 
and destroys the building. The Bulldoc/ failing 
to obtain satisfaction, shells the fort, sinks the 
Valorogue, but gets on a reef, and the crew is 
taken out and slie is blown up. H. M.S. GaleUea 
and Lily take the other forts and give them 
up to Geffrard ; the rebels flee inland, Nov. 9, 
1865. 
368. High Treason, add, "see Treason." 
377. Hungary. — The emperor visits Pesth ; the diet 
opened, Dec. 14 ; Carl Szentivaiiyi elected 
president, Deo. 20, 1865. 
Emperor and empress arrive at Pesth, Jan. 29, 
1866. 
384. Index Expdrgatorius. — Several books were 

inserted in it in Jan. 1S66. 
390. India. — Much dissatisfaction at mildewed cotton 
goods being received from England, July — Oct. 
1865. 
398. Ireland. — Stephens escapes from jail, Nov. 25, 
1865. 
Fenian trials began at Dublin, Nov. 27 ; Thos. 
Clarke Luby convicted of treason-felon^' ; sen- 
tenced to 20 years' penal servitude, Dec. i, 
TS65. 
O'Leary and others convicted, Dec. ; O'Donovan 
or Rossa sentenced to imiirisonment for life, 
Dec. 13, 1865. 
More Fenians arrested and convicted at Cork and 

Dublin, Jan., Feb. 1866. 
Discovery of an arms manufactory at Dublin ; 
the city and county proclaimed as put under 
the provisions of the peace preservation act, 
Jan. II, 1S66. 
404. Italy. — Serious financial deficiency ; heavy 
taxation proposed, Dec. 13 ; much dissatisfac- 
tion ; the ministers resign, Dec. 21 ; a new 
ministry formed under La Marmora, Dec. 31, 
1865. 
Death of the patriot and soldier, Massimo 
DAzeglio, Jan. 15, 1866. 
406. Jamaica. — note. Moses, not Paul, Bogle was 
hanged at once ; in December sir Henry 
Storks was summoned from Malta and sent to 
Jamaica (Dec. 11) as commissioner to inquire 
respecting the disturbances, and the measures 
taken in suppressing them ; Governor Eyre 
was temporarily suspended. Sir Henry Storks 
arrives in Jamaica, Jan. 6, 1866. 
458. Madras, — Lord Napier appoiiated governor, Jan. 

31, 1866. 
472. Master of the Rolls. — Sir John Romilly was 

made a peer as baron Romilly, Dec. 1865. 
489. Monaco. — A commercial convention between 
the prince and France signed, Nov. 9, 1865, 
was much discussed, as tending towards the 
abolition of the French navigation laws. 
507. New Zealand. — The Maoris treacherously kill 
the envoys of peace : resignation of the Weld 
ministry ; one formed by Mr. Stafford, Oct. 
1865. 
Prospects of peace reported, Jan. 1866. 
539. Palestine, iiote. — The party arrived at Damas- 
cus, Dec. 20, 1865. 
544. Parkesine. — A new substance, composed of 
gun-cotton, obtained from various vegetable 
bodies, and oil. It can be formed with the pro- 



ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS. 



833 



perties of ivory, tortoiseshell, wood, india- 
rubber, gutta-percha, &c. It is the invention 
of Mr. Alexander Parkes, of Birmingham, and 
was shown by him at the Exhibition, in 1862. 
In Dec, 1865, at the Society of Arts, Parkesine 
was proved to be an excellent electric insulator, 
and therefore likely to be suitable for tele- 
graphic purposes. 

551. Peabody Fund. — The first block of buildings for 
working classes in Commercial-street, Spital- 
fields, opened Feb. 29, 1864 ; others erecting 
in Islington, Shadwell, Chelsea, and Bermond- 
sey ; they have been found to be self-sup- 
porting. Mr. Peabody presented ioo,ooo2. in 
addition, Jan. 1866. 

568. Planet. — No. 86 discovered, M. Tietjen, Jan. 
4, 1866. 

587. Post Office. — Number of letters delivered in 
the United Kingdom, in 1864, 679,084,822. 



sg6. Prisons. — An act to consolidate and amend the 
Law relating to prisons was passed July 5, 
1865. 

601. — Prussia. — The chambers opened with a super- 
cilious speech from M. Bismarck, Jan. 15, i865. 

603. Pyx. — The ceremony of the trial was again 
performed, Jan. 19-20, 1865. 

631. KoYAL Academy. — Sir Edwin Landseer elected 
president, declines, Jan. 24; Francis Grant 
elected, Feb, i, 1866. 

634. Russell Administrations (third); resignation 
of sir Charles Wood ; earl de Grey becomes 
secretary for India ; and lord Hartington, 
secretary of war, Feb. 1866. 

662. Sculpture. — John Gibson died Jan. 27, 1866. 

678. Spain. — Prim enters Portugal and lays down 
arms ; the insurrection ends, Jan. 20, i865. 

691. Storms. — Severe gales ; many vessels and lives 
lost (see JFreci's Jan. 6-1 1 1866. 



THE END. 



BRADBURY, EVaIJS, AND 00., I'RiNTERS, WHlTEt'RlAR.q, 



«>Qt»*7 



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